THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768—1771. SECOND >y >» ten „ 1777— 1784. THIRD >f ■>■■ eighteen „ 1788— 1797. FOURTH » tt twenty „ 1801 — 1810. FIFTH >» i> twenty „ 1815—1817. SIXTH >» )» twenty „ 1823 — 1824. SEVENTH ») » twenty-one „ 1830 — 1842. EIGHTH tj s» twenty-two „ 1853— 1860. NINTH » >» twenty-five ,, 1875— 1889. TENTH )» ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903. ELEVENTH )> published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE AU rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXVII TONAUTE to VESUVIUS New York Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. 342 Madison Avenue Copyright, in the United States of America, 191 1, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company, INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXVII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. A. B. Go. A. C. S. A. E. H. L. A. F. L. A. F. P. A. Ge. A. Go.* A. H. K. A. H.-S. A.J. A. J. G. A. J. L. A. L. A. Lo. A.M.* A. M.-Fa. Alfred Bradley Gough, M.A., Ph.D. Sometime Casberd Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. University of Kiel, 1 896-1 905. Algernon Charles Swinburne. See the biographical article: Swinburne, Algernon Charles. Augustus Edward Hough Love, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. English Lector at the i Trier. 1 Tourneur, Cyril. Sedleian Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Secretary to the London Mathematical Society. Hon. Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford; I formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. L rford. Secretary J Variations, Calculus of. College, Oxford; Udal, Nicholas. Arthur Francis Leach, M.A. Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Charity Commissioner for England and Wales. . Formerly Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, 1 874-1 88 1. Author of English Schools at the Reformation; &c. '- Albert Frederick Pollard, M.A., F.R.Hist.S. ( Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls J College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893- 1 Vermigll, Pietro Martire. 1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer;&c. Sir Archibald Geikie, K.C.B. See the biographical article: Geikie, Sir Archibald. i Vesuvius (in part). Rev. Alexander Gordon, M.A. Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester. Augustus Henry Keane, LL.D., F.R.G.S., F.R.Anthrop.Inst. Emeritus Professor of Hindustani at University College, London. Ethnology ; Man Past and Present ; The World's Peoples ; &c. Sir A. Houtum-Schindler, CLE. General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. f Unitarianism; l Valdes, Juan de. Author of \ Tripoli: North Africa (in part); L Ural-Altaic. Urmia, Lake of. \ United States: History (in part). Alexander Johnston. See the biographical article: Johnston, Alexander. Rev. Alexander James Grieve, M.A., B.D. Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and Member of Mysore Educational Service. I Andrew Jackson Lamoureux. r ,. „ . , . n . , , , Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Editor of the Rio News J Venezuela. Geography and (Rio de Janeiro), 1879-1901. [ Statistics. Ursula, St (in part). { Totemism. Andrew Lang. See the biographical article: Lang, Andrew. Auguste Longnon. Professor at the College de France, Paris. Director of the Ecole des Hautes Etudes. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Livre des vassaux du Comte de Cham- pagne et de Brie; Geographie de la Gaule au VI siecle; Atlas historique de la France depuis Cesar jusqu'd nos jours; &c. Rev. Allan Menzies, M.A., D.D. Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism, St Mary's College, St Andrews. of History of Religion ; &c. Editor of Review of Theology and Philosophy. Alfred Morel-Fatio. Professor of Romance Languages at the College de France, Paris. Member of the J y e ga CarpiO (in part). Institute of France; Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Secretary of the Ecole | des Chartes, 1885-1906. Author of L'Espagne au XVI e et au X VIP siecles. [_ Troyes: Counts of Troyes\ Vermandois. Author J United Free Church of Scotland. ; J 1 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. v VI INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES A.N. A. P. H. A. R. B. A. Sp. A. Sy. A. W. H." A. W. R. B. M. B. R. "Toucan; Touracou; Tree-creeper; Trogon; Tropic-bird; Trumpeter; . Turkey; Turnstone. Transvaal: History {in part). Tract: Tract Societies. Tricycle. -I Verlaine, Paul. | Utrecht, Treaty of. B. W. G. C. A. C. C. A. S. C. B.P. C. C. W. C. D. W. C. EI. C. F. A. C. H. Ha. C. J. L. CM. C. R. B. Alfred Newton, F.R.S. See the biographical article: Newton, Alfred. Alfred Peter Hillier, M.D., M.P. Author of South African Studies; The Commonweal; &c. Served in Kaffir War, 1878-1879. Partner with Dr L. S. Jameson in South Africa till 1896. Member of - Reform Committee, Johannesburg, and political prisoner at Pretoria, 1895-1896. M.P. for the Hitchin Division of Herts, 1910. The Rev. Augustus Robert Buckland, M.A. Secretary of the Religious Tract Society, London. Morning Preacher, Foundling - Hospital, London. Author of The Heroic in Missions; &c. Archibald Sharp. Consulting Engineer and Chartered Patent Agent. Arthur Symons. See the biographical article : Symons, Arthur. Arthur William Holland. Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900 Alexander Wood Renton, M.A., LL.B. Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. of England. Brander Matthews, A.M., LL.D., Litt.D., D.C.L. f Professor of Dramatic Literature, Columbia University, New York. President of J Twain Mark. the Modern Language Association of America (1910). Author of French Dramatists 1 of the I0h Century ; &c. I Sir Boverton Redwood, D.Sc, F.R.S. (Edin.), F.I.C., Assoc.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.M.E. Adviser on Petroleum to the Admiralty, Home Office, India Office, Corporation of , London, and Port of London Authority. President of the Society of Chemical 1 Vaseline. Industry. Member of the Council of the Chemical Society. Member of Council of the Institute of Chemistry. Author of Cantor Lectures on Petroleum; Petroleum and its Products ; Chemical Technology ; &c. Benedict William Ginsburg, M.A., LL.D. f St Catharine's College, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law of the Inner Temple. J Tonnage. Formerly Editor of The Navy, and Secretary of the Royal Statistical Society. 1 Author of Hints on the Legal Duties of Shipmasters ; &c. >- Charles Arthur Conant. Member of Commission on International Exchange of U.S., 1903. Treasurer, J Trust Company. Morton Trust Co., New York, 1902-1906. Author of History of Modern Banks of Issue; The Principles of Money and Banking; &c. L Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws \ Trade Marks (*'» P art ) Rev. Charles Anderson Scott, M.A. Dunn Professor of the New Testament, Theological College of the Presbyterian ' Church of England, Cambridge. Author of Ulfilas, Apostle of the Goths; &c. Catherine Beatrice Phillips (Mrs W. Alison Phillips). Associate of Bedford College, London. Charles Crawford Whinery, A.M. f United States: History (in Cornell University. Assistant Editor nth Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. \ part). Ulfilas. Unicorn. Hon. Carroll Davidson Wright. See the biographical article: Wright, Carroll Davidson. Sir Charles Norton Edgcumbe Eliot, K.C.M.G., LL.D., D.C.L. Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East " Africa Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for German East Africa, 1900-1904. Charles Francis Atkinson. Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbor. Carlton Huntley Hayes, A.M., Ph.D. Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York. Member of the American Historical Association. Sir Charles James Lyall, K.C.S.I., CLE., LL.D. (Edin.). Secretary, Judicial and Public Department, India Office, London. Fellow of King's College, London. Secretary to Government of India in Home Department, 1 889-1 894. Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces, India, 1 895-1 898. Author of Translations of A ncient A rabic Poetry ; &c. Carl Theodor Mirbt, D.Th. Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of Publizislik im Zeitalter Gregor VII. ; Quellen zur Geschichte des Papstthums ; &c. Charles Raymond Beazley, M.A., D.Litt., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S. Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. Trade Unions: United States. Turks. Transvaal: History {in part); Turenne, Vicomte de; Uniforms. Truce of God; Urban II.-VI. Tulsi Das. Trent, Council of; Ultramontanism; Vatican Council, The Varthema, Ludovico di; Vespucci, Amerigo. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Vll c. w. w. D. B. Ma. D. C. B. D. C. G. D. C. T. D. F. T. D. G. H. D. H. E. B.* E. C. B. E. E. A. E. F. S. E. G. E. Ga. E. H. M. E. J. W. G. E. K. C. Ed. M. B. 0.* E. Tn. Sir Charles William Wilson, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907). f Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary] Commission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director- 1 Van: Turkey (in part). General of Military Education, 1 895-1 898. Author of From Korti to Khartoum; Life of Lord Clive ; &c. *- Duncan Black Macdonald, M.A., D.D. f Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, Hartford, Conn. J Tjlema Author of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional^ Theory; Selections from Ibn Khaldun; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam; &c. I Demetrius Charles Boulger. f Author of England and Russia in Central Asia; History of China; Life of Gordon; J T n „ rna - India in the 19th Century; History of Belgium; Belgian Life in Town and Country; 1 lournai - &c. I Daniel Coit Gilman. See the biographical article : Gilman, Daniel Coit. Universities: United States, The A Variations. Tralles; Tripoli: Syria; Troy and Troad (in part). David Croal Thomson. Formerly Editor of the Art Journal. Author of The Brothers Maris; The Barbizon 1 Troyon, Constant. School of Painters; Life of " Phiz " ; Life of Bewick; &c. Donald Francis Tovey. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. David George Hogarth, M.A. Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College. Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. David Hannay. f Toulon; Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal \ Tourville, Comte de; Navy; Life of Emilio Castelar; &c. I Trafalgar, Battle Of. Ernest Charles Francois Babelon. Professor at the College de France. Keeper of the Department of Medals and Antiquities at the Bibliotheque Nationale. Member of the Academie des In- J XJtica. scriptions et Belles Lettres, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Descriptions Historiques des Monnaies de la Republique Romaine; Traites des Monnaies Grecques et Romaines; Catalogue des Camees de la Bibliotheque Nationale. Rt. Rev. Edward Cuthbert Butler, O.S.B., M.A., D.Litt. J P' ap . 1 " s * s; Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius," 1 Trm »anans; in Cambridge Texts and Studies, vol. vi. L Vallombrosians. Ernest E. Austen. J Assistant in the Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, South ) Tsetse-fly. Kensington. I Edward Fairbrother Strange. f Assistant Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Member of i Utamaro. Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art subjects. Joint-editor of Bell's " Cathedral " Series. Edmund Gosse, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article : Gosse, Edmund. Topelius, Zakris; Triolet; Troubadour; Trouvere; Usk, Thomas; Vers de Societe; Verse. Emile Garcke, M.Inst.E.E. r Managing Director of the British Electric Traction Co., Ltd. Author of Manual of J Tramway. Electrical Undertakings ; &c. 1 Ellis Hovell Minns, M.A. r University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian ■< Tyras. at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. [ Elias John Wilkinson Gibb. Translator of several Turkish books. Edmund Kerchever Chambers. Assistant Secretary, Board of Education. Sometime Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Chancellor's English Essayist, 1891. Author of The Medieval- Stage. Editor of the "Red Letter" Shakespeare; Donne's Poems; Vaughan's Poems. Turkey: Literature. Vaughan, Thomas. Eduard Meyer, Ph.D., D.Litt., LL.D. r Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des \ Vardanes. Alterthums; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstdmme. I Edmund Owen, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. Tongue: Surgery; Tonsillitis; Ulcer; Varicose Veins; Venereal Diseases. Rev. Ethelred Luke Taunton, (d. 1907). f Torauemada Thomas Author of The English Black Monks of St Benedict; History of the Jesuits in England. \ ' Vlll E. W. H. F. C. C. F. D. A. F. G. M. B. F. G. P. F. J. H. F. J. T. F. Po. F. R. C. F. R. M. F. S. P. F. Wa. F. W. Ga. F. W. R.* G. A. B. G. A. C* G. E. G. E. D. G. H. Bo. G. J. T. G. Re. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Ernest William Hobson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Fellow and Tutor in Mathematics, Christ's College, Cambridge. Mathematics in the University. Stokes Lecturer in -i Trigonometry, Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare, M.A., D.Th. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford, j T p. f . . Editor of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle. Author of Myth, Magic and] lon 5 ues > «*"' 01. Morals; &c. I Frank Dawson Adams, Ph.D., D.Sc, F.G.S., F.R.S. f Dean of the Faculty of Applied Science and Logan Professor of Geology, McGill _ University, Montreal. President of the Canadian Mining Institute. Author of Papers dealing with problems of Metamorphism ; &c. Frederick George Meeson Beck, M.A. Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. Frederick Gymer Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.Anthrop.Inst. o __^ Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on J irI c r„iV» c„,i™. a , «. Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital, London, and the London School of Medicine for 1 ..... &vslem - Anatomy, Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. *- veins: Anatomy. Francis John Haverfield, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. fTrimontium; Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of J Trinovantes" Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Censor, Student, | TJriconium - ' Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. uiiluiiiuih, Author of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain ; &c. L Verulamium. Frederick Jackson Turner, M.A., LL.D., Litt.D., Ph.D. f United States: History (in History, Harvard University. Formerly Professor of American "j j, ar A Vancouver Island. ^ Vandals (in part). r Tongue; Professor of History, Harvard History at the University of Wisconsin. Professor of American Author of Rise ef the New West; &c. Sir Frederick Pollock, Bart., LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article: Pollock (Family). { Tort. Frank R. Cana. Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. Transvaal: Geography and Statistics and History (in part) ; Tripoli: North Africa (in part) ; . Tsana (in part) ; Tuat. Francis Richard Maunsell, C.M.G. f Lieut. -Col., Royal Artillery. Military Vice-Consul, Sivas, Trebizond, Van (Kurd- J Van* Turkey (in part) istan), 1 897-1 898. Military Attache, British Embassy, Constantinople, 1901-1905. " Author of Central Kurdistan ; &c. I _ f United States: Population Francis Samuel _ Philbrick, A.M Ph.D. J and Social Conditions; Formerly Fellow of Nebraska State .University, and Scholar and Resident Fellow < Indusiries and Commerce] I Finance and Army. of Harvard University. Member of the American Historical Association. Francis Watt, M.A. Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Author of Law's Lumber Room. Frederick William Gamble, D.Sc, F.R.S. Professor of Zoology, Birmingham University. Zoological Laboratories and Lecturer in Zoology, University of Manchester. of Animal Life. Editor of Marshall and Hurst's Practical Zoology; &c. Treasure Trove. Formerly Assistant Director of the J Author] Trematodes. Frederick William Rudler, I.S.O., F.G.S. ("Topaz; Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1897-1902. i Tourmaline; President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. LTurauoise George A. Boulenger, D.Sc, F.R.S. [ In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British -j Trout. Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London. I Rev. George Albert Cooke, M.A., D.D. r Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture, Oxford, and Fellow of Oriel J College. Canon of Rochester. Hon. Canon of St Mary's Cathedral, Edinburgh. 1 Author of Text-Book of North Semitic Inscriptions ; &c. I Rev. George Edmundson, M.A., F.R.Hist.S. I Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909. J Hon. Member Dutch Historical Society, and Foreign Member, Netherlands Associa- " tion of Literature. George Edward Dobson, M.A., M.B., F.Z.S., F.R.S. (1848-1895). Army Medical Department, 1 868-1 888. Formerly Curator of the Royal Victoria ^ Museum, Netley. Author of Monograph of the Asiatic Chiroptera; A Monograph of* the Insectivora, Systematic and Anatomical; &c. Rev. George Herbert Box, M.A. Rector of Sutton Sandy, Beds. Formerly Hebrew Master, Merchant Taylors' -< School, London. Author of Translation of the Book of Isaiah; &c. George James Turner. Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Society. Tyre (in part). Utrecht: Province (in part). Vampire. Urim and Thummin. Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Selden J Trinoda Necessitas. Sir George Reid, LL.D. See the biographical article: Reid, Sir George. Turner. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES IX G. W. C* H. A. C. H. Ch. H. De. H. E. A. H. F. B. H. F. G. H. F. T. H. H. H. Ha. H. H. F. H. H. J. H. Lb. H. L. C. H. L. H. H. L. 0. H. M. C. H. M. R. H. M. Wo. H.St. H. Sw. I. M. A. J. An. Rev. George Willis Cooke. f Lecturer at Rand School of Social Science, New York. Author of Critical Study of J TTnitnrinnicnr TT V J O / Emerson; History of Unitarianism in America; Woman in the Progress of Civiliza-\ umwiamsm. united Slates. Hon; &c. L Howard Adams Carson, A.M. f Civil Engineer. Past President of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers. Formerly J Tunnel Chief Engineer of the Boston Transit Commission. In charge of designing and con- 1 structing the Boston Subway, the East Boston Tunnel ; &c. L Hugh Chisholm, M.A. Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the ioth edition. Rev. Hippolyte Delehaye, S.J. Bollandist. Joint-editor of the Acta Sanctorum and the Analecta Bollandiana. Henry Edward Armstrong, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. Professor of Chemistry at the City and Guilds of London Central Institute, South " Kensington. Author of Introduction to the Study of Organic Chemistry. Horatio Robert Forbes Brown, LL.D. Editor of the Calendar of Venetian State Papers, for the Public Record Office. . Author of Life on the Lagoons; Venetian Studies; John Addington Symonds, a Biography; &c. L Hans Friedrich Gadow, F.R.S. , Ph.D. f Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. -I Tortoise. Author of " Amphibia and Reptiles " in the Cambridge Natural History. [ Rev. Henry Fanshawe Tozer, M.A., F.R.G.S. r Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Corresponding Member of the Historical Society of Greece. - Author of History of Ancient Geography; Classical Geography; Lectures on the Geography of Greece ; &c. Henri Simon Hymans, Ph.D. Keeper of the Bibliotheque Royale de Belgique, Brussels. Author of Rubens: sa ' vie et son ceuvre. Transvaal: History (in part). J Valentine; \ Veronica, St. Valency. Venice. Trebizond. Van Dyck (in part). Heber Leonidas Hart, LL.D. Barrister-at-law. H. Hamilton Fyfe. Special Correspondent of the Daily Mail; Dramatic Critic of The World. of A Modern Aspasia; The New Spirit in Egypt; &c. Sir Harry Hamilton Johnston, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., D.Sc, LL.D. See the biographical article: Johnston, Sir H. H. Horace Lamb, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S. Professor of Mathematics, University of Manchester. Formerly Fellow and Assistant Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Member of Council of the Royal Society, 1894-1896. Royal Medallist, 1902. President of the London Mathematical Society, 1902-1904. Author of Hydrodynamics; &c. Hugh Longbourne Callendar, F.R.S., LL.D. f Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, London. Formerly Professor of < Vaporization, Physics in McGill College, Montreal, and in University College, London. [ \ Valuation and Valuers. Author J Tricoupis, CharUaos. f Tunisia; 1 Uganda; Unyoro. Vector Analysis. Harriet L. Hennessy, M.D. (Brux.), L.R.C.P.I., L.R.C.S.I. -j Tuberculosis. Herbert Levi Osgood, A.M., Ph.D. Professor of History at Columbia University, New York. Author of The American -I United States: History(in part). Colonies in the Seventeenth Century ; &c. Hector Munro Chadwick, M.A. Fellow and Librarian of Clare College, Cambridge. Author of Studies on Anglo- - Saxon Institutions. Hugh Munro Ross. Formerly Exhibitioner of Lincoln College, Oxford. ing Supplement. Author of British Railways. Editor of The Times Engineer- .("Tyr; 1 Valkyries. Typography: Modern Practical Typography (in part). Trypanosomes. Harold Mellor Woodcock, D.Sc. Assistant to the Professor of Proto-Zoology, London University. Fellow of Uni- _ versity College, London. Author of " Haemoflagellates " in Sir E. Ray Lankester's Treatise on Zoology, and of various scientific papers. I Henry Sturt AT A f Author of Idola Thealri; The Idea of a Free Church; Personal Idealism. \ Utilitarianism. Henry Sweet, M.A., Ph.D., LL.D. r University Reader in Phonetics, Oxford. Member of the Academies of Munich, J Berlin, Copenhagen and Helsingfors. Author of A History of English Sounds since H Universal Languages. the Earliest Period ; A Handbook of Phonetics ; &c. [ Rev. Isaac Morgan Atwood, M.A., D.D., LL.D. r Secretary of the Universalist General Convention. Associate-editor of the Uni- I versalist Leader, Boston. General Superintendent of the Universalist Church, -{ Universalist Church. 1898-1906. Author of Latest Word of Universalism; &c. [ Joseph Anderson, LL.D. r Keeper of the National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh, and Assistant Secretary of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. Honorary Professor of Antiquities to J TumulUS. the Royal Scottish Academy. Author of Scotland in Early Christian and Pagan Times. {, X J. A. P. J. A. H. J.Br. J. Bt. J. B. M. *J. C. H. J. F.-K. J. F. W. J. G. H. J. G. M. J. H. H. J. H. M. J. H. R. J. J. T. J. L.* J. L. E. D. J. L. W. J. 0. J. 0. B. J. P, -B. J. P. Pe. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES John Ambrose Fleming, M.A., F.R.S., D.Sc. f Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow of J Transformers* University College, London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and ] ¥j n j* s pv,v» Medallist of the Geological Society of London. I Veins {Geology ). Joseph Shield Nicholson, M.A., Sc.D. f Professor of Political Economy at Edinburgh University. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Principles of Political Economy; Money and Monetary Problems; &c. James Smitf Reid, M.A., LL.D., Litt.D. Professor of Ancient History and Fellow and Tutor of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Christ's College. Browne's and Chancellor's Medals. Editor of editions of Cicero's Academia; De Amicitia; &c. John Thomas Bealby. Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. J Usury; [ Value. r 1 Trajan; | Tribune; I Varro, Marcus Terentius. Transbaikalia (in part); Transcaspian Region (in part); Turgai (in part); Turkestan (in part); Ufa (Government) (in part); Ural Mountains (in part). Torture. James Williams, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. All Souls Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln College. Author of Wills and Succession ; &c. James Wycliffe Headlam, M.A. _ f Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education, London. Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient < Treitschke, Heinrich VOn. History at Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the German Empire; &c. >- Jeremiah Whipple Jenks. See the biographical article: Jenks, Jeremiah Whipple. Trusts. Kathleen Schlesinger. Editor of The Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Orchestra. (Trigonon; Tromba Marina; Trombone (in part); Trumpet (in part); Tuba; Valves. Traction. Louis Courtauld, M.A., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. Formerly Research Scholar, Middlesex Hospital Cancer Laboiatories. Author of -J Tumour. Life-History of Pneumococcus ; &c. Louis Duncan, Ph.D., M.Am.Inst.E.E. Late Associate Professor of Applied Electricity at the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Head of the Department of Electrical Engineering, Massachusetts " Institute of Technology. L Leonard Erskine Hill, F.R.S., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. . Lecturer on Physiology at the London Hospital. Formerly Demonstrator of Physiology in the University of Oxford; and Assistant Professor of Physiology, University College, London. Author of Manual of Physiology; &c. Lionel James, F.R.G.S. The Times Special Correspondent in South Africa, 1899-1901. Reuter's Special Correspondent in the Chitral Campaign, 1 894-1 895. Author of With the Chitral Relief Force; On the Heels of De Wet; &c. &c. Leonard James Spencer, M.A. Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineralogical Magazine. LUIGI VlLLARI. Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Department). Formerly Newspaper Corre- spondent in the east of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906; Phila- delphia, 1907; and Boston, 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town and Country; &c. Margaret Bryant. Moses Gaster ; Ph.D. Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. Vice-President, Zionist Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine Literature, 1886 and 1891. Author of A New Hebrew Fragment of Ben-Sira; The Hebrew Version of the Secretum Secretorum of Aristotle. Marcus Niebuhr Tod, M.A. Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. Maximilian Otto Bismarck Caspari, M.A. Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham University, 1905-1908. Newton Denntson Mereness, A.M., Ph.D. Author of Maryland as a Proprietary Province. -{ Vascular System: Physiology. \ Transvaal: History (in part). f Torbernite; Tremolite; \ Tridymite; Vanadinite; [ Vesuvianite. 1 Tuscany: History; Vespers, Sicilian. fTourneur, Cyril: Introduction \ and Bibliography . Vacarescu. I Vaphio. Trachis; Umbria (Ancient). f United States: \ Flora. Fauna and Xll O. Ba. P. A. K. P. C. M. P. C. Y. p. Gi p. G. K. p. La R. A * R. A. S. R. C. J. R. D. s. R. I. p. R. J. M. fi K. D. R. L.* R. N. B. R. P. S. R. S. C. R. Tr. S. A. C. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Oswald Barron, F.S.A. f Tnnrn . jnmi . Editor of the Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the \ *°" rn aineni. Honourable Society of the Baronetage. I Tudor {Family). Prince Peter Alexeivitch Kropotkin. See the biographical article: Kropotkin, Prince P. A. Transbaikalia {in part); Transcaspian Region {in part); Turgai {in part); Turkestan {in part); Ufa {Government) {in part); Ural Mountains {in part). Variation and Selection; Vertebrata. Vane, Sir H. Peter Chalmers Mitchell, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc, LL.D. Secretary of the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Com- parative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. Author of Outlines of Biology ; &c. Philip Chesney Yorke, M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford. Editor of Letters of Princess Elizabeth of England. Peter Giles, M.A., LL.D., Litt.D. r Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J "• Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philo- 1 V. logical Society. I Paul George Konody. f Van Dyck {in part)- Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of the Artist. { \ rt .i a „„,,-„ /■ j, ,,\ Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez: Life and Work; &c. I velaZ( l uez <■*» P an >- Philip Lake, M.A., F.G.S. f Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly J v . r , of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian 1 ven ezueia. ueotogy. Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Kayser's Comparative Geology. I Robert Anchel. Archivist of the Department de l'Eure. Vended, Wars of the. Richard Alexander Streatfeild. ... f Assistant in the Department of Printed Books, British Museum. Musical Critic of < Verdi, Guiseppe. the Daily Graphic. Author of Masters of Italian Music ; The Opera ; &c. |_ Sir P.ich\rd Claverhouse Jebb, LL.D., D.C.L., Litt.D. See the biographical article: Jebb, Sir Richard C. Rollin D. Salisbury, A.M., LL.D. r Geologist in charge of Pleistocene Geology of New Jersey. Dean of Ogden (Grad.) J United States: Geology {in School of Science and Head of the Department of Geography in the University of 1 part). -j Troy and Troad {in part). Chicago. Reginald Innes Pocock, F.Z.S. Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. Ronald John McNeill, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-law. Formerly Editor of the St James's - Gazette (London). Sir Robert Kennaway Douglas. Formerly Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at the British Museum; and Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Author of The Language and Litera- " ture of China; &c. Richard Lydekker, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum ; The Deer ■ of All Lands; The Game Animals of Africa; &c. Robert Nisbet Bain (d. 1909). Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 75 13-1900; The First Romanovs, 1613-1725 ; Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and_Russia from 1469 to 1796; &c. R. Phene Spiers, F.S.A. , F.R.I.B.A.. Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, . London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c. Robert Seymour Conway, M.A., D.Litt. (Cantab.). r Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. J Veneti; Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff ; and Fellow of Gonville 1 Vestini. and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. [ J Trilobites. ' Tone, Theobald Wolfe; Tyler, Wat; Ulster, Earls of. Tseng Kuo-fan. Toxodontia; Tylopoda; Ungulata. Torkenskjold, Peder; Torstensson, Count; Valdemar I., II. and IV. of Denmark; Verboezy, Istvan. Tower; Tracery; Triumphal Arch; Vault. Roland Truslove, M.A. Fellow, Dean and Lecturer in Classics at Worcester College, Oxford. Stanley Arthur Cook, M.A. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions- The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c. { Troyes. Tree-Worship; Uzziah. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xm s. m. c. S. M. E.-W. S.N. T. As. Sydney Monckton Copeman, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P., M.R.C.S., F.R.S. Medical Inspector to H.M. Local Government Board, London. Medical Lecturer on Public Health at Westminster Hospital. Lt.-Col. and Divisional Sanitary Officer, 1st London Division, Territorial Force. Milroy Lecturer, Royal College of" Physicians, London, 1898. Author of Vaccination, its Natural History and Patho- logy ; &c. Sir Sydney Marow Eardley-Wilmot. Rear-Admiral (retired). Commanded H.M.S. " Dolphin " in Red Sea, 1885-1886, and assisted in the defence of Suakin. Superintendent of Ordnance Stores, 1 902-1 909. Author of Life of Vice- Admiral Lord Lyons; Our Navy for a Thousand Years; &c. Simon Newcomb, LL.D., D.Sc. See the biographical article: Newcomb, Simon. Vaccination. Torpedo. Thomas Ashby, M.A., D.Litt. Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topo- graphy of the Roman Campagna. T. A. A. T. A. I. T. C. C. Thomas Andrew Archer, M.A. Author of The Crusade of Richard I. ; &c. Thomas Allan Ingram, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin. Chamberlin, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D., Sc.D., F.G.S., {Uranus {Astronomy); Venus {Astronomy). Tortona; Trapani; Trasimene, Lake; Trebula; Turin; Turris Libisonis; Tuscany: Geography; Tuseulum; Tyndaris; Udine; Umbria {Modern); Valeria, Via; Varia; Vasto; Veii; Veleia; Velia; Velletri; Venafrum; Venusia; Vercelli; Verona {in part); Vesuvius {in part). "[Ursula, St {in part). \ Unemployment; Vagrancy. T. E. H. T. F. C. T. H. T. S. T. Se. V. C* V. M. W. A. B. C. W. A. He. W. A. P. W. Bo. Thomas Chrowder F.A.A.S., &c. Professor and Head of Department of Geology and Director of the Walker Museum, J United States: Geology University of Chicago. Investigator of Fundamental Problems of Geology at the ~\ Carnegie Institute. Consulting Geologist, United States and Wisconsin Geological Survey. Author of Geology of Wisconsin; General Treatise on Geology (with R. D. Salisbury) ; &c. Thomas Erskine Holland, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., K.C. Fellow of the British Academy. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Professor of International Law and Diplomacy in the University of Oxford, 1874-1910. Bencher of Lincoln's Inn. Author of Studies in International Law; The Elements of Juris- prudence; Alberici Gentilis de jure belli; The Laws of War on Land; Neutral Duties in a Maritime War; &c. Theodore Freylinghuysen Collier, PhD ( Urban VII. and VIII. Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass. (_ United States: {in part). Treaties; Vacarius. Thomas Hodgkin, D.C.L., Litt.D. See the biographical article : Hodgkin, Thomas. The Right Honourable Lord Shaw of Dunfermline. Lord of Appeal. M.P. for Hawick District, 1892-1909. Lord Advocate for Scotland, - 1905-1909. Thomas Seccombe, M.A. Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, . University of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson; &c. Sir Vincent Henry Penalver Caillard. Director of Vickers, Sons & Maxim, Ltd.; and the London, Chatham & Dover Railway. Formerly President of the Ottoman Public Debt Council, and Financial Representative of England, Holland and Belgium in Constantinople. Author of Imperial Fiscal Reform. Vandals {in part). Vergniaud, Pierre. Vanbrugh, Sir John. Chevalier of the Legion " Victor Charles Mahillon. Principal of the Conservatoire Royal de Musique at Brussels, of Honour. Rev. William Augustus Brevoort Coolidge, M.A., F.R.G.S. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1 880-1 889. William Abbot Herdman, D.Sc, F.R.S. Professor of Natural History in the University of Liverpool. President of the Linnean Society, 1904. Author of Report upon the Tunicata collected during the Voyage of the " Challenger "; &c. Walter Alison Phillips, M.A. Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Author of Modern Europe ; &c. Wilhelm Bousset, D.Th. Professor of New Testament Exegesis in the University of Gottingen. Author of Das Wesen der Religion; The Antichrist Legend; &c. J Turkey: Geography and Statistics. Trombone {in part); Trumpet {in part). f Topfler, Rodolphe; Trent; "j Tschudi; Unterwalden; I Uri; Valais; Var; Vaud. ■j Tunicata. f Utrecht: Province {in part); J Valet; Vavassor; 1 Verona, Congress of; I Vestments. [ Valentinus and the 1 Valentinians. XIV W. E. G. W. F. C. W. G.* W. L. F. W. McD. W. MacD.* INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES w. M. D w. P. C. w. R. M. W. R. S. Sir William Edmund Garstin, G.C.M.G. Governing Director, Suez Canal Co. Formerly Inspector-General of Irrigation, Egypt, and Adviser to the Ministry of Public Works in Egypt. William Feilden Craies, M.A. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (23rd edition). Walcot Gibson, D.Sc, F.G.S. Geologist on H.M. Geological Survey. Author of The Gold-bearing Rocks of the S. Transvaal ; Mineral Wealth of Africa ; The Geology of Coal and Coal Mining ; &c. Walter Lynwood Fleming, A.M., Ph.D. Professor of History in Louisiana State University. Editor of Documentary History of Reconstruction ; &c. William McDougall, M.A. Wilde Reader in Mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. William MacDonald, LL.D. Professor of American History in Brown University, Providence, R.I. Professor of History and Political Science at Bowdoin, 1893-1901. Author of History and Government of Maine ; &c. Editor of Select Documents illustrative of the History of the United States; &c. William Morris Davis, D.Sc, Ph.D. Professor of Geology in Harvard University. Geography. Author of Physical Geography ; &c. William Prideaux Courtney. See the biographical article: Courtney, L. H. Baron. William Richard Morfill, M.A. (d. 1910). Formerly Professor of Russian and the other Slavonic Languages in the University of Oxford. Curator of the Taylorian Institution, Oxford. . \ Author of Russia; Slavonic Literature ; &c. William Robertson Smith, LL.D. See the biographical article: Smith, William Robertson. { { Tsana (in part). Trade Marks {in part); Treason; Trial; Venue. Transvaal: Geology. \ Union League of America, 1 Tne - Trance. Formerly Professor of Physical Tyler, John; Van Buren, Martin. j United States: Physical 1 Geography and Climate. j Tooke, John Home. \ Turgueniev, Ivan. J Tyre {in part). PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES Tonga. Tongking. Toronto. Toul. Toulouse. Touraine. Tours. Townshend, Charles. Townshend, Viscount. Trade, Board of. Trade Organization. Trade Unions (in part). Transylvania. Transylvanian Mountains. Trap. Trenck, Franz. Trendelenburg, Friedrieh. Trenton (N.J.). Tresham, Francis. Trespass. Triazines. Trieste. Trinidad. Tristan da Cunha. Trollope, Anthony. Tromp. Tropine. Troy (N.Y.). Truffle. Trust and Trustees. Tschaikovsky, Peter. Tuareg. Tuke (Family). Tulip. Tungsten. Tunis. Turgot, Anne Robert Jacques. Turkey: History. Turpentine. Tweeddale, Marquesses of. Tyndale, William. Tyndall, John. Tynemouth. Typewriter. Typhoid Fever. Typhus Fever. Tyrone. Ulfeldt, Korfits. Ulm. Ulrich. Umbelliferae. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. United Presbyterian Church. United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. United States Naval Acade- my. Upsala. Uranium. Urbino. Urea. Urinary System. Ursins, Princess des. Urticaceae. Uruguay. Usher, James. Uskoks. Utah. Utica (N.Y.). Uxmal. Valencia (Province). Valencia (City). Valens. Valentinian I.-II. Valerian. Valla, Lorenzo. Valladolid. Valtellina. Vanadium. Vanderbilt, Cornelius. Vane, Sir Henry. Vanilla. Vauban. Vaughan, Henry. Vauvenargues, Marquis de, Venezuela: History. Venus's Fly-trap. Verdun. Vermont. Vernet (Family). Verney (Family). Vernon, Edward. Versailles. Vespasian. ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXVII TONALITE, in petrology, a rock of the diorite class, first described from Monte Adamello near Tonale in the Eastern Alps. It may be described as a quartz-diorite containing biotite and hornblende in nearly equal proportions. The prin- cipal felspar is plagioclase, but orthoclase occurs also, usually in small amount. Those varieties which are rich in orthoclase, in addition to plagioclase, have been called quartz-monzonites or adamellites, but a better term is grano-diorite, which has been very generally adopted in America for rocks which are intermediate in character between the granites and the diorites. The hornblende of the diorites is green, sometimes with a tinge of brown; the biotite is always brown and strongly pleochroic. Often these two minerals are clustered together irregularly or in parallel growths. They have generally a fairly strong tendency to idiomorphism, but may sometimes enclose plagioclase fel- spar in ophitic manner. Both of them decompose to chlorite, epidote and carbonates. The plagioclase felspar, which may form more than one-half of the rock, is andesine or oligoclase; simple crystals are rare, the majority being complex growths with centres of felspar rich in lime, while in the external zones the proportion of soda felspar increases greatly. The inner portions have often well-defined, but very irregular, boundaries, and are sometimes sponge-like, with the cavities filled up with a later, more acid, deposit. This seems to indicate that growth has taken place in stages, alternating with periods when the crystallized felspar was eroded or partly dissolved. The ortho- clase sometimes forms irregular plates enclosing individuals of plagioclase. Quartz occurs both in irregular simple grains and as micropegmatite. Occasionally pale green pyroxene is visible in the centre of crystals of dark green hornblende. The accessory minerals apatite, magnetite and zircon are always present, and very common also are orthite in coffee-coloured zonal prisms practically always encircled by yellow epidote, and reddish-brown crystals of sphene, simple or twinned. In external appearance the tonalites are very like the granites but usually darker in colour. Tonalite-porphyrites often accom- pany them, having the same composition but with phenocrysts of felspar, quartz, hornblende and biotite in a fine-grained ground- mass. Veins and threads of fine grey rock, mainly composed of quartz and felspar, often intersect tonalite-masses and have been called tonalite-aplites, seeing that they bear the same relations to aplites as ihe aplites do to the granites. They contain more soda- lime felspar than the normal aplites. Towards their margins the larger alpine masses of tonalite often assume banded or gneissic facies, due apparently to movement during intrusion. XXVII. I In eastern Tirol another tonalite occurs at Rieserferner ; there is also a well-known mass of this rock near Traversella. In the south of Scotland (Galloway district) tonalites accompany hornblende- and biotite-granites, hornblende- and augite-diorites. The newer granites of the Highlands of Scotland in many places pass into tonalites, especially near their margins, and similar rocks occur in Ireland in a few places. Grano-diorites have been described from California, and rocks of very similar character occur in the Andes, Patagonia and the lesser Antilles. Tonalites are also said to be frequent among the igneous rocks of Alaska. (J. S. F.) TONAWANDA, a city of Erie county, New York, U.S.A., about n m. by rail N. of Buffalo on the Niagara River at the mouth of Tonawanda Creek (opposite North Tonawanda), and on the Erie Canal. Pop. (1900), 7421, of whom 1834 were foreign-born; (1010 census), 8290. Tonawanda is served by the New York Central & Hudson River and the Erie railways, and is connected with Buffalo, Niagara Falls and Lockport by electric lines. The industries depend chiefly on electric power generated by the Niagara Falls, 1 1 m. distant. There are rolling- mills, planing-mills, ship-yards, and blast-furnaces, and among the manufactures are wooden ware, flour and paper. The surrounding region was the scene of hostilities during the Seven Years' War, and the War of 181 2. The first permanent white settlement was made about 1809, and Tonawanda was in- corporated as a village in 1854 and was chartered as a city in 1903. The name of the city is an Indian word said to mean " swift water." TONBRIDGE [Ttjnbridge], a market town in the Tonbridge or south-western parliamentary division of Kent, England, 29^ m. S.S.E. of London by the South Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 12,736. It is situated on rising ground above the river Medway, which is crossed by a stone bridge erected in 1775. The church of St Peter and St Paul, chiefly Decorated and Perpendicular, with some portions of earlier date, was completely restored in 1879. There are remains of an ancient castle, consisting chiefly of a finely pre- served gateway, of the Early Decorated period, flanked by two round towers. The castle was formerly defended by three moats, one of them formed by the Medway. Tonbridge School was founded by Sir Andrew Judd, lord mayor of London in the time of Edward VI., and was rebuilt in 1865, remodelled in 1880, and extended subsequently. Ornamental articles of inlaid wood, called Tonbridge ware, chiefly sold at Tunbridge Wells, are largely manufactured. There are gunpowder mills on the banks of the Medway, and wool-stapling, brewing and TONDERN— TONE tanning are carried on. There is some traffic on the Medway, which is navigable for barges. Tonbridge owed its early importance to the castle built by Richard, earl of Clare, in the reign of Henry I. The castle was besieged by William Rufus, was taken by John in the wars with the barons, and again by Prince Edward, son of Henry III. After being in the possession of the earls of Clare and Hert- ford, and of the earls of Gloucester, it became the property of the Staffords, and on the attainder of the duke of Bucking- ham in the reign of Henry VIII. was taken by the Crown. It was dismantled during the Civil War. The lords of the castle had the right of attending the archbishops of Canterbury on state occasions as chief butlers. TONDERN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, on the Widane, 8 m. from the North Sea at Hoyer, opposite the island of Sylt, and 42 m. by rail N.W. from Flensburg. Pop. (1900), 4244. Tondern was in early days a seaport, but since the reclamation of the marshes and the dredg- ing of the Widane navigation has ceased, and vessels load and unload at Hoyer, with which the place has direct railway com- munication. The trade consists chiefly in agricultural produce and cattle, and there is an important horse market. In the village of Galhus, lying about 4 m. N., were discovered, in 1639 and 1734 respectively, two golden horns of the Scandi- navian period; these were stolen in 1802 from the Museum of Northern Antiquities in Copenhagen, where they had been treasured, and have never been recovered. See Karstens, Die Stadt Tondern (Tondern, 1861). TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798), Irish rebel, the son of Peter Tone, a Dublin coachmaker, was born in Dublin on the 20th of June 1763. His grandfather was a small farmer in county Kiidare, and his mother was the daughter of a captain in the merchant service. Though entered as a student at Trinity College, Dublin, Tone gave little attention to study, his inclination being for a military career; but after eloping with Matilda Witherington, a girl of sixteen, he took his degree in 1786, and read law in London at the Middle Temple and after- wards in Dublin, being called to the Irish bar in 1789. Though idle, Tone had considerable ability. Chagrined at finding no notice taken of a wild scheme for founding a military colony in the South Seas which he had submitted to Pitt, he turned to Irish politics. An able pamphlet attacking the administration of the marquess of Buckingham in 1790 brought him to the notice of the Whig club; and in September 1.791 he wrote a remarkable essay over the signature " A Northern Whig," of which 10,000 copies are said to have been sold. The principles of the French Revolution were at this time being eagerly em- braced in Ireland, especially among the Presbyterians of Ulster, and two months before the appearance of Tone's essay a great meeting had been held in Belfast, where republican toasts had been drunk with enthusiasm, and a resolution in favour of the abolition of religious disqualifications had given the first sign of political sympathy between the Roman Catholics and the Protestant dissenters of the north. The essay of " A Northern Whig " emphasized the growing breach between the Whig patriots like Flood and Grattan, who aimed at Catholic emancipation and parliamentary reform without disloyalty to the connexion with England, and the men who desired to establish a separate Irish republic. Tone expressed in his pamphlet unqualified contempt for the constitution which Grattan had so triumphantly extorted from the English govern- ment in 1782; and, himself a Protestant, he urged co-operation between the different religious sects in Ireland as the only means of obtaining complete redress of Irish grievances. In October 1791 Tone converted these ideas into practical policy by founding, in conjunction with Thomas Russell (1767— 1803), Napper Tandy (q.v.) and others, the society of the " United Irishmen." The original purpose of this society was no more than the formation of a political union between Roman Catholics and Protestants, with a view to obtaining a liberal measure of parliamentary reform; it was only when that object appeared to be unattainable by constitutional methods that the majority of the members adopted the more uncompromising opinions which Wolfe Tone held from the first, and conspired to establish an Irish republic by armed rebellion. Tone himself admitted that with him hatred of England had always been " rather an instinct than a principle," though until his views should become more generally accepted in Ireland he was prepared to work for reform as distinguished from revolution. But he desired to root out the popular respect for the names of Charlemont and Grattan, and to transfer to more violent leaders the conduct of the national movement. Grattan was a reformer and a patriot without a tincture of democratic ideas; Wolfe Tone was a revolutionary whose principles were drawn from the French Convention. Grattan's political philosophy was allied to that of Edmund Burke; Tone was a disciple of Danton and Thomas Paine. Democratic principles were gaining ground among the Roman Catholics as well as the Presbyterians. A quarrel between the moderate and the more advanced sections of the Roman Catholic Committee led, in December 1791, to the secession of sixty-eight of the former, led by Lord Kenmare; and the direction of the committee then passed to more violent leaders, of whom the most prominent was John Keogh, a Dublin tradesman. The active participation of the Roman Catholics in the movement of the United Irishmen was strengthened by the appointment of Tone as paid secretary of the Roman Catholic Committee in the spring of 1792. When the legality of the Roman Catholic Convention in 1792 was called in question by the government, Tone drew up for the committee a statement of the case on which a favourable opinion of counsel was obtained; and a sum of £1500 with a gold medal was voted to Tone by the Convention when it dissolved itself in April 1793. Burke and Grattan were anxious that provision should be made for the education of Irish Roman Catholic priests at home, to preserve them from the contagion of Jacobinism in France; Wolfe Tone, " with an incomparably juster forecast," as Lecky observes, " advocated the same measure for exactly opposite reasons." He rejoiced that the breaking up of the French schools by the revolution had rendered necessary the foundation of Maynooth College, which he foresaw would draw the sympathies of the clergy into more democratic channels. In 1794 the United Irishmen, persuaded that their scheme of universal suffrage and equal electoral districts was not likely to be accepted by any party in the Irish parliament, began to found their hopes on a French invasion. An English clergyman named William Jackson, a man of infamous notoriety who had long lived in France, where he had imbibed revolutionary opinions, came to Ireland to nogotiate between the French committee of public safety and the United Irishmen. For this emissary Tone drew up a memorandum on the state of Ireland, which he described as ripe for revolution; the paper was betrayed to the government by an attorney named Cockayne to whom Jackson had impru- dently disclosed his mission; and in April 1794 Jackson was arrested on a charge of treason. Several of the leading United Irishmen, including Reynolds and Hamilton Rowan, immediately fled the country; the papers of the United Irishmen were seized; and for a time the organization was broken up. Tone, who had not attended meetings of the society since May 1793, remained in Ireland till after the trial and suicide of Jackson in April 1795. Having friends among the government party, including members of the Beresford family, he was enabled to make terms with the government, and in return for information as to -what had passed between Jackson, Rowan and himself he was per- mitted to emigrate to America, where he arrived in May 1795. Taking up his residence at Philadelphia, he wrote a few months later to Thomas Russell expressing unqualified dislike of the American people, whom he was disappointed to find no more truly democratic in sentiment and no less attached to order and authority than the English; he described George Washington as a " high-flying aristocrat," and he found the aristocracy of money in America still less to his liking than the European aristocracy of birth. Tone did not feel himself bound in honour by his compact TONGA with the government at home to abstain from further conspiracy; and finding himself at Philadelphia in the congenial company of Reynolds, Rowan and Napper Tandy, he undertook a mission to Paris to persuade the French government to send an expedi- tion to invade Ireland. In February 1796 he arrived in Paris and had interviews with De La Croix and L. N. M. Carnot, who were greatly impressed by his energy, sincerity and ability. A commission was given him as adjutant-general in the French army, which he hoped might protect him from the penalty of treason in the event of capture by the English; though he himself claimed the authorship of a proclamation said to have been issued by the United Irishmen, enjoining that all Irishmen taken with arms in their hands in the British service should be instantly shot; and he supported a project for landing a thousand criminals in England, who were to be commissioned to burn Bristol and commit any other atrocity in their power. He drew up two memorials representing that the landing of a considerable French force in Ireland would be followed by a general rising of the people, and giving a detailed account of the condition of the country. The French directory, which possessed informa- tion from Lord Edward Fitzgerald (q.v.) and Arthur O'Connor confirming Tone, prepared to despatch an expedition under Hoche. On the 15th of December 1796 the expedition, consist- ing of forty-three sail and carrying about 15,000 men with a large supply of war material for distribution in Ireland, sailed from Brest. Tone, who accompanied it as " Adjutant-general Smith," had the greatest contempt for the seamanship of the French sailors, which was amply justified by the disastrous result of the invasion. Returning to France without having effected anything, Tone served for some months in the French army under Hoche; and in June 1797 he took part in prepara- tions for a Dutch expedition to Ireland, which was to be sup- ported by the French. But the Dutch fleet was detained in the Texel for many weeks by unfavourable weather, and before it eventually put to sea in October, only to be crushed by Duncan in the battle of Camperdown, Tone had returned to Paris; and Hoche, the chief hope of the United Irishmen, was dead. Bona- parte, with whom Tone had several interviews about this time, was much less disposed than Hoche had been to undertake in earnest an Irish expedition; and when the rebellion broke out in Ireland in 1798 he had started for Egypt. When, therefore, Tone urged the directory to send effective assistance to the Irish rebels, all that could be promised was a number of small raids to descend simultaneously on different points of the Irish coast. One of these under Humbert succeeded in landing a force in Killala Bay, and gained some success in Connaught before it was subdued by Lake and Cornwallis, Wolfe Tone's brother Matthew being captured, tried by court-martial, and hanged; a second, accompanied by Napper Tandy {q.v.), came to disaster on the coast of Donegal; while Wolfe Tone took part in a third, under Admiral Bompard, with General Hard)' in command of a force of about 3000 men, which encountered an English squadron near Lough Swilly on the 12th of October 1798. Tone, who was on board the " Hoche," refused Bompard's offer of escape in a frigate before the action, and was taken prisoner when the " Hoche " was forced to surrender. When the prisoners were landed a fortnight later Sir George Hill recognized Tone in the French adjutant-general's uniform. At his trial by court-martial in Dublin, Tone made a manly straightforward speech, avowing his determined hostility to England and his design " by fair and open war to procure the separation of the two countries," and pleading in virtue of his status as a French officer to die by the musket instead of the rope. He was, however, sentenced to be hanged on the 12th of November; but on the nth he cut his throat with a penknife, and on the 19th of November 1798 he died of the wound. Although Wolfe Tone had none of the attributes of greatness, " he rises," says Lecky, "far above the dreary level of common- place which Irish conspiracy in general presents. The tawdry and exaggerated rhetoric; the petty vanity and jealousies; the weak sentimentalism ; the utter incapacity for proportioning means to ends, and for grasping the stern realities of things, which so commonly disfigure the lives and conduct even of the more honest members of his class, were wholly alien to his nature. His judgment of men and things was keen, lucid and masculine, and he was alike prompt in decision and brave in action." In his later years he overcame the drunkenness that was habitual to him in youth; he developed seriousness of character and unsel- fish devotion to what he believed was the cause of patriotism; and he won the respect of men of high character and capacity in France and Holland. His journals, which were written for his family and intimate friends, give a singularly interesting and vivid picture of life in Paris in the time of the directory. They were published after his death by his son, William Theobald Wolfe Tone (1 791-1828), who was educated by the French government and served with some distinction in the armies of Napoleon, emigrating after Waterloo to America, where he died, in New York City, on the 10th of October 1828. See Life of Theobald Wolfe Tone by himself, continued by his son, with his political writings, edited by W. T. Wolfe Tone (2 vols., Washington, 1826), another edition of which is entitled Auto- biography of Theobald Wolfe Tone, edited with introduction by R. Barry O'Brien (2 vols., London, 1893); R. R. Madden, Lives of the United Irishmen (7 vols., London, 1842) ; Alfred Webb, Com- pendium of Irish Biography (Dublin, 1878); W. E. H. Lecky, History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century, vols, iii., iv., v. (cabinet ed., 5 vols., London, 1892). (R. J. M.) TONGA, or Friendly Islands (so called by Captain Cook), an archipelago in the South Pacific Ocean, about 350 m. S.S.W. of Samoa and 250 m. E.S.E. of Fiji. The long chain of islands, numbering about 150, though with a collective land area of only 385 sq. m., extends from 18° 5' to 22 29' S. and 174 to 176 10' W., and is broken into three groups, viz. the Tonga to the south, Hapai (which again is divided into three clusters) in the centre and Vavau to the north. The largest island is Tongatabu (the Sacred Tonga, Tasman's Amsterdam) in the southern group, measuring about 25 by 10 m., and 165 sq. m. in area, which contains the capital, Nukualofa. The vegetation is rich and beautiful, but the scenery tame, the land seldom rising above 60 ft.; Eua (Tasman's Middelburg), 9 m. south-east and 67 sq. m. in area, is 1078 ft. in extreme height, and much more picturesque, being diversified by rocks and woods. Vavau, in the northern group, is 55 sq. m. in extent and 300 ft. high. Next to these come the coral islands Nomuka and Lifuka in the Hapai group; Tofua, 2846 ft., Late or Lette, 1800 ft. and Kao. 3020 ft. high, which are volcanic and smaller. The numerous islets of the central group are very fertile. It is along the western side of the northern half of the chain that the line of volcanic action is apparent; the islands here (of which some are active volcanoes) are lofty. To the east the whole chain is bounded by a profound trough in the ocean bed, which extends south- westward, east of the Kermadec Islands, towards New Zealand. The majority of the Tonga Islands, however, are level, averaging 40 ft. high, with hills rising to 600 ft.; their sides are generally steep. The surface is covered with a rich mould unusual in coral islands, mixed towards the sea with sand, and having a substratum of red or blue clay. The soil is thus very productive, although water is scarce and bad. Barrier reefs are rare; fringing reefs are numerous, except on the east side, which is nearly free, and there are many small isolated reefs and volcanic banks among the islands. If the reefs impede navigation they form some good harbours. The best is on the south-western side of Vavau; another is on the north of Tongatabu.. Earthquakes are not infrequent. From 1845 to 1857 volcanic eruptions were very violent, and islands once fertile were devastated and nearly destroyed. A new island rose from the sea, and was at once named " Wesley," but disappeared again. In 1886 there was a serious volcanic eruption in the outlying island of Niuafoou, and at the same time Falcon Reef, normally awash at high water, discharged sufficient scoriae and pumice to form a new island 50 ft. high. In 1898 the island had been washed away, but in 1900 H.M.S. " Porpoise " found that a solid core of black rock had been extruded 6 ft. above high water. All the volcanoes in the group were then quiescent. Geology. — The line of volcanic action extends along the western side of the northern half of the chain. Some of the islands are built of TONGA volcanic rocks alone ; such are Hongu-tonga and Hongu-hapai, which appear to be fragments of a single ancient crater, Tofua, Kao, Late, Metis, Amargua and Falcon Island. The lava is a basic augite- andesite. Another group of islands consists of elevated masses of submarine volcanic deposits, upon some of which coral-reef limestone forms a more or less complete covering; such are Tonumeia and the Nomuka group (Mango, Tonua, Nomuka-iki). All the volcanic rocks of these islands are submarine stratified tuffs which are penetrated here and there by andesite or diabase dikes. The Vavau group consists entirely of coral limestone, which is occasionally crystalline, and contains stalactitic caves of great beauty. Climate, Flora, Fauna. — The climate is healthy for Europeans, being dry and cool as compared with that of Samoa and Fiji. There are frequent alternations of temperature, which averages 75° to 77° F., though considerably higher in the wet season. Cool south- east trade winds blow, sometimes with great violence, from April to December. During the rest of the year the winds blow from west-north-west and north, with rain and occasional destructive hurricanes. A cyclone which devastated Vavau in April 1900 was the most destructive ever recorded in the group, but hurricanes are rare. The average rainfall for the year is about 80 ins. The vegetation •5 similar to that of Fiji, but more definitely Indo-Malayan in character; it embraces all the plants of the groups to the east with many that are absent there. Ferns abound, some of them peculiar, and tree ferns on the higher islands, and all the usual fruit trees and cultivated plants of the Pacific are found. There are several kinds of valuable timber trees. The only indigenous land mammalia are a small rat and a few curious species of bats. The dog and the pig were no doubt introduced by man. Of birds some 30 kinds are known, an owl being the only bird of prey; parrots, pigeons, kingfishers, honey-suckers, rails, ducks, and other water birds are numerous. There are snakes and small lizards, but no frogs or toads. Of insects there are relatively few kinds; but ants, beetles and mosquitoes abound. The fishes, of an Indo-Malay type, are varied and numerous. Turtle and sea-snakes abound, as do mollusca, of which a few are peculiar, and zoophytes. Inhabitants. — The population of the archipelago is about 19,000, of whom about 370 are whites or half-castes. The natives, a branch of the Polynesian race, are the most progressive and most intellectual in the Pacific Islands, except the Hawaiians. They have exercised an influence over distant neighbours, especially in Fiji, quite out of proportion to their numbers. Their conquests have extended as far as Niue, or Savage Island, 200 m. east, and to various other islands to the north. In Captain Cook's time Poulaho, the principal chief, considered Samoa to be within his dominions. This pre- eminence may perhaps be due to an early infusion of Fijian blood: it has been observed that such crosses are always more vigorous than the pure races in these islands; and this influence seems also traceable in the Tongan dialect, and appears to have been partially transmitted thence to the Samoan. Various customs, traditions and names of places also point to a former relation with Fiji. Their prior conversion to Christianity gave the Tongans material as well as moral advantages over their neighbours. Crime is infrequent, and morality, always above the Polynesian average, has improved. The people have strict notions of etiquette and gradations of rank. In disposition they are amiable and courteous, but arrogant, lively, inquisitive and inclined to steal — their attacks in earlier days on Europeans, when not caused by misunderstandings, being due probably to their coveting property which to them was of immense value. They are brave and not unenergetic, though the soft climate and the abundance of food discourage industry. They value children, and seldom practised infanticide, and cannibalism was rare. Their women are kindly treated, and only do the lighter work. Agriculture, which is well understood, is the chief industry. They are bold and skilful sailors and fishermen; other trades, as boat and house building, carving, cooking, net and mat making, are usually hereditary. Their houses are slightly built, but the surrounding ground and roads are laid out with great care and taste. There were formerly (till the early 18th century) two sovereigns; the higher of these, called Tui Tonga (chief of Tonga), was greatly reverenced but enjoyed little power. The real ruler and the chief officers of the state were members of the Tubou family, from which also the wife of the Tui Tonga was always chosen, whose descendants through the female line had special honours and privileges, under the title of tamaha, recalling the vasu of Fiji. The explanation of the dual kingship is probably this — the Tui Tonga were regarded as the direct descendants of the original head of the family from which the people sprang; regarded with reverence, and possessing unlimited power, they came to misuse this and discontent resulted, whereupon, to protect themselves, they appointed an executive deputy. Below these came the Eiki or chiefs, and next to them the class called Matabule. These were the hereditary counsellors and companions of the chiefs, and conveyed to the people the decisions formed at their assemblies. They also directed the national cere- monies, and preserved the popular traditions. While, under the control of Europeans, the Tongans have shown some aptitude for administration, they fail when left to themselves. They pick up superficial acquirements with astonishing ease, but seem to be incapable of mastering any subject. They write shorthand, but speak no English; they have a smattering of higher mathematics, yet are ignorant of book-keeping. Their government, effective enough when dealing with natives, breaks down in all departments concerned with Europeans, and becomes the prey of designing traders. Their ambition is to rank as a civilized state, and the flattery lavished on them by their teachers has spoiled them. There are some ancient stone remains in Tongatabu, burial places (feitoka) built with great blocks, and a remarkable monument consisting of two large upright blocks morticed to carry a transverse one, on which was formerly a circular basin of stone. Administration and Trade. — In May 1900 the group became a British protectorate under the native flag, the appointment of the consul and agent being transferred to the government of New Zealand. In 1904 the financial and legal administration was put into the hands of the British High Commissioner for the Western Pacific. The native king is assisted by a legislative assembly consisting, in equal numbers, of hereditary nobles and popular (elected) representatives. The wisdom of King George Tubou in refusing to alienate an acre of land, except upon lease, has resulted in Tonga having been the last native state in tiie Pacific to lose its independence. There is a revenue of about £21,000 annually derived chiefly from a poll-tax, leases and customs. The principal exports are copra, bananas, oranges and fungus, and the annual values of exports and imports are £80,000 and £70,000 respectively on an average, though both fluctuate considerably. British coin is legal tender (since 1905). There are five churches in Tonga — the Free Wesleyaris, embracing the great majority of the inhabitants, Wesleyans, Roman Catholics, and Seventh Day Adventists. These last are few; a still smaller number of natives are nominally Anglicans. History. — In 1616 the vessels of Jacob Lemaire and Willem Cornells Schouten reached the island of Niuatobutabu, and had a hostile encounter with the natives. In 1643 Abel Tasman arrived at Tongatabu and was more fortunate. The next visit was that of Samuel Wallis in 1767, followed in 1773 by that of Captain Cook. In 1777 Cook returned, and stayed seven weeks among the islands. In 1799 a revolution, having its origin in jealousy between two natives of high rank, broke out. Civil war dragged on for many years — long after the deaths of the first leaders — but Taufaahau, who became king in 1845 tinder the name of George Tubou I., proved a strong ruler. In 1822 a Methodist missionary had arrived in the island, and others followed. The attempt to introduce a new faith led to renewed strife, this time between converts and pagans, but King George (who fully appreciated the value of intercourse with foreigners) supported the missionaries, and by 1852 the rebels were subdued. The missionaries, finding their position secure, presently began to take action in political affairs, and persuaded the king to grant a constitution to the Tongans, who welcomed it with a kind of childish enthusiasm, but were far from fitted to receive it. A triennial parliament, a cabinet, a privy council, and an elaborate judicial system were established, and the cumbrous machinery was placed in the hands of a " prime minister," a retired Wesleyan missionary, Mr Shirley Baker. Treaties of friendship were concluded with Germany, Great Britain, and the United States of America. Baker induced the king to break off his connexion with the Wesleyan body in Sydney, and to set up a state church. Persecution of members of the old church followed, and in 1890 the missionary-premier had to be removed from the group by the high commissioner. He afterwards returned to initiate a new sect called the " Free Church of England," which for a time created further divisions among the people. King George Tubou died in 1893 at the age of ninety-six, and was succeeded by his great-grandson under the same title. TONGKING Mr Basil Thomson (who after Baker's deportation had carried out reforms which the natives, when left alone, were incapable of maintaining) was sent in 1900 to conclude the treaty by which the king placed his kingdom under British protection. See Captain Cook's Voyages and other early narratives; Martin, Mariner's account of the Tonga Islands (Edinburgh, 1827); Vason, Four Years in Tongatabu (London, 1815); A. Monfort, Les Tonga, ou Archipel des Amis (Lyons, 1893) ; B. H. Thomson, The Diversions of a Prime Minister (London, 1894). TONGKING, 1 a province of French Indo-China, and protec- torate of France, situated between 20 and 235 N. and 102 and io8j° E., and bounded N. by the Chinese provinces of Kwang- Tung, Kwang-Si and Yun-nan, W. by Laos, S. by Annam, and E. by the Gulf of Tongking. Area, about 46,000 sq. m. The population is estimated at 6,000,000, including 33,000 Chinese and about 4000 Europeans. Geographically, Tongking com- prises three regions: (1) the delta of the Song-Koi (Red river), which, beginning at Son-Tay and coalescing with the delta of the Thai-Binh, widens out into the low-lying and fertile plain within which are situated the principal cities. (2) Two moun- tainous tracts, to the north and west of the delta, running approximately from north-west to south-east, one separating the basins of the Song-Koi and the Canton river, the other those of the Song-Koi and the Mekong. (3) A region of plateaus and low hills forming a transition between the delta and the mountains. The main geographical feature in the country is the Song-Koi, which, taking its rise near Tali Fu, in Yun-nan, enters Tongking at Lao-Kay (the Lao boundary), and flows thence in a south-easterly direction to the Gulf of Tongking. It was this river which mainly, in the first instance, attracted the French to Tongking, as it was believed by the explorers that, forming the shortest route by water to the rich province of Yun-nan, it would prove also to be the most convenient and expeditious means of transporting the tin, copper, silver and gold which are known to abound there. This belief, however, has proved fallacious. The upper course of the stream is constantly impeded by rapids, the lowest being about thirty miles above Hung-Hoa. Beyond Lao-Kay navigation is impracticable during the dry season, and at all other times of the year goods have to be there transferred into light junks. Below Lao-Kay larger junks, and in the summer months steam launches of shallow draught use the river. Within the limits of Yun-nan the navigation is still more difficult. Near Son-Tay the Song-Koi receives the waters of the Song-Bo (Black river) and the Song-Ka (Clear river), parallel affluents rising in Yun-nan, and from that point divides into a network of waterways which empty themselves by countless outlets into the sea. The Song-Cau rises in north-eastern Tongking and below the town of Sept Pagodes, where it is joined by the Song- Thuong to form the Thai-Binh, divides into numerous branches, communicating with the Song-Koi by the Canal des Rapides and the Canal des Bambous. The coast line of Tongking from Mon-Kay on the Chinese frontier to Thanh-Hoa, near .that of Annam, has a length of 375 m. From Mon-Kay as far as the estuary of the Song-Koi it is broken, rugged and fringed with islands and rocky islets. The bay of Tien-Hien, to the south of which lies the island of Ke-Bao, and the picturesque bay of Along, are the chief indentations. Beyond the island of Cac-Ba, south of the Bay of Along, the coast is low, flat and marshy, and tends to advance as the alluvial deposits of the delta accumulate. The climate of Tongking is less trying to Europeans than that of the rest of French Indo-China. During June, July and August, the temperature ranges between 82 and ioo° F., but from October to May the weather is cool. The country is subject to typhoons in August and September. In the wooded regions of the mountains the tiger, elephant and panther are found, and wild buffalo, deer and monkeys are common.^ The delta is the home of ducks and many other varieties of aquatic birds. Tea, cardamom, and mulberry grow wild, and in general the flora approximate to that of southern China. The Annamese (see Annam), who form the bulk of the population of Tongking, are of a somewhat better physique than those of the 1 See also Indo-China, French, and Annam. rest of Indo-China. Savage tribes inhabit the northern districts — the Muongs the mountains bordering the Black river, the Th6s the regions bordering the Clear river and the Thai-Binh. The Muongs are bigger and stronger than the Annamese. They have square foreheads, large faces and prominent cheek-bones, arid their eyes are » often almost straight. Rice, which in some places furnishes two crops annually, is incom- parably the most important product of the delta. Elsewhere there are plantations of coffee, tobacco, ramie, paper-tree {Daphne odora), cotton, jute, sugar-cane, pepper and mulberry. The cultivation of silkworms is of growing importance. Gold, copper, tin, lead and other metals are found in the higher regions of Tongking, but only gold and tin are exploited, and these only to a very limited extent. There is a large output of coal of inferior quality from Hon-Gay on the bay of Along and there are coal-workings on the island of Ke-Bao. Hanoi, Hai-phong and Nam-Dinh carry on cotton-spinning, and Hanoi and Nam-Dinh are well known for the manufacture of carved and inlaid furniture. The natives are skilful at enamelling and the chasing and ornamentation of gold and other metals. The manu- facture of paper from the fibrous bark of the paper-tree is a wide- spread industry and there are numerous distilleries of rice-spirit. The imports of Tongking, which in 1905 reached a value of £3,501,422, comprise railway material, cereals, flour, liquors, woven goods, petroleum, glassware, paper, prepared skins, clocks and watches, arms and ammunition, &c. Exports (valued at £1,393,674 in 1905) comprise rice, rubber, manila hemp, ramie, lacquer and badian oils, raw skins, silk-waste, coal, Chinese drugs, rattan, mats, gamboge. The transit trade via Tongking between Hong-Kong and the province of Yun-nan in southern China is of considerable importance, reaching in 1905 a value of £1,146,000. This trade is entirely in the hands of Chinese houses, the tin of the Yun-nan mines and cotton yarns from Hong-Kong constituting its most important elements. Goods in transit enjoy a rebate of 80% of the customs duties. Goods are carried on the Song-Koi to Lao-Kay or Man-Hao, thence on mules. The waterways of the delta are lined with em- bankments, the causeways along which form the chief means of land communication of the region. (For railways, see Indo-China, French.) The protectorate of Tongking approaches nearer to direct admin- istration than that of Annam, where the conditions of the protector- ate are more closely observed. Till 1897 the emperor of Annam was represented in Tongking by a viceroy (kinh-luoc), but now the native officials are appointed by and are directly under the control of the resident-superior, who resides at Hanoi, presides over j the pro- tectorate council, and is the chief territorial representative of France. Tongking is divided into nineteen provinces, in each of which there is a resident or a vice-resident, and four military territories, the latter administered by commandants. In each province there is a council of native " notables," elected by natives and occupied with the discussion of the provincial budget and public works. There is also a deliberative council of natives (instituted 1907) for the whole of Tongking. The provincial administration, local government and educational system are analogous to those of Annam (g.D.). Two chambers of the court of appeal of Indo-China and a criminal court sit at Hanoi ; there are tribunals of first instance and tribunals of commerce at Hanoi and Hai-Phong. When both parties to a suit are Annamese, it comes within the jurisdiction of the An-Sat or native judge of the province. The following is a summary of the budgets of 1899 and 1904: — Receipts. Expenditure. 1899 1904 £ 461,235 756,648 £ 427,993 494,034 The chief source of revenue is the direct taxes (including especially the poll-tax and land-tax), which amounted in 1904 to £417,723, while the chief items of expenditure are the cost of the residencies and general staff, public works and the civil guard. For the early history of Tongking, see Annam and Indo-China, French. Tongking was loosely united to Annam until 1801, when Gia-long, king of Annam, brought it definitely under his sway. Having, by the treaty of 1862 and the annexation of Cochin China, firmly established themselves in Annamese territory, the French began to turn their attention to Tongking, attracted by the reported richness of its mineral wealth. They found a pretext for interfering in its affairs in the disturbances arising from the invasion of its northern provinces by the disbanded followers of the Taiping rebels. The Franco-German War of 1870-71 put an end to the project for a time, but the return of peace in Europe was the signal for the renewal of hos- tilities in the East. The appearance of Garnier's work on his expedition up the Mekong again aroused an interest in Tongking, TONGKING and the reported wealth of the country added the powerful motive of self-interest to the yearnings of patriotism. Already Jean Dupuis, a trader who in the pursuit of his calling had penetrated into Yun-nan, was attempting to negotiate for the passage up the Song-Koi of himself and a cargo of military stores for the Chinese authorities in Yun-nan. Meanwhile Captain Senez appeared from Saigon, having received instructions to open the route to French commerce. But to neither the trader nor the naval officer would the Tongkingese lend a favourable ear, and in default of official permission Dupuis determined to force his way up the river. This he succeeded in doing, but arrived too late, for he found the Taiping rebellion crushed and the stores no longer wanted. On the return of Dupuis to Hanoi, the Tongkingese general at that place wrote to the king of Annam, begging him to induce the governor of Cochin-China to remove the intruder. An order was thereupon issued calling upon Dupuis to leave the country. This he declined to do, and, after some negotiations, Francis Gamier with a detachment was sent to Hanoi to dp the best he could in the difficult circumstances. Gamier threw himself heart and soul into Dupuis's projects, and, when the Tongkingese authorities refused to treat with him except on the subject Of Dupuis's expulsion, he attacked the citadel in November, 1873, and carried it by assault. Having thus secured his position, he sent to Saigon for reinforcements, and meanwhile sent small detachments against the five other important fortresses in the delta (Hung-yen, Phu-Ly, Hai-Duong, Ninh-Binh and Nam- Dinh), and captured them all. The Tongkingese now called in the help of Lu-Vinh-Phuoc, the leader of the " Black Flags," ' who at once marched with a large force to the scene of action. Within a few days he recaptured several villages near Hanoi, and so threatening did his attitude appear that Gamier, who had hurried back after capturing Nam-Dinh, made a sortie from the citadel. The movement proved a disastrous one, and resulted in the death of Gamier and of his second in command, Balny d'Avricourt. Meanwhile the news of Garnier's hostilities had alarmed the governor of Saigon, who, having no desire to be plunged into a war, sent Philastre, an inspector of native affairs, to offer apologies to the king of Annam. When, however, on arriving in Tongking Philastre heard of Garnier's death, he took command of the French forces, and at once ordered the evacuation of Nam-Dinh, Ninh-Binh and Hai-Duong — a measure which, however advantageous it may have been to the French at the moment, was most disastrous to the native Christian population, the withdrawal of the French being the signal for a general massacre of the converts. In pursuance of the same policy Philastre made a convention with the authorities (March, 1874) by which he bound his countrymen to withdraw from the occu- pation of the country, retaining only the right to trade on the Song-Koi and at Hanoi and Hai-Phong, and agreed to put an end to Dupuis's aggressive action. For a time affairs remained in statu quo, but in 1882 Le Myre deVillers, the governor of Cochin-China, sent Henri Riviere with a small force to open up the route to Yun-nan by the Song-Koi. With a curious similarity the events of Gamier s campaign were repeated. Finding the authorities intractable, Riviere stormed and carried the citadel of Hanoi, and then, with very slight loss, he captured Nam-Dinh, Hai-Duong, and other towns in the delta. And once again these victories brought the Black Flags into the neighbourhood of Hanoi. As Gamier had done, so Riviere hurried back from Nam-Dinh on news of the threatened danger. Like Gamier also he headed a sortie against his enemies, and like Gamier he fell a victim to his own impetuosity (May, 1883). In the meantime" the Annamese court had been seeking to enlist the help of the Chinese in their contest with the French. The tie which bound the tributary nation to the sovereign state had been for many generations slackened or drawn closer as circumstances determined, but it had never been entirely dissevered, and from the Annamese point of view this was one 1 Bands of Chinese rebels who infested the mountainous region of Tongking. of the occasions when it was of paramount importance that it should be acknowledged and acted upon. With much more than usual regularity, therefore, the king despatched presents and letters to the court of Peking, and in 1880 he sent a special embassy, loaded with unusually costly offerings, and bearing a letter in which his position of a tributary was emphatically asserted. Far from ignoring the responsibility thrust upon him, the emperor of China ordered the publication of the letter in the Peking Gazette. The death of Riviere and the defeat of his troops had placed the French in a position of extreme difficulty. M. Jules Ferry, who had become premier of France in February 1883, determined on a vigorous forward policy. But for the moment the outlying garrisons, except those of Nam-Dinh and Hai-Phong, had to be withdrawn and Hanoi itself was besieged by the Black Flags. Reinforcements brought by Admiral Courbet and General Bouet were insufficient to do more than keep them at bay. So con- tinued was the pressure on the garrison that Bouet determined to make an advance upon Son-Tay to relieve the blockade. He attacked Vong, a fortified village, but he met with such resistance that, after suffering considerable loss, he was obliged to retreat to Hanoi. In the lower delta fortune sided with the French, and almost without a casualty Hai-Duong and Phu-Binh fell into their hands. Meanwhile, in order to put more effective pressure upon the court of Hue, Dr Harmand, commissary- general, supported by Courbet, proceeded with a naval force to the Hue river. They found that, though King Tu Due was dead, his policy of resistance was maintained, and therefore stormed the city. After a feeble defence it was taken, and Harmand concluded a treaty with the king (August 1883) in which the French protectorate was fully recognized, the king further binding himself to recall the Annamese troops serving in Tong- king, and to construct a road from Saigon to Hanoi. Though this treaty was exacted from Annam under pressure, the French lost no time in carrying out that part of it which gave them the authority to protect Tongking, and Bouet again advanced in the direction of Son-Tay. But again the resistance he met with compelled him to retreat, after capturing the fortified post of Palan. Meanwhile, on the determination to attack Son-Tay becoming known in Paris, the Chinese ambassador warned the ministry that, since Chinese troops formed part of the garrison, he should consider it as tantamount to a declaration of war. But his protest met with no consideration. On the arrival of reinforcements an advance was again made; and on the 1 6th of December 1883, after some desperate fighting, Son-Tay fell. During 1884 the French made themselves masters of the lower delta. Throughout the campaign Chinese regulars fought against the French, who thus found themselves involved in war with China. While hostilities were in progress M. Fournier, the French consul at Tientsin, had been negotiating for peace, so far as China was concerned, with Li Hung-chang, and in May 1884 had signed and sealed a memorandum by which the Chinese plenipotentiary agreed that the Chinese troops should evacuate the northern provinces of Tongking " immSdiatement." In the following month another treaty, signed at Hue, confirmed the French protectorate over Annam and Tongking. It was not, however, followed by a cessation of military operations. A misunderstanding arose between the French and the Chinese as to the exact date for the evacuation of their posts by the Chinese, and in June General Millot, then commander-in-chief of the French forces, dispatched Colonel Dugenne at the head of a strong force to occupy Lang-Son. The expedition was badly arranged; the baggage train was far too unwieldy; and the pace at which tLe men were made to march was too quick for that scorching time of the year. They advanced, however, to Bac-Le, within 25 m. of Lang-Son, when they suddenly came upon a Chinese camp. An irregular engagement began, and, in the pitched battle which ensued, the Chinese broke the French lines, and drove them away in headlong flight. This brought the military operations for the season to a close. During the rainy season fevers of all kinds became alarmingly TONGS— TONGUE prevalent, and the number of deaths and of men invalided was very large. In the meantime, however, an expedition, led by Colonel Donnier, against the Chinese garrison at Chu, about 10 m. south-east from Lang-kep, was completely successful; and in a battle fought near Chu the Chinese were defeated, with a loss of 3000 killed, the French loss being only 20 killed and go wounded. In the skirmishes which followed the French were generally victorious, but not to such a degree as to warrant any enlargement of the campaign. In January 1885 large reinforcements arrived and Briere de 1'Isle, who had succeeded Millot as commander-in-chief, ordered an advance towards Lang-Son. The difficulties of transport greatly impeded his movements, still the expedition was successful. On the 6th of February three forts at Dong- Song, with large supplies of stores and ammunition, fell into the hands of the French. Three days' heavy fighting made them masters of a defile on the road, and on the 13th Lang-Son was taken, the garrison having evacuated the town just before the entrance of the conquerors. With his usual energy General Negrier, who commanded a division under Briere de 1'Isle, pressed on in pursuit to Ki-Hea, and even captured the frontier town of Cua-Ai. But Briere de 1'Isle had now to hurry back to the relief of Tuyen-Kwan, which was doggedly resisting the attacks of an overwhelming Chinese force, and Negrier was left in command at Lang-Son. The withdrawal of Briere de ITsle's division gave the Chinese greater confidence, and, though for a time Negrier "was able to hold his own, on the 22nd and 23rd of March he sustained a severe check between Lang-Son and That-Ke, which was finally converted into a complete rout, his troops being obliged to retreat precipitately through Lang- Son to Than-Moi and Dong-Song. Briere de 1'Isle reached Tuyen-Kwan, the garrison of which was commanded by Colonel Domine, on the 3rd of March, and effected its relief. The disaster at Lang-Son caused the downfall of the Ferry ministry (March 30). Shortly afterwards Sir Robert Hart succeeded in negotiating peace with China. By the terms agreed on at Tientsin (June, 1885), it was stipulated that France was to take Tongking and Annam under its protection and to evacuate Formosa and the Pescadores. (For further history, see Indo- China.) See J. Dupuis, Le Tong-kin et V intervention francaise (Paris, 1898) ; C B. Norman, Tonkin or France in the Far East (London, 1884); Prince Henri d'Orleans, Autour du Tonkin (Paris, 1896); J. Ferry, Le Tonkin et la mere-patrie (Paris, 1890); J. Chailley, Paul Bert au Tonkin (Paris, 1887); E. Lunet de Lajonquiere, Ethnographie du Tonkin Septentrional (Paris, 1906) ; A. Gaisman, L'CEuvre de la France au Tonkin (Paris, 1906) ; also the bibliography under Indo-China, French. TONGS (0. Eng. tange, M. Eng. tonge, cf. Du. tang, Ger. Zange, from base tang, to bite, cf. Gr. SaKveiv), a gripping and lifting instrument, of which there are many forms adapted to their specific use. Some are merely large pincers or nippers, but the greatest number fall into three classes: the first, as in the com- mon fire-tongs, used for picking up pieces of coal and placing them on a fire, which have long arms terminating in small flat circular grippers and are pivoted close to the handle; the second, as in the sugar-tongs, asparagus tongs, and the like, consisting of a single band of metal bent round or of two bands joined at the head by a spring, and third, such as the blacksmith's tongs or the crucible-tongs, in which the pivot or joint is placed close to the gripping ends. A special form of tongs is that known as the " lazy-tongs," consisting of a pair of grippers at the end of a series of levers pivoted together like scissors, the whole being closed or extended by the movement of the handles communi- cated to the first set of levers and thence to the grippers, the whole forming ah extensible pair of tongs for gripping and lifting things at a distance. TONGUE (O. Eng. tunge), in anatomy, a movable organ situated in the floor of the mouth, and serving for the sensation of taste besides helping in the mastication of food, in articulate speech, and in feeling the exact position of any structure within the mouth. The tongue is divided into a main part or body, a base which looks backward toward the pharynx, a dorsum or upper surface, a root by which it is attached to the hyoid bone and floor of the mouth, a tip which is free and an inferior free surface in contact with the front part of the floor of the mouth and with the lower incisor teeth. Owing to the large amount of muscle in its com- position the shape of the tongue varies considerably from time to time. The dorsum of the tongue is covered by stratified squamous epithelium, and, when at rest, is convex both antero- posteriorly and transversely; it is thickly studded with papillae, of which four kinds are recognized. Filiform papillae are minute conical projections covering the whole of the dorsum, by which term the true upper surface is meant, as well as the tip and borders of the tongue. They are very numerous and contain a short core of subepithelial mucous mem- brane covered by a thick coating of epithelial cells, which coating may divide at its tip into a number of thread-like processes. Fungiform papillae are less numerous than the last, and somewhat resemble "button mushrooms"; they generally contain special taste buds. Circumvallate papillae are usually from seven to ten in number and are arranged in the form of a V, the apex of which points down the throat. They lie quite at the back of the upper surface of the tongue and each consists of a little flat central mound surrounded by a deep moat, the outer wall of which is slightly raised above the surface, and it is to this that the papillae owe their name. Both sides of the moat have taste buds embedded in them, while into the bottom small serous glands open. Foliate papillae are only vestigial in man and consist of a series of vertical ridges occupying a small oval area on each side of the tongue near its base and just in front of the attachment of the anterior pillars of the fauces. (See Pharynx.) The posterior surface or base of the tongue forms part of the anterior wall of the pharynx and has a quite different appearance to that of the dorsum. On it are found numerous circular or oval elevations of the mucous membrane caused by lymphoid tissue (lymphoid follicles), on the summit of the most of which is a mucous crypt or depression. The division between the superior or oral surface of the tongue and the posterior or pharyngeal is sharply marked by a V-shaped shallow groove called the sulcus terminalis which lies just behind and parallel to the V-shaped row of circumvallate papillae. At the apex of this V is a small blind pit, the foramen caecum. ■ - At the lower part of the pharyngeal surface three folds of mucous membrane, called glosso-epiglottic folds, run backward ; the middle one passes to the centre of the front of the epiglottis, while the two lateral ones, in modern anatomy often called pharyngo-epiglottic folds, pass backward and outward to the fossa of the tonsil. On the inferior free surface of the tongue, that is to say, the surface which is seen when the mouth is looked into and the tongue turned up, there is a median fold of mucous membrane called the fraenum linguae, which is attached below to the floor of the mouth. On each side of this the blue outlines of the ranine veins are seen, while close to these a little fold on each side, known as a plica fimbriata, is often found. It must not, however, be confused with the plica sublin- gualis described in the article Mouth and Salivary Glands. The substance of the tongue is composed almost entirely of striped muscle fibres which run in different directions. Some of these bundles, such as the superficial, deep, transverse and oblique linguales are confined to the tongue and are spoken of as intrinsic muscles. Other muscles, such as the hyo-glossus, stylo-glossus, &c. come from elsewhere and are extrinsic ; these are noticed under the head of Muscular System. The arteries of the tongue are derived from the lingual, a branch of the external carotid (see Arteries), while the veins from the tongue return the blood, by one or more veins on each side, into the internal jugular vein (see Veins). The nerves to the tongue are the (1) lingual or gustatory, a branch of the fifth (see Nerves: Cranial) which supplies the anterior two- thirds with ordinary sensation and also, by means of the chorda tymphani which is bound up with it, with taste sensation; (2) the glossopharyngeal which supplies the circumvallate papillae and posterior third of the tongue with taste and ordinary sensation; (3) a few twigs of the superior laryngeal branch of the vagus to the pharyngeal surface of the tongue ; and (4) the hypoglossal which is the motor nerve to the muscles. Embryology. The mucous membrane covering the second and third visceral arches fuses to form the furcula (see Respiratory System). Just in front of this a rounded eminence appears at an early date in the ventral wall of the pharynx to form the tuberculum impar which is separated from the furcula by the depression known as the sinus arcuatus. This tuberculum impar gradually grows to form the central part of the tongue in front of the foramen caecum, while the anterior part of the organ is derived from two lateral swellings which appear in the floor of the mouth and surround the tuberculum impar antero-laterally. The posterior third, or pharyngeal part, is developed from the anterior part of the furcula TONGUE in the middle line, that is to say from the third visceral arch. The sinus arcuatus becomes gradually shallower as these two parts of the tongue grow together and eventually is indicated by the sulcus terminalis; in the mid line, however, the isthmus of the thyroid growB down from it, forming the thyro-glossal duct the remains of which are seen in the foramen caecum (see Ductless Glands). ft will be seen that the tongue is developed in connexion with the first, second and third visceral arches, and it is therefore to be expected that the fifth, seventh and ninth nerves which supply those arches would help to supply it, but the vagus from the fourth arch reaches it in addition, while the fact that most of the muscular substance of the tongue is supplied by the hypoglossal nerve is explained on the theory that some of the cervical skeletal muscula- ture has grown cephalad into the tongue and has carried its nerve with it. Comparative Anatomy. The tongue is present in fishes but it is an immovable swelling in the floor of the mouth and is practically devoid of muscles. In the hag (Myxine) among the Cyclostomata, and pike {Esox) among the Internal jugular vein Spinal accessory nerve | Digastric muscle Hypoglossal nerve I Internal carotid artery I Pneumogastric nerve | | Sympathetic Ascending pharyngeal artery Odontoid process Stylohyoid- Glosso pharyngeal nerve' Parotid gland' Tempore maxillary vein External c&rotid artery Styloglossus" Ascending palatine artery Internal pterygoid Epiglottis Frenulum epiglottidis Masseter' Pharyngeal portion of tongue Fungiform papilla Buccinator Fungiform papilla (From Ambrose Birmingham in Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy.) Horizontal Section through Mouth and Pharynx at the Level of the Tonsils. Teleostei, teeth are developed on the tongue. In the Amphibia the tailed forms (Urodela) usually have tongues like fishes, though in the genus Spelerpes the organ is very free and can be protruded for a great distance. In the majority of the Anura the tongue is usually attached close to the front of the floor of the mouth so that it can be flapped forward with great rapidity. There are, however, two closely allied families of frogs (Xenopodidae and Pipidae) which form the order of Aglossa, because in them the tongue is suppressed. In the reptiles the tongue is generally very movable, though this is not the case in the Crocodilia and many of the Chelonia. The forked tongues of snakes and many lizards and the highly specialized telescopic tongue of the chameleon are familiar objects. In birds the tongue is usually covered with horny epithelium and is poorly supplied with muscles. When it is very protrusible, as in the woodpecker, the movement is due to the hyoid, with the base of the tongue attached, moving forward. In the Mammalia the tongue is always movable by means of well- developed extrinsic and intrinsic muscles, while papillae and glands are numerous. The filiform papillae reach their maximum in the feline family of the Carnivora where they convert the tongue into a rasp by which bones can be licked clean of all flesh attached to them. Foliate papillae are best seen in the rodents, and when they are well developed the circumvallate papillae are few, often only one on each side. In the lemurs an under tongue or sub lingua is found, which is probably represented by the plicae fimbriatae under the human tongue, and by some morphologists is regarded as the homologue of the whole tongue of the lower vertebrates, the greater part of the mammalian tongue being then looked upon as a new formation. For further details and literature see R. Wiedersheim's Compara- tive Anatomy of Vertebrates, translated by W. N. Parker (London, 1907); C. Gegenbaur, Vergleich. Anat. der Wirbelthiere (Leipzig, 1901); A. Oppel, Lehrb. vergleich. mikroskop. Anat. der Wirbelthiere, Teil 3 (Jena, 1900) ; Parker and Haswell, Text Book of Zoology (London, 1897). (F. G. P.) Surgery of the Tongue. During infancy it is sometimes noticed that the little band of membrane [fraenum) which binds the under part of the tongue to the middle line of the floor of the mouth is unusually short. The condition will probably right itself as the front part of the tongue takes on its natural growth. In some children the tongue is so large that it hangs out of the mouth, scratching itself upon the teeth. This condition is likely to be associated with weak intellect. Acute inflammation of the tongue may be caused by the sting of a wasp or by the entrance of septic germs through a wound, and the trouble may end in an abscess. Chronic inflammation of the tongue may be caused by syphilis, by the irritation of decayed teeth or of a badly-fitting plate of artificial teeth, or by excessive smoking. The con- dition is one of danger in that it may lead eventually to the tongue becom- ing the seat of cancer. The treatment demands the removal of every source of irritation. The teeth must be made sound and smooth and must be kept so. Smoking must be absolutely and entirely given up, and salt, mustard, pickles, spirits, aerated waters, and everything else which is likely to be a cause of irritation must be avoided. Cancer of the tongue is the result of chronic irritation which produces an excessive growth of the scaly covering of the tongue and causes an invasion of the deeper parts of the tongue by the scales. It is more often found in men than women and is usually asso- ciated with a hard swelling at one side of the tongue — perhaps near a jagged tooth or at the spot where the end of the pipe-stem approaches the tongue. The nerves of the tongue being caught and compressed in the growth, pain is constant and severe, and the move- ments during mastication cause great distress. The swelling gradually in- creases in size and, spreading to the floor of the mouth, hinders the free movements of the tongue. In due course it breaks down in the middle and a hard-walled ulcer appears. All this time the small scales of the cancer are finding their way along the lymph-channels and causing a secondary enlargement in the glands just below the jaw and along the side of the neck. Enlargement of the cervical glands is a very serious complication of cancer of the tongue. The only treatment for cancer of the tongue which is at present known in surgery is the early removal by operation. It not seldom happens that because there is a certain amount of doubt as to the exact nature of the growth in the early weeks delay in operating is reasonably permitted, but during this time there is the risk ot the cells of the disease finding their way to the lymphatic system. Still, inasmuch as there may be great difficulty in determining the diagnosis from tertiary syphilitic disease, a course of treatment by iodide of potassium may well be recommended. Syphilis is often the precursor of lingual cancer, and it is impossible to say exactly when the syphilitic lesion becomes malignant. In the case of a cancerous tumour of the tongue being so deeply or so widely attached that its removal cannot be recommended, relief may be afforded by the extraction of most, or all of the teeth, by limiting the food to the most simple and unirritating kinds, and possibly by dividing the great sensory nerves of the tongue. Cancer of the tongue is now operated on in advanced cases such as in former years would not have been dealt with by a radical operation. An incision is made beneath the jaw and through the floor of the Post-pharyngeal lymphatic gland Superior constrictor muscle Posterior palatine arch Tonsil Pharyngo-epiglottic fold Anterior palatine arch Circumvallate papilla Raphe of tongue Conical papillae TONGUES, GIFT OF mouth, by which the tongue is drawn out and rendered easily accessible, the arteries being leisurely secured as the tissues are cut across. The upper part of the gullet is plugged by a sponge so that no blood can enter the lungs, and unimpeded respiration is provided for by the preliminary introduction of a tube into the windpipe. Through the incision which is made below the jaw the infected lymphatic glands are removed. To Dr Kocher of Berne the profes- sion and the public are indebted for this important advance in the treatment of this disease. (E. O*.) TONGUES, GIFT OF, or Glossolalia (y\uc 2 of a 2 O ID,™ 3.3 J2 big bo u '-a US 1> *- 3 & § J£ -O bO a a JS as bo QJ a a •3 o bo:3 tn 4-> en 4-1 en 3 P > bo C <8 3 • i- u r j o ^ bo en "Tt vif S 3 3 bo Si, tu *»! 3 v £ rt-G £J2 3 5 8 •& g cu.it! a . 1 "2-sSl => bo-S i?^ Fig. 43. — 20-in. Side Planing Machine. (G. Richards & Co., Ltd., Manchester.) " A , Bed. G, Tool-box on travelling arm H, travelled by fast and loose B, B, Feet. pulleys / for cutting, and by pulleys K for quick return. C, C, Work tables adjustable vertically on the faces D, D, by L, Feed-rod with adjustable dogs a, a, for effecting reversals through means of screws E, E, from handles F, F, through bevel the belt forks 6, 6. gears. M, Brickwork pit to receive deep objects. -c=$ Fig. 44. — 8-in. Shaping Machine. (C A, Base. B, Work-table, having vertical movement on carriage C, which has horizontal movement along the face of A . D, Screw for effecting vertical movement, by handle E, and bevel gears. F, Screw for operating longitudinal movement with feed by hand or power. G, Tool ram. H, Tool-box. a, Worm-gear for setting tool-holder at an ang*. b, Crank handle spindle for operating ditto. c, Handle for actuating down feed of tool. unliffe & Croom, Ltd., Manchester.) Driving cone pulley actuating pinion d, disk wheel e, with slotted disk, and adjustable nut moving in the slot of the crank /, which actuates the lever g, connected to the tool ram G, the motion constituting the Whitworth quick return ; g is pivoted to a block which is adjustable along a slot in G, and the clamping of this block in the slot regulates the position of the ram G, to suit the position of the work on the table. Feed disk driven by small gears from cone pulley. Pawl driven from disk through levers at various rates, and con- trolling the amount of rotation of the feed screw F. Conical mandrel for circular shaping, driven by worm and wheel /. RECIPROCATING MACHINES] TOOL 29 objection has arisen a new design, the side planer (fig. 43), in which the tool-box is carried by an arm movable along a fixed bed or base, and overhanging the work, which is fastened to the side of the base, or on angle brackets, or in a deep pit alongside. Here the important difference is that the work is not traversed under the tool as in the ordinary planer, but the tool moves over the work. But an evil results, due to the overhang of the tool arm, which being a cantilever supported at one end only is not so rigid when cutting as the cross-rail of the ordinary machine, supported at both ends on housings. The same idea is embodied in machines built in other respects on the reciprocating table model. Sometimes one housing is omitted, and the tool arm is carried on the other, being therefore unsupported at one end. Sometimes a housing is made to be removable at pleasure, to be temporarily taken away only when a piece of work of unusual dimensions has to be fixed on the table. Another objection to the common planer is this. It seems unmechanical in this machine to reciprocate a heavy table and piece of work which often weighs several tons, and let the tool and its holder of a few hundredweights only remain stationary. The mere reversal of the table absorbs much greater horse-power there is no limitation whatever to the length of the work, since it may extend to any distance beyond the base-plate. Shaping Machines. — The shaping machine (fig. 44) does for com- paratively small pieces that which the planer does for long ones. It came later in time than the planer, being one of James Nasmyth's inventions, and beyond the fact that it has a reciprocating non- cutting return stroke it bears no resemblance to the older machine. Its design is briefly as follows: The piece of work to be shaped is attached to the top, or one of the vertical side faces, of a right- angled bracket or brackets. These are carried upon the face of a main standard and are adjustable thereon in horizontal and vertical directions. In small machines the ram or reciprocating arm (see fig. 44, G) slides in fixed guides on the top of the pillar, and the necessary side traverse is imparted to the work table B. To the top of the main standard, in one design, a carriage is fitted wifh hori- zontal traverse to cover the whole breadth, within the capacity of the machine, of any work to be operated on. In the largest machines two standards support a long bed, on which the carriage, with its ram, traverses past the work. These machines are frequently made double-headed, that is carriages, rams and work tables are dupli- Fic 45. — 12-in. Stroke Slotting Machine. A, Main framing. B, Driving cone. C, D, Gears driven by cones. E, Shaft of L. F, Tool ram driven from shaft E through disk G and rod H, with quick return mechanism D. J, Counter-balance lever to ram. than the actual work of cutting. Hence a strong case is often stated for the abandonment of the common practice. But, on the other hand, the centre of gravity of the moving table and work lies low down, while when the cross-rail and housings with the cut- ting tool are travelled and reversed, their centre of gravity is high, and great precautions have to be taken to ensure steadiness of movement. Several planers are made thus, but they are nearly all of extremely massive type — the pit planers. The device is seldom applied to those of small and medium dimensions. ' But there is a great group of planers in which the work is always fixed, the tools travelling. These are the wall planers, vertical planers or wall creepers, used chiefly by marine engine builders. They are necessary, because many of the castings and forgings are too massive to be put on the tables of the largest, standard machines. They are therefore laid on the base-plate of the wall planer, and the tool-box travels up and down a tall pillar bolted to the wall or standing independently, and so makes vertical cutting strokes. In some designs horizontal strokes are provided for, or either vertical or horizontal as required. Here, as in the side planer, (Greenwood & Batley, Ltd., Leeds.) K, Flywheel. L, Driving-disk. M , N, Feed levers and shaft operated from disk, actuating linear movements of slides 0, P, and circular movement of table Q, through gears R. S, Hand-feed motions to table. T, Countershaft. cated, and the operator can set one piece of work while the other is being shaped. In all cases the movement of the reciprocating arm, to the outer end of which the tool is attached, takes place in a direction transversely to the direction of movement of the carriage, and the tool receives no support beyond that which it receives from the arm which overhangs the work. Hence the shaper labours under the same disadvantages as the side planer — it cannot operate over a great breadth. A shaper with a 24-in. stroke is one of large capacity, 16 in. being an average limit. Although the non-cutting stroke exists, as in the planer, the objection due to the mass of a ' reciprocating table does not exist, so that the problem does not assume the same magnitude as in the planer. The weak point in the shaper is the overhang of the arm, which renders it liable to spring, and renders heavy cutting difficult. Recently a novel design has been introduced to avoid this, the draw-cut shaper, in which the cutting is done on the inward or return stroke, instead of on the outward one. Slotting Machines. — In the slotting machine (fig. 45) the cutting takes place vertically and there is a lost return stroke. All the 3° TOOL [DRILLING MACHINES necessary movements save the simple reciprocating stroke are im- parted to the compound table on which the work is carried. These include two linear movements at right angles with each other and a circular motion capable of making a complete circle. Frequently a tilting adjustment is included to permit of slotting at an angle. The slotting machine has the disadvantage of an arm unsupported beyond the guides in which it moves. But the compound movements of the table permit of the production of shapes which cannot be done on planers and shapers, as circular parts and circular arcs, in com- bination with straight portions. Narrow key grooves in the bores of wheels are also readily cut, the wheels lying on the horizontal table, which would only be possible on planer and shaper by the use of awkward angle brackets, and of specially projecting tools. Quick return in planers is accomplished by having two distinct sets of gearing — a slow set for cutting and a quick train for return, each operated from the same group of driving pulleys. The return travel is thus accomplished usually three, often four, times more quickly than the forward rate; sometimes even higher rates are arranged for. In the shaper and slotter such acceleration is not practicable, a rate of two to one being about the limit, and this is obtained not by gears, but by the slotted crank, the Whitworth return, on shapers and slotters, or by elliptical toothed wheels on slotters. The small machines are generally unprovided with this acceleration. The double-cutting device seems at first sight the best solution, and it is adopted on a number of machines, though still in a great minority. The pioneer device of this kind, the rotating tool-box of Whitworth, simply turns the tool round through an angle of 180° at the termination of each stroke, the movement being self-acting. In some later designs, instead of the box being rotated to reverse the tool, two tools are used set back to back, and the one that is not cutting is relieved for the time being, that is tilted to clear the work. Neither of these tools will plane up to a shoulder as will the ordinary ones. Allied Machines. — The re- ciprocation of the tool or the work, generally the former, is adopted in several machines besides the standard types named. The plate-edge planer is used by platers and boiler makers. It is a side planer, the plates being bolted to a bed, and the tool traversing and cutting on one or both strokes. Provision is often included for planing edges at right angles. The key-seaters are a special type, designed mainly to remove the work of cutting key grooves in the bores of wheels and pulleys from the slotting machine. The work is fixed on a table and the keyway cutting tool is drawn downwards through the bore, with several resulting practical advantages. Many planing machines are portable so that they may be fixed upon very massive work. Several gear-wheel cutting machines embody the reciprocating tool. III. — Drilling and Boring Machines The strict distinction between the operations of drilling and boring is that the first initiates a hole, while the second enlarges one already existing. But the terms are used with some latitude. A combined drilling and boring machine is one which has provision for both functions. But when holes are of large dimensions the drilling machine is useless because the proportions and gears are unsuitable. A 6-in. drill is unusually large, but holes are bored up to 30 ft. or more in diameter. Types of Machines. — The distinction between machines with vertical and horizontal spindles is not vital, but of convenience only. The principal controlling element in design is the mass of the work, which often determines whether it or the machine shall be adjusted relatively to each other. Also the dimensions of a hole determine the speed of the tools, and this controls the design of the driving and feeding mechanism. Another important difference is that between drilling or boring one or more holes simultaneously. With few exceptions the tool rotates and the work is stationary. The notable exceptions are the vertical boring lathes already mentioned. Obviously the demands made upon drilling machines are nearly as varied as those on lathes. There is little in common between the machines which are serviceable for the odd jobs done in the general shop and those which are required for the repetitive work of the shops which handle specialities. Provision often has to be made for drilling simultaneously several holes at certain centres or holes at various angles or to definite depths, while the mass of the spindles of the heavier machines renders counter-balancing essential. Bench Machines are the simplest and smallest of the group. They are operated either by hand or by power. In the power machines generally, except in the smallest, the drill is also fed downwards by power, by means of toothed gears. The upper part of the drilling •Fig. 46. A, Base-plate. B, Pillar. C, Radial arm. D, Spindle carriage. E, Drill spindle. F, Main driving cones driving vertical shaft G through mitre-gears H. J, Spur-wheels, driving from C to vertical shaft K. L, Mitre-wheels, driving from K to horizontal shaft M, having its bearings in the radial arm. N, Nest of mitre-wheels driving the wheel spindle E from M. 0, Feed-gears to drill spindle, actuated by hand- wheel P or worm-gears Q. Pillar Radial Drilling Machine, 5 ft. radius. R, R, Feed cones driving from shaft if to worm- shaft S, for self-acting feed of drill. T, Change-speed gears. V, Hand-wheel for racking carriage D along radial arm C. V, Clutch and lever for reversing direction of rotation of spindle. W, Worm-gear for turning pillar B. d, Handle for turning worm. X, Screw for adjusting the height of the radial arm. Y, Gears for actuating ditto from shaft C. Z, Rod with handle for operating elevating gear. spindle being threaded is turned by an encircling spur-wheel, operated very slowly by a pinion and hand-wheel by the right hand of the attendant, the movement being made independent of the rotation of the spindle. A rack sleeve encircling the spindle is also common. In the power machines gears are also used, but a belt on small cone pulleys drives from the main cone shaft at variable speeds. From three to four drilling and feeding speeds are provided for by the respective cone pulleys. Work is held on or bolted to a circular table, which may have provision for vertical adjustment to suit pieces of work of different depths, and which can usually be swung aside out of the way to permit of deep pieces of work being introduced, resting on the floor or on blocking. Wall Machines. — One group of these machines resembles the bench machines in general design, but they are made to bolt to a wall instead of on a bench. Their value lies in the facilities which they afford for drilling large pieces of work lying on the floor o on block- ing, which could not go on the tables of the bench machines. Some- times a compound work-table is fastened to the floor beneath; and several machines also are ranged in line, by means of which long plates, angles, boilers or castings may be brought under the simul- taneous action of the group of machines. Another type is the radial arm machine, with or without a table beneath. In each case DRILLING MACHINES] TOOL 3* an advantage gained is that a supporting pillar or standard is not required, its place being taken by the wall. Self-contained Pillar Machines include a large number having the above-named feature in common. In the older and less valuable types the framework is rigid, and the driving and feeding are by belt cones. But the machines being mostly of larger capacities than those just noted, back-gears similar to those of lathes are generally in- troduced. The spindles also are usually counterbalanced. The machine framing is bolted to a bed-plate. A circular work-table may or may not be included. When it is, provision is made for elevating the table by gears, and also for swinging it aside when deep work has to be put on the base-plate. Radial Arm Machines. — In these (fig. 46) the drilling mechanism is carried on a radial arm which is pivoted to the pillar with the object of moving the drill over the work, when the latter is too massive to permit of convenient adjustment under the drill. The driving takes place through shafts at right angles, from a horizontal shaft carrying the cones and back-geared to a vertical one, thence to a horizontal one along the radial arm, whence the vertical drilling makers and platers. In others the spindles are adjustable in circles of varying radii, as in those employed for drilling the bolt holes in pipe flanges. In many of these the spindles are horizontal. Some very special multiple-spindle machines have the spindles at different angles, horizontal and vertical, or at angles. Universal Machines are a particular form of the pillar type in which the spindle is horizontal, moving with its carriage on a pillar capable of traversing horizontally along a bed ; the carriage has ver- tical adjustment on its pillar and so commands the whole of the face of a large piece of work bolted to a low bed-plate adjacent to the machine. The term " universal " signifies that the machine com- bines provision for drilling, boring, tapping screws and inserting screw studs, facing and in some cases milling. The power required for boring is obtained by double and treble gears. These machines are used largely in marine engine works, where very massive castings and forgings must be operated on with their faces set vertically. Boring Machines, — Many machines are classified as suitable for drilling and boring. That simply means that provision is made on Fig. 47. — Lincoln Milling Machine. A, Bed. B, B, Legs. C, Upright. D, Spindle or arbor. E, Headstock, carrying bearings for spindle D. F, Tailstock, carrying point centre for tail end of spindle. G, Hand-wheel for effecting adjustment in height of headstock, through bevel-gears H and screw /. K, Cross-bar connecting head- and tail-stocks, and ensuring equal vertical adjustment of the spindle bearings from the screw /. spindle is driven. The latter has its bearings in a carriage which can be traversed along the arm for adjustment of radius. The spindle is counterbalanced. Hand as well as power adjustments are included. In the work-tables of radial and rigid machines there is a great diversity, so that work can be set on top, or at the sides, or at an angle, or on compound tables, so covering all the requirements of practice. Sensitive Machines have developed greatly and have superseded many of the older, slower designs. The occasion for their use lies in the drilling of small holes, ranging up to about an inch in diameter. They are belt-driven, without back-gears, and usually without bevel-gears to change the direction of motion. The feed is by lever moving a rack sleeve. A slender pillar with a foot supports the entire mechanism, and the work-table, with a range of vertical adjustment. Multiple Spindle Machines. — Many of the sensitive machines are fitted with two, three or more spindles operated in unison with a belt common to all. In other machines the multiple spindles are capable of adjustment for centres, as in the machines used by boiler (John Holroyd & Co., Ltd., Milnrow.j L, Speed cones for driving spindle, through pinion M and wheel N. 0, Frame, carrying the bearings for the cone pulley L, and pivoted to the bed at a, and to the headstock E. This device keeps the gears M and N in engagement in all variations in the height of the spindle D. P, Q, Cones for driving the table R through worm-gears S, T, and spurs U, V, to the table screw. W , Stop for automatic knock-off to feed. X, Hand-wheel for turning the same screw through worm-gears Y, Z. a drilling machine for boring holes of moderate size, say up to 8 or 10 in., by double and treble back-gears. But the real boring machine is of a different type. In the horizontal machines a splined bar actuated by suitable gears carries a boring head which holds the cutters, which head is both rotated with, and traversed or fed along the bar. The work to be bored is fixed on a table which has pro- vision for vertical adjustment to suit work of different dimensions. -The boring-bar is supported at both ends. In the case of the largest work the boring-bar is preferably set with its axis vertically, and the framing of the machine is arch-like. The bar is carried in a bearing at the crown of the arch and driven and fed there by suit- able gears, while the other end of the bar rotates in the table which forms the base of the machine. Some boring machines for small engine cylinders and pump barrels have no bar proper, but a long boring spindle carrying cutters at the further end is supported along its entire length in a long stiff boss projecting from the headstock of the machine — the snout machine. The work is bolted on a carriage which slides along a bed similar to a lathe bed. Many of these machines have two bars for boring two cylinders simultaneously. 32 TOOL [MILLING MACHINES IV. — Milling Machines In milling machines rotary saw-like cutters are employed. To a certain extent these and some gear-cutting machines overlap because they have points in common. Many gear-wheel teeth are produced by rotary cutters on milling machines. In many machines designed for gear cutting only, rotary cutters alone are used. For this reason the two classes of machines are conveniently and naturally grouped together, notwithstanding that a large and increasing group of gear- cutting machines operate with reciprocating tools. The French engineer, Jacques de Vaucanson (1709-1782), is credited with having made the first milling cutter. The first very crude milling machine was made in 1818 at a gun factory in Connecti- cut. To-day the practice of milling ranks as of equal economic value with that of any other department of the machine shop, and the varieties of milling machines made are as highly differentiated as are those of any other group. An apparent incongruity which is rather striking is the relative disproportion between the mass of these machines and the small dimensions of the cutters. The failures of many of the early machines were largely due to a lack of appreciation of the intensity of the stresses involved in milling. A single-edged cutting tool has generally a very narrow edge in operation. Milling cutters are as a rule very wide by comparison, and several teeth in deep cuts are often in simultaneous operation. The result is that the machine spindle and the arbor or tool mandrel are subjected to severe stress, the cutter tends to spring away from the surface being cut, and if the framings are of light proportions they vibrate, and in- accuracy and chatter result. Even with the very stiff machines now made it is not possible to produce such accurate results on wide sur- faces as with the planer using a narrow-edged tool. Because of this great resistance and stress, cutters of over about an inch in width are always made with the teeth arranged spirally, and wide cutters which are intended for roughing down to compete with the planer always have either inserted cutters or staggered teeth. Hence the rotary cutter type of machine has not been able to displace the planing machine in wide work when great accuracy is essential. Its place lies in other spheres, in some of which its position is unassailable. Nearly all pieces of small and medium dimensions are machined as well by milling as by single-edged tools. All pieces which have more than one face to be operated on are done better in the milling machine than elsewhere. All pieces which have profiled outlines involving combinations of curves and plane faces can generally only be pro- duced economically by milling. Nearly all work that involves equal divisions, or pitchings, as in the manufacture of the cutters themselves, or spiral cutting, or the teeth of gear-wheels when pro- duced by rotary cutters, must be done in milling machines. Beyond these a large quantity of work lies on the border-line, where the choice between milling and planing, shaping, slotting, &c, is a matter for individual judgment and experience. It is a matter for some sur- prise that round the little milling cutter so many designs of machines have been built, varying from each other in the position of the tool spindles, in their number, and in the means adopted for actuating them and the tables which carry the work. A very early type of milling machine, which remains extremely popular, was the Lincoln. It was designed, as were all the early machines, for the small arms factories in the United States. The necessity for all the similar parts of pistols and rifles being inter- changeable, has had the paramount influence in the development of the milling machine. In the Lincoln machine as now made (fig. 47) the work is attached to a table, or to a vice on the table, which has horizontal and cross traverse movements on a bed, but no capacity for vertical adjustment. The cutter is held and rotated on an arbor driven from a headstock pulley, and supported on a tail- stock centre at the other end, with capacity for a good range of ver- tical adjustment. This is necessary both to admit pieces of work of different depths or thicknesses between the table and the cutter, and to regulate the depth of cutting (vertical feed). Around this general design numerous machines small and large, with many variations in detail, are built. But the essential feature is the ver- tical movement of the spindle and cutter, the support of the arbor (cutter spindle) at both ends, and the rigidity afforded by the bed which supports head- and tail-stock and table. The pillar and knee machines form another group which divides favour about equally with the Lincoln, the design being nearly of an opposite character. The vertical movements for setting and feed are imparted to the work, which in this case is carried on a bracket or knee that slides on the face of the pillar which supports the headstock. Travelling and transverse movements are imparted to the table slides. The cutter arbor may or may not be supported away from the headstock by an arched overhanging arm. None of these machines is of large dimensions. They are made in two leading designs — the plain and the universal. The first embodies rectangular relations only, the second is a marvellous instrument both in its range of movements and fine degree of precision. The first machine of this kind was exhibited at Paris in 1867. The design permits the cutting of spiral grooves, the angle of which is embodied in the adjustment of a swivelling table and of a headstock thereon (universal or spiral head). The latter embodies change-gears like a screw-cutting lathe and worm-gear for turning the head, in com- bination with an index or dividing plate having several circles of holes, which by the insertion of an index peg permit of the work spindle being locked during a cut. The combinations possible with the division plate and worm-gear number hundreds. The head also has angular adjustments in the vertical direction, so that tapered work can be done as well as parallel. The result is that there is nothing in the range of spiral or parallel milling, or tapered work or spur or bevel-gear cutting, or cutter making, that cannot be done on this type of machine, and the accuracy of the results of equal divisions of pitch and angle of spiral do not depend on the human element, but are embodied in the mechanism. Fig. 48. — Vertical Spindle Milling Machine. (James Archdale & Co., Ltd.) A, Main framing. B, Knee. C, Spindle, having its vertical position capable of adjustment by the sliding of D on A. E, Driving cone, belt driving over guide pulleys F to spindle pulley G. H, Enclosed gears for driving spindle by back gear. J, Hand-wheel for adjusting spindle vertically. K, K, Pulleys over which spindle is counterbalanced. L, Feed pulley, driven from counter shaft. M, Vertical feed shaft, driven from L through mitre-gears. N, Change gear box. 0, Horizontal feed shaft, operating longitudinal and transverse feed of table through spiral and spur-gears. P, P, Handles for operating changes in feed speeds, nine in number. <2, Handle for reversing direction of motion of table R. S, Hand-wheel for longitudinal movement of table. T, Hand- wheel for effecting cross adjustments. V, Spiral gears indicated for effecting self-acting rotation of circular table W. X, Hand-wheel for rotation of table. Y, Hand-wheel for vertical movements of knee B on screw Z. Machines with vertical spindles (fig. 48) form another great group, the general construction of which resembles that either of the com- mon drilling machine or of the slotting machine. In many cases the horizontal position is preferable for tooling, in others the vertical, but often the matter is indifferent. For general purposes, the heavier class of work excepted, the vertical is more convenient. But apart from the fitting of a special brace to the lower end of the spindle which carries the cutter, the spindle is unsupported there and is thus liable to spring. But a brace can only be used with a milling cutter that operates by its edges, while one advantage of the vertical spindle machine is that it permits of the use of end or face cutters. One of the greatest advantages incidental to the vertical position of the spindle is that it permits of profile milling being done. One of the most tedious operations in the machine shop is the production of outlines which are not those of the regular geometric figures, as rectangles and circles, or combinations of the same. There is GEAR-CUTTING MACHINES] TOOL 33 only one way in which irregular forms can be produced cheaply and interchangeably, and that is by controlling the movements of the tool "vith an object of similar shape termed a "form" or " former," as in the well-known copying lathes, in the cam grinding machine, and in the forming adjuncts fitted to vertical spindle milling machines, so converting those into profiling machines. The prin- ciple and its application are alike simple. An object (the form) is made in hardened steel, having the same outlines as the object to be milled, and the slide which carries the cutter spindle has a hardened former pin or roller, which is pulled hard against the edges of the form by a suspended weight, so causing the tool to move and cut in the same path and in the same plane around the edges of the work. Here the milling machine holds a paramount place. No matter how many curves and straight portions may be combined in a piece, the machine reproduces them all faultlessly, and a hundred or a thousand others all precisely alike without any tentative corrections. Piano-millers, also termed slabbing machines, form a group that grows in value and in mass and capacity. They are a comparatively late development, becoming the chief rivals to the planing machines, for all the early milling was of a very light character. In general outlines the piano-millers closely resemble the planing machines, having bed, table, housings and cross-rail. The latter in the piano- miller carries the bearings for the cutter spindle or spindles under which the work travels and reciprocates. These spindles are ver- tical, but in some machines horizontal ones are fitted also, as in planers, so that three faces at right or other angles can be operated on simultaneously. The slabbing operations of the piano-millers do not indicate the full or even the principal utilities of these machines. To understand these it must be remembered that the cross-sections of very many parts which have to be tooled do not lie in single planes merely, but in combinations of plane surfaces, horizontal, vertical or angular. In working these on the planing machine separate settings of tools are required, and often successive settings. But milling cutters are built up in " gangs " to deal with such cases, and in this way the entire width of profile is milled at once. Horizontal faces, and vertical and angular edges and grooves, are tooled simul- taneously, with much economy in time, and the cutter profile will be accurately reproduced on numbers of separate pieces. Allied to the piano-millers are the rotary planers. They derive their name from the design of the cutters. An iron disk is pierced with holes for the insertion of a large number of separate cutters, which by the rotation of the disk produce plane surfaces. These are milling cutters, though the tools are single-edged ones, hence termed " inserted tooth mills." These are used on other machines besides the rotary planers, but the latter are_ massive machines built on the planer model, with but one housing or upright to carry the carriage of the cutter spindle. These machines, varied considerably in design, do good service on a class of work in which a very high degree of accuracy is not essential, as column flanges, ends of girders, feet of castings, and such like. V. — Gear-cutting Machines The practice of cutting the teeth of gear-wheels has grown but slowly. In the gears used by engineers, those of large dimensions are numerous, and the cost of cutting these is often prohibitive, though it is unnecessary in numbers of mechanisms for which cast wheels are as suitable as the more accurately cut ones. The smallest gears for machines of precision have long been produced by cutting, but of late years the practice has been extending to include those of medium and large dimensions, a movement which has been largely favoured by the growth of electric driving, the high speeds of which make great demands on reduction and trans- mission gears. Several new types of gear-cutting machines have been designed, and specialization is still growing, until the older machines, which would, after a fashion, cut all forms of gears, are being ousted from modern establishments. The teeth of gear-wheels are produced either by rotary milling cutters or by single-edged tools (fig. 49). The advantage of the first is that the cutter used has the same sectional form as the inter- tooth space, so that the act of tooth cutting imparts the shapes without assistance from external mechanism. But this holds good only in regard to spur-wheel teeth, that is, those in which the teeth lie parallel with the axis of the wheel. The teeth of bevel-wheels, though often produced by rotary cutters, can never be formed absolutely correctly, simply because a cutter of unalterable section is employed to form the shapes which are constantly changing in dimensions along the length of the teeth (the bevel-wheel being a frustum of a cone). Hence, though fair working teeth are ob- tained in this way, they result from the practice of varying the relative angles of the cutters and wheel and removing the material in several successive operations or traverses, often followed by a little correction with the file. Although this practice is still commonly followed in bevel-wheels of small dimensions, and was at one time the only method available, the practice has been changing in favour of shaping the teeth by a process of planing with a single-edged reciprocating tool. As, however, such a tool embodies no formative section as do the milling cutters, either it or the wheel blank, or both, have to be coerced and controlled by mechanism outside the tool itself. Around this method a number of very ingenious XXVTL 2 machines have been designed, which may be broadly classed under two great groups — the form and the generating types. In the form machines a pattern tooth or form-tooth is prepared in hardened steel, usually three times as large as the actual teeth to be cut, and the movement of the mechanism which carries the wheel blank is coerced by this form, so that the tool, reciprocated by its bar, produces the same shape on the reduced dimensions of the wheel teeth. The generating machines use no pattern tooth, but the principles of the tooth formation are embodied in the mechan- ism itself. These are very interesting designs, because they not only shape the teeth without a pattern tooth, but their movements are automatically controlled. A large number of these have been brought out in recent years, their growth being due to the demand for accurate gears for motor cars, for electric driving, and for general high-class engineers' work. These are so specialized that they can only cut the one class of gear for which they are designed — the bevel-wheels, and these in only a moderate range of dimensions on a single machine of a given size. The principal bevel-gear cutting machines using forms or formers, are the Greenwood & Batley, Le Progres Industriel, the Bouhey (cuts helical teeth), the Oerlikon, which includes two types, the single and double cutting tools, the Gleason and the Rice. Generating machines include the Bilgram (the oldest), the Robey-Smith, the Monneret, the Warren, the Beale and the Dubosc. Fig. 49. — Gear Cutting. A, Rotary milling cutter pro- D, Action of " Fellows " cutter, ducing tooth space. planing teeth. B, Planer tool operating on tooth E, Shape of " Fellows " cutter. flank. F, Hobbing cutter. C, Planer form-tool finishing G, Tapered hob beginning worm- tooth space. wheel. H, Ditto finishing. As the difficulties of cutting bevel-wheels with rotary cutters, consequent on change of section of the teeth, do not occur in spur- gears, there are no examples of form machines for spur-wheel cutting, and only one generating planing type of machine, the Fellows, which produces involute teeth by a hardened steel-cutting pinion, which shapes wheels having any number of teeth of the same pitch, the cutter and blank being partly rotated between each cut as they roll when in engagement. The worm-gears appropriate a different group of machines, the demands on which have become more exacting since the growth of electric driving has brought these gears into a position of greater importance than they ever occupied before. With this growth the demand for nothing less than perfect gears has developed. A perfect gear is one in which the teeth of the worm-wheel are envelopes of the worm or screw, and this form can only be produced in practice in one way — by using a cutter that is practically a serrated worm (a hob), which cuts its way into the wheel just as an actual worm might be supposed to mould the teeth of a wheel made of a plastic substance. To accomplish this the relative move- ments of the hob and the wheel blank are arranged to be precisely those of the working worm and wheel. Very few such machines are made. A practical compromise is effected by causing the hob 34 TOOL [GRINDING MACHINES both to drive and cut the blank in an ordinary machine. When worms are not produced by these methods the envelope cannot be obtained, but each tooth space is cut by an involute milling cutter set at the angle of thread in a universal machine, or else in one of the general gear-cutting machines used for spur, bevel and worm gears, and only capable of yielding really accurate results in the case of spur-wheels. The previous remarks relate only to the sectional forms of the teeth. But their pitch or distance from centre to centre requires dividing mechanism. This includes a main dividing or worm- wheel, a worm in conjunction with change gears, and a division plate for setting and locking the mechanism. The plate may have four divisions only to receive the locking lever or it may be drilled with a large number of holes in circles for an index peg. The first is adopted in the regular gear-cutters, the second on the universal milling machines which are used also for gear-cutting. In the largest number of machines this pitching has to be done by an attendant as often as one tooth is completed. But in a good number of recent machines the pitching is effected by the move- ments of the machine itself without human intervention. With spur-wheels the cutting proceeds until the wheel is complete, when the machine is often made to ring a bell to call attention to the fact. But in bevel-wheels only one side of the teeth all the way round can be done; the attendant must then effect the necessary settings for the other side, after which the pitchings are automatic. As a general rule only one tooth is being operated on at one time. But economy is studied in spur-gears by setting several similar wheels in line on a mandrel and cutting through a single tooth of the series at one traverse of the tool. In toothed racks the same device is adopted. Again, there are cases in which cutters are made to operate simultaneously on two, three or more adjacent teeth. Recently a generating machine of novel design has been manu- factured, the spur-wheel hobbing machine. In appearance the hob resembles that employed for cutting worm-gears, but it also generates the teeth of spur and spiral gears. The hob is a worm cut to form teeth, backed off and hardened. The section of the worm thread is that of a rack. Though it will cut worm-wheels, spiral-wheels or spur-wheels equally correctly, the method of pre- sentation varies. When cutting worm-wheels it is fed inwards per- pendicularly to the blank; when cutting spirals it is set-at a suitable angle and fed across the face of the blank. The angle of the worm thread in the hob being about 25°, it has to be set by that amount out of parallel with the plane of the gear to be cut. It is then fed down the face of the wheel blank, which Is rotated so as to syn- chronize with the rotation of the worm. This is effected through change gears, which are altered for wheels having different numbers of teeth. The advantage is that of the hob over single cutters; one hob serves for all wheels of the same pitch, and each wheel is cut absolutely correct. While using a set of single cutters many wheels must have their teeth only approximately correct. VI. — Grinding Machines The practice of finishing metallic surfaces by grinding, though very old, is nevertheless with regard to its rivalry with the work of the ordinary machine tools a development of the last part of the 19th century. From being a non-precision method, grinding has become the most perfect device for producing accurate results measured precisely within thousandths of an inch. It would be rather difficult to mention any class of machine-shop work which is not now done by the grinding wheel. The most recent develop- ments are grinding out engine cylinders and grinding the lips of twist drills by automatic movements, the drills rotating constantly. There are five very broad divisions under which grinding machines may be classified, but the individual, well-defined groups or types might number a hundred. The main divisions are: (1) Machines for dealing with plane surfaces; (2) machines for plain cylindrical work, external and internal; (3) the universals, which embody movements rendering them capable of angular setting; (4) the tool grinders; and (5) the specialized machines.' Most of these might be again classed under two heads, the non-precision and the precision types. The difference between these two classes is that the first does not embody provision for measuring the amount of material removed, while the second does. This distinction is a most important one. The underlying resemblances and the differences in the main designs of the groups of machines just now noted will be better understood if the essential conditions of grinding as a correc- tive process are grasped. The cardinal point is that accurate results are produced by wheels that are themselves being abraded constantly. That is not the case in steel cutting tools, or at least in but an infinitesimal degree. A steel tool will retain its edge for several hours (often for days) without the need for regrinding, but the particles of abrasive in an emery or other grinding wheel are being incessantly torn out and removed. A wheel in traversing along a shaft say of 3 ft. in length is smaller in diameter at the termination than at the beginning of the traverse, and therefore the shaft must be theoretically larger at one end than the other. Shafts, nevertheless, are ground parallel. The explanation is, and it lies at the basis of emery grinding, that the feed or amount removed at a single traverse is extremely minute, say a thousandth or half a thousandth of an inch. The minuteness of the feed receives compensation in the repetition and rapidity of the traverse. The wear of the wheel is reduced to a minimum and true work is produced. From this fact of the wear of grinding wheels two important results follow. One is that a traverse or lateral movement must always take place between the wheel and the piece of work being ground. This is necessary in order to prevent a mutual grooving action between the wheel and work. The other is that it is essential to provide a large range in quality of wheels, graded according to coarseness and fineness, of hardness and softness of emery to suit all the different metals and alloys. Actually about sixty grades are manufactured, but about a dozen will generally cover average shop practice. With such a choice of wheels the softest brass as well as the hardest tempered steel or case-hardened glass-like surfaces that could not possibly be cut in lathe or planer, can be ground with extreme accuracy. Fig. 50. — Universal Grinding Machine, 7 in. centres; 3 ft. 6 in. between centres. (H. W. Ward & Co., Ltd., Birmingham.) A, Base or body, with waste water tray round top edge, and interior fitted as cup- boards, with shelves and doors. B, Sliding table. C, Swivel table. D, Grinding wheel. E, Wheel guard. F, Wheel headstock swivelling in a horizontal plane, and having the base graduated into degrees for angular setting. G, Slide carrying headstock. H, Hand-wheel for traversing table. J, Headstock for carrying and driving work, used for chuck work or dead centre work ; the base is graduated into degrees. a, Dogs, which regulate auto- matic reversals. An internal grinding fixture, not shown, is fitted to wheel head. L, Countershaft pulley driving to wheel pulley. M , Pulley driving to cones. N, Pulley driving to work head- stock pulley. 0, Belt from line shaft. P, Water pipe from pump. Q, Water guards above table. Plane surfacing machines in many cases resemble in general outlines the well-known planing machine and the vertical boring mill. The wheels traverse across the work, and they are fed vertically to precise fractional dimensions. They fill a large place in finishing plane surfaces, broad and narrow alike, and have be- come rivals to the planing and milling machines doing a similar class of work. For hardened surfaces they have no rival. Cylindrical grinders include many subdivisions to embrace external and internal surfaces, either parallel or tapered, small or GRINDING MACHINES] TOOL 35 large. In their highest development they fulfil what are termed " universal " functions (fig. 50), that is, they are capable of grinding both external and internal cylinders, plane faces, tapers, both of low and high angle, and the teeth of various kinds of tools and cutters. These machines occur in two broad types. In one the axis of the revolving wheel is traversed past the work, which revolves but is not traversed. In the other the reverse occurs, the work traversing and the axis of the wheel with its bearings remaining stationary. Equally satisfactory results are obtained by each. In all external cylindrical grinding, when the work can be rotated, the piece being ground rotates in an opposite direction to the rotation of the wheel (fig. 51, A). In all small pieces ground internally the same procedure is adopted (fig. 51, B). Incidentally, ^■-\^>ly c Fig. 51. A, External cylindrical grinding. B, Internal ditto. C, External grinding when the work is fixed. D, Internal ditto. mention should be made of the fineness of the fitting required and attained in the construction of the spindles which carry the wheels for internal grinding. The perfection of fitting and of the means of adjustment for eliminating the effects of wear in the ordinary spindles for external and internal grinding is remarkable. The spindles for internal work have to revolve at rates ranging from about 6000 to 30,000 times ,in a minute, yet run so truly that the holes ground do not depart from accuracy by more than say ^^j to xsJtiTT of an inch. Yet so long as the work can be revolved no special complication of mechanism is required to ensure good results. The revolution of the wheel and the work is mutually helpful. The real difficulties arise when the work, on account of its mass or awk- wardness of shape, cannot be revolved. The principle embodied in machines designed to deal satisfactorily with such cases, though much diversified in detail, is the application of the planet device to the grinding wheels. That is, the wheel spindle rotating at a high speed, 6000 or 7000 revolutions per minute, is simultaneously carried round in a circular path, so that its axis makes about 25 or 30 revolutions per minute (fig. 51, C and D). The diameter of the path is capable of adjustment with minute precision within wide limits to suit bores of different diameters. The periphery of the grinding wheel which lies farthest from its axis of revolution sweeps round in a path the diameter of which equals that of the bore to be ground. These machines are now used largely for grinding out the cylinders of gas and petrol engines, valve seatings, the bushed holes of coupling rods, and similar classes of work. Many of them have their spindles set horizontally, others vertically. Allied to these are a relatively small but important group of machines used for grinding the slot links of the slide-valve gear of locomotive and other engines. The slot is mounted on a pivoted bar adjusted to the same radius as the slot to be ground, and the slot is moved relatively to the wheel, so producing the required curves. In another direction much development has taken place in the practice of grinding. The increasing use of the milling cutter has Fig. 52. A, Grinding front edges of milling cutter. B, Grinding side edges of milling cutter; a, a, Tooth rests. C, Grinding face of formed mill. been the occasion for the growth and high specialization of the cutter grinding machines. It is essential to the efficiency of such cutters that regrinding shall be done without drawing the temper, and this can only be effected by the use of an abrasive. In the early days of their use the temper had to be drawn to permit of filing and rehardening effected with its inevitable distortion. Cutter grinding machines must possess universality of movements to deal with the numerous shapes in which milling cutters are made; hence they often resemble in general outlines the universal grinding machines. But as a rule they are built on lighter models, and with a -mailer range of movements, because the dimensions of cutters are generally much smaller than those of the ordinary run of engineers' work which has to be ground. Frequently a single pillar or standard suffices to carry the mechanism. In an ordinary universal tool grinder all the teeth of any form of cutter can be ground precisely alike (fig. 52) excepting those having irregular profiled outlines, for which a special machine, or an extra attachment to an ordinary machine, is necessary. But little of this is done, because in such cases, and in many others, the faces of the teeth are ground instead of the edge. This idea, due to the firm of Brown & Sharpe, may seem a trifle, but nevertheless to it the credit is largely due for the economies of cutter grinding. The principle is that in the " formed cutter," as it is termed, the profiles of the teeth are not struck from the axis of revolution, but from another centre (fig. 20) ; grinding the tooth faces, therefore, has no effect on the shapes of the profiles, but only lessens the tooth thicknesses. Designed originally for the cutters for the teeth of gear-wheels, it has long been applied to profiles which involve combinations of curves. The pitching of the teeth is effected by a strip of metal, or tooth rest a (fig. 52), on which each successive tooth rests and is coerced during the grinding. If teeth are of special form the traverse movement of a spiral tooth along the rest ensures the required movement. Besides the cutter grinders used for milling cutters, reamers and screwing taps, there are two other groups of tool grinders, one for twist drills only and the other for the single-edged tools used in lathe, planer, shaper and other machines. Both these in their best forms are of recent development. The machines used for grinding twist drills embody numerous designs. Hand grinding is practically abandoned, the reason being that a very minute departure from symmetry on the two cutting lips of the drill results inevitably in the production of inaccurate holes. It is essential that the two lips be alike in regard to length, angle and clearance, and these are embodied in the mechanism of the grinding machines. But formerly in all these the drill holder had to be moved by hand around its pivot, and one lip ground at a time There are now some very beautiful machines of German manufacture in which the necessary movements are all automatic, derived from the continuous rotation of a belt pulley The drill rotates constantly, and small amounts are ground off each lip in turn until the grinding is finished. The other group for grinding single-edged tools is a very small one. The correct angles for grinding are embodied in the setting of the machine, with the great advantage that any number of similar tools can be ground all alike without skilled attendance. Lying outside these broad types of machines there is a large and growing number designed fof special service. The knife-grinding group for sharpening the planer knives used in wood-working machinery is a large one. Another is that for gulleting or deepening the teeth of circular saws as they wear. Another is designed for grinding the cups and cones for the ball races of cycle wheels, and another for grinding the hardened steel balls employed in ball bearings. B C O £ F 6 Fig. 53. — Typical Grinding Wheels. A , Common disk held on spindle with washers and nuts. B, Thin disk. C, Flanged disk for grinding to shoulders. Z>, Bevelled disk for cutter grinding. E, F, Cupped and dished wheels for cutter grinding. G, Cup wheel for grinding on face a; diameter remains constant. Emery grinding is dependent for much of its success on a plentiful supply of water. Dry grinding, which was the original practice, is hardly employed now. The early difficulties of wet grinding were due to the want of a cementing material which would not soften under the action of water. Now wheels will run constantly without damage by water, and they are so porous that water will filter through them. Improvements in the manufacture of wheels, and the increased use of water, have concurred to render possible heavier, and more rapid grinding without risk of distortion due to heating effects. In the best modern machines the provisions for water supply_ are a study in themselves, including a centrifugal pump, a tank, jointed piping, spraying tube, guards to protect the bearings and slides from damage, and trays to receive the waste water and conduct it back to the tank. There are two points of view from which the modern practice pi grinding is now regarded — one as a corrective, the other as a 36 TOOL [SAWING MACHINES formative process. The first is the older and is still by far the most ; important. The second is a later ideal towards which design and practice have been extending. As yet grinding cannot compete with the work of the single-edged tools and milling cut- ters when large quantities of mateiial have to be removed. Just as some ( — 1 fja--»aKN' — r ~\ leading firms have been designing J V Jl stiffer machines having fuller lubri- *— WAWK* "i~T cation with a view to increase the duty of grinding wheels, the advent of the high-speed steels has given a new lease of life to the single-edged cutting tools. The rivalry now lies not with the tools of carbon temper steel, but with high- speed varieties. But as a corrective process grinding never occupied so im- portant a position as it does to-day, and its utility continues to extend. The commoner forms in which grind- ing wheels are made are shown in fig. 53. These are varied largely in dimensions, from tiny cylindrical rollers a fraction of an inch in diameter for hole grind- ing, to big wheels of 3 ft. or more in diameter. Safety mountings, two examples of which are shown in fig. 54, embody means of retaining the broken pieces of a wheel in case it bursts. ■Sand-blast. — The well-known erosive action of sand when driven against rocks and stones by the wind is utilized Fig. 5 4.-Safety Devices, industrially in the sand-blastapparatus, 4, Grinding wheel, with the invention of B. C. Tilghman. The coned washer to retain sand . ls propelled by a current of steam broken pieces in case or air, .an forward work, operating at right or other angles, the second for straight cuts and also for curves which can- not be treated with circular saws, and the third for small pieces. The circular saws em- body a stiff spindle, carrying the saw disk and driven by gearing. This spindle may be mounted in a sliding bearing to carry it past the work held on a fixed table, or the spindle may be sta- tionary and the work be moved along past the saw. The method of feeding should be sensitive, so that it will " give " and prevent damage A, B, C, D, E, Saw blade. Spindle. Sliding spindle carriage. Driving pulleys. First pinion, connecting through train of gears to wheel F, driving splined shaft G. _ . H, Wheel driven from sliding pinion on G. J, Bevel-gears, communicating the motion to spindle B. K, Screw for feeding carriage C along. Fig. 55. — Cold-sawing Machine. (Isaac Hill & Son, Derby.) Three-step cone on shaft G, belted to M, connected by bevel-gears N and worm-gear 0, to the screw K. P, Clutch for throwing in to drive K. Q, Gears connecting shaft of L direct to K, also through clutch P. R, Handle for operating clutch P, which thus gives slow feed when clutch is in mesh with 0, and quick return when engaging with P. 5, Tappet rod, having dogs struck by carriage to stop feeding. T, Work-table, with clamp to hold objects. U, H-Girder being sawn off. SHEARING MACHINES] TOOL 37 to the teeth, should undue stress come upon the saw. This is usually effected by the use of weights or springs, which allow a certain free- dom or latitude to the driving gears. The work is held by screw clamps, V-blocks being required in the case of circular objects. A number of pieces, such as shafts, rails or girders, can be fastened down close together in a pile and cut through in one operation. There is a very useful class of circular saw, the flush-side (fig. 55), ti'at is valuable for cutting close up to a surface. The disk is bolted to a flange on the end of the spindle with countersunk bolts, so that the face is quite flat. Another class of saw used for dealing with girders and bars is carried in bearings upon a pivoted arm, which is pulled downwards by a weight to give the feed. The work is bolted to a table below the saw. Ample lubrication, by oil or soapy water, is essential in cutting wrought iron and steel; it is pumped on the blade, keeping it cool and washing away the cuttings. Band-saw machines resemble in outline the familiar types employed for sawing wood, but they are necessarily stronger and stiff er, and the saws run at a much lower speed. The tables, moreover, differ in possessing compound slides for moving the work and in the provi- sion of a series of slots on the top table, whereby the object to be sawn is secured with bolts and clamps. The tables are moved automatic- ally or by hand. The rate of cutting must be varied according to the thickness of metal. Lubrication is effected by running the lower saw pulley in a bath of oil or soapy water, which is carried up, so keeping the blade cool and " easing " the cut. The reciprocating class of saw has until recently been confined to small types for workshop use, termed hack saws, which have a small blade ranging from 12 to 18 in. long. This is strained between a couple of bearings in a frame which is reciprocated above the work clamped in a vice. An arrangement of weights feeds the saw downwards. The larger hack saws cut off bars and girders up to 12 in. across, and in some there is a provision introduced for giving intermittent rotation to the bar, thus presenting fresh faces to the saw. The hack saw is of great utility for comparatively light work, and, as the smallest blades are cheap enough to be thrown away when worn out, there is no trouble and expense connected with their sharpening, as in the circular and band saws. An adaptation of the reciprocating saw is that of the jig type, which has a small blade set vertically and passing up through a table on which the work is laid. It is handy for cutting out dies and various curved outlines, in the same manner that fret-sawing in wood is done. VIII. — Shearing and Punching Machines These have much in common as regards their mode of operation. They are actuated either by belt and spur gearing, by steam-engine, by electric motor, or hydraulically. The first named is only suitable where arrangements can be made for driving from a line shaft. In view of the great convenience of the other methods of driving, they are coming into greater use, especially for ship-yards and other works where shafting is undesirable or inconvenient. For boiler makers' and platers' use the function of punching, and shearing are usually combined in one machine, the rams being placed at opposite ends and actuated from the same source of power. The last shaft in the train of gearing is set to bring its ends within the boxes containing the rams, and eccentrics on the shaft are moved within die blocks fitted to the rams, so that as the shaft revolves it causes the rams to move up and down and operate the shear blade and A, C, D, E, F, G, J, L, N, 0, Fig. 56. — Hydraulic Punching and Shearing Machine. (Musgrave Brothers, Leeds.) A, Frame. E, Punch. /, K, Main and return rams for B Shear blades, set angularly. F & G, Main and return rams ditto. C- Ram for operating blade. for punch. L, M, N, Attendant's control- D, Small ram for returning ditto. H, Angle shear. ling handles. Fig. 57. — Steam Hammer, small Overhanging Type. (B. & S. Massey, Manchester). Standard. B, Base-plate. Anvil block (independent of standards). Tup or hammer head. E, Pallets, or forging blocks, attached to anvil and tup. Steam cylinder. Piston, solid with piston rod H. Piston valve, regulating period of admission of steam, operated by hand by lever K or lever N. Stop or throttle valve for controlling admission of steam to valve chest, operated by hand lever M. Lever in contact with roller on tup D, which moves the valve J automatically as the tup rises and falls. Lever for pre-adjusting the range of movement of N and /, according to its setting in the notches of the quadrant from a to b. Steam supply pipe from boiler. Q, Exhaust steam pipe. the punch attached to the bottom end. Another class of machines is worked by means of massive levers, pivoted in the framing, and actuated by cams on the driving shaft which cause the levers to rock and move the punches or shears up and down by the opposite ends. The punch slides are constructed to " dwell " for a short period at the top of the stroke at each revolution, thus giving the attendant time to place and ad- just the plate accurately beneath the punch. The same effect is obtained in the eccentric types of machines mentioned above, by a disengaging motion,which is thrown in by touching a lever, thus stopping the punch until the operator is ready for its descent. The more complete machines have an angle shear situated centrally, with V-blades for severing angle iron. The largest forms of shears, for massive plates, usually have the blade recipro- cated by crank or eccentrics on the driving shaft, coupled by connecting- rods to the slide. Hydraulic punching and shearing machines are used largely on account of their convenience, since they dis- pense with all belts, engines or motors in the vicinity, and give a very powerful 38 TOOL [HAMMERS AND PRESSES stroke. The hydraulic cylinder is generally direct-connected to the slides, and the operator turns on the pressure water by a lever. The machine shown in fig. 56 is a very complete example of the hydraulic type, combining punching and shearing with angle-cutting. Circular shears are used for the thinner plates and for sheet-metal work; they embody two circular blades placed with their axes parallel, and the sharp bevelled edges'n early in contact. The blades being rotated sever the plate as it is fed between them. Either straight or circular cuts may be made; true circles or disks are pro- duced by mounting the plate on a fixed stud and rotating it through a complete revolution past the cutters. IX. — Hammers and Presses The growth in the use of hammers actuated by steam and com- pressed air, and of presses worked by water power, has been remark- able. The precursors of the power hammers were the helve and the Oliver; the first named was operated by gravity, being lifted by a circle of cams, while the second was lifted by a spring pole overhead and pulled down by the foot of the workman, acting on a lever — the hammer shaft. The first was used by the ironworkers and the second by the smiths, until displaced by the Nasmyth hammer and its extensive progeny. Even now the old helve and Oliver survive in some unprogressive shops. Steam Hammers. — The original hammer as invented by James Nasmyth was single acting, operating simply by gravity, the function of the steam being to lift the hammer for each succeeding fall. The first improvement was made by Rigby, who took the waste steam exhausted from the lower side of the piston to the upper side and so imparted some slight pressure in the descent. It was a stage between the early and the present hammers. In these, high-pressure steam is admitted above the piston to impart a more powerful blow, compounded of velocity X mass, than is obtainable by gravity; hence they are termed double-acting hammers (fig. 57). The principal difficulties which have to be surmounted in their construc- tion are those due to the severe concussion of the blows, which very sensibly shake the ground over an area of many yards. Fram- ings are made very rigid, and in the larger hammers double, enclosing the hammer head between them. The foundations are by far the heaviest used in any machine tools. Deep piling is often resorted to, supporting crossing timber balks; or concrete is laid in mass on which the iron anvil block is bedded. This block weighs anywhere between 100 and 1000 tons. The piston and its rod and the hammer head are generally a solid steel forging, for the piston rod is a weak element and cottered or screwed fittings are not trust- worthy. Piston valves are gener- ally used in preference to ordinary D-valves, combining simplicity of fitting with good balance. The periods of steam admission are under the control of the attendant, so that the length of stroke and the force of the blow are instantly responsive to his manipulation of the operating lever. Many hammers can be set to run automatically for any given length of stroke. Pneumatic Hammers. — A suc- cessful type of hammer for the ordinary operations of the smithy is that which is actuated by com- pressed air. Though designs vary the principle is the same, namely, air compressed in a controlling cylinder (fig. 58), and brought into an operating or hammer cylinder above the piston. Cushioning.or releaseof the air be- low the piston, is under control, as is the pressure of the air above it. Drop Hammers. — The require- ments of forged work have, be- „ . _ . sides the power hammers ope- Fig. 58.— Pneumatic Forging rated by a positive down stroke, been the cause of the develop Hammer. (W. & J. Player, Birmingham.) A , Standards. Base-plate. Anvil block. Tup. E, Pallets. B, C, D, E, G, H, R, ment of an equally large group which are gravity hammers only — the drop hammers. They are put into operation by a belt or belts, but the function of the belt is simply to lift the hammer Hammer cylinder, the piston to the height desired, at which rod of which is attached point it is released and falls. to D. The place of the drop hammer Air compressing cylinder. is in the lighter class of smith's Belt pulleys which reciprocate work, as that of the steam by means of the crank 0, hammer lies in the heavier, but the piston in H. there is much overlapping, since Handle controlling the valve small steam hammers are rivals between H and G. to the others in light forging. But, speaking generally, the largest volume of repetitive die forging or stamping of light articles is done under drop hammers. The small arms factories and the regular stamping shops scarcely use any other type. They may be roughly divided into three great groups; the belt, the board and the latest form — the Brett lifter. In each the hammer head or tup is lifted to any height within the range of lift, the height being controlled by the attendant at each blow. In most machines setting can be done at any constant height and the blows delivered automatically. Control is effected by hand or foot or both. Drop hammers generally have the advantage of working with greater rapidity than steam hammers. The original drop hammers, which are believed to have originated with the locksmiths of Birmingham and district, consisted of a hammer head attached to a rope, one end of which ran up over a loose pulley suspended in the roof, and the other was pulled by a man or two men, so lifting the hammer, which was then allowed to drop. The principle is embodied in many belt hammers to-day, but the pulley is driven constantly by shafting, and when the attendant pulls at the free end of the belt the friction of the pulley draws the belt over and lifts the hammer until the attendant lets it go. The weight lifted is greater than in the old type, but the labour is nevertheless very severe, and the blows are not rapid enough for quick forging. A far better machine is the board hammer. In this (fig. 59) the place of the belt is taken by an ordinary strip of board which passes between two rollers at the top of the hammer, which rollers are belt driven. The rollers are fitted on eccentric Fig. 59.— Drop Hammer— board type. (B. & S. Massey, Manchester.) A, A, Standards. B, Anvil, or baseblock. C, Tup. D, Board, fitting in slot in tup. E, F, Rollers gripping and lifting board. G, H, Pulleys actuating rollers through eccentrics J, K. L, Rod by which the amount of lift is regulated. _ a, Dog and lever adjustable on L, which strikes the edge b of the tup, releasing eccentrics and roller and allowing tup to fall, c, Catch on which tup rests previous to release, fitted into either one of the row of holes beneath, to suit various heights of drop. M, Mechanism struck by the edge d of the tup, which either keeps the roller F clear of the board D, allowing the tup to fall, or brings the rollers E and F into contact, and lifts the board and tup. N, Hand-lever for operating hammer. 0, Foot-lever for ditto, connected by chain e. /, Spring for lifting levers. , P, Rod with nuts g, to compensate for wear on the rollers by the adjustment of roller E. HAMMERS AND PRESSES] TOOL 39 pins, so that the movement of levers causes them to grip the board for the lift, or release it for the fall, these levers being under the control of the attendant. They can also be set to operate automically for any height of lift. These types are all subject to much concussion and vibration, because the machines are self-contained ; anvil, standards and heads being rigidly bolted together, the concussion of every blow is trans- mitted through the entire mechanism. The Brett hammers (fig. 60) are designed to lessen this, in some cases by making the anvil distinct from the superstructure, and in all by connecting the lifting ropes to the ends of long levers which act something like elastic springs, absorbing vibration. The driving mechanism is also original, comprising a cylinder with a wing piston, which is rotated by steam pressure through an arc of a circle only, sufficiently to operate the lifting levers. Another advantage is that the lifter cylinder need not be immediately over the hammer, but may be situated elsewhere. The hammer can be operated by hand directly for each stroke, or be set to work automatically. Fig. 60. — 5 cwt. Belt Drop Hammer with Brett's Lifter. (Brett's Patent Lifter Co., Ltd., Coventry.) A, A, Uprights. B, Anvil. Tup. Belt. Lifter cylinder. Valve casing. Rod operating lever H. Rock shaft. C, D, E, F, G, o, h, Buffer blocks which arrest motion of lever c. d, Lever for automatic regula- tion of valve. /, Lever for regulating amount of opening of valve by hand, valve by K, Foot lever for holding tup in either of the stops L. e, Spring for foot lever. Spring Hammers are a rather smaller group than the others. In these a belt-driven pulley actuates the tup through the medium of elastic leaf springs. The length of stroke is adjustable across the face of a slotted disk on the driving shaft. Forging Machines. — The Ryder forging machine is fitted with four or five pairs of swage tools, the lower halves being fixed and the upper ones driven by a rotating eccentric shaft. The operations imitate those on the anvil by hand forging, but from 800 to 1200 blows are delivered in a minute. The swages are arranged in succes- sion, so that an operation is begun at one end and finished at the other, the attendant moving the bar rapidly through the successive swages or dies. Forging Presses. — These are rivals to the hammers, especially for heavy forgings, from which hammers are being rapidly dis- placed (fig. 61). It is now well understood that a hammer will not effect the consolidation of a massive forging right to the centre as a press will. The force of the hammer blow is not transmitted to the centre as is that of a press, nor is the hammer so useful in work of large dimensions but of no great weight. In railway and wagon shops the' presses are used far more frequently than the hammers. A great advan- tage of the press is that two and three rams can be brought into operation so that a forging may be pressed from above, from below and to one side, which is of great value in complicated forms and in welding, but is not practicable in the hammers. Hence the forging presses have be- come developed for work of average dimensions as well as for the most massive. Many are of horizontal type, termed bull-dozers. Power presses for working sheet- metal articles include those for cut- ting out the blanks, termed cutting- out or blanking presses, and those for cupping or drawing the flat blank into shape if desired (fig. 62). The lower dies are held upon a bed, and the upper in a sliding ram, moved up and down by a cam or crank- shaft. A clutch mechanism is fitted, by means of which this shaft is connected with or disconnected from the heavy driving-wheel at will to give a single stroke or a series of strokes to the ram. Fig. 61. — Hydraulic Forg- ing Press. (Fielding & Piatt, Ltd., Gloucester.) A, Table. B, Vertical ram. C, Drawback ram for return- r , 1 ln S B. . In th .e normal D< Horizontal ram. state the ram remains stationary at £ Controlling valves, the top position. The lightest presses ' are driven direct by belt on the crank-shaft pulley, but in the heavier classes spur-gearing must be interposed between the pulley shaft and the final shaft. The operation of drawing requires an encircling die which presses on the blank as it lies on its die, the cupping of the blank being effected by the downward motion of the plunger. Sectional Elevation. Fig. 62.- Front Elevation. -Power Press. A, Main frame. B, Bed for attaching dies. C, Central slide. D, Outer slide. E, Belt pulleys on shaft, geared to wheel F thrown in by clutch to drive its shaft, which has two crank pins to reciprocate D and a cam disk actuating C. G Extractor rocked downwards as slide rises to raise lever H and work an ejector rod, forcing finished article out of die. This is why the machine shown in fig. 62 has an outer slide D, which is made to " dwell " with an even pressure, while the middle ram is moving down and drawing out the article. Blanking and cupping may be done as one continuous operation if the work is shallow. Inclinable presses are employed for certain classes of work, the object being to let the stamped articles slide down the slope of the bed as rapidly as they are produced, instead of having to be removed by the operator. Much work can be placed on the dies by hand, but for producing large quantities of small articles automatic feeds 4° TOOL [PORTABLE TOOLS are employed whenever possible. A good deal of work is produced from flat sheet, supplied in the form of a roll and fed through rollers by intermittent movements to the dies. Circular turn-tables are also used, operated by ratchet devices, which turn the tables round to bring a ring of pockets, carrying the pieces, successively under the dies; the attendant keeps the pockets supplied, but his hands do not come near the dies. X. — Portable Tools The growth of portable machine tools is one of the remarkable movements of the present day. To some extent they have always been used, notably in the drilling and tapping operations of loco- motive fire-boxes, but not until recently to any important extent in the ordinary fitting and erecting shops. The main reason lay in the difficulties due to transmission of power by ropes or shafts. The employment of compressed air, water, electricity and flexible shafts, by which long distances can be covered, has given new life to the portable system, which is destined to occupy a place of even greater importance than it does at present. The reason for the grow- ing desirability of these tools is to be seen in the massive character of much, engine and machine construction of the present time. Although firms that undertake the largest work can generally arrange to tool the individual parts on machines of massive sizes, that only meets a part of the difficulty. Very big work cannot be treated like that of small or even medium dimensions, done repetitively; that is, it is not practicable to drill and bore and ream and provide for the fitting of every piece by the aid of templets and jigs, while the work lies on the machine, but a great deal of adjustment and mutual fitting has to be accomplished in the course of erection. Therein lies the opportunity for the portable machine. If this is not used the alternatives are partial dismantling of the work and the transference of certain portions to machines or hand work. Another cause has been the substitution of machining for much hand work formerly done on massive constructions. The principal operations for which portable tools are designed are the following: Drilling, screwing, cutting the seatings for keys, planing short portions of work, facings for the attachment of other pieces, as brackets and bearings, hammering operations, as in making welded joints, caulking the edges of boiler plates, chipping with hammer and chisel, riveting, ramming sand in foundry moulds, planing ships' decks, and some operations of lesser magnitude. Portable tools are used in various ways. The first and most obvious is to attach them directly to the casting, forging or machine which is being built up. Thus a drilling machine will be clamped just where it is required to operate. Or if it has to be used on a large plane surface as a ship's deck, an electrical machine is suitable, in which magnetic attraction is set up between the foot of the machine and the deck sufficient to hold it down. A key-seating machine will be clamped on the shaft in which a keygroove has to be cut. A drilling machine may be fastened to a pipe with a chain embracing the pipe. Very many of the drills, and all the caulking and chipping hammers, are grasped in the hands and so thrust to their work. The tapping of screw holes is mostly done in this way, a common example being the holes for the stay bolts in the fire-boxes of steam boilers. Another later method which has been introduced and practised in a few shops consists in installing a cast-iron floor-plate of large area, planed truly and provided with bolt holes and slots. On this a massive casting, forging or piece of work undergoing erection will be bolted. Then the portable tools — planers, drills, &c, as required — will be bolted to the table and brought into operation on the various sections of the work, several sometimes operating simultaneously. This method is to a certain extent coming into rivalry with the abnormal growth of machine tools, the development of which has been greatly accelerated by the massive dimensions of productions which only became possible by the substitution of steel made fey the Bessemer and Siemens processes for iron. The reciprocating motion necessary to effect hammering, chipping or caulking operations is produced by the action of a solid piston, sliding in a cylinder (fig. 63) and driven sharply against the end of the tool by the inrush of compressed air, being then returned for another stroke. The strokes range in number up to as many as 2000 per minute in some cases. For heavy riveting a " long- stroke " hammer is employed, having a longer barrel than the chipping hammer shown in fig. 63, in order to obtain a greater force of blow. The operator grasps the hammer by the handle, with his fingers or thumb on the controlling lever, and as long as this is held down the blows continue. The air-supply pipe is flexible, so that it does not impede the movements of the workman. The tools at the end of the cylinder are simply held in a socket, so that they can be changed rapidly. Rotative motion can be produced either by electric or pneumatic motors, and both systems are in wide use. Pneumatic motors are very suitable when an air-compressing plant is already laid down for other tools, while if electricity is used in the works portable tools operated by this agent may be employed instead of the pneumatic ones. In the electric drills (fig. 64) a small motor is fitted within the body and connected by spur-gears to the spindle to effect suitable speed reduction. A switch provides for stopping and starting the motor; the current is brought through a flexible cable which, like pneumatic hose, is armoured with wire to protect it from damage. The smallest drills are simply gripped in the operator's hand and Fig. 63. — Tierney Pneumatic Chipping Hammer. (The Globe Pneumatic Engineering Co., Ltd.) A, Cylinder. B, Tool socket, carrying chisel C. D, Piston, which strikes the back of C. E, Handle, screwed and clamped to A. F, Trigger or lever clasped by operator's hand and opening valve G, admitting compressed air through connexion H, up passage /, through valve-box K, past valve L, and so against end of D, moving it towards C. As soon as the groove in the piston D registers with the hole M, air is admitted from a small hole (not shown), passes round the groove through hole M and passage N to the rear of the valve. This acting on the back of the valve throws it forward, thus shutting off the supply to the rear of the piston and permitting a small quantity of air to flow to the forward end of the piston for driving it in a backward direction. As soon as the air pressure is relieved on the back of the valve by the uncovering of exhaust holes (not seen) by the piston D, the valve is returned to the original position, owing to the air constantly pressing on the small area of the valve. pushed up to the work; larger ones are supported by a pillar and arm, against which the thrust is taken, and the feed given by turning a screw at intervals. Fig. 64. — Electrically-driven Hand Drill. (Kramos Ltd., Bath.) A , Body, cast in aluminium, with handles a, a. B, Motor, with revolving armature C, connected by spur-gears D, to the drill spindle E, fitted with ball thrust bearings. F, Switch, operated by attendant pushing in a plug; the current is brought by flexible wires through the right-hand handle o. Pneumatic drills are usually worked by little motors having oscillating cylinders, by which the air and exhaust ports are covered and uncovered. They run at a high speed and are geared down to the spindle. In some cases two cylinders are used, but often four are fitted to give a powerful and equable turning moment. Grinding machines are also built with air motors directly coupled to the wheel spindle, the machines being moved about over the work by handles. Another class of portable tools is driven, not by self-contained motors, but from an outside source of power, which is conveyed to the tools through flexible shafts built up of a series of spiral springs, or through flexible joints which form a connexion that permits the shaft to bend round corners and accommodate itself to any position in which the tool may be placed. The advantage of this is that the tool itself is much lightened, since there is no motor, and it can therefore be easily handled. Thus a drill simply contains the spindle, running in a frame which carries bevel-gears for transmitting the motion of the flexible shaft. Portable grinders also have nothing but the spindle, wheel and frame. XI. — Appliances Appliances are vastly more numerous in a modern shop than in the older works, largely on account of the more repetitive character WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY] TOOL 4i of the operations done and of the desire to eliminate human labour, with its greater cost and chances of inaccuracy in the finished pro- duct. On all machines there are numerous aids by which the fixing of the work is facilitated. Many of these consist of simple packing blocks, by which heights are adjusted. These reach their higher developments in wedge-shaped packings, some of which are operated by a screw, while others act directly by screws. In some cases the exact height can be ascertained by observing graduations on the packings. Circular work is held in V-blocks, which occur in numerous modified forms. Various kinds of straps, clamps and bolts are used for gripping work with sufficient security to enable it to withstand the stress of the heaviest cutting. The highest develop- ment of all is attained in the templets and jigs, which are now indispensable in all modern shops, and which increase in number and complexity as the product of the shop becomes more specialized. A templet is a piece of metal cut to a definite shape, which being laid upon the work becomes a guide for striking the same shape on the surface of the work with a pointed scriber, and by which the tooling of any number of similar pieces is done without the labour of lining out each separate piece. Obviously, in such a case the degree of accuracy of the tooling still depends on the machine hand, who may work exactly, or only approximately, to these lines. Hence a great advance is made in the jig, which may be defined generally as a templet that is clamped rigidly to the work, or a box in which the work to be tooled is held. No marking off is done, but the jig becomes the actual guide for the operation of the cutting tools. The operation most frequently performed in jigs is drilling. Then the holes in the jig receive and coerce the drills, so that the holes made cannot vary in the least degree from those already in the jig. As it will often happen that hundreds or thousands of similar pieces will have to be tooled in this manner, holes in jigs are generally bushed with hardened steel, which is capable of enduring very lengthy service, and which can be renewed when worn. This is a simple illustration, but many jigs are of an extremely elaborate character, for it is obvious that the cost of a jig, though it may run into many pounds, becomes a mere trifle when spread over some thousands of pieces of work. XII. — Wood-working Machinery There is a large range of various classes of tools for performing the operations on timber, from the rough log to the finished product. Division is effected by saws, planing and finishing to outlines by knives or cutters, boring by augers and smoothing by sandpaper. The first operation is that of tree-felling, which is often effected by machine, consisting of a reciprocating blade, working horizontally in a frame and moved by a steam cylinder. The boiler is separate, so that the machine may be transported about and set to work over a considerable area, steam being conveyed to it by a flexible pipe. When the trees are brought into the saw-mills in the form of logs, i.e. with the branches lopped off, they are often cross-cut to reduce them to suitable lengths. This operation is effected either by a reciprocating saw, operated by a pulley and crank, or by an electric motor, or else with a circular saw, travelling on a carriage which moves the saw through the log laid in front of it. The next opera- tion, that of division or breaking-down into smaller portions, is done by saws of various types, according to the class of work. The oldest form of machine is the frame-saw, which is still used very largely. It comprises a framing within which a saw-gate or saw- frame is reciprocated up and down by a crank; the frame holds a number of saws or webs of flat form, strained up tightly with wedges or cotters between the top and bottom of the frame, the distance between the saws being capable of variation to suit boards of all thicknesses. The log is fed longitudinally to the gang of saws upon carriages, which are of two types. In the roller-feed, which is suitable for comparatively even and straight logs, ribbed rollers in front and behind the saws obtain a bite on the top and bottom of the timber and feed it forward by their rotation. In the rack-feed the log is mounted bodily upon a long carriage that runs by rollers upon a set of rails, and the carriage is travelled along by pinions and racks, which give a positive feed regardless of the shape of the log. The carriage in the roller-feed machines is only represented by a couple of plain trolleys supporting the timber at back and front. The feed is obtained through a friction wheel of V-shape, with a smooth pawl, called the silent feed ; the wheel is given a partial rotation at each down stroke of the saw-gate to turn the rollers or the pinions for carrying forward the log. The division of the timber may be either into deals or flitches, or planks or boards. In the last-named case as many as fifty saw-blades are sometimes held in a frame. For the more valuable hardwoods a single blade reciprocating saw, operated horizontally, is used very largely, the machine being termed a board-cutter. The log is clamped to a travelling table, passing underneath the saw, which is strained in a frame sliding on a cross-rail that can be adjusted up or down on a couple of up- rights like a planing machine. The saw is worked from a crank and connecting-rod. As only one board is sawn at a time the attendant is able to see the figuring of the timber and to avoid waste when bad places are encountered. A machine much more rapid in operation is the horizontal band- saw, modelled on the lines of the above machine, but with a band- saw blade running over two pulleys, at a high speed, of about 7000 ft. per minute. The saws are very thin, so that a minimum of wood is wasted in the cut or " kerf," a very important consideration in dealing with costly woods. Vertical band-saws, having one pulley above the other so that the blade runs vertically, are very popular in America; they occupy less floor space than the horizontal types. It is necessary to present the log from the side, and it is therefore clamped by dogs upon a carriage running on rails, with provision for feeding the log laterally to the saw by sliding ways on the carriage. The use of circular saws for breaking-down is confined chiefly to squaring up heavy balks, which need only a cut on each side, or for cutting thick slabs. The thickness of the saw entails considerable waste of wood, and a large amount of power is required for driving. The machines are termed rack-benches, and comprise a long divided table built up of thin plates and travelling past the fixed saw upon rollers, the movement being effected by a rack and pinion. Re-sawing machines are those designed for further cutting-up deals, flitches, planks, &c, already broken out from the log, into boards and other scantlings. The deal and flitch frames are built on the model of the frame-saws first described, but with the differ- ences that roller feed is always used, because the stuff is smooth and easily fed, and that the back of the timber is run against fences to keep it moving in a straight line. In the double equilibrium frames, which are much favoured, there are two sets of saws in separate frames connected by rods to opposite crank-shafts, so that as one frame is rising the other is going down ; the forces are thus balanced and vibration is diminished, so that the machines can be speeded rather higher. Re-sawing is also done on circular and band saws of various types, fitted with fences for guiding the timber and controlling the thicknesses. The cross-cut saws constitute another large group. They are employed for cutting-off various classes of stuff, after breaking-down or re-sawing, and are of circular saw type. The pendulum saw is a suspended form, comprising a circular saw at the bottom of a hang- ing arm, which can be pulled over by the attendant to draw the saw through a piece of wood laid on a bench beneath. Circular saws are also mounted in tables or benches and made to part off stuff moved laterally upon a sliding-table. When there is sufficient repetition work machines with two or more saws are used to cut one or more pieces to accurate length without the necessity for measurement. The lighter classes of circular and band-saws, employed for sawing up comparatively small pieces of timber, embody numerous provisions for quickening output. The plain saw benches, with circular saws, are the simplest class, Consisting merely of a framed table or bench carrying bearings for the saw spindle and a fence on the top to guide the wood. A mechanical feed is incorporated in the heavier machines to push the timber along. The rope-feed mechanism includes a drum driven at varying rates and giving motion to a rope, which is connected with a hook to the timber, to drag it along past the saw, roller supports on rails taking the weight at each end of the bench. Roller-feed saws propel the stuff by the contact of vertical fluted rollers placed opposite the fence. Other classes of saws for joinery work, &c, are constructed with rising and falling spindles, so that the saw may be made to project more or less from the table, this provision being necessary in grooving and tonguing with special types of saws. The same effect is obtained by making the table instead of the spindle rise and fall. As it is necessary to use different saws for ripping (with the grain) and cross-cutting, some machines embody two saws so that work can be cut to shape on the same machine. These " dimension saws " have two spindles at the opposite ends of a pivoted arm that can be turned on a central pin to bring one or the other saw above as required. In cases where much angular and intricate sawing is done universal benches are employed, having in addition to the double saws a tilting motion to the table, which in conjunction with various special fittings enables the sawyer to produce a large range of pieces for any class of construction. Band-saws, which have a thin narrow blade, are adapted especi- ally for curved sawing and cutting-out work which the circular saw cannot manage. The usual design of machine (fig. 65) comprises a stiff standard supporting a lower pulley in fixed bearings, and an upper one in a sliding bearing, which by means of a weight or spring is caused to rise and maintain an even tension on the saw blade as it is driven by the lower pulley, and runs the upper one. India-rubber tires are placed around the pulley rims to prevent damage to the saw teeth. The table, placed between the pulleys, may be angled for cutting bevel work. It is necessary, in order to do true work, to guide the saw blade above and below the cut, and it is therefore run in guides consisting of flat strips, in combination with anti- friction rollers which take the backward thrust of the saw. Fret or jig saws are a small class with a vertical reciprocating blade, employed chiefly for cutting out interior portions which necessitate threading the saw first through a hole. Planing machines, used for truing up the surfaces of wood after sawing, depend for their action upon rapidly revolving knives fastened to flat-sided cutter blocks. The simplest machines, the hand-planers, have a cutter cylinder revolving between two flat 42 TOOL [WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY table slides adjustable for height to support the wood while it is pushed along over the knives by the hand. A fence guides it in a straight line. Exact thicknessing is done on another type of machine, the panel planer or thicknesser, in which the cutter cylinder revolves above the table and the stuff is fed through by rollers above Fig. 65. — Band-sawing Machine with 30 in. pulleys. (Thomas White & Sons, Paisley.) A , Cast-iron cored frame. B, Fast and loose pulleys driving pulley C. D, Belt shipper operated by handle E. F, Upper saw pulley, with its shaft carried in swivel bearing. G, Screw for raising or lowering F to suit saw. H, Spring to maintain even tension on saw, by raising E. J, Counterbalanced guide bar, having a Jackson guide K at bottom ; K has wooden strips embracing the saw and a ball-bearing roller against which the back runs, while / is adjusted up or down to bring K as near to the work as convenient. L, Table, with slit for saw; it may be canted for bevel sawing, by means of hand worm-gear M. N, Protective casing to saw. 0, Guard to prevent saw flying over in case of breakage. and below. By altering the height of the table the thickness of wood can be varied. Double machines include a cutter cylinder above and below the timber, so that the upper and under sides are planed simultaneously. A combination of the hand-planer and the thicknesser is useful in cases where space or expenditure must be limited. When large quantities of planed stuff are wanted, such as for flooring-boards, &c, other types of machines are employed. The four-cutter planers are the most rapid in output, and the timber is passed through them at a high rate, ranging up to 150 ft. per minute. There is first a revolving cutter cylinder, which roughs off the underside of the stuff, whence it passes (being propelled by rollers) to a fixed knife which imparts a very smooth face. A little farther on in the machine two vertical cutter blocks are encountered which carry cutters to plane or tongue or mould the edges, after which another cylinder above finishes the top face. Similar types of machines are made to produce mouldings, using four cutters shaped to suit the pattern required. Moulding is also done on the vertical spindle shapers, which carry a cutter or cutters at the top of a spindle projecting through a flat table. The work is slid over the table and controlled by touching a collar below the cutter. Any form may be given to the cutters to produce different profiles. Some special moulding machines use a cutter at the end of a spindle projecting downwards from an arm overhanging a table, an arrangement which enables recessing and carving to be performed. Boring machines comprise rotating spindles and feeding mechanism to actuate augers. The single spindle machines are satisfactory enough for ordinary work, but when a number of differently sized holes have to be bored in a single piece of work, or in rapid succession, it is the practice to employ a machine with a number of spindles, so that a succession of augers of graduated diameters may be ready to use at will. Mortising or cutting slots is done in vertical machines with a reciprocating spindle, operated either by hand or by crank disk and pulleys. The tool that cuts the mortise resembles a wood- worker's chisel, but is of stouter form and has a suitable shank to fit in the spindle. The latter can be reversed to turn round and let the chisel face in the opposite direction for cutting at each end of a Fig. 66. — Mortising and Boring Machine with graduated stroke. (John McDowall & Sons, Johnstone.) A, Frame. B, Auger head, driven by belt C. D, Mortising chisel reciprocated up and down by crank-disk E, F, G, Levers connecting crank-pin to spindle of D. H, Treadle connected to F; a gradually increasing stroke is imparted to the chisel by depressing H, which brings F, G into play and continually lengthens the stroke of D, cutting the mortise without shock. /, Fast and loose pulleys driving E. K, Cord actuated from shaft of /, which reverses the chisel when the handle L is moved and makes it cut in the reverse position. M, Knee raised or lowered by hand-wheel and screw. N, Cross-slide, adjusted by hand- wheel and screw. 0, Longitudinal slide, moved by rack and pinion and hand- wheel. P, Timber vice. mortise. A boring spindle is often incorporated with the machine to make holes for the mortising chisel to start in (fig. 66). Another class of mortiser employs a square hollow chisel, inside of which an auger rotates and first bores a hole leaving to the chisel the duty of finishing out the corners. The chain mortiser is another type; it has an endless chain of flat links, sharpened to make cutting teeth, and is run around a bar and a roller at a high speed, so that when fed into the wood a recess or mortise is cut out. Tenoning machines, designed to cut the reduced ends or tenons to fit in mortises, perform their work by the aid of cutter blocks, revolved on horizontal spmdles above and below the timber, which is fed laterally upon a sliding carriage. Dovetailing is effected by revolving cutters in machines having mechanism for pitching out the cuts, or if the work warrants it an entire row of dovetails is made at one traverse, by fitting a row of MEASUREMENT] TOOL 43 cutters and feeding simultaneously. Corner-locking, or cutting parallel tongues and grooves in the edges of boxes, &c, is a rather more rapid operation than dovetailing, and is done with suitable cutter blocks or disks of appropriate thickness and pitching apart. The general joiner, as its name implies, will do a large variety of operations, and is used in shops and on estates where a complete plant of machines would be out of the question. It usually has a circular saw and sometimes a band-saw also, together with planing and moulding apparatus, a moulding spindle, boring spindle and tenoning apparatus. The lathes used in woodworking comprise the plain hand types with a simple T-rest on which the turner rests the tools to deal with the work revolving between centres, and the copying or Blanchard lathes, in which a master form or copy is rotated and caused by the contact and coercion of a roller to move the cutter rest in a corre- sponding fashion, so that the work is cut away until it exactly matches the shape of the copy. Sand-papering machines, which finish the surface of wood to a high degree, deal with both flat and curved faces. Flat boards, panels, &c, can be done by contact against revolving drums or disks covered with glass-paper, being fed along over them by hand or by rotating rollers. In one class of machine a revolving disk is placed at the end of a series of jointed arms, by which the disk can be moved about over the work resting on a table underneath. XIII. — Measurement An advance of the greatest importance made in mechanical engineering is that of measurement. Since the beginning of the 19th century steady movement has been going on in this direction until it seems impossible that much greater refinement can now be looked for. Probably the chief advances to be expected will lie in the general extension in workshop practice of the knowledge already acquired, rather than in the acquisition of higher degrees of refinement. Methods of measurement adopted in woodworking have but little application in high-class engineers' work. They are adopted, how- ever, to a considerable extent in the metal trades which are allied to engineering, as sheet metal working, girder work, &c. When a carpenter or joiner sets about constructing a door, window sash, roof or box he takes a two-foot rule, a flat lead pencil, and marks off the dimensions and lines by which he intends to work. If he has to work very carefully, then instead of using a pencil he cuts a line with the edge of a keen scriber or chisel-like tool, by which to saw, plane or chisel. If outlines are curved, the compasses are brought into requisition, and these cut a fine line or lines on the surface of the wood. But in any case the eye alone judges of the coincidence ot the cutting with the lines marked. Whether the tool used be saw, chisel, gouge or plane, the woodworker estimates by sight alone whether or not the lines marked are worked by. The broad difference between his method and that of the engineer's machinist lies in this, that while the first tests his work by the eye, the second judges of its accuracy or otherwise by the sense of touch. It may seem that there cannot be very much difference in these two methods, but there is. To the first, the sixty-fourth part of an inch is a fine dimension, to the second one-thousandth of an inch is rather coarse. Now the thickness of tissue paper is about one-thousandth of an inch, and no one could possibly work so closely as that by the eye alone. Engineers' steel rules usually have one inch which is divided into one hundred parts. Tolerably keen sight is required to distinguish those divisions, and few could work by them by ocular measurement alone, that is, by placing them in direct juxtaposition with the work. A thousandth part of an inch seems by com- parison a fine dimension. But it is very coarse when considered in relation to modern methods of measurement. In what are called " limit gauges " the plugs and rings are made of slightly different dimensions. If a plug is made a thousandth of an inch less than its ring it will slip through it easily with very perceptible slop. The common rule is therefore scarcely seen in modern machine shop, while the common calipers fill but a secondary place, their function having been invaded by the gauges. A minute dimension cannot be tested by lines of division on a rule, neither can a dimen- sion which should be fixed be tested with high precision with a movable caliper of ordinary type. Yet it must not be supposed that the adoption of the system of gauging instead of the older methods of rule measurement relieves men'of responsibility. The instruments of precision require delicate handling. Rough forcing of gauges will not yield correct results. A clumsy workman is as much out of place in a modern machine shop as he would be in a watch factory. Without correctness of measurement mechanical constructions would be impossible, and the older device of mutual fitting of parts is of lessening value in face of the growth of the inter- changeable system, of international standards, and of automatic machine tools which are run with no intervention save that of feeding stock. The two broad divisions of measurement by sight and by contact are represented in a vast number of instruments. To the first- named belong the numerous rules in wood and metal and with English and metric divisions, and the scales which are used for setting out dimensions on drawings smaller than those of the real objects, but strictly proportional thereto. The second include all the gauges. These are either fixed or movable, an important sub- division. The first embrace two groups — one for daily workshop service, the other for testing and correcting the wear of these, hence termed " reference gauges." They are either made to exact standard sizes, or they embody " limits of tolerance," that is, allowances for certain classes of fits, and for the minute degrees of inaccuracy which are permissible in an interchangeable system of manufacture. The movable group includes a movable portion, either correspond- ing with one leg of a caliper or having an adjustable rod, with pro- vision for precise measurement in the form of a vernier or of a screw thread divided micrometrically. These may be of general character for testing internal or external diameters, or for special functions as screw threads. Subtitles indicate some particular aspect or design of the gauges, as " plug and ring," " caliper," " horseshoe," " depth," " rod," "end measure," &c. So severe are the require- ments demanded of instruments of measurement that the manu- facture of the finer kinds remains a speciality in the hands of a very few firms. The cost and experience necessary are so great that prices rule high for the best instruments. As these, however, are not required for ordinary workshop use, two or three grades are manufactured, the limits of inaccuracy being usually stated and a guarantee given that these are not'exceeded. Measurement by Sight. Rules and Scales. — The rules are used for marking off distances and dimensions in conjunction with other instruments, as scribers, compasses, dividers, squares; and for test- ing and checking dimensions when marked, and work in course of reduction or erection, directly or from calipers. They are made in boxwood and in steel, the latter being either rigid or flexible, as when required to go round curves. Rules are fitted in combination with other instruments, as sliding calipers, squares, depth gauges, &c. The scales are of boxwood, of ivory, the value of which is dis- counted by its shrinkage, and of paper. They are of flat section with bevelled edges, and of oval and of triangular sections, each giving a thin edge to facilitate readings. They are fully divided, or open divided ; in the first case each division is alike subdivided, in the second only the end ones are thus treated. The Gauges. Fixed Gauges. — These now embrace several kinds, the typical forms being represented by the cylindrical or plug and ring gauges and by the caliper form or snap gauges. The principle in each is that a definite dimension being embodied in the gauge, the workman has not to refer to the rule, either directly or through the medium of a caliper. This distinction, though slight, is of immense importance in modern manufacturing. Broadly it corre- sponds with the difference between the older heterogeneous and the present interchangeable systems. Plug and Ring Gauges. — The principal ones and the originals of all the rest, termed Whitworth gauges after the inventor, are the plug and ring gauges (fig. 67, A and B). The principle on which they depend is that if the two gauges are made to fit with perfect accuracy, without tightness on the one hand or slop on the other, then any work which is measured or turned and bored or ground by them will also fit with equal accuracy. Bored holes are tested by the plug gauge, and spindles are tested by the ring gauge, and such spindles and holes make a close fit if the work is done carefully. Of course, in prac- tice, there is very much variation in the character of the work done, and the finest gauges are too fine for a large propor ion of engineers' work. It is possible to make these Fig. 67. gauges within S t>oT^ of an inch, a n tji .„ ' a '■ But they are seldom required so r" 'n'ff g g gaUgeS> fine as that for shop use; VAo is n' Difference gauge, generally fine enough. For general D > Stepped reference gauge, shop work the gauges are made to within about j^ns of an inch. Standard gauges in which the plug and ring are of the same diameter will only fit by the application of a thin film of oil and by keeping the plug in slight movement within the ring. Without these precautions the two would " seize " so hard that they could not be separated without force and injury. Plug and Ring v. Horseshoe Gauges. — The horseshoe, snap or caliper gauges (fig. 68) are often used in preference to the plug and ring types. They are preferred because the surfaces in contact are narrow. These occur in various designs, with and without handles, separately and in combination and in a much larger range of dimensions than the plug and ring. Ring gauges are not quite such delicate instruments as the fixed caliper gauges. But since they measure diameter only, and turned work is not always quite circular, the caliper gauges are not so convenient for measurement as the round gauges, which fit in the same manner as the parts have to fit to one another. Fixed Gauges. Limit Gauges. — Some fits have to be what is termed in the shops " driving fits," that is, so tight that they » * ■+ " kSVe&s 44 TOOL [MEASUREMENT have to be effected by driving with a hammer or a press, while others have to be " working fits," suitable, say, for the revolution of a loose pulley on its shaft or of an axle in its bearings. The " limit " or " difference gauges " (figs. 67 and 68) are designed for producing these working fits ; that is, the plug and ring gauges differ in dimen- sions so that the work bored will drive tightly, or slide freely over <=€> Fig. 68. A, Separate caliper or snap C, Difference gauge. gauges. D, Newall adjustable limit B, Combined internal and ex- gauge. ternal gauges. a, b, Plugs, the work turned. These are variously sub-classified. The system which is generally accepted is embodied in the gauges by the Newall Engineering Co. These embrace force fits, which require the applica- tion of a screw or hydraulic press; driving fits, that require less power, as that of a hammer; push fits, in which a spindle can be thrust into its hole by hand; and running fits, such as that of shafts in bearings. Fixed gauges are made for each of these, but as this involves a heavy outlay the Newall firm have adjustable limit gauges (fig. 68, D) for external dimensions, the standard plug being used for holes. The setting is done by screwed plugs or anvils adjusted by reference bars. In all these gauges the " go on " and " not go on " ends respectively are stamped on the gauge, or the equivalents of + and — . Fixed Reference Gauges. Reference Disks and End Measuring Rods. — Shop working gauges become in time so damaged by service that they fail to measure so accurately as when new. To correct these errors reference gauges are provided, by which the inaccuracy of the worn ones is brought to the test. These are never used in the shops for actual measurement of work, but are only kept for checking the truth of the working gauges. They include disk, stepped and end measurement gauges. The disk and the stepped are used for testing the ring gauges, the stepped kind comprising essentially a collection of disks in one piece (fig. 67, D). The end measure pieces test the external gauges. The end measure standard lengths made by the Pratt & Whitney Co. are so accurate that any sizes taken at random in any numbers from J in. to 4 in., varying by sixteenths of an inch, will, when placed end to end, make up an exact length ; this is a difficult test, since slight variations in the lengths of the components would add up materially when multiplied by the number of pieces. The ends are ground off with diamond dust or emery in a special machine under water, and are so true that one piece will support another by cohesive force, and this though the surfaces are less than \ in. square. Movable Gauges. — This extensive group may be regarded as compounded of the common caliper and the Whitworth measuring machine. They are required when precise dimensions have to be ascertained in whole numbers and minute fractional parts. They combine the sense of touch by contact, as in the calipers, with the exact dimensions obtained by inspection of graduated scales, either the vernier or the micrometer screw. If gauges must not vary by more than Trim of an inch, which is the limit imposed by modern shop ideals, then instruments must be capable of measuring to finer dimensions than this. Hence, while the coarser classes of micrometers read directly to tAir P ar t of an inch, the finest measure up to iobWo oi an inch, about 200 times as fine as the diameter of a human hair. They range in price correspondingly from about a sovereign to £100. The Calipers. — Common calipers (fig. 69) are adjusted over or within work, and the dimensions are taken therefrom by a rule or a gauge. They usually have no provision for minute adjustment beyond the gentle tapping of one of the legs when setting. In some forms screw adjustment is provided, and in a few instances a vernier attachment on the side of the pivot opposite to the legs. Vernier Calipers. — The vernier fitting, so named after its inventor, Pierre Vernier, in 1631, is fitted to numerous calipers and caliper rules. It is applied to calipers for engineers' use to read to ^-fc$ of an inch without requiring a magnifier. The beam of the caliper is divided into inches and tenths of the inch, and each tenth into fourths and the vernier into twenty-five parts, or the beam is divided into fiftieths of an inch (fig. 70) and the vernier has 20 divisions to 19 on the rule. The caliper jaws are adapted to take both external and internal dimensions. These " beam calipers " are also made for metric divisions. Minor variations in design by different manufacturers are numerous. Fig. 69. — Calipers. A, Ordinary external type, adjusted by tapping the legs. B, Type adjusted by screw in auxiliary leg. C, Screw calipers, opened by contraction of curved spring and closed by nut. D, Self-registering caliper, with pointer moving over quadrant. E, Common internal type. F, Screw type with spring. G, Combined internal and external for measuring chambered holes. H, Compass caliper for finding centres. J, Keyhole caliper for measuring from hole to outside of boss. Fig. 70. — Vernier Caliper. A, Beam; B, vernier; C, fixed jaw; D, movable jaw; E, clamping head; F, abutment head, with adjusting screw a, for fine adjustment of D. S o 00 Fig. 71. — Measuring Machine. (The Newall Engineering Co.) A, Hollow base or bed, mounted on three points. B, Measuring or fast headstock. C, Movable head, or tailstock. D, Spirit-level to indicate alterations in length of piece being measured due to changes in temperature, termed the indi- cator or comparator. E, Measuring screw. F, Nut for rapid adjustment of ditto. G, Knob of speed screw for slow movement of ditto. H, Dividing and measuring wheel. /, Vernier or reading bar. a, a. Points between which contact is made. MEASUREMENT] TOOL 45 Micrometer Calipers are the direct offspring of the Whitworth measuring machine. In the original form of this machine a screw of 20 threads to the inch, turned by a worm-wheel of 200 teeth iuid single-threaded worm, had a wheel on the axis of the worm with 250 divisions on its circumference, so that an ad j ustment of ro $ of an inch was possible. The costly measuring machines made to-day have a dividing wheel on the screw, but they combine modifications to ensure freedom from error, the fruits of prolonged experience. Good machines are made by the Whitworth, the Pratt & Whitney, the Newall (fig. 71), and the Brown & Sharpe firms. These are used for testing purposes. But there are immense numbers of small instruments, the micrometer calipers (fig. 72), made for general shop use, measuring directly to jjVj of an inch, and in the Micrometer Calipers. a, Fig. 72. A, Frames. B, Anvil or abutment. C, Hub divided longitudinally. D, Spindle with micrometer screw. E, Thimble, divided circularly. (Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co.) Adjusting nuts for taking up wear. Clamping nut. Ratchet stop.which slips under undue pressure to ensure uniform measurement. hands of careful men easily to half and quarter thousandths ; these cost from £1 to £1, 10s. only. In these the subdivision of the turns of the screw is effected by circular graduations. Usually the screw Fig. 73. A, Beam. B, Head, . adjustable by equal inch divisions, by lines a, a, or holes b, b, and plug b' holes bushed. ■Beam Micrometer Calipers. C, Abutment block with c for fine adjustment. d, Clamping screws. D, Micrometer. e, Anvil. pitch is 40 to the inch, and the circular divisions number 25, so that a movement of one division indicates that the screw has been ad- vanced ^5 of j^or jj'jij of an inch. Provision for correcting or taking up the effects of wear is included in these designs (e.g. at a in fig. 72), and varies with different manufacturers. A vernier is sometimes fitted in addition, in very high class instruments, to the circular divisions, so that readings of ten thousandths of an inch can be taken. Beam micrometer calipers (fig. 73) take several inches in length, the micrometer being reserved for fractional parts of the inch only. Depth Gauges. — It is often necessary to measure the depth of one portion of a piece of work below another part, or the height of one portion relatively to a lower one. To hold a rule perpendicularly and take a sight is not an accurate method, because the same objections apply to this as to rule measurement in general. There are many depth gauges made with rule divisions simply, and then these have the advantage of a shouldered face which rests upon the upper portion of the work and from which the rule measurement is © a r* ^—\ A Fig. 74. — Depth Gauges. A, Plain round rod o, sliding in head b, and pinched with screw c. B, Rule a, graduated into inches or metric divisions, sliding on head b, in grooved head of clamping screw c. C, Slocomb depth gauge, fitted with micrometer, a, Rod marked in half inches, sliding in head b; c, hub; d, thimble corresponding with similar divided parts in the micrometer calipers ; e, clamp- ing screw. taken (fig. 74). These generally have a clamping arrangement. But for very accurate work either the vernier or the micrometer fitting is applied, so that depths can be measured in thousandths of an inch, or sometimes in sixty-fourths, or in metric subdivisions. 3 a * C Fig. 75. — Rod Gauges. A, Pratt & Whitney gauge, o, Tube split at ends; 6, b, chucks clamping tube on plain rod c, and screwed end d. Rough adjustment is made on rod c, of which several are provided; fine adjustment is by screwed end d. B, Sawyer gauge, a, Body; 6, extension rods for rough adjust- ment, several being supplied and pinched with screw c ; d, screwed end with graduated head ; e, reading arm extending from body over graduations ; /, clamping screw. Rod Gauges. — When internal diameters have to be taken, too large for plug gauges or calipers to span, the usual custom is to set a rod of iron or steel across, file it till it fits the bore, and then measure its length with a rule. More accurate as well as adjust- able are the rod gauges (fig. 75) to which the vernier or the micro- meter are fitted. These occur in a few varied designs. Screw Thread Gauges. — The taking of linear dimensions, though provided for so admirably by the systems of gauging just dis- cussed, does not cover the important section of screw measurement. This is a department of the highest importance. In most English shops the only test to-day of the size of a screw or nut is the 'use of a standard screw or nut. That there is variation in these is evidenced by the necessity for fitting nuts to bolts when large 4 6 TOOL [MEASUREMENT numbers of these are being assembled, after they have been used in temporary erections or when nuts are brought from the stores to fit smds or bolts cut in the shop. This method may suffice in many classes of work, but it is utterly unsuited to an interchange- able system ; and when there is a fair amount of the latter firms sometimes make thread gauges of their own, in general form like the plug and ring gauges, using a hard quality of steel for small sizes or a tough quality of cast iron for the larger. These, though not hardened, will endure for a long time if treated carefully. But of an inch (fig. 77). They are used in some kinds of lathe chuck work, but their principal value is in fitting and erecting the finer mechanisms. ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ a ill A c^tr b ^ Fig. 76. — Screw Thread Gauges. (Pratt & Whitney Co.) A, Plug gauge; o, size of tapping hole; b, thread. B, Ring gauge; a, pins to prevent lateral movement ; J, adjusting screw for opening gauge ; c, screw for closing ditto. though very useful and far better than none at all they lack two essentials. They are simply accommodation gauges, made to an existing tap or die, and do not therefore embody any precise abso- lute measurement, nor do they include any means for measuring variations from standard, nor are they hardened. To produce gauges to fulfil these require- ments demands an original standard to work by, micrometric measurements, and the means of grinding after the harden- ing process. These requirements are fulfilled in the screw thread gauges and calipers of the Pratt & Whitney and the Brown & Sharpe companies. The essen- tial feature of a screw gauge is that it measures the sides of the threads with- out risk of a possible false reading due to contact on the bottom or top of the V. This is fulfilled by flatting the top and making the bottom of the gauge keen. The Pratt & Whitney gauges are made as a plug and ring (fig. 76), the plug being solid and the ring capable of precise adjustment round it. There is a plain round end, ground and lapped exactly to the standard size of the bottom of the thread, a dimension which is obliterated in the threaded end because of the bottoms of the angles being made keen for clearance. There are three kinds of this class of gauge made; the first and most expensive is hardened and ground in the angle, while the second is hardened but not ground. The first is intended for use when a very perfect gauge is required, the second for ordinary shop usage. The third is made unhardened for purposes of reference simply, and it is not brought into contact with the work to be tested at all, but measurements are taken by calipers; in every detail it repre- sents the standard threads. The Brown & Sharpe appliance is of quite a different character. It is a micrometer caliper having a fixed V and a movable point between which the screw to be measured is embraced. By the reading of the micrometer and the use of a constant the diameter of any thread in the middle of the thread can be estimated. Miscellaneous. — The foregoing do not exhaust the gauges. There are gauges for the sectional shapes of screw threads of all pitches, gauges for drilled holes that have to be screwed, gauges for the depth and thickness of the teeth of gear-wheels, gauges for the tapers of machine spindles, gauges for key-grooves, &c. There are also the woodworker's gauges — the marking and cutting, the panel, the mortise and the long-tooth. Indicators are a small group of measuring instruments of a rather peculiar character. They magnify the most minute error by adapta- tions of long and short lever arms. The Bath, the Starrett and the Brown & Sharpe are familiar in high-class shops. Some simply magnify inaccuracy, but in one type an index reads to thousandths Fig. 77. — Indicator. A, Base; B, stem; C, arm; D, pointer or feeler, pivoted at a, and magnifying movement of the work E upon the scale b; P, spring to return D to zero. Surface Plates and Cognate Forms. — Allied to the gauges are the instruments for testing the truth of plane surfaces: the surface plates, straight-edges and winding strips. The origination of plane surfaces by scraping, until the mutual coincidence of three plates is secured, was due to Whitworth. These surface plates (fig. 78, A) fill an important place in workshop practice, since in the best work plane surfaces are tested on them and corrected by scraping. To a large extent the precision grinding machines have lessened the value of scraping, but it is still retained for machine slides and other work of a similar class. In the shops there are two classes of surface plates : those employed daily about the shops, the accuracy of which becomes impaired in time, and the standard ZZZZ2W i=o h 4=*#= C, Common square. D, Square with adjustable blade. Fig. 78., A , Surface plate ; o, protecting cover for ditto when not in use. B, Large ribbed straight-edge. plate or plates employed for test and correction. Straight-edges are derived from the surface plates, or may be originated like them. The largest are made of cast-iron, ribbed and curved on one edge, to prevent flexure, and provided /■ with feet (fig. 78, B). But the \J smaller straight-edges are gener- ally parallel, and a similar pair constitutes " winding strips," by which any twist or departure fiom a plane surface is detected. Squares, of which there are numer- ous designs (fig. 78, C and D), are straight-edges set at right angles. Bevels or bevel-squares (fig. 79), are straight-edges comprising a stock and a blade, which are ad- justable for angle in relation to each other. Shop protractors often p IG _„ include a _ blade adjustable for A Common bevel.' angle, forming a bevel with gradua- fi _ Universal bevel for testing tions. Spint-levels test the non- j ow ane [ es zontal truth of surfaces. Many levels have two bubble tubes at right angles with each other, one of which tests the truth of vertical faces. Generally levels have flat feet, but some are made of V-section to fit over shafting. The common plumb-bob is in frequent use for locating the vertical position of centres not in the same horizontal plane. When a TOOLE— TOP 47 plumb-bob is combined with a parallel straight-edge the term plumb- rule is applied. It tests the truth of vertical surface more accurately than a spirit-level. (J. G. H.) TOOLE, JOHN LAWRENCE (1832-1906), English actor, son of an old employe of the East India Company who for many years acted as toast-master in the City of London, was born in London on the 1 2th of March 1832. He was educated at the City of London School, and started life in a wine merchant's office; but his natural propensity for comic acting was not to be denied, and after some practice as an amateur with the City Histrionic Club, he definitely took to the stage in 1852, appearing in Dublin as Simmons in The Spitalfields Weaver. He gained experience in the provinces, and in 1854 made his first professional appearance in London at the St James's theatre, acting Samuel Pepys in The King's Rival and Weazel in My Friend the Major. In 1857, having just had a great success as Paul Pry, he met Henry Irving in Edinburgh, and recommended him to go to' London; and their friendship remained thenceforth of the closest kind. In 1858 Toole joined Webster at the Adelphi, and established his popularity as a comedian, among other parts creating Joe Spriggins in Id on park francais. In 1868 he was engaged at the Gaiety, appearing among other pieces in Thespis, the first Gilbert and Sullivan collaboration. His fame was at its height in 1874, when he went on tour to the United States, but he failed to reproduce there the success he had in England. In 1879 he took the " Folly " theatre in London, which he renamed " Toole's " in 1882. He was constantly away in the provinces, but he pro- duced here a number of plays: H. J. Byron's Upper Crust and Auntie; Pinero's Hester's Mystery and Girls and Boys; burlesques such as Paw Claudian, and, later, J. M. Barrie's Walker, London. But his appearances gradually became fewer, and after 1893 he was seen no more on the London stage, while his theatre was pulled down shortly afterwards for an extension of Charing Cross Hospital. He published his reminiscences in 1888. Toole married in 1854; and the death of his only son in 1879, and later of his wife and daughter, had distressing effects on his health; attacks of gout, from 1886 onwards, crippled him, and ultimately he retired to Brighton, where after a long illness he died on the 30th of July 1906. In his prime he was immensely popular, and also immensely funny in a way which depended a good deal on his tricks and delivery of words. He excelled in what may be called Dickens parts — combining humour and pathos. He was a good man of business, and left a considerable fortune, out of which he made a number of bequests to charity and to his friends. His genial and sympathetic nature was no less conspicuous off the stage than on it. TOOMBS, ROBERT (1810-1885), American political leader, was born near Washington, Wilkes county, Georgia, on the 2nd of July 1810. He was educated at Franklin College (univer- sity of Georgia), at Union College, Schenectady, New York, from which he graduated in 1828, and at the law school of the university of Virginia. He was admitted to the bar in 1830, and served in the Georgia House of Representatives (1838, 1840-1841 and 1843-1844), in the Federal House of Represen- tatives (1845-1853), and in the United States Senate (1853- 1861). He opposed the annexation of Texas, the Mexican War, President Polk's Oregon policy, and the Walker Tariff of 1846. In common with Alexander H. Stephens and Howell Cobb, he supported the Compromise Measures of 1850, denounced the Nashville Convention, opposed the secessionists in Georgia, and helped to frame the famous Georgia platform (1850). His position and that of Southern Unionists during the decade 1850- 1860 has often been misunderstood. They disapproved of secession, not because they considered it wrong in principle, but because they considered it inexpedient. On the dissolution of the Whig party Toombs went over to the Democrats. He favoured the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, the admission of Kansas under the Lecompton Constitution, and the English Bill (1858), and on the 24th of June 1856 introduced in the Senate the Toombs Bill, which proposed a constitutional convention in Kansas under conditions which were acknowledged by various anti-slavery leaders as fair, and which mark the greatest con- cessions made by the pro-slavery senators during the Kansas struggle. The bill did not provide for the submission of the constitution to popular vote, and the silence on this point of the territorial law under which the Lecompton Constitution of Kansas was framed in 1857 was the crux of the Lecompton struggle (see Kansas). In the presidential campaign of i860 he supported John C. Breckinridge, and on the 22nd of December, soon after the election of Lincoln, sent a telegram to Georgia which asserted that " secession by the 4th of March next should be thundered forth from the ballot-box by the united voice of Georgia." He delivered a farewell address in the Senate (Jan. 7, 1861), returned to Georgia, and with Governor Joseph E. Brown led the fight for secession against Stephens and Herschel V.Johnson (181 2-1880). His influence was a most powerful factor in inducing the "old-line Whigs " to support immediate secession. After a short term as secretary of state in President Davis's cabinet, he entered the army (July 21, 1861), and served first as a brigadier-general in the Army of Northern Virginia and after 1863 as adjutant and inspector-general of General G. W. Smith's division of Georgia militia. He then spent two years in exile in Cuba, France and England, but returned to Georgia in 1867, and resumed the practice of law. Owing to his refusal to take the oath of allegiance, he was never restored to the full rights of citizenship. He died at his home in Washington, Georgia, on the 15th of December 1885. See Pleasant A. Stovall, Robert Toombs, Statesman, Speaker, Soldier, Sage (New York, 1892). TOOTHWORT, the popular name for a small British plant of curious form and growth, known botanically as Lathraea squa- maria. It grows parasitically on roots, chiefly of hazel, in shady places such as hedge sides. It consists of a branched whitish underground stem closely covered with thick fleshy colourless leaves, which are bent over so as to hide the under surface; irregular cavities communicating with the exterior are formed in the thickness of the leaf. On the inner wall of these chambers are stalked hairs, which when stimulated by the touch of an insect send out delicate filaments by means of which the insect is killed and digested. The only portions that appear above ground are the short flower-bearing shoots, which bear a spike of two-lipped dull purple flowers. The scales which represent the leaves also secrete water, which escapes and softens the ground around the plant. Lathraea is closely allied to another British parasitic plant, broomrape (Orobanche) . TOOWOOMBA, a town of Aubigny county, Queensland, Australia, 76 m. by rail W. by N. of Ipswich, and 101 m. from Brisbane. It is situated on the summit of the Great Dividing Range, and is the centre of the rich pastoral and agricultural district of Darling Downs. The chief buildings are the town-hall, a large theatre, a school of arts and a library; the Christian Brothers College and several handsome churches. The industries are brewing, tanning, soap-boiling, flour-milling, malting, iron- founding, saw-milling and jam-making. Vineyards are culti- vated by a German colony and large quantities of wine are made. The town received a municipal charter in i860, and during the governorship of Lord Lamington (1896-1897) became the summer residence of the governor and his staff. Pop. (1901), 9137; within the five-mile radius, 14,087. TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot), a toy consist- ing of a body of conical, circular or oval shape with a point or peg on which it turns or is made to whirl. The twisting or whirl- ing motion is applied by whipping or lashing when it is a " whip- ping top " or " peg-top," or by the rapid unwinding of a string tightly wound round a head or handle. When the body is hollow this results in a whirring noise, whence the name " hum- ming top." Other kinds of tops are made as supports for coloured disks which on revolving show a kaleidoscopic variation of patterns. The top is also used in certain games of chance, when it is generally known as a " teetotum." There are many references to it in ancient classical literature. The Greek terms for the toy are /3e/uj3t£, which was evidently the whipping or peg top (Arist. Birds, 1461), and <7rp6/3iXo5, a humming top, spun by a string (Plato, Rep. iv. 436 E.). In Homer {II. xiv. 413) the word +8 TOPAZ— TOPEKA CTpbftfios seems to point to the humming top. The Latin name for the top was turbo. This word and the Greek ftdfifios are sometimes translated by " top " when they refer to the instrument used in the Dionysiac mysteries, which, when whirled in the air by a string, produced a booming noise. This was no doubt the equivalent of the " bull roarer " (q.v.). Strutt (Games and Pastimes, 491) says that the top was known in England as early as the 14th century. For the scientific properties of the top see Gyroscope and Gyrostat. This word must be distinguished from that signifying the highest or uppermost part of anything. It appears to have meant origin- ally a tuft or crest of hair, cf. Ger. Zopf, Du. top, Icel. topps, &c. ; it is allied to Eng. " tap," a spike for a cask, and " tip," point. Some etymologists have identified the two words, the toy being so called from spinning on its top or tip, but the two German forms seem to prove conclusively that the words are different. TOPAZ, a mineral usually found in connexion with granitic rocks and used, when fine, as a gem-stone. It is believed that the topaz of modern mineralogists was unknown to the ancients, and that the stone described under the name of TOirdftos, in allusion to its occurrence on an island in the Red Sea known as T07r&f 10s vrjcrot, was the mineral which is now termed chrysolite or peridot (q.v.). The Hebrew pitdah, translated " topaz " in the Old Testament, may also have been the chrysolite. Topaz crystallizes in the orthorhombic system, usually with a prismatic habit (figs. 1 and 2). Many of the crystals, like those from Saxony and Siberia, are rich in faces, and present with the prisms a complicated combination of pyramids and domes. The faces of the prism-zone are usually striated vertically. Doubly- terminated crystals are rare, and sometimes apparently hemi- morphic. The mineral presents a perfect cleavage transverse ff® 7* ^ 1 * i 1 1 1 ! 1 M •M i i l i 1 j , ^ *-*- — M Fig. 1. M Fig. 2. to the long axis of the prism, and the cleavage-plane often has a pearly lustre. The chemical composition of the topaz has given rise to much discussion, but it is now generally regarded as an aluminium fluo-silicate having the formula Al 2 F 2 Si04. It was shown by Professor S. L. Penfield and Mi- J. C. Minor that the fluorine may be partially replaced by hydroxyl. When strongly heated topaz suffers considerable loss of weight. Sir D. Brewster found in topaz numerous microscopic cavities containing fluids, some of which have received the names of brewsterlinite and cryptolinite. Possibly some of the liquid inclusions may be hydrocarbons. The topaz, when pure, may be colourless, and if cut as a brilliant has been mistaken for diamond. It has, too, the same specific gravity, about 3-5. It is, however, greatly inferior in hardness, the hardness of topaz being only 8; and it has lower refractivity and dispersive powers: moreover, being an orthorhombic mineral, it possesses double refraction. From phenacite and from rock-crystal, for which it may be mistaken, it is distinguished by being biaxial and by having a much higher specific gravity. The topaz becomes electric by heating, by friction or by pressure. Colourless limpid topazes are known in Brazil as pingos d'agoa, or " drops of water," whilst in England they pass in trade as " minas novas," from a locality in the state of Minas Geraes in Brazil. Coloured topazes usually present various shades of yellow, blue or brown. The pleochroism is fairly marked, the colour of the sherry-yellow crystals from Brazil being generally resolved by the dichroscope into a brownish-yellow and a rose-pink. The colour in many cases is unstable, and the brown topazes of Siberia are specially liable to suffer bleaching by exposure to sunlight. In 1750 a Parisian jeweller named Dumelle discovered that the yellow Brazilian topaz becomes pink on exposure to a moderate heat, and this treatment has since been extensively applied, so that nearly all the pink topaz occurring in jewelry has been artificially heated. Such " burnt topaz " is often known as " Brazilian ruby," a name applied also to the natural red topaz, which, however, is excessively rare. " Brazilian sapphire " is the term sometimes given to blue topaz, but the colour is usually pale. The delicate green topaz has been incorrectly called aquamarine, which is a name applicable only to the sea-green beryl (q.v.). According to A. K. Coomaraswamy, yellow sapphire is often sold as topaz in Ceylon, where yellow topaz is unknown, whilst pink corundum is frequently called there " king topaz." The topaz is cut on a leaden wheel, and polished with tripoli. It is generally step-cut, or table-cut, but its beauty is best developed when in the form of a brilliant. Cut topazes of large size are known, and it is said that the great " Braganza diamond " of Portugal is probably a topaz. Topaz usually occurs in granitic and gneissose rocks, often in greisen, and is commonly associated with cassiterite, tourmaline and beryl. It seems to have been formed, in many cases, by pneumato- lytic action. In the west of England it is found in Cornwall, notably at St Michael's Mount and at Cligga Head near St Agnes. It occurs also in Lundy Island. The finest British topaz is found in the Cairngorm group of mountains in the central Highlands, especially at Ben a Buird. Rolled pebbles occur in the bed of the Avon in Banffshire. Beautiful, though small, crystals occur in the drusy cavities of the granite of the Mourne Mountains in Ireland. The famous topaz-rock of the Schneckenstein, near Auerbach, in Saxony, yields pale yellow crystals, formerly cut for jewelry, and it is said that these do not become pink on heating. Fine topazes occur in Russia, at several localities in the Urals and in the Adun-chalon Mountains, near Nerchinsk, in Siberia. A very fine series from the Koksharov collection is in the British Museum. Beautiful crystals of topaz are found in Japan, especially at Taka- yama in the province of Mino, and at Tanokamiyama in Omi province. Ceylon and Burma occasionally yield topazes. Brazil is a famous locality, the well-known sherry-yellow crystals coming from Ouro Preto, formerly called Villa Rica, the capital of Minas Geraes, where they occur in a kaolinitic matrix, resulting from the alteration of a mica-schist, which is regarded by Professor O. A. Derby as a metamorphosed igneous rock. Topaz occurs in the tin-drifts of New South Wales, especially in the New England district; it has been discovered in the Coolgardie goldfield, West Australia; and it is found also in the tinfields of Tasmania and on Flinders Island in Bass's Strait. Fine topaz has been worked near Pike's Peak in Colorado, and in San Diego county, California. The mineral occurs in rhyolite at Nathrop in Chaffee county and Chalk Mountain in Summit county, Colorado, and in trachyte near Sevier Lake, Utah. The occurrence of topaz in these volcanic rocks is very notable, and contrasts with its common occurrence in granites. It is found in like manner in rhyolite at San Luis Potosi in Mexico; and beautiful little limpid crystals accompany stream-tin at Durango. Common topaz occurs in coarse crystals at many localities. A columnar variety from the tin-districts of Saxony and Bohemia, and from Mt Bischoff in Tasmania, is known as pycnite (jtukvAs, dense) ; whilst a coarse opaque topaz from granite near Falun, in Sweden, has been termed pyrophysa- lite (irOp, fire; tfrmaa, to blow), in allusion to its behaviour when heated. " Oriental topaz " is the name sometimes given to yellow corun- dum, a mineral readily distinguished from true topaz by superior hardness and density. Yellow and smoke-tinted quartz, or cairn- gorm, is often known as " Scotch topaz " or " Spanish topaz," according to its locality; but these, on the contrary, are inferior in hardness and density. The chief differences between the three minerals may be seen in the following table, in which they are arranged in order of hardness, density and refractivity : — Hardness .... Specific gravity . Refractive indices Crystallization Chemical composition Scotch Topaz. 7 2-6 i-54. i-55 Hexagonal Si0 2 True Topaz. 3'5 i-6i, 1-62 Orthorhombic Al 2 F 2 Si0 4 Oriental Topaz. 9 4 176, 177 Hexagonal A1 2 3 (F. W. R.*) TOPEKA, a city and the county-seat of Shawnee county, Kansas, U.S.A., the capital of the state, situated on both sides of TOPELIUS— TOPFFER 49 the Kansas river, in the east part of the state, about 60 m. W. of Kansas City. Pop. (1900), 33,608, of whom 3201 were foreign- born (including 702 Germans, 575 Swedes, 512 English, 407 Russians, 320 Irish, &c.) and 4807 were negroes; (1010, census), 43,684. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Union Pacific and the Missouri Pacific railways. The city is regularly laid out on a fairly level prairie bench, considerably elevated above the river and about 890 ft. above sea-level. Among its prominent build- ings are the United States government building, the Capitol (erected 1866-1903 at a cost of $3,200,589 and one of the best state buildings in the country), the county court house, the public library (1882), an auditorium (with a seating capacity of about 5000), the Y.M.C.A. building, a memorial building, housing historical relics of the state, and Grace Church Cathedral (Protestant Episcopal). The city is the see of a Protestant Episcopal bishop. In the Capitol are the library (about 6000 volumes) and natural history collections of the Kansas Academy of Science, and the library (30,000 books, 94,000 pamphlets and 28,500 manuscripts) and collections of the Kansas State Historical Society, which publishes Kansas Historical Collections (1875 sqq.) and Biennial Reports (1879 sqq.). The city is the seat of Washburn (formerly Lincoln) College (1865), which took its present name in 1868 in honour of Ichabod Washburn of Wor- cester, Massachusetts, who gave it $25,000; in 1909 it had 783 students (424 being women). Other educational establishments are the College of the Sisters of Bethany (Protestant Episcopal, 1861), for women, and the Topeka Industrial and Educational Institute (1895), for negroes. In Topeka are the state insane asylum, Christ's Hospital (1894), the Jane C. Stormont Hospital and Training School for nurses (1895), the Santa Fe Railway Hospital, the Bethesda Hospital (1906) and the St Francis Hospital (1909). Topeka is an important manufacturing city. Its factory product was valued in 1905 at $14,448,869. Natural gas is piped from southern Kansas for manufacturing and domestic use. The first white settlement on the site of Topeka was made in 1852, but the city really originated in 1854, when its site was chosen by a party from Lawrence. It was from the first a free- state stronghold. More than one convention was held here in Territorial days, including that which framed the Topeka Constitution of 1855; and some of the meetings of the free-state legislature chosen under that document (see Kansas) were also held here. Topeka was made the temporary state capital under the Wyandotte Constitution, and became the permanent capital in 1861. It was first chartered by the pro-slavery Territorial legislature in 1857, but did not organize its government until 1858 (see Lawrence). In 1881 it was chartered as a city of the first class. The first railway outlet, the Union Pacific, reached Eugene, now North Topeka, in 1865. The construction of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe was begun here in 1868, and its construction shops, of extreme importance to the city, were built here in 1878. In 1880, just after the great negro immigration to Kansas, the coloured population was 31 % of the total. See F. W. Giles, Thirty Years in Topeka (Topeka, 1886). TOPELIUS, ZAKRIS [Zacharias] (1818-1898), Finnish author, was born at Kuddnas, near Nykarleby, on the 14th of January 1818. He was the son of a doctor of the same name, who was distinguished as the earliest collector of Finnish folk-songs. Topelius became a student at Hel- singfors in 1833, was made professor in 1863 and received in succession all the academic distinctions open to him. Quite early in his career he began to distinguish himself as a lyric poet, with the three successive volumes of his Heather Blossoms (1845-1854). The earliest of his historical romances was The Duchess of Finland, published in 1850. He was also editor-in-chief of the Helsingfors Gazette from 1841 to i860. In 1878 Topelius was allowed to withdraw from his professional duties, but this did not sever his connexion with the university; it gave him, however, more leisure for his abundant and various literary enterprises. Of all the multi- farious writings of Topelius, in prose and verse, that which has enjoyed the greatest popularity is his Tales of a Barber-Surgeon, episodes of historical fiction from the days of Gustavus II. Adolphus to those of Gustavus III., treated in the manner of Sir Walter Scott; the five volumes of this work appeared at intervals between 1853 and 1867. Topelius attempted the drama also, with most success in his tragedy of Regina von Emmeritz (1854). Topelius aimed, with eminent but perhaps pathetic success, at the cultivation of a strong passion of patriotism in Finland. He died on the 13th of March 1898 at Helsingfors. Topelius was an exceptionally happy writer for children, his best-known book being Lasning for bam. His abundant poetry is graceful and patriotic, but does not offer any features of great originality. (E. G.) TOPETE, JUAN BAUPTISTA (1821-1885), Spanish naval commander and politician, was born in Mexico on the 24th of May 182 1. His father and grandfather were also Spanish admirals. He entered the navy at the age of seventeen, cut out a Carlist vessel in 1839, became a midshipman at twenty-two, obtained the cross of naval merit for saving the life of a sailor ii? 1841 and became a lieutenant in 1845. He served on the West Indian station for three years, and was engaged in repressing the slave trade before he was promoted frigate captain in 1857. He was chief of staff to the fleet during the Morocco War, 1859, after which he got the crosses of San Fernando and San Hermenegildf. Having been appointed chief of the Carrara arsenal at Cadiz, he was elected deputy and joined the Union Liberal of O'Donnell and Serrano. He was sent out to the Pacific in command of the frigate " Blanca," and was present at the bombardment of Valparaiso and Callao, where he was badly wounded, and in other engagements of the war between Chile and Peru. On his return to Spain, Topete was made port captain at Cadiz, which enabled him to take the lead of the conspiracy in the fleet against the Bourbon monarchy. He sent the steamer " Buenaventura " to the Canary Isle for Serrano and the other exiles; and when Prim and Sagasta arrived from Gibraltar, the whole fleet under the influence of Topete took such an attitude that the people, garrison and authorities of Cadiz followed suit. Topete took part in all the acts of the revolutionary government, accepted the post of marine minister, was elected a member of the Cortes of 1869, supported the pretensions of Montpensier, opposed the election of Amadeus, sat in several cabinets of that king's reign, was prosecuted by the federal republic of 1873 and again took charge of the marine under Serrano in 1874. After the Restora- tion Topete for some years held aloof, but finally accepted the presidency of a naval board in 1877, and sat in the Senate as a life peer until his death on the 29th of October 1885 at Madrid. TOPFFER, RODOLPHE (1799-1846), the inventor of pedes- trian-journeys in Switzerland by schoolboys, was born at Geneva on the 31st of January 1799. His grandfather, a tailor, came about 1 760 from Schweinfurt (Bavaria) to settle in Geneva, while his father, Adam, was an artist. Rodolphe's literary education was rather desultory, as he intended to be an artist, like his father. But in 1819 his weak eyesight put an end to that intention, so he studied in Paris, intending to devote himself to the profession of schoolmaster. After passing some time in a private school in Geneva (1822-1824), he founded (1824) one of his own, after his marriage. It was in 1823 that he made his first foot journey in the Alps with his pupils, though this became his regular practice only from 1832 onwards. These Voyages en zigzag were described annually (1832-1843) in a series of lithographed volumes, with sketches by the author — the first printed edition appeared at Paris in 1844, and a second series (Nouveaux voyages en zig- zag) also at Paris in 1854. Both series have since passed through many editions. In 1832 he was named professor of belles-lettres at the university of Geneva, and held that chair till his death, on the 8th of June 1846. As early as 1834 he published an article in the Bibliotheque universelle of Geneva. It was followed by a number of tales, commencing with the Bibliotheque de mon oncle (1832), many of which were later collected (1841) into the weil- known volume which bears the title of Nouvelles genevoises. He took some part (on the Conservative side) in local politics, and was (1841-1843) editor of the Courrier de Geneve. Among TOPHET— TORDENSKJOLD 5° his other works are an edition of Demosthenes (1824), and a volume of artistic studies, the Reflexions et menus propos d'un peintre genevois (1848). Lives by A. Blondel and the abbe Relave (both published at Paris, 1886), and shorter notices in E. Rambert's Ecrivains nationaux (Geneva, 1874) ; and E. Javelle's Souvenirs d'un alpiniste (Lausanne, 1886; Eng. trans., 1899, under the title of Alpine Memories), and several chapters in Ste Beuve's Causeries du lundi, Verniers portraits litteraires and Portraits contemporains. (W. A. B. C.) TOPHET, or Topheth (nsnn), the name given in 2 Kings xxiii. 10; Jer. vii. 31, to a spot in the valley of Ben Hinnom near Jerusalem where the Hebrews in the time of Ahab and Manasseh offered children to Molech and other heathen gods. Josiah " defiled" it as part of his reforming activity, and it became a place for the bestowal and destruction of refuse, and a synonym for Gehenna (Isa. xxx. 3$ ; Jer. vii. 32). The uncertain etymology of the word is discussed in the Ency. Bib., s.v. " Molech," § 3, "Topheth." TOPIARY, a term in gardening or horticulture for the cutting and trimming of shrubs, such as cypress, box or yew, into regular and ornamental shapes. It is usually applied to the cutting of trees into urns, vases, birds and other fantastic shapes, which were common at the end of the 17th century and through the 18th, but it also embraces the more restrained art necessary for the laying out of a formal garden. Yew and holly trees cut into fantastic objects may still be seen in old-fashioned cottage or farmhouse gardens in England. The Lat. topiarius meant an ornamental or landscape gardener, and was formed from topia (Gr. T07ros, place), a term specially employed for a formal kind of landscape painting used as a mural decoration in Roman houses. TOPLADY, AUGUSTUS MONTAGUE (1740-1778), Anglican divine, was born at Farnham, Surrey, and educated at West- minster and Trinity College, Dublin. Although originally a follower of Wesley, he in 1758 adopted extreme Calvinist opinions. He was ordained in 1762 and became vicar of Harpford with Fenn-Ottery, Devonshire, in 1766. In 1768 he exchanged to the living of Broadhembury, Devonshire. He is chiefly known as a writer of hymns and poems, including " Rock of Ages," and the collections entitled Poems on Sacred Subjects (Dublin, 1759) and Psalms and Hymns for Public, and Private Worship (London, 1776). His best prose work is the Historic Proof of the Doctrinal Calvinism of the Church of England (London, 1774). Some comments by Wesley upon Toplady's presentation of Calvinism led to a controversy which was carried on with much bitter- ness on both sides. Toplady wrote a venomous Letter to Mr Wesley (1770), and Wesley repeated his comments in The Consequence Proved (1 771), whereupon Toplady replied with increased acridity in More Work for Mr Wesley (1772). From 1775 to 1778, having obtained leave of non-residence at Broadhembury, he lived in London, and ministered at a Calvinist church in Orange Street. TOPOGRAPHY (Gr. rbvos, place, ypaeiv, to write), a description of a town, district or locality, giving details of its geographical and architectural features. The term is also applied in anatomy to the mapping out of the surface of the human body, either according to a division based on the organs or parts lying below certain regions, or on a superficial plotting out of the body by anatomical boundaries and landmarks. TORAN, the name in Hindustani (Skr. torana, from tor, pass) of a sacred or honorific gateway in Buddhist architecture. Its typical form is a projecting cross-piece resting on two uprights or posts. It is made of wood or stone, and the cross-piece is generally of three bars placed one on the top of the other; both cross-piece and posts are usually sculptured. XORBERNITE (or cupro-uranite), a mineral which is one of the " uranium micas "; a hydrous uranium and copper phosphate, Cu(U02) 2 (P04)2-|-i2H20. Crystals are tetragonal and have the form of square plates, which are often very thin. There is a perfect micaceous cleavage parallel to the basal plane, and on this face the lustre is pearly. The bright grass-green colour is a characteristic feature of the mineral. The hardness is 25 and the specific gravity 3-5. The radio-activity of the mineral is greater than that of some specimens of pitchblende. It was first observed in 1772 at Johanngeorgenstadt in Saxony, but the best examples are from Gunnislake near Calstock and Redruth in Cornwall. The name torbenite is after Torbern Bergman: chalcolite is a synonym. (L. J. S.) TORCELLO, an island of Venetia, Italy, in the lagoons about 6 m. to the N. W. of Venice, belonging to the commune of Burano. It was a flourishing city in the early middle ages, but now has only a few houses and two interesting churches. The former cathedral of S. Maria was founded in the 7th century. The present building, a basilica with columns, dates from 864; the nave was restored in 1008, in which year the now ruined octagonal baptistery was built. It contains large mosaics of the 12th century, strongly under Byzantine influence; those on the west wall represent the Resurrection and Last Judgment. The seats for the priests are arranged round the semicircular apse, rising in steps with the bishop's throne in the centre — an arrange- ment unique in Italy. Close by is S. Fosca, a church of the 12th century, octagonal outside, with colonnades on five sides and a rectangular interior intended for a dome which was never executed, beyond which is a three-apsed choir. In the local museum are four Mycenaean vases, one found in the island and another on the adjacent island of Mazzorbo, proving direct intercourse with the Aegean Sea in prehistoric times. See R. M. Dawkins, in Journal of Hellenic Studies (1904), xxiv. 125. TORCH (O. Fr. torche, from Med. Lat. tortia, derived from tortus, twisted, torquere, to twist), a light or illuminant that can be carried in the hand, made of twisted tow, hemp or other inflammable substance. Torches or " links " were, till the general introduction of street lighting, necessary adjuncts for passengers on foot or in carriages in towns at night, and many of the older houses in London and elsewhere still retain the iron stands outside their doors, in which the torches might be placed. TORCHERE, a candelabrum mounted upon a tall stand of wood or metal, usually with two or three lights. When it was first introduced in France towards the end of the 17th century the torchere mounted one candle only, and when the number was doubled or tripled the improvement was regarded almost as a revolution in the lighting of large rooms. TORDENSKJOLD, PEDER (1 691-17 20), eminent Danish naval hero, the tenth child of alderman Jan Wessel of Bergen, in Norway, was born at Trondhjem on the 28th of October 1691. Wessel was a wild unruly lad who gave his pious parents much trouble. Finally he ran away from them by hiding in a ship bound for Copenhagen, where the king's chaplain Dr Peder Jes- persen took pity on the friendless lad, gratified his love for the sea by sending him on a voyage to the West Indies, and finally procured him a vacant cadetship. After further voyages, this time to the East Indies, Wessel was, on the 7th of July 1711, appointed 2nd lieutenant in the royal marine and shortly afterwards became the captain of a little 4-gun sloop " Ormen" (The Serpent), in which he cruised about the Swedish coast and picked up much useful information about the enemy. In June 1712 he was promoted to a 20-gun frigate, against the advice of the Danish admiralty, which pronounced him to be too flighty and unstable for such a command. His dis- criminating patron was the Norwegian admiral Lovendal, who was the first to recognize the young man's ability as a naval officer. At this period Wessel was already renowned for two things: the audacity with which he attacked any Swedish vessels he came across regardless of odds, and his unique seaman- ship, which always enabled him to escape capture. The Great Northern War had now entered upon its later stage, when Sweden, beset on every side by foes, employed her fleet principally to transport troops and stores to her distressed German provinces. The audacity of Wessel impeded her at every point. He was continually snapping up transports, dashing into the fjords where her vessels lay concealed, and holding up her detached frigates. In July 1714 he encountered a frigate which had been equipped in England for the Swedes and was on its way to Gothenburg under the command of an English captain. Wessel instantly TOREADOR— TORENO 5i attacked her but in the English captain he met his match. The combat lasted all day, was interrupted by nightfall, and renewed again indecisively the following morning. Wessel's free and easy ways procured him many enemies in the Danish navy. He was accused of unnecessarily endangering his majesty's war-ships in the affairs with the frigate and he was brought before a court-martial. But the spirit with which he defended himself and the contempt he poured on his less courageous comrades took the fancy of King Frederick IV., who cancelled the proceedings and raised Wessel to the rank of captain. When in the course of 171 5 the return of Charles XII. from Turkey to Stralsund put a new life into the jaded and dispirited Swedish forces, Wessel distinguished himself in numerous engagements off the Pomeranian coast and did the enemy infinite damage by cutting out their frigates and destroy- ing their transports. On returning to Denmark in the beginning of 1716 he was ennobled under the title of " Tordenskjold " (Thundershield). When in the course of 1716 Charles XII. invaded Norway and sat down before the fortress of Fredrik- shald, Tordenskjold compelled him to raise the siege and retire to Sweden by pouncing upon the Swedish transport fleet laden with ammunition and other military stores which rode at anchor in the narrow and dangerous strait of Dynekil, utterly destroying the Swedish fleet with little damage to him- self. For this, his greatest exploit, he was promoted to the rank of commander, but at the same time incurred the enmity of his superior officer Admiral Gabel, whom he had omitted to take into his confidence on the occasion. Tordenskjold's first important command was the squadron with which he was entrusted in the beginning of 17 17 for the purpose of destroying the Swedish Gothenburg squadron which interrupted the com- munications between Denmark and Norway. Owing to the disloyalty of certain of his officers who resented serving under the young adventurer, Tordenskjold failed to do all that was expected of him. His enemies were not slow to take advantage of his partial failure. The old charge of criminal recklessness was revived against him at a second court-martial before which he was summoned in 17 18; but his old patron Admiral U. C. Gyldenlove again intervened energetically in his behalf and the charge was quashed. In December 17 18 Tordenskjold brought to Frederick IV. the welcome news of the death of Charles XII. and was made a rear-admiral for his pains. Tor- denskjold's last feat of arms was his capture of the Swedish fortress of Marstrand, when he partially destroyed and partially captured the Gothenburg squadron which had so long eluded him. He was rewarded with the rank of vice-admiral. Tordenskjold did not long survive the termination of the war. On the 20th of November 1720 he was killed in a duel with a Livonian colonel, Jakob Axel Stael von Holstein. Although, Dynekil excepted, Tordenskjold's victories were of far less importance than Sehested's at Stralsund and Gyldenlove's at Rtigen, he is certainly, after Charles XII., the most heroic figure of the Great Northern War. His courage was fully equal to the courage of " The Lion of the North," but he lacked that absolute self- command which gives to the bravery of Charles XII. its peculiar, almost superhuman, character. See Carstensen and Liitken, Tordenskjold (Copenhagen, 1887). (R. N. B.) TOREADOR, a Spanish word derived from torear, to engage in a bull-fight, toro, a bull, Latin taurus, for one of the principal performers in the national sport of bull-fighting '(q.v.). TORELL, OTTO MARTIN (1828-1900), Swedish geologist, was born in Varberg on the 5th of June 1828. He was edu- cated at Lund for the medical profession, but became interested in zoological and geological studies, and being of independent means he devoted himself to science. He gave his attention first especially to the invertebrate fauna and the physical changes of pleistocene and recent times. He studied the glacial phenomena of Switzerland, Spitzbergen and Green- land, making two Arctic expeditions in company with A. E. Nordenskiold. In 1866 he became professor of zoology and geology in the University at Lund, and in 187 1 he was appointed chief of the Swedish Geological Survey. In the latter capacity he laboured until 1897. His published contributions, though of much interest and importance, were not large, but his influence in promoting a knowledge of geology in Sweden, was of great service. His Arctic experiences enabled him to interpret the method of origin of the drift deposits in northern Europe, and to show that they were largely of glacial or fluvio-glacial origin. In the English drifts he recognized many boulders of Scandinavian origin. He died on the nth of September 1900. His publications include: Bidrag till Spitzbergens molluskfauna (1859); and memoirs to accompany several sheets of the Geological Survey map of Sweden. Obituary with portrait, in Geo!. Mag (May 1902), reproduced in abridged form from memoir by L. Holmstrom, in Geologiska forenin- gen i Stockholm 's forhandlingar, xxiii. TORENO, JOSE MARIA QUIEPO DE LLANO RUIZ DE SARAVIA, Count of (1786-1843), Spanish politician and his- torian, was born at Oviedo on the 25th of November 1786. His family was wealthy and belonged to the most ancient nobility of Asturias. His mother, Dominga Ruiz de Saravia, had property in the province of Cuenca. The son received a better education in classics, mathematics and modern languages than was usual at that time. The young viscount of Matarrosa, the title he bore in his father's lifetime, was introduced to the writings of Voltaire and Rousseau by the abbot of the Benedictine house of Monserrat in Madrid. He was present at Madrid when the city rose against Murat on the 2nd of May 1808, and took part in the struggle which was the beginning of the Peninsular War. From Madrid he escaped to Asturias, and on the 30th of May he embarked in a Jersey privateer at Gijon, with other delegates, in order to ask for the help of England against the French. The deputation was enthusiastically received in London. By the 30th of December he was back in Asturias, his father having died in the interval. During the Peninsular War he saw some service in the first occupation of Asturias by the French, but he was mainly occu- pied by his duties as a member of the Cortes. In 1809 he was at Seville, where one of his uncles was a member of the central Junta. In the following year he was a leader of the party which compelled the Regency to summon the Cortes — to which he was elected by Asturias early in 181 1 though he wanted some months of the legal age of twenty-five. His election was opposed by some of his own relatives who did not share his advanced opinions, but it was ratified by the Cortes. Toreno was conspicuous among the well-meaning men who framed the constitution of 181 2, which was made as if it was meant for some imaginary republic and not for Catholic and monarchical Spain. When Ferdinand VII. returned from prison in France in 1814 Toreno foresaw a reaction, and put himself out of reach of the king. He was the more an object of suspicion because his brother- in-law, Porlier, perished in a wild attempt to support the con- stitution by force. Toreno remained in exile till the outbreak of the revolution of 1820. Between that year and 1823 he was in Spain serving in the restored Cortes, and experience had abated his radical ardour. . When the French intervened in 1823 Toreno had again to go into exile, and remained abroad till the king published the amnesty of the 15th of October 1832. He returned home in July 1833, but remained on his estates till the king's death on the 29th of September. As hereditary standard bearer of Asturias (Alferez Mayor) it fell to him to proclaim the young queen, Isabella II. In 1834 his now moderate opinions pointed him out to the queen regent, Maria Christina, as a useful man for office. In June 1834 he was minister of finance, and became prime minister on the 7th of June. His tenure of the premiership lasted only till the 14th of September of the same year, when the regent's attempt to retain a practically despotic government under a thin constitutional veil broke down. The greater part of the remainder of his life was spent in voluntary exile, and he died in Paris on the 1 6 th of September 1843. As a politician he felt the need for a revision of the worn out despotism which ruled till 1808, but he was destitute of any real political capacity. Toreno is chiefly remembered as the author of the History of the Rising, War 52 TORENO— TORONTO and Revolution of Spain, which he began between 1823 and 183 2 and published in 1836-1838 in Paris. As a work of military criticism it is not of high value, and Toreno was prejudiced in favour of his colleagues of the Cortes, whose errors and ex- cesses he shared in and excused. The book is, however, written in excellent Castilian, and was compiled with industry. It is worth consulting as an illustration of the time in which the author lived, as a patriotic Spanish view of the war, and for the pro- minence it gives to the political side of the Peninsular War, which he justly treated as a revolution. A biography by Don Antonio de Cueto is prefixed to the reprint of the Levantamiento giterra y revolution de Espana, in vol. lxiv. of the Biblioteca de autores espanoles of Rivadeneyra (Madrid 1846-1880). TORENO, QUEIPO DE LLANO Y GAYOSO DE, Count (1840-1890), Spanish politician, son of the preceding, was born in Madrid in 1840. He was educated at the Madrid Institute and University, entered parliament in 1864 as a Moderado, and sat in all the Cortes of Queen Isabella's reign as a deputy for his ancestral province, Asturias. Loyal to the Bourbons all through the revolution, he nevertheless became a deputy in the Cortes of 1871-1873, and founded an Alphonsist paper, El Tiempo, in 1873. When the Restoration took place, its first cabinet made Count de Toreno mayor of the capital, and in 1875 minister of public works, in which capacity he im- proved the public libraries, museums, academies and archives, and caused many important works to be published, includ- ing the Cartas de Indias. In 1879 he became minister for foreign affairs, in 1880 president of the House of Deputies, in 1884 again governor of Madrid, and in 1885 again president of the House of Deputies. During the reign of Alphonso XII. and the first years of the regency of Queen Christina Count de Toreno was one of the most prominent Conservative leaders, and was often consulted by the Crown. He died on the 31st of January 1890. He was a patron of the turf, and established a race-course in Madrid, where the first races took place in the reign of Alphonso XII. TORGAU, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Saxony, situated on the left bank of the Elbe, 30 m. N.E. of Leipzig and 26 m. S.E. of Wittenberg by rail. Pop. (1905), 12,299. Its most conspicuous building is the Schloss Hartenfels, on an island in the Elbe, which was built, or at least was finished, by the elector of Saxony, John Frederick the Magnanimous. This castle, which is now used as a barracks, is one of the largest Renaissance buildings in Germany. It was for some time the residence of the electors of Saxony and contains a chapel con- secrated by Martin Luther. The town hall, a 16th-century building, houses a collection of Saxon antiquities. Torgau has two Evangelical churches and a Roman Catholic church. One of the former, the Stadt Kirche, contains paintings by Lucas Cranach and the tomb of Catherine von Bora, the wife of Luther. The chief industries of the town are the manufacture of gloves, carriages, agricultural machinery, beer and bricks; there is a trade in grain both on the Elbe and by rail. The fortifications, begun in 1807 by order of Napoleon, were dis- mantled in 1889-1891. In the vicinity is the royal stud farm of Graditz. Torgau is said to have existed as the capital of a distinct principality in the time of the German king Henry I., but early in the 14th century it was in the possession of the margraves of Meissen and later of the electors of Saxony, who frequently resided here. The town came into prominence at the time of the Reformation. In 1526 John, elector of Saxony, Philip, landgrave of Hesse, and other Protestant princes formed a league against "the Roman Catholics, and the Torgau articles, drawn up here by Luther and his friends in 1530, were the basis of the confession of Augsburg. Torgau is particularly celebrated as the scene of a battle fought on the 3rd of November 1760, when Frederick the Great defeated the Austrians (see Seven Years' War). In January 1814 Torgau was taken by the Germans after a siege of three months and it was formally ceded to Prussia in 1815. See Grulich and Burger, Denkwurdigkeiten der altsachsischett Residenz Torgau aus der Zeit der Reformation (Torgau, 1855) ; Knabe, Geschichte der Stadt Torgau bis zur Reformation (Torgau, 1880) ; and the publications of the Altertumverein tu Torgau (Torgau, 1884 sqq.). TORNADO (Span., tornada, a turning about, cf. "turn"), a local whirlwind of extreme violence, usually formed within a thunderstorm. In appearance it consists of a funnel-shaped cloud, depending from the mass of storm-cloud above, and when fully developed tapering downwards to the earth. Besides its whirling motion, a tornado has an advancing movement of from 20 to 40 m. an hour — and along its own narrow path it carries destruction. Its duration is usually from half an hour to an hour. Tornadoes are most common in America, espe- cially in the Mississippi Valley and the Southern states; in Europe and elsewhere they are comparatively rare. Owing to their association with thunderstorms they generally occur in warm weather. A tornado is the result of a condition of local in- stability in the atmosphere, originating high above the earth. A current of air is induced to ascend with a rapid spiral motion round a central core of low pressure. The moisture in the ascending air is condensed by cooling both as it ascends and as it expands into the low-pressure core. The cloud-funnel appears to grow downwards because the moisture in the air is condensed more rapidly than the air itself, following a spiral course, ascends. TORO, a town of Spain, in the province of Zamora, on the right bank of the river Duero (Douro), and on the Zamora- Medina del Campo railway. Pop. (1900), 8379. Toro is an ancient fortified town, with picturesque narrow streets, among which are many medieval churches, convents and palaces, besides modern schools and public buildings. A fine bridge of twenty-two arches spans the river. The cathedral church is Romanesque; it dates from the 12th century but has been partially restored. The palace of the marquesses of Santa Cruz was the meeting place of the Cortes of 1371, 1442 and 1505, which made Toro and its code of laws celebrated. Toro is first mentioned in documents of the 10th century. It played an important part in the development of the kingdoms of Leon and Castile and in the reconquest of Spain from the Moors. TORONTO, the capital of the province of Ontario, and the second largest city in the Dominion of Canada, situated on the northern shore of Lake Ontario, almost due north from the mouth of the Niagara river. It lies on a plateau gradually ascending from the lake shore to an altitude of 220 ft., and covers an area of nearly 20 sq. m. The river Don flows through the eastern part of the city, and the river Humber forms its western limit. The fine bay in front of the city, affording a safe and commodious harbour, is formed by an island stretching along the south of it. The city is well laid out for the most part, the streets crossing each other at right angles; Yonge Street, the chief artery, running north from the bay, was constructed as a military road in 1796, and extends under the same name for upwards of 30 m. to Lake Simcoe. It constitutes the dividing line of the city, the cross streets being called east or west according to the side of it they are on. Toronto is the seat of government for the province, and contains the parliament buildings, the lieutenant-governor's residence, the courts of law and the educational departmental buildings. The parliament buildings are situated in Queen's Park, almost in the centre of the city, and are an imposing structure of red. sandstone in the neo-Greek style built at great cost. They are shortly to be enlarged, as the needs of the province have outgrown them. A little distance to the west stand the university buildings, the central one being a splendid piece of architecture in the Norman style. Stretching in a semi' circle round the broad campus are the library, the medical building, the biology building and museum, the school of practical science, the geology and chemistry buildings and the convoca- tion hall, their architecture varying very greatly, beauty having been sacrificed to more practical considerations; the magnetic observatory is also in the grounds, but is overshadowed by some of the more recent erections. It is one of the meteorological TORPEDO 53 stations established by the British government on the recom- mendation of the Royal Society in 1840 and is now maintained by the Dominion government. The university of Toronto, for the support of which the province is responsible, includes faculties of arts, science and medicine, in the teaching of which it is strictly secular. But near at hand and in full affiliation with the university are Victoria College (Methodist), Wycliffe College (Anglican), Knox College (Presbyterian) and St Michael's College (Roman Catholic), wherein courses in divinity are given and degrees conferred. Victoria College, likewise, provides a course in arts, but none in science. Trinity College (Anglican), though some distance away, is also affiliated with the univer- sity, and her students enjoy its full advantages. Besides the university, Toronto is remarkably rich in educational institu- tions. Upper Canada College, founded in 1829, in many respects resembles one of the English public schools. It has over 300 students. St Andrew's College, also for boys, is a more recent establishment, and has about the same number of pupils. There are three large collegiate institutes, having some 300 to 600 pupils each, and in addition a number of schools for girls, such as Havergal College and Westminster College. Osgoode Hall, a stately structure in the heart of the city, houses the higher courts of law and appeal, and also a nourishing law school. The city hall and court-house is one of the finest civic build- ings in North America. It is in the Romanesque style, and accommodates all the civic offices, the board of education, the police and county courts, &c. Many of the churches are worthy examples of good architecture. Toronto is essentially a residential city. The houses of the better class stand separate, not in long rows, and have about them ample lawns and abundant trees. It is consequently a widespread city, the length from east to west approximating ten miles. An electric railway system provides means of com- munication. There are many parks, ranging in size from Carlton Park of one acre to High Park (375 acres) and Island Park (389), the latter being across the harbour and constitut- ing the favourite resort of the people during the summer. In Exhibition Park there is held annually an industrial and agri- cultural exhibition that has grown to great magnitude. It lasts a fortnight in late summer. It is a municipal enterprise and the profits belong to the city. The population in 1907, as shown by the police census, exceeded 300,000. The government of the city is vested in a council consisting of the mayor and four controllers elected annually and eighteen aldermen (three from each of the six wards into which the city is divided). The council as a whole is the legislative body, while the board of control is the executive body, and as such is responsible for the supervision of all matters of finance, the appointment of officials, the carrying on of public works, and the general administration of the affairs of the city, except the departments of education and of police, the first being under the control of the board of education, elected annually by the citizens, and the latter under the board of police commissioners, consisting of the mayor, the county judge and the police magistrate. Toronto is one of the chief manufacturing centres of the dominion; agricultural machinery, automobiles, bicycles, cotton goods, engines, furniture, foundry products, flour, smoked meats, tobacco, jewelry, &c, are flourishing industries, and the list is constantly extending. The situation of the city is favourable to commerce, and the largest vessels on the lakes can use its harbour. It is the outlet of a rich and extensive agricultural district, and throughout the season of navigation lines of steamers ply between Toronto and the other lake ports on both the Canadian and American sides, the route of some of them extending from Montreal to Port Arthur on Lake Superior. Railway communication is complete, three great trunk lines making the city a terminal point, viz. the Grand Trunk, the Canadian Pacific and the Canadian Northern. As a financial centre Toronto has made remarkable advance. The transactions on the stock exchange rival those of Montreal. The Bank of Commerce has its headquarters here, as have also the Bank of Nova Scotia, the Bank of Toronto, the Standard Traders, Imperial, Sovereign, Dominion, Crown, United Empire, Sterling and other banks. The name of the city is of Indian origin, meaning " a place of meeting," the site in the days before the coming of the white man being an established rendezvous among the neighbouring Indian tribes. It first appears in history in 1749 as a centre of trade when the French built a small fort and started a trading establishment called Fort Rouille. Before long, however, British traders came up from the south and entered into active rivalry with the French, and in 1793 the fort was burned by the latter to prevent its occupation by their foes. A year later Governor Simcoe transferred the seat of government of the new province of Upper Canada from the town of Newark at the mouth of the Niagara River to Toronto, giving the new capital the name of York, in honour of the second son of George III. Under its new name it made slow progress as the surrounding country was cleared and settled. The entrance to the harbour was guarded by two blockhouses; provision was made for barracks and garrison stores; buildings were erected for the legislature; and there the members of parliament, summoned by royal proclamation to " meet us in our provincial parliament in our town of York," assembled on the 1st of June 1797. Sixteen years later the population numbered only 456. The town was twice sacked in the war of 181 2. General Dearborn captured it at the head of a force of upwards of 2000. On their advance to the outworks of the garrison the magazine of the fort exploded, whether by accident or design, killing many of the invaders. The halls of legislature and other buildings were burnt and the town pillaged. On the restoration of peace the work of creating a capital for Upper Canada had wellnigh to begin anew. The organization of Upper Canada College in 1830, with a staff of teachers nearly all graduates of Cambridge, gave a great impetus to the city and province. In 1834 the population of York numbered fully 10,000; and an act of the provincial legislature conferred on it a charter of incorporation, with a mayor, aldermen and councilmen. Under this charter it was constituted a city with the , name of Toronto. Since that time the progress of the city has been rapid and substantial, the population doubling every twenty years. In 1885 the total assessment was $69,000,000; in 1895 $146,000,000 and in 1906 $167,411,000, the rate of taxation being 185 mills. TORPEDO. In 1805 Robert Fulton demonstrated a new method of destroying ships by exploding a large charge of gunpowder against the hull under water. No doubt then remained as to the effectiveness of this form of attack when successfully applied; it was the difficulty of getting the torpedo, as it was called, to the required position which for many years retarded its progress as a practical weapon of naval warfare. Attempts were first made to bring the explosive in contact with the vessel by allowing it to drift down to her by the action of tide or current, and afterwards to fix it against her from some form of diving boat, but successive failures led to its restriction for a considerable period to the submarine mine (q.v.) in which the explosive is stationary and takes effect only when the ship itself moves over or strikes the charge. Used in this way, it is an excellent deterrent to hostile warships forcing a harbour. Spar or Outrigger Torpedo. — The limitations attached to the employment of submarine mines, except for coast defence, revived the idea of taking the torpedo to the ship instead of waiting for the latter to gain some exact point which she might very possibly avoid. This first took practical shape in the spar or outrigger torpedo. This consisted of a charge of explosive at the end of a long pole projecting from the bow of a boat, the pole being run out and immersed on arriving near the object. Directly the charge came in contact with the hull of the ship it was exploded by an electric battery in the boat. If the boat was not discovered and disabled while approaching, the chances were favourable to success and escape afterwards. Against a vigilant enemy it was doubtless a forlorn hope, but to brave men the venture offered considerable attractions. Frequent use of this spar or outrigger torpedo was made during 54 TORPEDO the American Civil War. A notable instance was the destruction of the Confederate ironclad " Albemarle " at the end of October 1864. On this mission Lieut. Cushing took a steam launch equipped with an outrigger torpedo up the Roanoke River, in which lay the " Albemarle." On arriving near the ship Cushing found her surrounded by logs, but pushing his boat over them, he immersed the spar and exploded his charge in contact with the " Albemarle " under a heavy fire. Ship and launch sank together, but the gallant officer jumped overboard, swam away and escaped. Submerged boats were also used for similar service, but usually went to the bottom with their crews. During the war between France and China in 1884 the " Yang Woo " was attacked and destroyed by an outrigger torpedo. Locomotive Torpedoes. — Though the spar torpedo had scored some successes, it was mainly because the means of defence against it at that time were inefficient. The ship trusted solely to her heavy gun and rifle fire to repel the attack. The noise, smoke, and difficulty of hitting a small object at night with a piece that could probably be discharged but once before the boat arrived, while rifle bullets would not stop its advance, favoured the attack. When a number of small guns and electric lights were added to a ship's equipment, success with an outrigger torpedo became nearly, if not entirely, impossible. Attention was then turned in the direction of giving motion to the torpedo and steering it to the required point by electric wires worked from the shore or from another vessel; or, dispensing with any such connection, of devising a torpedo which would travel under water in a given direction by means of self-contained motive power and machinery. Of the former type are the Lay, Sims- Edison and Brennan torpedoes. The first two — electrically steered by a wire which trails behind the torpedo— have in- sufficient speed to be of practical value, and are no longer used. The Brennan torpedo, carrying a charge of explosive, travels under water and is propelled by unwinding two drums or reels of fine steel wire within the torpedo. The rotation of these reels is communicated to the propellers, causing the torpedo to advance. The ends of the wires are connected to an engine on shore to give rapid unwinding and increased speed to the torpedo. It is steered by vary- ing the speed of unwinding the two wires. This tor- pedo was adopted by the British war office for harbour defence and the protection of narrow channels. Uncontrolled Torpedoes.— The objection of naval officers to have any form of torpedo connected by wire to their ship during an action, impeding her free move- ment, liable to get entangled in her propellers and perhaps exploding where not desired — disadvantages which led them to discard the Harvey towing torpedo many years ago — has hitherto prevented any navy from adopting a controlled torpedo for its sea-going fleet. The last quarter of the 19th century saw, however, great advances in the equipment of ships with locomotive torpedoes of the uncontrolled type. The Howell may be briefly described, as it has a special feature of some interest. Motive power is provided by causing a heavy steel fly-wheel inside the torpedo to revolve with great velocity. This is effected by a small special engine outside operating on the axle. When sufficiently spun up, the axle of the flywheel is connected with the propeller shafts and screws which drive the torpedo, so that on entering the water it is driven ahead and continues its course until the power stored up in the flywheel is exhausted. Now when a torpedo is discharged into the sea from a ship in motion, it has a tendency to deflect owing to the action of the passing water. The angle of deflexion will vary according to the speed of the ship, and is also affected by other causes, such as the position in the ship from which the torpedo is discharged, and its own angle with the fine of keel. Hence arise inaccuracies of shooting; but these do not occur with this torpedo, for the motion of the flywheel, acting as a gyroscope — the principle of which applied to the Whitehead torpedo is described later — keeps this torpedo on a straight course. This advantage, combined with simplicity in construction, induced the American naval authorities at one time to contemplate equipping their fleet with this torpedo, for they had not, up to within a few years ago, adopted any loco- motive torpedo. A great improvement in the torpedo devised by Mr Whitehead led them, however, definitely to prefer the latter and to discontinue the further development of the Howell system. The Whitehead torpedo is a steel fish-shaped body which travels under water at a high rate of speed, being propelled by two screws driven by compressed air. It carries a large charge of explosive which is ignited on the torpedo striking any hard substance, such as the hull of a ship. The body is divided into three parts. The foremost portion or head contains the explo- sive — usually wet gun-cotton — with dry primer and mechanical igniting arrangement; the centre portion is the air chamber or reservoir, while the remaining part or tail carries the engines, rudders, and propellers besides the apparatus for controlling depth and direction. This portion also gives buoyancy to the torpedo. When the torpedo is projected from a ship or boat into the water a lever is thrown back, admitting air into the engines causing the propellers to revolve and drive the torpedo ahead. It is desirable that a certain depth under water should be main- tained. An explosion on the surface would be deprived of the greater part of its effect, for most of the gas generated would escape into the air. Immersed, the water above confines the liberated gas and compels it to exert all its energy against the bottom of the ship. It is also necessary to correct the tendency to rise that is due to the torpedo getting lighter as the air is used up, for compressed air has an appreciable weight. This is effected by an ingenious apparatus long maintained secret. The general principle is to utilize the pressures due to different depths of water to actuate horizontal rudders, so that the torpedo is automatically directed upwards or downwards as its tendency is to sink or rise. The efficiency of such a torpedo compared with all previous types was clearly manifest when it was brought before the maritime states by the inventor, Whitehead, and it was almost universally adopted. The principal defect was want of speed — which at first Speed Z9 Knots to 800 Metres Charge — 133 Lbs wet Gun Cotton !Heieht-....llbO Lbs. 18-INCH TORPEDO fc « n Speed 30 Knots to GOO Yds. Charge~..H5 LbsofVlet GunCoH-on 14-INCH TORPEDO. Weight— 706 Lbs l4 - 7 021— *! FlG. I. — Diagrams of 14- and 18-in. Torpedoes, did not exceed 10 knots an hour — but by the application of Brother- hood's 3-cylinder engine the speed was increased to 18 knots— a great advance. From that time continuous improvements have resulted in speeds of 30 knots and upwards for a short range being obtained. For some years a torpedo 14 ft. long and 14 in. in diameter was considered large enough, though it had a very limited effective range. For a longer range a larger weapon must be employed capable of carrying a greater supply of air. To obtain this, torpedoes of 18 in. diameter, involving increased length and weight, have for some time been constructed, and have taken the place of the smaller torpedo in the equipment of warships. This advance in dimensions has not only given a faster and steadier torpedo, but enabled such a heavy charge of gun-cotton to be carried that its explosion against any portion of a ship would inevit- ably either sink or disable her. The dimensions, shape, &c, of the 14- and 18-in. torpedoes are shown in fig. 1. A limited range was still imposed by the uncertainty of its course under water. The speed of the ship from which it was discharged, theangle with her keel at which it entered the water, and the varying velocity of impulse, tended to error of flight, such error being magnified the farther the path of the torpedo was prolonged. Hence 800 yds. was formerly considered the limit of distance within which the torpedo should be discharged at sea against an object from a ship in motion. In these circumstances, though improvements in the manufacture of steel and engines allowed of torpedoes of far longer range being TORPEDO 55 made (the fastest torpedo up to 1898 having a speed of 29 knots for 800 yds.), it was of no advantage to make them, as they could not be depended upon to run in a straight line from a stationary point for more than 800 yds., while from a ship in motion good practice could only be ensured at a reduced range. It was obvious, therefore, that to increase the effective range of the torpedo, these errors of direction must be overcome by some automatic steering arrangement. Several inventors turned their attention to the subject, nearly all of whom proposed to utilize the principle of the gyroscope for the purpose. The first which gave any satisfactory results was an apparatus devised by Ludwig Obry — an engineer in Austria — and tried by the Italian government about 1896. These trials demonstrated the feasibility of accurately and auto- matically steering a torpedo in a direct line by this means. Messrs Whitehead & Co., of Fiume, then acquired the invention, and after exhaustive experiments produced the apparatus which' is now fitted to every torpedo made. It is based on the principle that a body revolving on a free axis tends to preserve its plane of rotation. A gyroscope with plane of rotation parallel to the vertical axis of the torpedo will have an angular motion if the torpedo is diverted from its original course. This angular motion is employed to actuate the steering mechanism by operating an air motor connected with the rudders, and keeping the torpedo in the line of discharge. The apparatus consists of a flywheel caused to rotate by a spring, the barrel on which the latter is wound having a segmental wheel which gears into a toothed pinion spindle of the flywheel. Owing to the diameter of the segment being much greater than the pinion, a rapid rotatory motion is imparted. The spring is wound up by a key from outside the torpedo, and kept in tension until the pro- jectile is discharged, when the spring is released by the air lever being thrown back, which admits air to the engine; the gyroscope is then freed and set in motion with its plane in the plane of the vertical axis of the torpedo as it was in the launching tube. Assuming now that the course of the torpedo is diverted by any cause, its axis will move or perform a certain angular motion with regard to the plane of the flywheel, which will have the same result as if we consider the conditions reversed, i.e. as if the plane of rotation of the flywheel were altered and that of the axis of the torpedo remained the same. The axis of the flywheel performs a relative angular motion which it imparts to a crank actuating a servo-motor worked by compressed air, and connected with the rudders of the torpedo, moving them in the opposite direction to that in which the torpedo was diverted from its original course. Thus all inaccuracies of flight due to errors of adjustment, mis- calculation of deflexion, or even damage to some part, are elimin- ated. As long as the gyroscope is in good order the torpedo is bound to run in the line it was pointing when the flywheel was started. It is placed in the after-body of the torpedo, as indicated in fig. 2. limited by the strength of the engines and other parts. Improve- ments in steel manufacture have permitted the use of much higher pressures of air and the construction of air-chambers able to with- stand the pressure of 2000 lb to the sq. in. with the same weight of air-chamber. This has enabled increased range without reduction in speed to be attained, or conversely, increased speed at shorter ranges. By improvement in the engines which are now of the Brotherhood 4-cylinder central crank type further gains have been effected. Having reached the limit of pressure and endurance of air- chambers with present materials without undue increase of weight, the designer had to seek additional energy in another direction. Now the energy obtainable from a given weight of compressed air is dependent upon the volume of air available at the working pressure of the engines. At a constant pressure this volume of air is proportionate to its absolute temperature. If then the air be stored cold and highly heated before delivery to the engine the available energy from a given weight will be greatly increased. By this means we obtain the equivalent of a larger and heavier air-chamber without the increased weight such would involve. As originally used a quantity of hydrocarbon fuel was placed in the air-vessel. Upon discharging the torpedo this fuel was; auto- matically ignited and the contents of the air-chamber were heated. Unless, however, the combustion could be regulated there were serious risks of abnormal pressures, of overheating and weakening the air-vessel. Devices have been applied to overcome this liability, and other methods devised to obtain the same result. By the use of heating and thereby increasing the volume of air in proportion to the rise of temperature the extra volume will allow of an increased speed for a given range or a greater range without increase of speed. The limit to the development of this system seems to be the temperature the materials will stand, but even at this early stage it has added several knots to the speed of this wonderful weapon. Torpedo Carriages and Discharge. — As no gun which is ineffi- ciently mounted can give good results, so the best torpedo is valueless without a good carriage or system of discharge. In the darly days of the Whitehead, discredit came upon it because the importance of this was not sufficiently realized; and an erratic course under water was in nine cases out of ten due to a crude method of dis- charge. A delicate piece of mechanism was dropped into the water from a height of several feet, and naturally suffered Internal derange- ment. Gun-ports were then used for the purpose, but now a special orifice is made, to which the torpedo carriage is fitted with a ball- and-socket joint — forming a water-tight aperture— so that this carriage or tube may be only 2 or 3 ft. above the water-line. The ball-and-socket joint enables it also to have a considerable angle of training. Originally the torpedo was pushed out by a rod acted upon by compressed air, in which case the carriage was a Fig. 2. — Arrangement The efficiency of the Whitehead torpedo has thus been enormously increased, and more accurate practice can now be made at 2000 yds. than was formerly possible at 800 yds. This adds con- siderably to the chances of torpedrj-boats attacking ships, even in day-time, at sea or at anchor, and will render further protection necessary against this weapon. Against a ship in motion there is still, however, the calculation as to her speed and the distance she will travel before the torpedo reaches her. Should this be mis- calculated, an increased range for torpedoes will magnify the error. For instance, a 30-knot torpedo will travel 1000 yds. in a minute. If aimed at a ship on the beam assumed to be steaming 15 knots an hour, to reach her when 1000 yds. distant the- torpedo must be discharged at a point 500 yds. ahead of her. But if the ship is actually steaming 12 knots, she will have travelled only 400 yds. in the minute, and the torpedo will be 100 yds. in advance of her. If discharged at a range of 500 yds., such a miscalculation causes an error of only 50 yds. or 150 ft. But if the object is 300 tt. long, and her centre was taken as the target, her bow would be just at the spot the torpedo would reach in thirty seconds. It would seem, therefore, that increased velocity of torpedo is necessary before the full advantages of the gyroscope can be realized. Now the range of the torpedo is entirely dependent upon the store of energy which can be carried; upon, therefore, the capacity of the air reservoir, the maximum pressure it can stand, and on the effici- ency of the propelling engines. The speed over a given range is also dependent upon these factors; the maximum speed being of Gyroscope in Torpedo, simple frame. The rod, pressing against the tail with some force, was apt to damage or disarrange the rudders, so the air-gun took the place of rod impulse. Here the torpedo fits closely in a tube or cylinder with an opening at the rear made air-tight when closed. At the desired moment compressed air is admitted to the rear part of the cylinder and blows the torpedo out. Gunpowder then superseded air for this operation; and now this has given place to a small charge of cordite, which does not leave any deposit on the inside of the cylinder. There is a double risk in the use of locomotive torpedoes from above water. (1) The charge may be exploded by hostile fire. Though mainly consisting of damp gun-cotton, which is not readily ignited, the dry primer and detonator may be struck, which would lead to a disastrous explosion. (2) The air- chamber is also a source of danger. As it contains air compressed to a high degree of tension, experiments have shown that if struck by a small shell it may burst with great violence ; and as ^t offers a considerable mark, this is not an improbable event in an action. An instance of the danger of above-water torpedo tubes occurred in the Spanish-American War at the battle of Santiago. A shell entered the " Almirante Oquendo " and struck a 14-in. torpedo in the tube. The charge detonated, causing a fearful explosion and practically wrecking that part of the vessel. The develop- ment of moderate-sized quick-firing guns has increased this risk. Hence we find the use of above-water torpedo tubes now mainly confined to torpedo and other craft too small for submerged discharge. 56 TORPEDO Submerged Discharge. — The risk attached to having loaded torpedoes above the water-line — independently of the fact that to get the best result they should start in the element to which they belong — has given great impetus to the system of submerged Gun end Torpedo ready to fire VERTICAL SECTION and tube into the ship again, so that practically the whole operation is one motion. Fig. 3 will further explain this apparatus. A is the outer tube; B the inner tube; C the shield; D torpedo; E explosion chamber for cordite charge placed at K ; F pipe for gas to pass into outer tube ; G and Y doors of inner and outer tube ; J the valve which opens automatically when inner tube arrives at position shown in fig. 2 ; T and P appliance for running the tube in and out by hand when desired ; arrangement for bringing whole apparatus back for repair, &c. ; M and N sluice- valve and handle; R, r\ r 2 , r 3 , for draining tubes before torpedo is put in ; X indicator showing position of inner tube. Torpedoes have been discharged from this apparatus with successful result from a ship steaming at 17! knots. The advantage of cordite over compressed air for impulse is that it requires no attention : when a charge PLAN VIEW Fig. 3. — Broadside Submerged 18-in. Torpedo Tube. discharge. From the earliest days of the weapon this has been employed to some extent. But it was principally in the direction of right-ahead fire, by having an orifice in the stem of the ship under water, t* which a torpedo tube was connected. The tactical idea was thus to supplement attack with the ram, so that if the vessel endeavouring to ram saw that the object would evade this attack, she could project a torpedo ahead, which, travelling faster than the vessel, might as effectually accomplish the required service. The stem orifice had a water-tight cover, which was removed on the torpedo being placed in the tube and the inner door closed; then, sufficient impulse being imparted to eject the torpedo, and its machinery being set in motion at the same time, it darted forward towards the enemy. There is, however, some risk of the ship using a torpedo in this manner striking it before the missile has gathered the necessary impetus from its propellers to take it clear of the vessel. The system, moreover, has the disadvantage of weakening the ram, the construction of which should be of immense strength. There is the further liability of ramming with a torpedo in the bow tube, which would be as disastrous to friend as foe. This method of submerged discharge has therefore given place to ejecting the torpedo from the broadside. Considerable difficulty attached to getting the torpedo clear of the ship from this position without injury, especially when the vessel was proceeding at speed. The natural tendency of the passing water acting on the head of the torpedo as it emerged was to give a violent wrench and crush the rear end before that portion could clear the aperture. To prevent this the torpedo must be held rigid in the line of projection until the tail is clear of the ship. This is thus effected. Besides the tube with the aperture in side of the ship under water, fitted with sluice-valve, all broadside submerged discharge apparatus possess the following features: A shield is pushed out from the ship's side. In this shield there are grooves of some form. Guides on the torpedoes fit and run in these grooves. When discharged the torpedo is thus supported against the streams of passing water, and guided so that its axis continues in the line of projection until the tail is clear of the side, the shield being of such length that this occurs at the same time that the guides on the torpedo leave the grooves in the shield. An apparatus on this principle has been fitted to a number of ships of the British navy, and gives good results at high rates of speed. It has the defect that the shield must be run out previous to the torpedo being discharged, and brought back afterwards, thus involving three separate operations, each performed by compressed air. In the broadside submerged discharge, designed, constructed and supplied to many foreign navies by Messrs Armstrong of the Elswicli works, the three operations are combined in one. There is an outer tube as before, but it contains an inner tube carrying the torpedo. Fized to this tube, and prolonging it, is the shield fitted with grooves. Both tubes have a door at the rear — made air- tight when closed — by which the torpedo is entered. A charge of cordite is used for ejection instead of compressed air, the gas from which entering the outer cylinder first forces the inner tube out, and then by means of a valve in the door of the inner tube passes in and blows out water and torpedo together, the shield supporting the latter until the tail is clear of the ship. By this time the cordite gas has expanded and cooled so as to relieve the pressure in rear; this causes the pressure of the water outside to push the shield is placed in the explosion chamber, and a torpedo is in the tube, all is in readiness for firing when desired, without further attention in the torpedo-room. The cordite is fired by electricity from the conning-tower; the officer, therefore, having ascertained that all is ready below, has only to press a button when the object is in the required position. Automatic indications are given in the conning- tower when the sluice-valve is opened and when all is in readiness for firing. This method of discharging torpedoes from the broadside under water eliminates the principal danger of the system, which required the shield to be put into position beforehand. It was then liable to be struck and distorted by passing wreckage without the fact being apparent to those in the ship. On the discharge of a torpedo its course might thus be arrested, or possibly the charge be pre- maturely exploded in dangerous proximity to its own ship. There was a risk of getting the shield out too soon, and thereby exposing it unduly to injury, or leaving the operation until too late. The tendency of naval equipment being towards complication, any readjustment which makes for simplicity cannot be otherwise than beneficial, and this feature is especially desirable in all matters connected with the use of torpedoes. The compartment containing the broadside submerged apparatus usually extends across the ship, so as to contain a tube for each side. Use in War. — This has been mainly confined to attacks upon squadrons and single ships by torpedo craft of various types. At the battle of Yalu, between the Chinese and Japanese fleets, torpedoes were discharged by the former, but none took effect. The Japanese trusted solely to gun-fire. After the defeat of the Chinese at sea, their remaining ships took refuge in the harbour of Wei-hai-Wei. Here they were blockaded by the Japanese fleet, which, having a number of torpedo-boats, made several determined attacks upon the ships inside. After one or two attempts, foiled by the obstructions placed by the Chinese to bar the passage, the Japanese boats succeeded in torpedoing several ships, and thus expedited the reduction of the place. In the war between Spain and the United States the inferiority of Admiral Cervera's squadron to that under Admiral Sampson might at the battle of Santiago have been to some extent counterbalanced by a skilful and vigorous use of torpedoes. If, instead of striving only to escape, a bold dash had been made for the American ships, the Spanish cruisers rapidly approaching end on to the foe, enveloped in the smoke of their own guns, should — some at least — have got within torpedo range without fatal injury. Closing each other at a speed of 10 knots only they would cover an interval of 6000 yds. in 9 minutes — a short time in which to disable a ship by gun-fire under such conditions. But Cervera elected to offer a passive resistance only, and while suffering destruction wrought no material injury upon his opponents. On the other hand, there have been TORPEDO 57 several instances of large warships being sunk by locomotive torpedoes discharged from small craft. During the Chilean revolutionary war of 1891, a battleship, the " Blanco Encalada," of 3500 tons, was attacked in Caldera Bay by two torpedo vessels — the " Lynch " and " Condell " — of 750 tons. They entered the bay at dawn, the " Condell " leading. This vessel fired three torpedoes which missed the ironclad; then the " Lynch," after one ineffective shot, discharged a second torpedo, which struck the " Blanco " on the side, nearly amidships. The latter had opened fire with little result, and sank soon afterwards. A similar incident occurred in 1894, when the Brazilian ironclad " Aquidaban " was sunk in Catherina Bay by the " Sampaio " — a torpedo vessel of 500 tons. She entered the bay at night, and first discharged her bow torpedo at the ironclad, which missed; she then fired a broadside torpedo, which struck and exploded against the bow of the " Aquidaban." It caused a great shock on board, throwing an officer on the bridge into the water. The vessel sank soon afterwards, and the "Sampaio" escaped uninjured. In the war (1904-5) between Russia and Japan the Whitehead torpedo did not exercise an important influence upon the naval operations. It scored a success at the beginning of the struggle when a Japanese torpedo-flotilla made an attack upon the Russian fleet lying at anchor outside Port Arthur. For some unaccountable reason, though war was imminent, little or no precautions seemed to have been taken for effectually guarding the vessels. They had no nets in position nor boats patrolling outside them. Thus taken by surprise when the Japanese torpedo-boats suddenly appeared about midnight on the 8th of February 1904, several Russian ships were struck by torpedoes before they could offer any resistance. The most damaged were the " Retvisan " and " Tsarevitch " (battleships) and " Pallada " (cruiser), but all managed to get into Port Arthur and were eventually repaired. With three ships hors de combat the Russian fleet was considerably weakened at an early stage. The loss of the " Petropavlovsk " in April from a mine explosion was a further discouragement, especially as with this ship went down the gallant and energetic Admiral Makarov. In these circumstances the Russian fleet could not assume the offensive nor prevent the Japanese troops being sent by sea to invest Port Arthur. In June when the injured vessels were fit for service again the fleet put to sea but returned the same evening. The incident is noteworthy only because it led to an attack by the Japanese torpedo craft on the retiring squadron after sunset. As illustrating the uncertainty of hit- ting a moving object at sea with the Whitehead torpedo, already mentioned, no vessels were struck on this occasion and they reached the anchorage uninjured. In the battle of Tsushima the Japanese torpedo-boats attacked the Russian fleet after its disablement by gun-fire and gave the coup de grdce to some of the ships, which had little power of resistance owing to the destruction of their light armament. This war, therefore, did not increase to any extent our knowledge of the actual capability of this weapon. Effect upon Naval Tactics: Blockade. — It has often been assumed that steam and the torpedo will in future render blockade impossible as it was carried out in .the old wars; that, no longer dependent upon the wind to allow egress from the blockaded port, a vessel using steam can emerge when she chooses, while the fear of torpedo attack will deter a blockading squadron from keeping such watch as to foil the attempt. As regards the power conferred by steam, it will be no less advan- tageous to a blockading squadron, enabling it to maintain its position, whereas sailing ships were often driven by gales to leave their station and seek a port. This gave opportunities for the blockaded vessels to escape. As regards torpedo-boats, they would no doubt be a danger to a blockading squadron unpro- vided with a means of defence against these craft. Such defence consists in an adequate number of small vessels interposing an in-shore squadron between the port and the main body outside. Thus they perform the twofold service of watching the enemy's movements within and frustrating a torpedo attack. As an instance of blockade under modern conditions, we have that of Admiral Sampson upon Santiago — a guard more rigidly maintained than any in the old wars. So little was he deterred by the knowledge that' Admiral Cervera had two torpedo vessels in his force, that he drew his squadron closer in at night when an attack might be expected, actually illuminating the entrance of the harbour with his electric searchlights, so that no craft could come out unperceived. No attempt was made to ' dislodge him from that position, and we may assume that blockade, if required in any scheme of naval strategy, will be carried out, whatever the weapons of warfare. As regards the effect of torpedoes upon tactics at sea, and in general, as well as single ship, actions, they must operate against close range and employment of the ram. If it is recognized that a vessel within 1000 yds. is liable to a fatal blow, she will endeavour in ordinary circumstances to keep outside that distance and rely upon gun-fire. The exception would be where she is overmatched in that respect, and hence might endeavour to restore the balance by the use of torpedoes. In a fleet action the danger of missing a foe and hitting a friend would restrict the discharge of torpedoes; and this risk increases as formations disappear. But the torpedo must be conceded a tactical superiority over the ram for the following reasons: A vessel to use the latter must come within torpedo range, while her adversary may successfully apply torpedoes without placing herself in any danger of being rammed. The ram can only be used in one direction, and a small miscalculation may cause disaster. If a vessel has, more than one position from which torpedoes can be discharged, she is not confined as regards attack to a single bearing or direction. In action we may consider the speed of the torpedo as double that of the ship, and since against a moving object allowance must be made for the space traversed while ram or torpedo is travelling towards it, the faster weapon is less affected in its chance of successful impact by change of direction and speed of the object at the last moment. Lastly, with machinery disabled a ship is powerless to use the ram, but can avert a ram attack with her torpedoes. The movements of squadrons or single ships on entering an action are not likely to be influenced by any contemplated immediate use of torpedoes, for the gun must remain the primary weapon, at any rate at the first onset. Commanders would hardly risk being crushed by gun-fire before getting within torpedo range. Having faith in the efficiency of their ordnance and the gunnery skill of their crew, they would first manoeuvre to bring these into play. Tactics for torpedo attack in such circumstances have not therefore been laid down, and it is only necessary to consider the positions which are advantageous for the use of this weapon, and, conversely, what should be avoided when a vessel, finding herself overmatched in gunnery, seeks to redress the balance with torpedoes. Size of Target. — This, with a ship, varies in length as the torpedo approaches end on to the vessel, or at angle to the line of keel ; the greatest being' when the path of both forms a right angle. Hence the object is to place your ship where it presents the former condition to the enemy, while he affords the larger target. It must be remembered that, owing to the comparatively slow velocity of the torpedo, it must be aimed not directly at a ship in motion — like a shot from a gun — but at a point ahead which the ship will reach after the torpedo has traversed the intervening distance. Thus speed of object has to be estimated, and hence the importance of adding to the velocity of the torpedo and getting a broadside shot so as to reduce as much as possible errors of calculation. The great increase of the dimensions of warships, especially in length, which now has reached 500 ft., adds to the chances of a successful hit with torpedoes, and will doubtless tend to diminish a desire in future naval tactics to close inside torpedo range for the purpose of ramming. Range. — Though the effective range of a torpedo discharged from a ship or torpedo vessel against a single object moving at high speed may be considered as approximately within 1000 yds. this limit of distance is considerably augmented where the target consists of several vessels at sea in close order, or is that afforded by a fleet at anchor. In the first case it may be worth while to discharge torpedoes from a distance of two or three thou- sand yards at the centre of the line for the chance of hitting one of the vessels composing it. As regards a mass of ships at anchor. 5S TORQUAY— TORQUEMADA, T. unless protected by an impenetrable guard such as a breakwater or some invulnerable defence carried by the ships themselves, the increased range and accuracy of the torpedo imparted by recent developments would give it a chance of success if discharged against such a target at even greater distance. Finally, by improvements in construction and methods of dis- charge the torpedo has recovered the place it was rapidly losing a few years ago. As armour receives increased resisting power to above-water projectiles, and gets on a level again with the gun, more attention will be given to under-water attack, against which no adequate protection has yet been devised. Thus we shall probably find the torpedo taking a very prominent place in any future war between the great maritime powers. (S. M E.-W.) TORQUAY, a municipal borough, seaport and watering place, in the Torquay parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, on Tor Bay of the English Channel, 26 m. S. of Exeter, by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901), 33,625. Owing to the beauty of its site and the equability of its climate, and to its being screened by lofty hills on the north, east and west, and open to the sea-breezes of the south, it has a high reputation as a winter residence. The temperature seldom rises as high as 70° F. in summer or falls below freezing-point in winter. To the north lies the populous suburb of St Mary Church. There are some remains of Tor or Torre Abbey, founded for Praemonstratensians by William, Lord Brewer, in 1196. They stand north of the modern mansion, but, with the exception of a beautiful pointed arch portal, are of small importance. On the south of the gateway is a 13th-century building, known as the Spanish barn. On Chapel Hill are the remains of a chapel of the 12th century, dedicated to St Michael, and supposed to have formerly belonged to the abbey. St Saviour's parish church of Tor-Mohun, or Tor- moham, an ancient stone structure, was restored in 1874. The old church at St Mary Church, north of Torquay, was rebuilt in Early Decorated style; and in 1871 a tower was erected as a memorial to Dr Phillpotts, bishop of Exeter, who with his wife is buried in the churchyard. St John's Church, by G. E. Street, is a fine example of modern Gothic. Among the principal buildings and institutions are the town-hall, museum of the natural history society, theatre and opera-house (1880), market, schools of art and science, the Torbay infirmary and dispensary, the Western hospital for consumption, Crypt House institution for invalid ladies and the Mildmay home for incurable consumptives. The control of the harbour, piers, pleasure grounds, &c, was acquired from the lord of the manor by the local board in 1886. The harbour has a depth of over 20 ft. at low water. The principal imports are coal, timber and slates, and the principal export stone of the Transition limestone or Devonshire marble. In the town are a number of marble-polishing works. Terra-cotta ware of fine quality is also manufactured from a deposit of clay at Watcombe and at Hele. The town is governed by a mayor, 9 aldermen and 27 councillors. Area, 3588 acres. There was a village at Torre even before the foundation of the abbey, and in the neighbourhood of Torre evidence has been found of Roman occupation. The manor was granted by William the Conqueror to Richard de Bruvere or de Brewere, and was subsequently known as Tor Brewer. After the defeat of the Spanish Armada, Don Pedro's galley was brought into Torbay; and William, prince of Orange, landed at Torbay on the 5th of November 1688. Until the middle of the 19th century it was an insignificant fishing village. It was incorporated in 1892. TORQUE, or Torc (Lat. torquis, torques, a twisted collar, torquere, to twist), the term given by archaeologists to the twisted collars or armlets of gold or other metal worn particu- larly by the ancient Gauls and other allied Celtic races. The typical torque is a circlet with twisted rope-like strands, the ends not joined together; the torque was usually worn with the opening in the front as seen in a figure of a Gaul in a sculptured sarcophagus in the Capitoline Museum at Rome. In mechanics, the term " torque " is used of the turning-moment of a system- force, as in a series dynamo. TORQUEMADA, JUAN DE (1388-1468), or rather Johannes de Turrecremata, Spanish ecclesiastic, was born at Valladolid, in 1388, and was educated in that city. At an early age he joined the Dominican order, and soon distinguished himself for learning and devotion. In 1415 he accompanied the general of his order to the Council of Constance, whence he proceeded to Paris for study, and took his doctor's degree in 1423. After teaching for some time in Paris he became prior of the Dominican house first in Valladolid and then in Toledo. In 143 1 Pope Eugenius IV. called him to Rome and made him " magister sancti palatii." At the Council of Basel he was one of the ablest supporters of the view of the Roman curia, and he was rewarded with a cardinal's hat in 1439. He died at Rome on the 26th of September 1468. His principal works are In Gratiani Decretum commentarii (4 vols., Venice, 1578) ; Exposilio brevis et utilis super toto psalterio (Mainz, 1474) ; Quaestiones spirituales super evangelia totius anni (Brixen, 1498); Summa ecclesiastica (Salamanca, 1550). The last- named work has the following topics: (1) De universa ecclesia; (2) De Ecclesia romana et pontificis primatu ; (3) De universali- bus conciliis; (4) De schismaticis et hacreticis. His De conceplione deiparae Mariae, libri viii. (Rome, 1547), was edited with preface and notes by E. B. Pusey (London, 1869 seq.). TORQUEMADA, THOMAS (1420-1498), inquisitor-general of Spain, son of Don Pedro Ferdinando, lord of Torquemada, a small town in Old Castile, was born in 1420 at Valladolid during the reign of John II. Being nephew to the well-known cardinal of the same name, he early displayed an attraction for the Dominican order; and, as soon as allowed, he joined the Friars Preachers in their convent at Valladolid. His biographers state that he showed himself from the beginning very earnest in austere life and humility; and he became a recognized example of the virtues of a Dominican. Valladolid was then the capital, and in due course eminent dignities were offered to him, but he gave signs of a determination to lead the simple life of a Friar Preacher, In the convent, his modesty was so great that he refused to accept the doctor's degree in theology, which is the highest prized honour in the order. His superiors, however, obliged him to take the priorship of the convent of Santa Cruz in Segovia, where he ruled for twenty-two years. The royal family, especially the queen and the infanta Isabella, often stayed at Segovia, and Torquemada became confessor to the infanta, who was then very young. He trained her to look on her future sovereignty as an engagement to make religion respected. Esprit Flechier, bishop of Nimes, in this Histoire du cardinal Jimenes (Paris, 1693), says that Torquemada made her promise that when she became queen she would make it her principal business to chastise and destroy heretics. He then began to teach her the political advantages of religion and to prepare the way for that tremendous engine in the hands of the state, the Inquisition. Isabella succeeded to the throne (1474) on the death of Henry IV. Torquemada had always been strong in his advice that she should marry Ferdinand of Aragon and thus consolidate the kingdoms of Spain. Hitherto he had rarely appeared at court; but now the queen entrusted him not only with the care of her conscience, but also with the benefices in the royal patronage. He also helped her in quieting Ferdinand, who was chafing under the privileges of the Castilian grandees, and succeeded so well that the king also took him as confessor. Refusing the rich see of Seville and many other preferments he accepted that of councillor of state. For a long time he had pondered over the confusion in which Spain was, which he attributed to the intimate relations allowed between Christians and infidels for the sake of commerce. He saw Jews, Saracens, heretics and apostates roaming through Spain unmolested; and in this lax toleration of religious differences he thought he saw the main obstacle to the political union of the Spains, which was the necessity of the hour. He represented to Ferdinand and Isabella that it was essential to their safety to reorganize the Inquisition, which had since the 13th century (1236) been established in Spain. The bishops, who were ex officio inquisitors in their own dioceses, had not succeeded in putting a stop to the evils, nor had the friars, by whom they had been practically superseded. By the middle of the 15th century there was TORQUEMADA, T. 59 hardly an active inquisitor left in the kingdom. In 1473 Torquemada and Gonzalez de Mendoza, archbishop of Toledo, approached the sovereigns. Isabella had been for many years prepared, and she and Ferdinand, now that the proposal for this new tribunal came before them, saw in it a means of over- coming the independence of the nobility and clergy by which the royal power had been obstructed. With the royal sanction a petition was addressed to Sixtus IV. for the establishment of this new form of Inquisition; and as the result of a long intrigue, in 1479 a papal bull authorized the appointment by the Spanish sovereigns of two inquisitors at Seville, under whom the Dominican inquisitions already established elsewhere might serve. In the persecuting activity that ensued the Dominicans, " the Dogs of the Lord " {Domini canes), took the lead. Commissaries of the Holy Office were sent into different provinces, and ministers of the faith were established in the various cities to take cogni- sance of the crimes of heresy, apostasy, sorcery, sodomy and polygamy, these three last being considered to be implicit heresy. The royal Inquisition thus started was subversive of the regular tribunals of the bishops, who much resented the innovation, which, however, had the power of the state at its back. In 1481, three years after the Sixtine commission, a tribunal was inaugurated at Seville, where freedom of speech and licence of manner were rife. The inquisitors at once began to detect errors. In order not to confound the innocent with the guilty, Torquemada published a declaration offering grace and pardon to all who presented themselves before the tribunal and avowed their fault. Some fled the country, but many (Mariana says 17,000) offered themselves for reconciliation. The first seat of the Holy Office was in the convent of San Pablo, where the friars, however, resented the orders, on the pretext that they were not delegates of the inquisitor-general. Soon the gloomy fortress of Triana, on the opposite bank of the Guadalquivir, was prepared as the palace of the Holy Office; and the terror-stricken Sevil- lianos read with dismay over the portals the motto of the Inquisition: " Exsurge, Domine, Judica causam tuam, Capite nobis vulpes." Other tribunals, like that of Seville and under La Supremo., were speedily established in Cordova, Jaen and Toledo. The sovereigns saw that wealth was beginning to flow in to the new tribunals by means of fines and confiscations; and they obliged Torquemada to take as assessors five persons who would represent them in all matters affecting the royal prerogatives. These assessors were allowed a definite vote in temporal matters but not in spiritual, and the final decision was reserved to Torquemada himself, who in 1483 was appointed the sole inquisitor-general over all the Spanish possessions. In the next year he ceded to Diego Deza, a Dominican, his office of confessor to the sovereigns, and gave himself up to the congenial work of reducing heretics. A general assembly of his inquisitors was convoked at Seville for the 29th of November 1484; and there he promulgated a code of twenty-eight articles for the guidance of the ministers of the faith. Among these rules are the following, which will give some idea of the procedure. Heretics were allowed thirty days to declare themselves. Those who availed themselves of this - grace were only fined, and their goods escaped confiscation. Absolution in foro externo was forbidden to be given secretly to those who made voluntary confession; they had to submit to the ignominy of the public auto-de-fe. The result of this harsh law was that numerous applications were made to Rome for secret absolution; and thus much money escaped the Inquisition in Spain. Those who were reconciled were deprived of all honourable employment, and were forbidden to use gold, silver, jewelry, silk or fine wool. Against this law, too, many petitions went to Rome for rehabili- tation, until in 1498 the Spanish pope Alexander VI. granted leave to Torquemada to rehabilitate the condemned, and with- drew practically all concessions hitherto made and paid for at Rome. Fines were imposed by way of penance on those confessing willingly. If a heretic in the Inquisition asked for absolution, he could receive it, but subject to a life imprisonment; but if his repentance were but feigned he could be at once condemned and handed over to the civil power for execution. Should the accused, after the testimony against him had been made public, continue to deny the charge, he was to be Con- demned as impenitent. When serious proof existed against one who denied his crime, he could be submitted to the question by torture; and if under torture he avowed his fault and confirmed his guilt by subsequent confession he was punished as one con- victed; but should he retract he was again to be submitted to the tortures or condemned to extraordinary punishment. This second questioning was afterwards forbidden; but the prohibi- tion was got over by merely suspending and then renewing the sessions for questioning. It was forbidden to communicate to the accused the entire copy of the declaration of the witnesses. The dead even were not free from the Holy Office; but processes could be instituted against them and their remains subjected to punishment. But along with these cruel and unjust measures there must be put down to Torquemada's credit some advanced ideas as to prison life. The cells of the Inquisition were, as a rule, large, airy, clean and with good windows admitting the sun. They were, in those respects, far superior to the civil prisons of that day. The use of irons was in Torquemada's time not allowed in the Holy Office; the use of torture was in accordance with the practice of the other royal tribunals; and when these gave it up the Holy Office did so also. Such were some of the methods that Torquemada introduced into the Spanish Inquisition, which was to have so baneful an effect upon the whole country. During the eighteen years that he was inquisitor-general it is said that he burnt 10,220 persons, condemned 6860 others to be burnt in effigy, and reconciled 97,321, thus making an average of some 6000 convictions a year. These figures are given by Llorente, who was secretary of the Holy Office from 1790 to 1792 and had access to the archives; but modern research reduces the list of those burnt by Torque- mada to 2000, in itself an awful holocaust to the principle of intolerance. The constant stream of petitions to Rome opened the eyes of the pope to the effects of Torquemada's severity. On three separate occasions he had to send Fray Alfonso Badaja to defend his acts before the Holy See. The sovereigns, too, saw the stream of money, which they had hoped for, diverted to the coffers of the Holy Office, and in 1493 they made com- plaint to the pope; but Torquemada was powerful enough to secure most of the money for the expenses of the Inquisition. But in 1496, when the sovereigns again complained that the inquisitors were, without royal knowledge or consent, disposing of the property of the condemned and thus depriving the public revenues of considerable sums, Alexander VI. appointed Jimenes to examine into the case and make the Holy Office disgorge the plunder. For many years Torquemada had been persuading the sove- reigns to make an attempt once for all to rid the country of the hated Moors. Mariana holds that the founding of the Inquisi- tion, by giving a new impetus to the idea of a united kingdom, made the country more capable of carrying to a satisfactory ending the traditional wars against the Moors. The taking of Zahaia in 148 1 by the enemy gave occasion to reprisals. Troops were summoned to Seville and the war began by the siege of Alhama, a town eight leagues from Granada, the Moorish capital. Torquemada went with the sovereigns to Cordova, to Madrid or wherever the states-general were held, to urge on the war; and he obtained from the Holy See the same spiritual favours that had been enjoyed by the Crusaders. But he did not forget his favourite work of ferreting out heretics; and his ministers of the faith made great progress over all the kingdom, especially at Toledo, where merciless severity was shown to the Jews who had lapsed from Christianity. The Inquisition, although as a body the clergy did not mislike it, sometimes met with furious opposition from the nobles and common people. At Valentia and Lerida there were serious conflicts. At Saragossa Peter Arbue, a canon and an ardent inquisitor, was slain in 1485 whilst praying in a church; and the threats against the hated Torquemada made him go in fear of his life, and he never went abroad without an escort of forty familiar* 6o TORRE A^NNUNZIATA— TORRENS of the Holy Office on horseback and two hundred more on foot. In 1487 he went with Ferdinand to Malaga and thence to Valladolid, where in the October of 1488 he held another general congregation of the Inquisition and promulgated new laws based on the experience already gained. He then hurried back to Andalusia where he joined the sovereigns, who were now besieging Granada, which he entered with the conquering army in January 1492 and built there a convent of his order. The Moors being vanquished, now came the turn of the Jews. In 1490 had happened the case of El Santo nifto de la Guardia — a child supposed to have been killed by the Jews. His existence had never been proved; and in the district of Guardia no child was reported as missing. The whole story was most probably the creation of imaginations stimulated by torture and despair, unless it was a deliberate fiction set forth for the purpose of provoking hostility against the Jews. For a long time Torquemada had tried to get the royal consent to a general expulsion; but the sovereigns hesitated, and, as the victims were the backbone of the commerce of the country, proposed a ransom of 300,000 ducats instead. The indignant friar would hear of no compromise: "Judas," he cried, "sold Christ for 30 pence; and your highnesses wish to sell Him again for 300,000 ducats." Unable to bear up against the Domini- can's fiery denunciations, the sovereigns, three months after the fall of Granada, issued a decree ordering every Jew either to embrace Christianity or to leave the country, four months being given to make up their minds; and those who refused to become Christians to order had leave to sell their property and carry off their effects. But this was not enough for the in- quisitor-general, who in the following month (April) issued orders to forbid Christians, under severe penalties, having any communi- cation with the Jews or, after the period of grace, to supply them even with the necessaries of life. The former prohibition made it impossible for the unfortunate people to sell their goods which hence fell to the Inquisition. The numbers of Jewish families driven out of the country by Torquemada is variously stated from Mariana's 1,700,000 to the more probable 800,000 of later historians. The loss to Spain was enormous, and from this act of the Dominican the commercial decay of Spain dates. Age was now creeping on Torquemada, who, however, never would allow his misdirected zeal to rest. At another general assembly, his fourth, he gave new and more stringent rules, which are found in the Compilation de las instrucciones del officio de la Santa Inquisicidn. He took up his residence in Avila, where he had built a convent; and here he resumed the common life of a friar, leaving his cell in October 1497 to visit, at Salamanca, the dying infante, Don Juan, and to comfort the sovereigns in their parental distress. They often used . to visit him at Avila, where in 1498, still in office as inquisitor-general, he held his last general assembly to complete his life's work. Soon afterwards he died, on the 16th of September 1498, " full of years and merit " says his biographer. He was buried in the chapel of the convent of St Thomas in Avila. The name of Torquemada stands for all that is intolerant and narrow, despotic and cruel. He was no real statesman or minister of the Gospel, but a blind fanatic, who failed to see that faith, which is the gift of God, cannot be imposed on any conscience by force. (E. Tn.) TORRE ANNUNZIATA.a seaport of Campania, Italy, in the province of Naples, on the east of the Bay of Naples, and at the south foot of Mt Vesuvius, 14 m. S.E. of Naples by rail. Pop. (1901), 2S,o7o(town); 28,084 (commune). Itis on the main line to Battipaglia, at the point of junction of a branch line from Cancello round the east of Vesuvius, and of the branch to Castellammare di Stabia and Gragnano. It has a royal arms factory established by Charles IV., and other ironworks, considerable manufacture of macaroni, paper, breeding of silkworms, and some fishing and shipping. The harbour is protected by moles. Remains attributed to the Roman post- station of Oplontis were discovered in making the railway between Torre del Greco and Torre Annunziata, a little west of the latter, in 1842. TORRE DEL GRECO, a seaport of Campania, Italy, in the province of Naples, 7! m. S.E. of that city by rail. Pop. (1901), 35,328. It lies at the south-west foot of Vesuvius, on the shore of the Bay of Naples. It is built chiefly of lava, and stands on the lava stream of 1631, which destroyed two-thirds of the older town. Great damage was done by the eruptions of 1737 and 1794; the earthquake of 1857 and the eruption of the 8th of December 1861 were even more destructive. After each dis- aster the people returned, the advantage of the rich volcanic land overcoming apprehensions of danger. In the outskirts are many beautiful villas and gardens. The town has shipbuilding yards and lava quarries. The inhabitants take part in the coral and sponge fishing off the African and Sicilian coasts, and coral is worked in the town. There is also fishing for tunny, sardines and oysters; hemp is woven, and the neighbourhood is famed for its fruit and wine. In June the great popular festival " Dei Quattro Altari " is annually celebrated here in commemoration of the abolition of the feudal dominion in 1700. Remains of ancient villas and baths have been found here. TORRENS, ROBERT (1 780-1 864), English soldier and econo- mist, was born in Ireland in 1780. He entered the Marines in 1797, became a captain in 1806, and major in 1811 for bravery in Anhalt during the Walcheren expedition. He fought in the Peninsula, becoming lieutenant-colonel in 1835 and retiring as colonel in 1837. After abortive attempts to enter parliament in 1818 and 1826, he was returned in 1831 as member for Ashburton. He was a prolific writer, principally on financial and commercial policy. Almost the whole of the pro- gramme which was carried out in legislation by Sir Robert Peel had been laid down in his economic writings. He was an early and earnest advocate of the repeal of the corn laws, but was not in favour of a general system of absolute free trade, maintaining that it is expedient to impose retaliatory duties to countervail similar duties imposed by foreign countries, and a lowering of import duties on the productions of countries retaining their hostile tariffs would occasion a decline in prices, profits and wages. His principal writings of a general character were : The Economist [i.e. Physiocrat] refuted (1808); Essay on the Production of Wealth (1821); Essay on the External Corn-trade (eulogized by Ricardo) (1827) ; The Budget, a Series of Letters on Financial, Commercial and Colonial Policy (1841-1843); The Principles and Practical Operations of Sir Robert Peel's Act of 1844 Explained and Defended (1847). TORRENS, SIR ROBERT RICHARD (1814-1884), British colonial statesman, was born at Cork, Ireland, in 1814, and educated at Trinity College, Dublin. He went to South Aus- tralia in 1840, and was appointed collector of customs. He was an official member of the first legislative council and in 1852 was treasurer and registrar-general. When responsible govern- ment was established he was elected as a representative for Adelaide and became a member of the first ministry. In 1857 he introduced his famous Real Property Act, the principle of which consists of conveyance By registration and certificate instead of deeds. The system was rapidly adopted in the other colonies and elsewhere, and was expounded by the author during a visit to the United Kingdom in 1862-1864. After leaving South Australia, Sir R. R. Torrens represented Cambridge in the House of Commons from 1868 to 1874; in 1872 he was knighted. He was the author of works on the effect of the gold discoveries on the currency, and other subjects. He died on the 31st of August 1884. TORRENS, WILLIAM TORRENS M'CULLAGH (1813-1894), English politician and social reformer, son of James M'Cullagh (whose wife's maiden name, Torrens, he assumed in 1863), was born near Dublin on the 13 th of October 1813. He was called to the bar, and in 1835 became assistant commissioner on the special commission on Irish poor-relief, which resulted in the extension of the workhouse system in Ireland in 1838. In the 'forties he joined the Anti-Corn Law League, TORRES NAHARRO, B. DE— TORRICELLI 61 and in 1846 published his Industrial History of Free Nations. In 1847 he was elected to parliament for Dundalk, and sat till 1852. In 1857 he was elected as a Liberal for Yarmouth and from 1865 to 1885 he represented Finsbury. Torrens was a well known man in political life, and devoted himself mainly to social questions in parliament. It was an amend- ment of his to the Education Bill of 1870 which established the London School Board, and his Artisans' Dwellings Bill in 1868 facilitated the clearing away of slums by local authorities. He published several books, and his Twenty Years in Parlia- ment (1893) and History of Cabinets (1894) contain useful material. He died in London on the 26th of April 1894. TORRES NAHARRO, BARTOLOMlJ DE (1480-1530;, Spanish dramatist, was born towards the end of the 15th century at Torres, near Badajoz. After some years of soldiering and of captivity in Algiers, Torres Naharro took orders, settled in Rome about 1511, and there devoted himself chiefly to writing plays. Though he alludes to the future pope, Clement VII. as his protector, he left Rome to enter the household of Fabrizio Colonna at Naples where his works were printed under the title of Propaladia (1517). He is conjectured to have returned to his native place, and to have died there shortly after 1529. His Didlogo del nacimiento is written in unavowed, though obvious, imitation of Encina, but in his subsequent plays he shows a much larger conception of dramatic possibilities. He classifies his pieces as comedias & noticia and comedias a fantasia; the former, of which the Soldatesca and Tinellaria are examples, present in dramatic form' incidents within his personal experience; the latter, which include such plays as Serafina, Himenea, Calamita and Aqnilana, present imaginary episodes with adroitness and persuasiveness. Torres Naharro is much less dexterous in stage- craft than many inferior successors, his humour is rude and boisterous and his diction is unequal; but to a varied knowledge of human nature he adds knowledge of dramatic effect, and his rapid dialogue, his fearless realism and vivacious fancy prepared the way for the romantic drama in Spain. TORRES NOVAS, a town of Portugal, in the district of San- tarem, 19 m. N.N.E. of Santarem on the Lisbon-Entroncamento railway. Pop. (1900), 10,746. It manufactures cottons, linens, jute, paper, leather and spirits. It was probably founded by Greeks, and was held by the Romans, Goths and Moors, from whom it was conquered in 1148 by Alphonso I. of Portugal. TORRES VEDRAS, a town of Portugal, in the district of Lisbon, 43 m. N. by W. of Lisbon, on the Lisbon-Figueira da Foz railway. Pop. (1900), 6900. Torres Vedras is built on the left bank of the river Sizandro; it has a Moorish citadel and hot sulphur baths. Roman inscriptions and other remains have been found here, but the Latin name of the town, Turres Veteres, is probably medieval. Here were the noted fortifica- tions known as the " lines of Torres Vedras," constructed by Wellington in r8ro (see Peninsular War). Here also in 1846 the troops of General Saldanha defeated those of the count de Bomfin and seized the castle and town (see Portugal: History). TORRES Y VILLAROEL, DIEGO DE (1696-1759?), Spanish miscellaneous writer, was born in 1696 at Salamanca, where his father was bookseller to the university. In his teens Torres escaped to Portugal where he enlisted under a false name; he next moved te Madrid, living from hand to mouth as a hawker; in 1 71 7 he was ordained subdeacon, resumed his studies at Salamanca, and in 1726 became professor of mathematics at the university. A friend of his having stabbed a priest, Torres was suspected of complicity, and once more fled to Portugal, where he remained till his innocence was proved. He then returned to his chair, which he resigned in 1751 to act as steward to two noblemen; he was certainly alive in 1758, but the date of his death is not known. Torres had so slight a smattering of mathematics that his appointment as professor was thought scandalous even in his own scandalous age; yet he quickly acquired a store of knowledge which he displayed with serene assurance. His almanacs, his verses, his farces, his devotional and pseudo-scientific writings show that he possessed the alert adaptiveness of the born adventurer; but all that remains of his fourteen volumes (1745-1752) is his autobiography, an amusing record of cynical effrontery and successful imposture. TORREVIEJA, a seaport of south-eastern Spain, in the pro- vince of Alicante, 3 m. S.W. of Cape Cervera, and at the terminus of a railway to Albatera on the Alicante-Murcia line. Pop. (1900), 7706. The district is famous for its salt beds, which are owned and worked by the state, the Laguna Grande alone yielding more than 100,000 tons a year. The other industries are chiefly fishing, shipbuilding and the manufacture of ropes and sails. The roadstead affords safe anchorage. There is an active trade in fruit and agricultural products. TORREY, JOHN (1796-1873), American botanist, was born at New York on the 15th of August 1796. When he was 15 or 16 years of age his father received a prison appointment at Greenwich, and there he made the acquaintance of Amos Eaton (1 776-1842), a pioneer of natural history studies in America. He thus learned the elements of botany, as well as something of mineralogy and chemistry. In 181 5 he began the study of medicine, qualifying in 1818. In the following year he issued his Catalogue of Plants growing spontaneously within Thirty Miles of the City of New York, and in 1824 he issued the first and only volume of his Flora of the Northern and Middle States. In the same year he obtained the chair of chemistry and geology at West Point military academy, and three years later the pro- fessorship of chemistry and botany in the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York. In 1836 he was appointed botanist to the state of New York and produced his Flora of that state in 1843; while from 1838 to 1843 he carried on the publication of the earlier portions of Flora of North America, with the assistance of his pupil, Asa Gray. From 1853 he was chief assayer to the United States assay office, but he continued to take an interest in botanical teaching until his death at New York on the 10th of March 1873. He made over his valuable herbarium and botanical library to Columbia College in i860, and he was the first president of the Torrey Botanical Club in 1873. His name is commemorated in the small coniferous genus Torreya, found in North America and in China and Japan. T. taxifolia, a native of Florida, is known as the Torrey tree or savin, and also as the stinking cedar. TORREY, REUBEN ARCHER (1856- ), American evange- list, was born in Hoboken, New Jersey, on the 28th of January 1856. He graduated at Yale University in 1875 and at the Yale Divinity School in 1878. ' He became a Congregational minister in 1878, studied theology at Leipzig and Erlanger in 1882-1883,^, joined D. L. Moody in his evangelistic work in Chicago in 1889,' and became pastor of the Chicago Avenue Church in 1894 and afterwards superintendent of the Moody Bible Institute of Chicago. In 1902-1903 he preached in nearly every part of the English-speaking world, and with Charles McCallon Alexander (b. 1867) conducted revival services in Great Britain in 1903- 1905; Torrey conducted a similar campaign in American and Canadian cities in 1 906-1 907. TORRICELLI, EVANGELISTA (1608-1647), Italian physicist and mathematician, was born at Faenza on the 15th of October 1608. Left fatherless at an early age, he was educated under the care of his uncle, a Camaldolese monk, who in 1627 sent him to Rome to study science under the Benedictine Benedetto Castelli (1577-1644), professor of mathematics at the Collegio di Sapienza. The perusal of Galileo's Dialoghi delle nuove scienze (1638) inspired him with many developments of the mechanical principles there set forth, which he embodied in a treatise De motu (printed amongst his Opera geometrica, 1644). Its communication by Castelli to Galileo in 1641, with a proposal that Torricelli should reside with him, led to Torricelli repairing to Florence, where he met Galileo, and acted as his amanuensis during the three remaining months of his life. After Galileo's death Torricelli was nominated grand-ducal mathematician and professor of mathematics in the Florentine academy. The discovery of the principle of the barometer (q.v.) which has perpetuated his fame (" Torricellian tube " " Torricellian vacuum ") was made in 1643. 62 TORRIDONIAN— TORRINGTON, EARL OF The publication amongst Torricelli's Opera geometrica (Florence, 1644) of a tract on the properties of the cycloid involved him in a controversy with G. P. de Roberval, who accused him of plagiarizing his earlier solution of the problem of its quadrature. There seems, however, no room for doubt that Torricelli's was arrived at independently. The matter was still in debate when he was seized with pleurisy, and died at Florence on the 25th of October 1647. He was buried in San Lorenzo, and a commemorative statue of him erected at Faenza in 1864. Among the new truths detected by him was the valuable mechanical principle that if any number of bodies be so con- nected that, by their motion, their centre of gravity can neither ascend nor descend, then those bodies are in equilibrium. He also discovered the remarkable fact that the parabolas described (in a vacuum) by indefinitely numerous projectiles discharged from the same point with equal velocities, but in all directions have a paraboloid of revolution for their envelope. His theorem that a fluid issues from a small orifice with the same velocity (friction and atmospheric resistance being neglected) which it would have acquired in falling through the depth from its sur- face is of fundamental importance in hydraulics. He greatly improved both the telescope and microscope. Several large object lenses, engraven with his name, are preserved at Florence. He used and developed B. Cavalieri's method of indivisibles. A selection from Torricelli's manuscripts was published by Tommaso Bonaventura in 17 15, with the title Lezioni accademiche (Florence). They include an address of acknowledgment on his admission to the Accademia della Crusca. His essay on the inun- dations of the Val di Chiana was printed in Raccolta d'autori che trattano del moto dell' acque, iv. 115 (Florence, 1768), and amongst Opusculi idraulici, iii. 347 (Bologna, 1822). For his life see Fabroni, Vitae Italorum, i. 345 ; Ghinassi, Lettere fin qui inedite di Evan- gelista Torricelli (Faenza, 1864); Tiraboschi, Storia della Lett. it. viii. 302 (ed. 1824); Montucla, Hist, des math., vol. ii. ; Marie, Hist, des sciences, iv. 133. TORRIDONIAN, in geology, a series of pre-Cambrian are- naceous sediments extensively developed in the north-west high- lands of Scotland and particularly in the neighbourhood of upper Loch Torridon, a circumstance which suggested the name Torridon Sandstone, first applied to these rocks by J. Nicol. The rocks are mainly red and chocolate sandstones, arkoses, flagstones and shales with coarse conglomerates locally at the base. Some of the materials of these rocks were derived from the underlying Lewisian gneiss, upon the uneven surface of which they rest; but the bulk of the material was obtained from rocks that are nowhere now exposed. Upon this ancient denuded land surface the Torridonian strata rest horizontally or with gentle inclination. Their outcrop extends in a belt of variable breadth from Cape Wrath to the Point of Sleet in Skye, running in a N.N.E.-S.S.W. direction through Ross-shire and Sutherlandshire. They form the isolated mountain peaks of Canisp, Quinag and Suilven in the neighbourhood of Loch Assynt, of Slioch near Loch Maree and other hills. They attain their maximum development in the Applecross, Gairloch and Torridon districts, form the greater part of Scalpay, and occur also in Rum, Raasay, Soay and the Crowlin Islands. The Torridonian rocks have been subdivided into three groups: an upper Aultbea group, 3000-5000 ft.; a middle or Applecross group, 6000-8000 ft.; and a lower or Diabeg group, 500 ft. in Gairloch but reaching a thickness of 7200 ft. in Skye. See " The Geological Structure of the North-West Highlands of Scotland," Mem. Geol. Survey (Glasgow, 1907). (J. A. H.) TORRIGIANO, PIETRO (1472-1522), Florentine sculptor, was, according to Vasari, one of the group of talented youths who studied art under the patronage of Lorenzo the Magnificent in Florence. Benvenuto Cellini, reporting a conversation with Torrigiano, relates that he and Michelangelo, while both young, were copying the frescoes in the Carmine chapel, when some slighting remark made by Michelangelo so enraged Torrigiano that he struck him on the nose, and thus caused that disfigure- ment which is so conspicuous in all the portraits of Michelangelo. Soon after this Torrigiano visited Rome, and helped Pintu- ricchio in modelling the elaborate stucco decorations in the Apartamenti Borgia for Alexander VI. After some time spent as a hired soldier in the service of different states, Torrigiano was invited to England to execute the magnificent tomb for Henry VII. and his queen, which still exists in the lady chapel of West- minster Abbey. This appears to have been begun before the death of Henry VII. in 1509, but was not finished till 1517. The two effigies are well modelled, and have lifelike but not too realistic portraits. After this Torrigiano received the com- mission for the altar, retable and baldacchino which stood at the west, outside the screen of Henry VII.'s tomb. The altar had marble pilasters at the angles, two of which still exist, and below the mensa was a life-sized figure of the dead Christ in painted terra-cotta. The retable consisted of a large relief of the Resurrection. The baldacchino was of marble, with enrich- ments of gilt bronze; part of its frieze still exists, as do also a large number of fragments of the terra-cotta angels which sur- mounted the baldacchino and parts of the large figure of Christ. The whole of this work was destroyed by the Puritans in the 17th century. 1 Henry VIII. also commissioned Torrigiano to make him a magnificent tomb, somewhat similar to that of Henry VII., but one-fourth larger, to be placed in a chapel at Windsor; it was, however, never completed, and its rich bronze was melted by the Commonwealth, together with that of Wolsey's tomb. The indentures for these various works still exist, and are printed by Neale, Westminster Abbey, i. 54-59 (London, 1818). These interesting documents are written in English, and in them the Florentine is called " Peter Torrysany." For Henry VII.'s tomb he contracted to receive £1500, for the altar and its fit- tings £1000, and £2000 for Henry VIII.'s tomb. Other works attributed from internal evidence to Torrigiano are the tomb of Margaret of Richmond, mother of Henry VII., in the south aisle of his chapel, and a terra-cotta effigy in the chapel of the Rolls. While these royal works were going on Torrigiano visited Florence in order to get skilled assistants. He tried to induce Benvenuto Cellini to come to England to help him, but Cellini refused partly from his dislike to the brutal and swaggering manners of Torrigiano, and also because he did not wish to live among " such beasts as the English." The latter part of Torrigiano's life was spent in Spain, especially at Seville, where, besides the painted figure of St Hieronymus in the museum, some terra-cotta sculpture by him still exists. His violent temper got him into difficulties with the authorities, and he ended his life in 1522 in the prisons of the Inquisition. See Wilhelm Bode, Die italienische Plasiik (Berlin, 1902). TORRINGTON, ARTHUR HERBERT, Earl or (1647- 17 16), British admiral, was the son of a judge, Sir Edward Herbert (c. 1591-1657). He entered the navy in 1663, and served in the Dutch wars of the reign of Charles II., as well as against the Barbary pirates. From 1680 to 1683 he commanded in the Mediterranean. His career had been honourable, and he had been wounded in action. The known Royalist sentiments of his family combined with his reputation as a naval officer to point him out to the favour of the king, and James II. appointed him rear-admiral of England and master of the robes. The king no doubt counted on his support of the repeal of the Test Acts, as the admiral was member for Dover. Herbert refused, and was dismissed from his places. He now entered into com- munication with the agents of the prince of Orange, and promised to use his influence with the fleet to forward a revolution. After the acquittal of the seven bishops in 1688 he carried the invitation to William of Orange. The Revolution brought him ample amends for his losses. He was named first lord, and took the command of the fleet at home. In 1689 he was at sea attempting to prevent the French admiral Chateau-Renault (q.v.) from landing the troops sent by the king of France to the aid of King James in Ireland. Though he fought an action with 1 An old drawing still exists showing this elaborate work; it is engraved in the Hierurgia anglicana, p. 267 (London, 1848). Many hundreds of fragments of this terra-cotta sculpture were found a few years ago hidden under the floor of the triforium in the 'abbey; they are jnfortunately too much broken and imperfect to be fitted together.' TORRINGTON, VISCOUNT— TORRINGTON 63 the French in Bantry Bay on the 10th of May he failed to baffle Chateau-Renault, who had a stronger force. Being discontented with the amount of force provided at sea, he resigned his place at the admiralty, but retained his command at sea. In May 1689 he was created earl of Torrington. In 1690 he was in the Channel with a fleet of English and Dutch vessels, which did not rise above 56 in all, and found himself in front of the much more powerful French fleet. In his report to the council of regency he indicated his intention of retiring to the Thames, and losing sight of the enemy, saying that they would not do any harm to the coast while they knew his fleet to be " in being." The council, which knew that the Jacobites were preparing for a rising, and only waited for the support of a body of French troops, ordered him not to lose sight of the enemy, but rather than do that to give battle " upon any advantage of the wind." On the 10th of July Torrington, after consulting with his Dutch colleagues, made a half-hearted attack on the French off Beachy Head in which his own ship was kept out of fire, and severe loss fell on his allies. Then he retired to the Thames. The French pursuit was fortunately feeble (see Tourville, Comte de) and the loss of the allies was comparatively slight. The indignation of the country was at first great, and Torrington was brought to a court martial in December. He was acquitted, but never again employed. Although twice married, he was childless when he died on the 14th of April 1716, his earldom becoming extinct. The unfavourable account of his moral character given by Dartmouth to Pepys is confirmed by Bishop Burnet, who had seen much of him during his exile in Holland. An attempt has been made in recent years to rehabilitate the character of Torrington, and his phrase " a fleet in being " has been widely used (see Naval Warfare, by Vice-Admiral P. H. Colomb). See Charnock's Biog. Nav., i. 258. The best account of the battle of Beachy Head is to be found in " The Account given by Sir John Ashby Yice-Admiral and Rear-Admiral Rooke, to the Lords Com- missioners " (1691). TORRINGTON, GEORGE BYNG, Viscount (1663-1733), English admiral, was born at Wrotham, Kent. His father, John Byng, was compelled by pecuniary losses to sell his property and his son entered the navy as a king's letter boy (see Navy) in 1678. He served in a ship stationed at Tangier, and for a time left the navy to enter one of the regiments of the garrison, but in 1683 he returned to the navy as lieutenant, and went to the East Indies in the following year. During the year 1688, he had an active share in bringing the fleet over to the prince of Orange, and by the success of the revolution his fortune was made. In 1702 he was appointed to the command of the " Nassau," and was at the taking and burning of the French fleet at Vigo,« and the next year he was made rear-admiral of the red. In 1704 he served in the Mediterranean under Sir Cloudesley Shovel, and reduced Gibraltar. He was in the battle of Malaga, and for his gallantry received the honour of knight- hood. In 1708 as admiral of the blue he commanded the squadron which baffled the attempt of the Old Pretender to land in Scotland. In 1718 he commanded the fleet which defeated the Spaniards off Cape Passaro and compelled them to withdraw from their invasion of Sicily. This commission he executed so well that the king made him a handsome present and sent him full powers to negotiate with the princes and states of Italy. Byng procured for the emperor's troops free access into the fortresses which still held out in Sicily, sailed afterwards to Malta, and brought out the Sicilian galleys and a ship belonging to the Turkey Company. By his advice and assistance the Germans retook the city of Messina in 1719, and destroyed the ships which lay in the basin — an achievement which completed the ruin ot the naval power of Spain. To his conduct it was entirely owing that Sicily was subdued and the king of Spain forced to accept the terms prescribed him by the quadruple alliance. On his return to England in 1721 he was made rear-admiral of Great Britain, a member of the privy council, Baron Byng of Southill, in the county of Bedford and Viscount Torrington in Devonshire. He was also made one of the Knights Com- panions of the Bath upon the revival of that order in 1725. In 1727 George II. on his accession made him first lord of the admiralty, and his administration was distinguished by the establishment of the Royal Naval College at Portsmouth. He died on the 17th of January 1733, and was buried at Southill, in Bedfordshire. Two of his eleven sons, Pattee (1699-1747) and George (1701-1750), became respectively the 2nd and 3rd viscounts. The title is still held by the descendants of t\e latter. See Memoirs relating to Lord Torrington, Camden Soc, new series 46, and A True Account of the Expedition of the British Fleet to Sicily 1718-1720, published anonymously, but known to be by Thomas Corbett of the admiralty in 1739. Forbin's Memoirs contain the French side of the expedition to Scotland in 1708. TORRINGTON, a borough of Litchfield county, Connecticut, U.S.A., in the township of Torrington, on the Naugatuck river, about 25 m. W. of Hartford. Pop. (1900), 8360, of whom 2565 were foreign-born; (1910) 15,483; of the township, including the borough (1900) 12,453; (1910) 16,840. It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway and by an electric line con- necting with Winsted. It has a public library (1865) with 15,000 volumes in 1909. There is a state armoury in the borough. Torrington is a prosperous manufacturing centre. In 1905 the value of the factory product was $9,674,124. The township of Torrington, originally a part of the township of Windsor, was first settled in 1734, and was separately incorporated in 1740. The site was covered by pine trees, which were much used for ship-building, and for this reason it was known as Mast Swamp. In 1751 a mill was erected, but there were few, if any, residences until 1800. In 1806 the settlement was known as New Orleans village. In 1813 members of the Wolcott family of Litchfield, impressed with the water-power, bought land and built a woollen mill, and the village that soon developed was called Wolcottville. Its growth was slow until 1864. In 1881 its name was changed to Torrington, and in 1887 the borough was incorporated. See S. Orcutt's History of Torrington (Albany, 1878), and an article, " The Growth of Torrington," in the Connecticut Magazine, vol. ix., No. 1. TORRINGTON (Great Torrington), a market town and municipal borough in the South Molton parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, on the Torridge, 225 m. W. by S. of London by the London & South- Western railway. Pop. (1901), 3241. It stands on a hill overlooking the richly wooded valley of the Torridge, here crossed by three bridges. Glove manufactures on a large scale, with flour and butter making and leather dressing, are the staple industries. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 3592 acres. Torrington {Toritone) was the site of very early settlement, and possessed a market in Saxon times. The manor was held by Brictric in the reign of Edward the Confessor, and in 1086 formed part of the Domesday fief of Odo Fitz Gamelin, which later constituted an honour with Torrington as its caput. In 1221 it appears as a mesne borough under William de Toritone, a descendant of Odo and the supposed founder of the castle, which in 1228 was ordered to be razed to the ground, but is said to have been rebuilt in 1340 by Richard de Merton. The borough had a fair in 1221, and returned two members to parlia- ment from 1295 until exempted from representation at its own request in 1368. The government was vested in bailiffs and a commonalty, and no charter of incorporation was granted till that of Queen Mary in 1554, which instituted a governing body of a mayor, 7 aldermen and 18 chief burgesses, with authority to hold a court of record every three weeks on Monday; law-days and view of frankpledge at Michaelmas and Easter; a weekly market on Saturday, and fairs at the feasts of St Michael and St George. This charter was confirmed by Elizabeth in 1568 and by James I. in 1617. A charter from James II. in 1686 changed the style of the corporation to a mayor, 8 aldermen and 12 chief burgesses. In the 16th century Torrington was an important centre of the clothing trade, and in 1605 the town is described as very prosperous, with three 6 4 TORSTENSSON^-TORT fairs, and a great market " furnished from far on every quarter, being the most convenient place for occasions of king or county in those parts." The Saturday market is still maintained, but the fairs have been altered to the third Saturday in March and the first Thursday in May. In 1643 Colonel Digby took up his position at Torrington and put to flight a contingent of parliamentary troops; but in 1646 the town was besieged by Sir Thomas Fairfax and finally forced to surrender. The borough records were destroyed by fire in 1724. See Victoria County History: Devonshire; F. T. Colby, History of Great Torrington (1878). TORSTENSSON, LENNART, Count (1603-1651), Swedish soldier, son of Torsten Lennartsson, commandant of Elfsborg, was born at Forstena in Vestergotland. At the age of fifteen he became one of the pages of the young Gustavus Adolphus and served during the Prussian campaigns of 1628-29. In 1629 he was set over the Swedish artillery, which under his guidance materially contributed to the victories of Breitenfeld (1631) and Lech (1632). The same year he was taken prisoner at Alte Veste and shut up for nearly a year at Ingolstadt. Under Baner he rendered distinguished service at the battle of Wittstock (1636) and during the energetic defence of Pomerania in 1637-38, as well as at the battle of Chemnitz (1638) and in the raid into Bohemia in 1639. Illness compelled him to return to Sweden in 1641, when he was made a senator. The sudden death of Baner in May 1641 recalled Torstensson to Germany as generalissimo of the Swedish forces and governor-general of Pomerania. He was at the same time promoted to the rank of field marshal. The period of his command (1641-1645) forms one of the most brilliant chapters in the military history of Sweden. In 1642 he marched through Brandenburg and Silesia into Moravia, taking all the principal fortresses on his way. On returning through Saxony he well nigh annihilated the imperialist army at the second battle of Breitenfeld (Oct. 23, 1642). In 1643 he invaded Moravia for the second time, but was suddenly recalled to invade Denmark, when his rapid and unexpected intervention paralysed the Danish defence on the land side, though Torstensson's own position in Jutland was for a time precarious owing to the skilful handling of the Danish fleet by Christian IV. In 1644 he led his army for the third time into the heart of Germany and routed the imperialists at Juterbog (Nov. 23). At the beginning of November 1645 he broke into Bohemia, and the brilliant victory of Jankow (Feb. 24, 1645) laid open before him the road to Vienna. Yet, though one end of the Danube bridge actually fell into his hands, his exhausted army was unable to penetrate any farther and, in December the same year, Tor- stensson, crippled by gout, was forced to resign his command and return to Sweden. In 1647 he was created a count. From 1648 to 1651 he ruled all the western provinces of Sweden, as governor-general. On his death at Stockholm (April 7, 1651) he was buried solemnly in the Riddarholmskyrka, the Pantheon of Sweden. Torstensson was remarkable for the extraordinary and incalculable rapidity of his movements, though very frequently he had to lead the army in a litter, as his bodily infirmities would not permit him to mount his horse. He was also the most scientific artillery officer and the best and most successful engineer in the Swedish army. His son, Senator Count Anders Torstensson (1641-1686), was from 1674 to 1681 governor-general of Esthonia. The family became extinct on the sword-side in 1727. See J. W. de Peyster, History of the Life of L. Torstensson (Pough- keepsie, 1855); J. Feil, Torstensson before Vienna (trans, by de Peyster, New York, 1885); Gustavus III., Eulogy of Torstensson (trans, by de Peyster, New York, 1872). (R. N. B.) TORT (Fr. for wrong, from Lat. tortus, twisted, participle of torquere), the technical term, in the law of England, of those dominions and possessions of the British Empire where the common law has been received or practically adopted in civil affairs, and of the United States, for a civil wrong, i.e. the breach of a duty imposed by law, by which breach some person becomes entitled to sue for damages. A tort must, on the one hand, be an act which violates a general duty. The rule which it breaks must be one made by the law, not, as in the case of a mere breach of contract, a rule which the law protects because the parties have made it for themselves. On the other hand, a tort is essentially the source of a private right of action. An offence which is punishable, but for which no one can bring a civil action, is not a tort. It is quite possible for one and the same act to be a tort and a breach of contract, or a tort and a crime; it is even possible in one class of cases for the plaintiff to have the option — for purposes of procedural advantage — of treating a real tort as a fictitious contract; but there is no necessary or general connexion. Again, it is not the case that pecuniary damages are always or necessarily the only remedy for a tort; but the right to bring an action in common law juris- diction, as distinct from equity, matrimonial or admiralty jurisdiction, with the consequent right to damages, is invariably present where a tort has been committed. This technical use of the French word tort (which at one time was near becoming a synonym of wrong in literary English) is not very ancient, and anything like systematic treatment of the subject as a whole is very modern. Since about the middle of the 19th century there has been a current assumption that all civil causes of action must be founded on either contract or tort; but there is no historical foundation for this doctrine, though modified forms of the action of trespass — actions in consimili casu, or " on the case " in the accustomed English phrase — did in practice largely supplant other more archaic forms of action by reason of their greater convenience. The old forms were designed as penal remedies for manifest breach of the peace or corruption of justice; and traces of the penal element remained in them long after the substance of the procedure had become private and merely civil. The transition belongs to the general history of English law. In England the general scope of the law of torts has never been formulated by authority, the law having in fact been developed by a series of disconnected experiments with the various forms of action which seemed from time to time to promise the widest and most useful remedies. But there is no doubt that the duties enforced by the English law of torts are broadly those which the Roman institutional writers summed up in the precept Alterum non laedere. Every member of a civilized commonwealth is entitled to require of others a certain amount of respect for his person, reputation and property, and a certain amount of care and caution when they go about undertakings attended with risk to their neighbours. Under the modern law, it is submitted, the question arising when one man wilfully or recklessly harms another is not whether some technical form of action can be found in which he is liable, but whether he can justify or excuse himself. This view, at any rate, is countenanced by a judgment of the Supreme Court of the United States delivered in 1904. If it be right, the controverted question whether conspiracy is or is not a substantive cause of action seems to lose most of its importance. Instead of the doubtful proposition of law that some injuries become unlawful only when inflicted by concerted action, we shall have the plain proposition of fact that some kinds of injury cannot, as a rule, be inflicted by one person with such effect as to produce any damage worth suing for. The precise amount of responsibility can be determined only by full consideration in each class of cases. It is important to observe, however, that a law of responsibility confined to a man's own personal acts and defaults would be of next to no practical use under the conditions of modern society. What makes the law of torts really effective, especially with regard to redress for harm suffered by negligence, is the universal rule of law that every one is answerable for the acts and defaults of his servants (that is, all persons acting under his direction and taking their orders from him or some one representing him) in the course of their employment. The person actually in fault is not the less answerable, but the remedy against him is very commonly not worth pursuing. But for this rule corporations could not be liable for any negligence of their servants,, however disastrous TORT 65 to innocent persons, except so far as it might happen to constitute a breach of some express undertaking. We have spoken of the rule as universal, hut, in the case of one servant of the same employer being injured by the default of another, an unfortunate aberration of the courts, which started about two generations ago from small beginnings, was pushed to extreme results, and led to great hardship. A partial remedy was applied in 1880 by the Employers' Liability Act; and in 1897 a much bolder step was taken by the Workmen's Compensation Act (super- seded by a more comprehensive act in 1906). But, as the common law and the two acts (which proceed on entirely different principles) cover different fields, with a good deal of overlapping, and the acts are full of complicated provisos and exceptions, and contain very special provisions as to procedure, the improvement in substantial justice has been bought, so far, at the price of great confusion in the form of the law, and considerable difficulty in ascertaining what it is in any but the most obvious cases. The Workmen's Compensation Act includes cases of pure accident, where there is no fault at all, or none that can be proved, and therefore goes beyond the reasons of liability with which the law of torts has to do. In fact, it establishes a kind of compulsory insurance, which can be justified only on wider grounds of policy. A novel and extraordinary exception to the rule of responsibility for agents was made in the case of trade combinations by the Trade Disputes Act 1906. This has no interest for law as a science. There are kinds of cases, on the other hand, in which the law, without aid from legislation, has imposed on occupiers and other persons in analogous positions a duty stricter than that of being answerable for themselves and their servants. Duties of this kind have been called " duties of insuring safety." Gene- rally they extend to having the building, structure, or works in such order, having regard to the nature of the case, as not to create any danger to persons lawfully frequenting, using, or passing by them, which the exercise of reasonable care and skill could have avoided; but in some cases of " extra-hazardous " risk, even proof of all possible diligence — according to English authority, which is not unanimously accepted in America — will not suffice. There has lately been a notable tendency to extend these principles to the duties incurred towards the public by local authorities who undertake public works. Positive duties created by statute are on a similar footing, so far as the breach of them is capable of giving rise to any private right of action. The classification of actionable wrongs is perplexing, not because it is difficult to find a scheme of division, but because it is easier to find many than to adhere to any one of them. We may start either from the character of the defendant's act or omission, with regard to his knowledge, intention and otherwise; or from the character of the harm suffered by the plaintiff. Whichever of these we take as the primary line of distinction, the results can seldom be worked out without calling in the other. Taking first the defendant's position, the widest governing principle is that, apart from various recognized grounds of immunity, a man is answerable for the " natural and probable " consequences of his acts; i.e. such consequences as a reasonable man in his place should have foreseen as probable. Still more is he answer- able for what he did actually foresee and intend. Knowledge of particular facts may be necessary to make particular kinds of conduct wrongful. Such is the rule in the case of fraud and other allied wrongs, including what is rather unhappily called " slander of title," and what is now known as " unfair com- petition " in the matter of trade names and descriptions, short of actual piracy of trade-marks. But where an absolute right to security for a man's person, reputation or goods is interfered with, neither knowledge nor specific intention need be proved. In these cases we trespass altogether at our peril. It is in general the habit of the law to judge acts by their apparent tendency, and not by the actor's feelings or desires. I cannot excuse myself by good motives for infringing another man's rights, whatever other grounds of excuse may be available; XXVII. 3 and it is now settled conversely, though after much doubt, that an act not otherwise unlawful is not, as a rule, made unlawful by being done from an evil motive. This rule was known some time ago to apply to the exercise of rights of property, and such speculative doubt as remained was removed by the decision of the House of Lords in the leading case of Allen v. Flood (1898, A.C. 1). We now know that it applies to the exercise of all common rights. The exceptions are very few, and must be explained by exceptional reasons. Indeed, only two are known to the present writer — malicious prose- cution, and the misuse of a " privileged occasion " which would justify the communication of defamatory matter if made in good faith. In each case the wrong lies in the deliberate perversion of a right or privilege allowed for the public good, though the precise extent of the analogy is not certain at present. 1 It must be remembered, however, that the presence or absence of personal ill will, and the behaviour of the parties generally, may have an important effect, when liability is proved or admitted, in mitigating or aggravating the amount of damages awarded by juries and allowed by the court to be reasonable. It may likewise be noted, by way of caution, that some problems of criminal law, with which we are not here concerned, require more subtle consideration. However, it is hardly ever safe to assume that the bounds of civil and criminal liability will be found coextensive. Perhaps we may go so far as to say that a man is neither civilly nor criminally liable for a mere omission (not being disobedience to a lawful command which he was bound to obey), unless he has in some way assumed a special duty of doing the act omitted. We have already had to mention the existence of grounds of immunity for acts that would otherwise be wrongful. Such grounds there must be if the law is to be enforced and justice administered at all, and if the business of life is to be carried on with any freedom. Roughly speaking, we find in these cases one of the following conditions: Either the defendant was executing a lawful authority; or he was justified by extraordinary necessity; or he was doing something permitted by legislation for reasons of superior utility, though it may produce damage to others, and either with or without special provisions for compensating damage; or he was exercising a common right in matters open to free use and competition; or the plaintiff had, by consent or otherwise, disabled himself from having any grievance. Pure accident will hardly seem to any one who is not a lawyer to be a special ground of exemption, the question being rather how it could ever be supposed to be a ground of liability. But it was supposed so by many lawyers down to recent times; the reason lying in a history of archaic ideas too long to be traced here. Exercise of common rights is the category where most difficulty arises. Here, in fact, the point at which a man's freedom is limited by his neighbour's has to be fixed by a sense of policy not capable of formal demonstration. As Justice Holmes of the Supreme Court of the United States has said, we allow unlimited trade competition (so long as it is without fraud) though we know that many traders must suffer, and some may be ruined by it, because we hold that free com- petition is worth more to society than its costs. A state with different economic foundations might have a different law on this, as on many other points. This freedom extends not only to the exercise of one's calling, but to choosing with whom and under what conditions one will exercise it. Also the law will not inquire with what motives a common right is exercised; and this applies to the ordinary rights of an owner in the use of his property 1 It was formerly supposed that an action by a party to a con- tract against a third person for procuring the other party to break his contract was within the same class, i.e. that malice must be proved. But since Allen v. Flood, and the later decision of the House of Lords in Quinn v. Leathern (1901, A.C. 495), this view seems untenable. The ground of action is the intentional violation of an existing legal right; which, however, since 1906, may be practised with impunity in the United Kingdom " in contemplation or furtherance of a trade dispute"': Trade Disputes Act, § 3. II 66 TORTOISE as well as to the right of every man to carry on his business. 1 Owners and occupiers of immovable property are bound, indeed, to respect one another's convenience within certain limits. The maxim or precept Sic utere tuo ul alienum non laedas does not mean that I must not use my land in any way which can possibly diminish the profit or amenity of my neighbour's. That would be false. It is a warning that both his rights and mine extend beyond being free from actual unlawful entry, and that if either of us takes too literally the more popular but even less accurate maxim, " Every man may do as he will with his own," he will find that there is such a head of the law as nuisance. From the point of view of the plaintiff, as regards the kind of damage suffered by him, actionable wrongs may be divided into four groups. We have some of a strictly personal kind; some which affect ownership and rights analogous to owner- ship; some which extend to the safety, convenience and profit of life generally — in short, to a man's estate in the widest sense; and some which may, according to circumstances, result in damage to person, property or estate, any or all of them. Per- sonal wrongs touching a man's body or honour are assault, false imprisonment, seduction or " enticing away " of members of his family. Wrongs to property are trespass to land or goods, " conversion " of goods (i.e. wrongful assumption of dominion over them), disturbance of easements and other individual rights in property not amounting to exclusive possession. Tres- pass is essentially a wrong to possession; but with the aid of actions " on the case " the ground has been practically covered. Then there are infringements of incorporeal rights which, though not the subject of trespass proper, are exclusive rights of enjoyment and have many incidents of ownership. Actions, in some cases expressly given by statute, lie for the piracy of copyright, patents and trade marks. Wrongs to a man's estate in the larger sense above noted are defamation (not a strictly personal wrong, because according to English common law the temporal damage, not the insult, is, rightly or wrongly, made the ground of action); deceit, so-called "slander of title" and fraudulent trade competition, which are really varieties of deceit; malicious prosecution; and nuisance, which, though most important as affecting the enjoyment of property, is not considered in that relation only. Finally, we have the results of negligence and omission to perform special duties regarding the safety of one's neighbours or customers, or of the public, which may affect person, property, or estate generally. The law of wrongs is made to do a great deal of work which, in a system less dependent on historical conditions, we should expect to find done by the law of property. We can claim or reclaim our movable goods only by complaining of a wrong done to our possession or our right to possess. There is no direct assertion of ownership like the Roman vindicatio. The law of negligence, with the refined discussions of the test and measure of liability which it has introduced, is wholly modern; and the same may be said of the present working law of nuisance, 1 The rule that a man's motives for exercising his common rights are not examinable involves the consequence that advising or procuring another, who is a free agent, to do an act of this kind can, a fortiori, not be an actionable wrong at the suit of a third person who is damnified by the act, and that whatever the adviser's motives may be. This appears to be included in the decision of the House of Lords in Allen v. Flood. That decision, though not binding in any American court, is approved and followed in most American jurisdictions. It is otherwise where a system of coercion is exercised on a man's workmen or customers in order to injure him in his business. The extension of immunity to such conduct would destroy the value of the common right which the law pro- tects: Quinn v. Leathern. The coercion need not be physical, and the wrong as a whole may be made up of acts none of which taken alone would be a cause of action. In this point there is nothing novel, for it is so in almost every case of nuisance. Conspiracy is naturally a frequent element in such cases, but it does not appear to be necessary; if it were, millionaires and corporations might exceed the bounds of lawful competition with impunity whenever they were strong enough. The reasons given in Quinn v. Leathern are many and various, but the decision is quite consistent with Allen v. Flood. However, the Trade Disputes Act will probably have its intended effect of reducing the law on this head to relative insignificance in England. though the term is of respectable antiquity. Most recent of al] is the rubric of " unfair competition," which is fast acquiring great importance. It will be observed that the English law of torts answers approximately in its purpose and contents to the Roman law of obligations ex delicto and quasi ex delicto. When we have allowed for the peculiar treatment of rights of property in the common law, and remembered that, according to one plausible theory, the Roman law of possession itself is closely connected in its origin with the law of delicts, we shall find the corre- spondence at least as close as might be expected a priori. Nor is the correspondence to be explained by borrowing, for this branch of the common law seems to owe less to the classical Roman or medieval canon law than any other. Some few misunderstood Roman maxims have done considerable harm in detail, but the principles have been worked out in all but complete independence. A list of modern books and monographs will be found at the end of the article on " Torts " by the present writer in the Encyclo- paedia of the Laws of England (2nd ed.). Among recent editions of works on the law of torts and new publications the following may be mentioned here: Addison, by W. E. Gordon and W. H. Griffith (8th ed., 1906); Clerk and Lindsell, by Wyatt Paine (4th ed., 1906); Pollock (8th ed., 1908); Salmond, The Law of Torts (2nd ed., 1910). In America: Burdick, The Law of Torts (1905); Street, The Foundations of Legal Liability (1906), 3 vols, of which vol. i. is on Tort. (F. Po.) TORTOISE. Of the three names generally used for this order of reptiles, viz. tortoise, turtle and terrapin, the first is derived from the Old French word tortis, i.e. twisted, and was probably applied first to the common European species on account of its curiously bent forelegs. Turtle is believed to be a corruption of the same word, but the origin of the name terrapin is un- known: since the time of the navigators of the 16th century it has been in general use for fresh-water species of the tropics, and especially for those of the New World. The name tortoise is now generally applied to the terrestrial members of this group of animals, and that of turtle to those which live in the sea or pass a great part of their existence in fresh water. They consti- tute one of the orders of reptiles, the Chelonia: toothless reptiles, with well developed limbs, with a dorsal and a ventral shell composed of numerous bony plates, large firmly fixed quadrates, a longitudinal anal opening and an unpaired copulatory organ. The whole shell consists of the dorsal, more or less convex carapace and the ventral plastron, both portions being joined laterally by the so-called bridge. The carapace is (with the exception of Sphargis) formed by dermal ossifications which are arranged in regular series, viz. a median row (1 nuchal, mostly 8 neurals and 1-3 supracaudal or pygal plates), a right and left row of costal plates which surround and partly replace the ribs, and a consider- able number (about 11 pairs) of marginal plates. The plas- tron consists of usually 9, rarely 11, dermal bones, viz. paired epi-, hyo-, hypo- and xiphi-plastral plates and the unpaired endo-plastral ; the latter is homologous with the interclavicle, the epi-plastra with the clavicles, the rest with so-called abdominal ribs of other reptiles. In most Chelonians the bony shell is covered with a hard epi- dermal coat, which is divided into large shields, commonly called " tortoiseshell." These horny shields or scutes do not correspond in numbers and extent with the underlying bones, although there is a general, vague resemblance in their arrangement; for instance, there is a neural, a paired costal and a paired marginal series. The terminology may be learned from the accompanying illus- trations (figs. I and 2) "■-...-,. The integuments of the neac, neck, tail and limbs are either soft and smooth or scaly or tubercular, frequently with small osseous nuclei. All the bones of the skull are suturally united. The dentary portion of the mandible consists of one piece only, both halves being completely fused together. The pectoral arch remains separate in the median line ; it consists of the coracoids, which slope backwards, and the scapulae, which stand, upright and often abut against the inside of the first pair of costal plates. Near the glenoid cavity for the humerus arises from the scapula a long process which is directed transversely towards its fellow; it represents the acromial process of other vertebrates, although so much enlarged, and is neither the precoracoid, nor the clavicle, as stated by the thought- less. The tail is still best developed in the Chelydridae, shortest ir the Trionychoidea. Since it contains the large copulatory organ it is less reduced in the males. No Chelonians possess the slightest TORTOISE 67 traces of teeth, but their jaws are provided with horny sheaths, with hard and sharp edges, forming a beak. The number of Chelonians known at present may be estimated at about 200, the fresh-water species being far the most numerous, and are abundant in well-watered districts of the tropical and sub-tropical zones. Their number and variety decrease beyond the tropics, and in the north they disappear entirely about the 50th parallel in the western and about the 56th in the eastern hemisphere, whilst in the southern hemisphere the terrestrial forms seem to advance to 36° S. only. The marine turtles, which are spread over the whole of the equatorial and sub-tropical seas, sometimes stray beyond those limits. As in other orders Epidermal shields: — CO, Costals. ". Vertebrals. m, Marginals. ?. Gulars. PC Postgulars or humerals P, Pectorals. ab, Abdominals. pa, Preanals or femorals. an, Anals. FlGS. I, 2. — Shell of Testudo pardalis, to show the divisions of the integument, which are marked by entire lines, and of the osseous carapace, these being marked by dotted lines. Fig. I, Upper or dorsal aspect. Fig. 2, Lower or ventral aspect. Bones of the Carapace : — co l , Costals. we, Neurals. nu. Nuchal. py, Pygals. m 1 , Marginals. ent, Entoplastron. ep, Epiplastron. hyo, Hyoplastron. hyp, Hypoplastron. xyp, Xiphiplastron. of reptiles, the most specialized and the largest forms are restricted to the tropics (with the exception of Macroclemmys) ; but, unlike lizards or snakes, Chelonians are unable to exist in sterile districts or at great altitudes. They show a great divergence in their mode of life — some living constantly on land, others having partly terrestrial partly aquatic habits, others again rarely leaving the water or the sea. The first-mentioned, the land tortoises proper, have short club-shaped feet with blunt claws, and a very convex, heavy, completely ossified shell. In the fresh-water forms the joints of the limb bones are much more mobile, the digits distinct, armed with sharp claws, and united by a membrane or web; their shell is less convex, and is flattened, and more or less extensive areas may remain unossified, or transparent windows are formed with age, for instance in Batagur. As a rule, the degree of development of the interdigital web and of convexity of the shell indicates the prevalence of aquatic or terrestrial habits of a species of terrapin. Finally, the marine turtles have paddle-shaped limbs resembling those of Cetaceans. Land tortoises are sufficiently protected by their carapace, and therefore have no need of any special modification of structure by means of which their appearance would be assimi- lated to the surroundings and thus give them additional security from their enemies. These, however, are few in number. On the other hand, among the carnivorous terrapins and fresh- water turtles instances of protective resemblance are not scarce, and may even attain to a high degree of specialization, as in Chelys, the matamata. The colours of land tortoises are generally plain, or in yellow and brown patterns, whilst those of many terrapins are singularly varied, bright and beautiful, especially in the very young, but all this beauty is lost in the adult of many species. Chelonians are diurnal animals; only a few are active during the night, habitually or on special occasions, as, for instance, during oviposition. Land tortoises are slow in all their move- ments, but all kinds living in water can execute rapid motions, either to seize their prey or to escape from danger. All Chelonians are stationary, residing throughout the year in the same locality, with the exception of the marine turtles, which periodically migrate to their breeding-stations. Species inhabiting temperate regions hibernate. Land tortoises, a few terrapins, and some of the marine turtles are herbivorous, the others carnivorous, their prey con- sisting chiefly of fish, frogs, molluscs, and other small aquatic animals; some, e.g. Clemmys insculpta and Cisludo Carolina, have a mixed vegetable and animal diet. All Chelonians are oviparous, and the eggs are generally covered with a hard shell, mostly elliptical, rarely quite round, as in the case of the marine turtles. The various modifications, and also the not uncommon individual variations, in the composition of the carapace plates and the number and disposition of the shields, are very significant. They show an unmistakable tendency towards reduction in numbers, a concentration and simplification of the shell and its covering shields. We can to a certain extent reconstruct a generalized ancestral tortoise and thereby narrow the wide gap which separates the Chelonia from every other reptilian order. The early Chelonians possessed most likely more than five longitudinal dorsal rows of plates. The presence of several small supramarginal shields in Macroclemmys may be an indication that the total number of longitudinal rows was originally at least seven. The number of transverse rows, both of plates and shields, was also greater. We can account for at least twelve median plates and as many pairs of marginals, but for onlv eieht median and eight pairs of costal shields (individual variations observed in Thalassochelys). It stands to reason that originally each trunk metamere had its full complement of plates and shields ; consequently that about twelve trunk metameres partook in the formation of the shell, which, with subsequent shortening and broadening of the trunk, has under- gone considerable concentration and reduction, a process which has reduced the costal plates to seven pairs in the American species of Trionyx, has completely abolished the neural plates of some Chelydidae, and has brought down the costal shields to four pairs in the majority of recent Chelonians. In several species of Testudo the little nuchal shield is suppressed, thereby reducing the unpaired median shields to five. The complete absence of shields in the Triony- chidae and in Carettochelys is also due to a secondary process, which, however, has proceeded in a different way. Classification of Chelonia. H. Stannius in 1854 clearly separated the Trionychoidea from the rest. E. D. Cope, in 1870, distinguished between Pleurodira and Cryptodira according to whether the neck, Stpri or bupri, is bent sidewards, or hidden by being withdrawn in an S-shaped curve in a vertical plane; he also separated Sphargis as Athecae from all the other Chelonians, for which L. Dollo, in 1886, proposed the term Thecophora. These terms are most unfortunate, misleading. Athecae (from #17107, shell) has reference to the absence of a horny shell-covering in the leathery turtle; but since the same character applies to Trionychoidea and to Carettochelys, nobody can guess that 68 TORTOISE the term Athecae in Dollo's sense refers to the fact that the shell of the leathery turtle is not homologous with the typical shell or 617KT) of the other Chelonians. The grouping of the latter into families recognizable by chiefly internal, skeletal characters has been effected by G. A. Boulenger. For practical purposes the following " key " is preferable to those taxonomic characters which are mentioned in the descriptions of the different families. The relationships between them may be indicated as follows: — fAthecae . Chelonia-^ [Thecophora J Chelydidae ( Pelomedusidae Chelonidae palatines, and these do not at all ventrally roof over the choanae. The position of Sphargis in the system is still a moot question. G. A. Boulenger looks upon it as the sole remnant of a primitive group in opposition to all the other recent Chelonia; G. Baur con- sidered it the most specialized descendant of the Chelonidae, a Sphargidae ("Pelomedusidae Pleurodira A Chelydidae L Carettochelydidae rChelydridae — Derma- temydidae-Cinosternida Cryptodira \ Platysternidae Testudinidae _ . , ., I Chelonidae Tnonychoidea Key to the Families of Chelonia. Shell covered with horny shields. Digits distinct, with five or four claws. Pectoral shields separated from the mar- ginals by inframarginals. Tail long and crested. Plastron small and cruciform Chelydridae Tail long, covered with rings of shields. Plastron large Platysternidae _ ., , { Dermatemydidae Tal1 short I Cinosternidae Pectoral shields in contact with the mar- ginals. Plastral shields 1 1 or 12, without an inter- guiar. Neck retractile in an S-shaped vertical curve Testudinidae Plastral shields 1 3, an intergular being present. Neck bending sideways under the shell Limbs paddle-shaped, with one or two claws Shell without horny shields, covered with soft leathery skin. Digits distinct, broadly webbed, but with only three claws Trionychoidea Limbs paddle-shaped. Shell composed of regular series of bony plates. Two claws Carettochelydidae Shell composed of very many small plates arranged like mosaic. No claws . . Sphargidae. Sub-order I. Athecae. — The shell consists of a mosaic of numerous small polygonal osseous plates and is covered with leathery skin without any horny shields. The limbs are transformed into paddles, without claws. Marine. Sole representative Sphargis or Derma- tochelys coriacea, the leathery turtle or luth ; it is the largest of living Chelonians, surpassing 6 ft. in length, has a wide distribution over all the intertropical seas, but is very rare everywhere; a few stragglers have appeared as far north as the coasts of Long Island, and those of Great Britain, Holland and France. It is a curious fact that only adults and young, but none of intermediate size, happen to be known. This creature shows many im- portant features. The vertebrae and ribs are not fused with, but remain free from, the cara- pace, and this is fundamentally different from and not homologous with that of other Chelon- ians. O. P. Hay has suggested that the mosaic polygonal components of the shell of Sphargis are, so to speak, an earlier generation of osteo- dermal plates than the fewer and larger plates of the Thecophora, which in them fuse with the neural arches and the ribs. Sphargis has, how- ever, the later category in the plastron and in its first neural or nuchal plate. If this suggestion is correct, this turtle has either lost or perhaps never had developed the horny shields. The many mosaic plates comprise larger plates which form an unpaired median, two pairs of other dorsal, a lateral and three pairs of ventral series or ridges; thirteen, or when the inner ventral pair fuses, twelve pairs in all. The skull, excellently studied by J. F. van Bemmelen, much resembles that of Chelone, but so-called epipterygoids are absent; further, the pterygoids, instead of sending lateral arms to the jugals and maxillaries, are widely separated from these bones by the Fig. 3. — A portion of the Osseous Plates of the Carapace of Sphargis coriacea, showing three large keeled plates of one of the longitudinal ridges of the carapace, with a number of the small irregular plates on either side of them. view which has been supported by W. Dames, E. C. Case, and to a certain extent by J. F. van Bemmelen. For literature, &c, see L. Dollo, Bull. S. R. Bruxelles (Fevrier 4, 1901). Sub-order II. Thecophora. — The bony shell is composed of several longitudinal series of plates (on the dorsal side a median or neural, a paired lateral or costal series, and marginal plates). With few exceptions this shell is covered with large horny scutes or shields. Super-family 1. Cryptodira. — The neck, if retractile, bends in an S-shaped curve in a vertical plane. The pelvis is not fused with the shell, and this is covered with large horny shields, except in Carettochelys. Family I . Chelydridae. — The plastron is rather narrow, and cross- shaped ; the bridge is very narrow and is covered by a pair of shields, the displaced abdominals, which are separated from the marginals by a few inframarginals. The limbs, neck and head are so stout that they cannot completely be withdrawn into the shell. The tail is very long. Only two genera with three species, confined to America. Chelydra serpentina, the " snapping turtle," ranging from the Canadian lakes through the United States east of the Rockies; closely allied is C. rossignoni of Central America and Ecuador. Macroclemmys temmincki, the " alligator turtle," is the largest known fresh-water Chelonian, its shell growing to a length Fig. 4. — The Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina). of 3 ft. It is characterized by the three series of strong prominent keels along the back; it inhabits the whole basin of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers. Family 2. Dermatemydidae. — The pectoral shields are widely separated from the marginals by inframarginals, the gulars are small or absent, and the tail is extremely short. Only a few species, in Central America. The plastron is composed of nine plates. The nuchal plate has a pair of rib-like processes like those of the Chelydridae. One or more of the posterior costal plates meet in the middle line. The shell of these aquatic, broadly web-fingered tortoises, is very flat and the covering shields are thin. They feed TORTOISE 69 upon leaves, grass and especially fruit. Staurotypus, e.g. salvini with 23, Dermatemys, e.g. mawi, with 25 marginal shields. Family 3. Cinosternidae. — Closely allied to the two previous families from which Cinosternum, the only genus, differs chiefly by the absence of the endo-plastral plate. Inframarginals are present. The nuchal plate has a pair of rib-like processes. The neural plates are interrupted by the meeting of several pairs of the costal plates. Twenty-three marginal shields. In some species the skin of the legs and neck is so baggy that these parts slip in, the skin rolling off, when such a turtle withdraws into its shell. In some the plastron is hinged and the creature can shut itself up tightly, e.g. C. leucostoma of Mexico; in others the plastron leaves gaps, or it is narrow and without hinges, e.g. C. odoratum, the mud turtle or stinkpot terrapin of the eastern half of North America. About a dozen species, mostly Central American. Family 4. Platysternidae. — Platysternum megacephalum, the only species, from Burma to southern China. The total length of these thick-headed, very long-tailed turtles is about I ft., only 5 in. belonging to the shell. The plastron is large, oblong, not cruci- form, composed of nine plates. The nuchal is devoid of rib-like processes. A unique arrangement is that the jugals are completely shut off from the orbits owing to the meeting of the post-frontals with the maxillaries. Family 5. Testudinidae. — The shell is always covered with well- developed shields; those which cover the plastral bridge are in direct contact with the marginals. The plastron is composed of nine bones. The digits have four or five claws. The neck is completely retractile. This family contains the majority of tortoises, divided into as many as 20 genera. These, starting with Emys as the least special- ized, can be arranged in two main diverging lines, one culminating in the thoroughly aquatic Batagur, the other in the exclusively terrestrial forms. Emys, with the plastron movably united to the carapace; with well-webbed limbs, amphibious. E. orbicularis or europaea was, towards the end of the Pleistocene period, distributed over a great part of middle Europe, remains occurring in the peat of England, Belgium, Denmark and Sweden; it is now withdrawing eastwards, being restricted in Germany to isolated localities east of Berlin, but it reoccurs in Poland and Russia, whence it extends into western Asia ; it is common in south Europe. The other species, E. blandingi, lives in Canada and the north-eastern states of the Union. Clemmys with the plastron immovably united to the cara- pace; temperate holarctic region, e.g. C. caspica, C. leprosa in Spain and Morocco; C. insculpta, in north-east America. Mala- codemmys with a few species in North America, e.g. M. terrapin, the much prized " diamond-back. " Chrysemys with many American species, e.g. Ch. picta, the " painted terrapin " and C. concinna, most of them very handsomely coloured and marked when still young. Batagur and Kachuga in the Indian sub-region. Cistudo Carolina, the box tortoise of North America, with the plastron divided into an anterior and a posterior movable lobe, so that the creature can shut itself up completely. Although essen- tially by its internal structure a water tortoise, it has become absolutely terrestrial in habits, and herewith agree the high- backed instead of depressed shell, the short webless fingers and its general coloration. It has a mixed diet. The eyes of the males are red, those of the females are brown. From Long Island to Mexico. Cinixys, e.g. belliana of tropical Africa, has the posterior portion- of the carapace movably hinged. Pyxis arachnoides of Madagascar has the front-lobe of the plastron hinged. Testudo, the main genus, with about 40 species, is cosmopolitan in tropical and sub-tropical countries, with the exception of the whole of the Australian and Malay countries; most of the species are African. T. graeca, in Mediterranean countries and islands. T. marginata in Greece with the posterior margin of the carapace much flanged or serrated, and T. ibera or mauritanica from Morocco to Persia; both differ from T. graeca by an unpaired supracaudal, marginal shield, and by the possession of a strong, conical, horny tubercle on the hinder surface of the thigh. With age the posterior portion of the plastron develops a transverse ligamentous hinge. T. polyphemus, the " gopher " of southern United States, lives in pairs in self-dug burrows. T. tabulata is one of the few South American terrestrial tortoises. Of great interest are the so-called gigantic land tortoises. In former epochs truly gigantic species of the genus Testudo had a wide and probably more continuous distribution. There was T. atlas, of the Pliocene of the Sivalik hills with a skull nearly 8 in. long, but the shell probably measured not more than 6 ft. in length, the restored specimen in the Natural History Museum at South Kensington being exaggerated. T. perpigniana of Pliocene France was also large. Large land tortoises, with a length of shell of more than 2 ft., became restricted to two widely separated regions of the world, viz. the Galapagos Islands (called thus after the Spanish galapago, i.e. tortoise), and islands in the western Indian Ocean viz. the Mascarenes (Bourbon, Mauritius and Rodriguez) and Aldabra. When they became extinct in Madagascar is not known, but T. grandidieri was a very large kind, of apparently very recent date. At the time of their discovery those smaller islands were un- inhabited by man or any predaceous mammal. It was on these peaceful islands that land tortoises lived in great numbers; with plenty of food there was nothing for them to do but to feed, to propagate, to grow and to vary. Most of the islands were or are inhabited by one or more typical, local forms. As they provided, like the equally ill-fated dodo and solitaire, a welcome provision of excellent meat, ships carried them about, to be slaughtered as occasion required, and soon almost exterminated them; some were occasionally liberated on other islands, for instance, on the Seychelles and on the Chagos, or they were left as presents, in Ceylon, Java or on Rotuma near the Fijis. Thus it has come to pass that the few survivors have been very much scattered. The small genuine stock at Aldabra is now under government protection, in a way. A large male of T. gigantea or elephantina or hololissa or ponderosa, was brought to London and weighed 870 lb; another specimen had in 1908 been living at St Helena for more than one hundred years. A specimen of T. daudini, native of the South Island of Aldabra, was known for many years on Egmont Island, one of the Chagos group, then it was taken to Mauritius and then to England, where of course it soon died ; its shell measures 55 in. in a straight line, and it weighed 560 lb. The type specimen of T. sumeirei, supposed to have come originally from the Seychelles, was in 1908 still kept in the barrack grounds at Port Louis, Mauri- tius, and had been known as a large tortoise for about 150 years. T. vosmaeri was a very thin-shelled species in Rodriguez. Of the Galapagos species T. ephippium still survives on Duncan Island; T. abingdoni lived on Abingdon Island; of T. elephantopus or vicina, G. Baur still collected 21 specimens in 1893 on Albemarle Island. One monster of this kind is said to have measured 56 in. over the curve of the carapace, with a skull a little more than 7 in. in length. All the Galapagos species are remarkable for their comparatively small head and the very long neck, which is much larger and more slender than that of the eastern species. Family 6. Chelonidae. Marine turtles, with only two recent genera, with three widely distributed species. The limbs are paddle- shaped, with only one or two claws, and the shell is covered with horny shields. The neck is short and incompletely retractile. The parietals, post-frontals, squamosals, quadrato-jugals, and jugals are much expanded and form an additional or false roof over the temporal region of the skull. The Chelonidae are a highly specialized offshoot of the Cryptodira, adapted to marine life. Fundamentally they agree most with the Testudinidae, and there is nothing primitive about them except that they still possess complete series of inframaxginal shields. Chelone, with only 4 pairs of costal shields, with 5 neurals and a broad nuchal. C. mydas s. viridis, the " green or edible turtle," Fig. 5. — Green Turtle {Chelone mydas). has, when adult, a nearly smooth shell. It attains a length of nearly 4 ft., and may then weigh more than three hundredweight. Their food consists of algae, and of Zostera marina. Their capture forms a regular pursuit wherever they occur in any numbers. Comparatively few are caught in the open sea, others in staked nets, but the majority are intercepted at well-known periods and localities where they go ashore to deposit their eggs. These are round, with a parchment-like shell and buried in the sand, above the high-tide mark, as many as 100 to 250 being laid by one female. They are eagerly searched for and eaten. The famous turtle- soup is made not only of the meat and the fat, but also from the thick and gelatinous layer of subcutaneous tissue which lines the inside of the shell. Only. the females are eaten; the males, recogniz- able by the longer tail, are rejected at the London market. This species inhabits the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans. C. imbricata, the " hawksbill turtle. " The shields are thick, strongly overlapping each other from before backwards, but in old specimens the shields lose their keel, flatten and become juxta- posed. The horny cover of the upper jaw forms a hooked beak. This species lives upon fish and molluscs and is not eaten; but is much persecuted for the horny shields which yield the 7o TORTOISE " tortoise-shell, " so far as this is not a fraudulent imitation. When heated in oil, or boiled, the shields (which singly are not thick enough to be manufactured into larger articles) can be welded together under pressure and be given any desired shape. The " hawksbill " Fig. 6. — Hawksbill Turtle {Chelone imbricata). ranges over all the tropical and sub- tropical seas and scarcely reaches 3 ft. in length, but such a shell yields up to 8 lb of tortoiseshell. Thalassochelys caretta, the " loggerhead, " has normally five pairs of costal shields, but whilst the number of shields in the genus Chelone is very constant, that of the loggerhead varies individually to an astonishing extent. The greatest number of neurals ob- served, and counting the nuchal as the first, is 8, and 8 pairs of costal, in all 24; the lowest numbers are 6 neurals with 5 pairs of costals; odd costals are frequent. The most interesting facts are that some of the supernumerary shields are much smaller than the others, sometimes mere vestiges in all stages of gradual suppression, and that the abnormalities are much more common in babies and small specimens than in adults. The importance of these ortho- genetic variations has been discussed by H. Gadow in A. Willey's Zoolog. Results, pt. iii. p. 207-222, pis. 24, 25 (Cambridge 1899). Fig. 7.— Loggerhead {Thalassochelys caretta). The " loggerhead " is carnivorous, feeding on fish, molluscs and crustaceans, and is not esteemed as food. A great part of the turtle-oil which finds its way into the market is obtained from it; its tortoiseshell is of an inferior quality. Besides all the inter- tropical seas it inhabits the Mediterranean, and is an accidental visitor of the western coasts of Europe. The old specimen captured on the Dutch coast in 1894 contained the enormous number of 1 1 5" eggs. Super-family 2. Pleurodira. — The lon^ neck bends laterally and is tucked away between the anterior portion of the carapace and the plastron. The dorsal and ventral ends of the pelvis are anchylosed to the shell. Fresh-water tortoises of South America, Australia, Africa and Madagascar. Fig. 8. — The Matamata (Chelys fimbriata) with side view of head, and separate view of plastron. Family 1. Pelomedusidae. — Neck completely retractile. Carapace covered with horny shields, of which the nuchal is wanting. Plastron composed of 11 plates. With 24 marginal and 13 plastral shields, Fig. 9. — Lower view of Trionyx euphratica. inclusive of a conspicuous intergular. Sternothaerus in Africa and Madagascar. Pelomedusa galeata in Madagascar and from the Cape to the Sinaitic peninsula. Podocnemis is common in tropical South America, e.g. P. expansa of Brazilian rivers, noteworthy for TORTOISESHELL— TORTONA 7 1 the millions of eggs which are, or were, annually collected for the sake of their oil. Bates (The Naturalist on the River Amazon) gives a most interesting account of these turtles, which are entirely frugivorous. Family 2. Chelydidae. — The neck, when bent, remains partly exposed. Shell covered with shields. Plastron composed of 9 plates, but covered with 13 shields. This family, still represented by nearly 30 species, with 8 genera, is found in South America and in Australia. Chelys fimbriata, the " matamata " in the rivers of Guiana and North Brazil ; total length about 3 ft. ; with animal diet. Hydromedusa, e.g. tectifera, with very long neck, in Brazil, much resembling Chelodina, e.g. longicollis of the Australian region. Family 3. Carettochelydidae. — Carettochelys insculpta, the only species, in the Fly river of New Guinea; still imperfectly known. This peculiar turtle seems to stand in the same relation to the Chely- didae and to the Trionychidae as do the Chelonidae to the Testu- dinidae by the transformation of the limbs into paddles with only two claws, and the complete reduction of the horny shields upon the shell, which is covered with soft skin. The plastron is composed of 9 plates; the 6 neural plates are all separated from one another by the costals. The premaxilla is single, as elsewhere only in Fig. 10. — Upper view of the Turtle of the Euphrates (Trionyx euphratica). Chelys and in the Trionychidae. The neck is short and non-retractile. Length of shell about 18 in. Super-family 3. Trionychoidea. — The shell is very flat and much smaller than the body, and covered with soft leathery skin, but traces of horny structures are still represented, especially in the young of some species, by numerous scattered little spikes on the back of the shell and even on the soft parts of the back. The limbs are short, broadly webbed and only the three inner digits are pro- vided with claws. Head and neck are retractile, bending in a sig- moid curve in a vertical plane. The jaws are concealed by soft lip-like flaps and the nose forms a short soft proboscis. The tem- poral region is not covered in by any arches ; the quadrate is trumpet- shaped as in the Chelydidae, but the jugular arch is complete. The pelvis is not anchylosed to the shell. The carapace is much reduced in size, the ribs extending beyond the costal plates, and there are no marginals; except in the African Cyclanorbis the neural plates form a continuous series. All the nine elements of the plastron are deficient and but very loosely connected with each other. Most of these reductions in the skeletal and tegumentary armature are the result of life in muddy waters, in the bottom of which these creatures bury themselves with only the head exposed. They feed upon aquatic animals; those which are partial to hard- shelled molluscs soon wear down the sharp horny edges of theiaws, and thick horny crushing pads are developed in their stead. They only crawl upon land in order to lay their round brittle eggs. Trionyxes inhabit the rivers of Asia, Africa and North America. Trionyx ferox, the " soft-shelled turtle," in the whole of the Missis- sippi basin and in the chain of the great northern lakes. T. triunguis in Africa, the largest species, with a length of shell of 3 ft. T. hurum and T. gangeticus are the commonest Indian species. The young are ornamented with two or three pairs of large, round, ocellated spots on the back. (H. F. G.) TORTOISESHELL. The tortoiseshell of commerce consists of the epidermic plates covering the bony carapace of the hawksbill turtle, Chelonia imbricata, the smallest of the sea turtles. The plates of the back or carapace, technically called the head, are 13 in number, 5 occupying the centre, flanked by 4 on each side. These overlap each other to the extent of one-third of their whole size, and hence they attain a large size, reaching in the largest to 8 in. by 13 in., and weighing as much as 9 oz. The carapace has also 24 marginal pieces, called hoofs or claws, forming a serrated edge round it; but these, with the plates of the plastron, or belly, are of inferior value. The plates of tortoiseshell consist of horny matter, but they are harder, more brittle, and less fibrous than ordinary horn. Their value depends on the rich mottled colours they display — a warm translucent yellow, dashed and spotted with rich brown tints — and on the high polish they take and retain. The finest tortoiseshell is obtained from the Eastern Archipelago, par- ticularly from the east coast of Celebes to New Guinea; but the creature is found and tortoiseshell obtained from all tropical coasts, large supplies coming from the West Indian Islands and Brazil. Tortoiseshell is worked precisely as horn ; but, owing to 'the high value of the material, care is taken to prevent any waste in its working. The plates, as separated by heat from the bony skeleton, are keeled, curved, and irregular in form. They are first flattened by heat and pressure, and superficial inequalities are rasped away. Being harder and more brittle than horn, tortoiseshell requires careful treatment in moulding it into any form, and as high heat tends to darken and obscure the material it is treated at as low a heat as practicable. For many purposes it is necessary to increase the thickness or to add to the superficial size of tortoiseshell, and this is readily done by careful cleaning and rasping of the surfaces to be united, softening the plates in boiling water or sometimes by dry heat, and then pressing them tightly together by means of heated pincers or a vice. The heat softens and liquefies a superficial film of the horny material, and that with the pressure effects a perfect union of the surfaces brought together. Heat and pressure are also employed to mould the substance into boxes and the numerous artificial forms into which it is made up. Tortoiseshell has been a prized ornamental material from very early times. It was one of the highly esteemed treasures of the Far East brought to ancient Rome by way of Egypt, and it was eagerly sought by wealthy Romans as a veneer for their rich furniture. In modern times it is most characteristically used in the elaborate inlaying of cabinet-work known as buhl furniture, and in com- bination with silver for toilet articles. It is also employed as a veneer for small boxes and frames. It is cut into combs, moulded into snuff-boxes and other small boxes, formed into knife-handles, and worked up into many other similar minor articles. The plates from certain other tortoises, known commercially as turtle-shell, possess a certain industrial value, but they are either opaque or soft and leathery, and cannot be mistaken for tortoiseshell. A close imitation of tortoiseshell can be made by staining translucent horn or by varieties of celluloid. TORTOLl, a town and episcopal see of Sardinia, on the east coast, 140 m. N.N.E. of Cagliari by rail (55 m. direct). Pop. (1901), 2105. It lies 60 ft. above sea-level to the south-west of a large lagoon, which renders it unhealthy. The harbour is 25 1:1. to the east, and serves for the export of the wine and agricultural produce of the Ogliastra. A little to the south of Tortoli was the station of Sulci on the Roman coast road, known to us only from the itineraries. TORTONA (anc. Dertona), a town and episcopal see of Pied- mont, Italy, in the province of Alessandria, from which it is 14 m. E. by rail, on the right bank of the Scrivia, at the northern foot of the Apennines, 394 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 11,308 (town); 17,419 (commune). Tortona is on the main line from Milan to Genoa; from it a main line runs to Alessandria, a branch to Castelnuovo Scrivia, and a steam tramway to Sale. Its fortifications were destroyed by the French after Marengo (1799); the ramparts are now turned into shady 72 TORTOSA— TORTURE promenades. The cathedral, erected by Philip II., contains a remarkably fine Roman sarcophagus of the Christian period. Silk- weaving, tanning and hat-making are the chief industries; and there is some trade in wine and grain. Dertona, which may have become a Roman colony as early as the 2nd century B.C. and - certainly did so under Augustus, is spoken of by Strabo as one of the most important towns of Liguria. It stood at the point of divergence of the Via Postumia (see Liguria) and the Via Aemilia, while a branch road ran hence to Pollentia. A number of ancient inscriptions and other objects have been found here. In the middle ages Tortona was zealously attached to the Guelphs, on which account it was twice laid waste by Frederick Barbarossa, in 1155 and 1163. (T. As.) TORTOSA, a fortified city of north-east Spain, in the province of Tarragona; 40 m. by rail W.S.W. of the city of Tarragona, on the river Ebro 22 m. above its mouth. Pop. (1900), 24,452. Tortosa is for the most part an old walled town on the left bank of the river, with narrow, crooked and ill-paved streets, in which the houses are lofty and massively built of granite. But some parts of the old town have been rebuilt, and there is a modern suburb on the opposite side of the Ebro. The slope on which old Tortosa stands is crowned with an ancient castle, which has been restored and converted into barracks and a hospital. All the fortifications are obsolete. The cathedral occupies the site of a Moorish mosque built in 914. The present structure, which dates from 1347, has its Gothic character disguised by a classical facade with Ionic pillars and much tasteless modernization. The stalls in the choir, carved by Cristobal de Salamanca in 1 588-1 593, and the sculpture of the pulpits, as well as the iron-work of the choir-railing and some of the precious marbles with which the chapels are adorned, deserve notice. The other public buildings include an episcopal palace, a town- hall and numerous churches. There are manufactures of paper, hats, leather, ropes, porcelain, majolica, soap, spirits, and ornaments made of palm leaves and grasses. There is an important fishery in the river, and the harbour is accessible to vessels of 100 tons burden. Corn, wine, oil, wool, silk, fruits and liquorice (a speciality of the district) are exported. The city is connected with Barcelona and Valencia by the coast railway, and with Saragossa by the Ebro valley line; it is also the terminus of a railway to San Carlos de la Rapita on the Mediterranean. Near Tortosa are rich quarries of marble and alabaster. Tortosa, the Dertosa of Strabo and the Colonia Julia Augusta Dertosa of numerous coins, was a city of the Ilercaones in Hispania Tarraconensis. Under the Moors it was of great im- portance as the key of the Ebro valley. It was taken by Louis the Pious in 811 (after an unsuccessful siege two years before), but was soon recaptured. Having become a haunt of pirates, and exceedingly injurious to Italian commerce, it was made the object of a crusade proclaimed by Pope Eugenius III. in 1148, and was captured by Ramon Berenguer IV., count of Barcelona, assisted by Templars, Pisans and Genoese. An attempt to recapture the city in 1149 was defeated by the heroism of the women, who were thenceforth empowered by the count to wear the red sash of the Order of La Hacha (The Axe), to import their clothes free of duty, and to precede their bridegrooms at weddings. Tortosa fell into the hands of the duke of Orleans in 1708; during the Peninsular War it surrendered in 181 1 to the French under Suchet, who held it till 1814. TORTURE (from Lat. torquere, to twist), the general name for innumerable modes of inflicting pain which have been from time to time devised by the perverted ingenuity of man, and especially for those employed in a legal aspect by the civilized nations of antiquity and of modern Europe. From this point of view torture was always inflicted for one of two purposes: (1) As a means of eliciting evidence from a witness or from an accused person either before or after condemnation; (2) as a part of the punishment. The second was the earlier use, its function as a means of evidence arising when rules were gradually formulated by the experience of legal experts. Torture as a part of the punishment may be regarded as including every kind of bodily or mental pain beyond what is necessary for the safe custody of the offender (with or without enforced labour) or the destruction of his life — in the language of Bentham, an " afflictive " as opposed to a " simple " punish- ment. Thus the unnecessary sufferings endured in English prisons before the reforms of John Howard, the peine forte et dure, and the drawing and quartering in executions for treason, fall without any straining of terms under the category of torture. The whole subject is now one of only historical interest as far as Europe is concerned. It was, however, up to a comparatively recent date an integral part pf the law of most countries (to which England, Aragon and Sweden 1 formed honourable exceptions) — as much a commonplace of law as trial by jury in England. 2 The prevailing view, no doubt, was that truth was best obtained by confession, the regina probationum. Where confession was not voluntary, it must be extorted. Speaking generally, torture may be said to have succeeded the ordeal and trial by battle. Where these are found in full vigour, as in the capitularies of Charlemagne, there is no provision for torture. It was no doubt accepted reluctantly as being a quasi judicium Dei, but tolerated in the absence of any better means of eliciting truth, especially in cases of great gravity, on the illogical assumption that extraordinary offences must be met by extraordinary remedies. Popular feeling too, says Verri, preferred, as causes of evil, human beings who could be forced to confess, rather than natural causes which must be accepted with resignation. Confession, as probatio probatissima and vox vera, was the best of all evidence, and all the machinery of law was moved to obtain it. The trials for witchcraft remain on record as a refutation of the theory. The opinions of the best lay authorities have been almost unanimously against the use of torture, even in a system where it was as completely established as it was in Roman law. " Tor- menta," says Cicero, 3 in words which it is almost impossible to translate satisfactorily, " gubernat dolor, regit quaesitor, flectit libido, corrumpit spes, infirmat metus, ut in tot rerum angustiis nihil veritati loci relinquatur." Seneca says bitterly, " it forces even the innocent to lie." St Augustine 4 recognizes the fallacy of torture. " If," says he, " the accused be innocent, he will undergo for an uncertain crime a certain punishment, and that not for having committed a crime, but because it is unknown whether he committed it." At the same time he regards it as excused by its necessity. The words of Ulpian, in the Digest of Justinian, 5 are no less impressive: " The torture (quaestio) is not to be regarded as wholly deserving or wholly undeserving of confidence; indeed, it is untrustworthy, perilous and decep- tive. For most men, by patience or the severity of the torture, come so to despise the torture that the truth cannot be elicited from them; others are so impatient that they will lie in any direction rather than suffer the torture; so it happens that they depose to contradictions and accuse not only themselves but others." Montaigne's 6 view of torture as a part of the punish- ment is a most just one: " All that exceeds a simple death appears to me absolute cruelty; neither can our justice expect that he whom the fear of being executed by being beheaded or hanged will not restrain should be any more awed by the imagina- tion of a languishing fire, burning pincers, or the wheel." He continues with the curious phrase: " He whom the judge has tortured (gehennS) that he may not die innocent, dies inno- cent and tortured." Montesquieu 7 speaks of torture in a most guarded manner, condemning it, but without giving reasons, and eulogizing England for doing without it. The system was condemned by Bayle and Voltaire with less reserve. Among 1 But even in these countries, whatever the law was, torture certainly existed in fact. 2 Primitive systems varied. There is no trace of it in Babylonian or Mosaic law, but Egyptian and Assyrian provided for it; and the story of Regulus seems to show that it was in use at Carthage. 3 Pro Sulla, c. 28. 4 De civ. Dei, bk. xix. c. 6. 6 Dig. xlviii. 18, 23. 6 Essay lxv. (Cotton's trans.) 7 Esprit des lois, bk. vi. c. 17. TORTURE 73 the Germans, Sonnenfels (1766), and, among the Italians, Beccaria, 1 Verri 2 and Manzoni 3 will be found to contain most that can be said on the subject. The influence of Beccaria in rendering the use of torture obsolete was undoubtedly greater than that of any other legal reformer. The great point that he makes is the unfair incidence of torture, as minds and bodies differ in strength. Moreover, it is, says he, to confound all relations to expect that a man should be both accuser and accused, and that pain should be the test of truth, as though truth resided in the muscles and fibres of a wretch under torture. The result of the torture is simply a matter of calculation. Given the force of the muscles and the sensibility of the nerves of an innocent person, it is required to find the degree of pain necessary to make him confess himself guilty of a given crime. Bentham's 4 objection to torture is that the effect is exactly the reverse of the intention. " Upon the face of it, and probably enough in the intention of the framers, the object of this institution was the protection of innocence; the protection of guilt and the aggravation of the pressure upon innocence was the real fruit of it." The apologists of torture are chiefly among jurists. But theoretical objections to it are often urged by the authors of books of practice, as by Damhouder, von Rosbach, von Boden, Voet, and others named below under the head of The Netherlands. It is worthy of note as illustrative of the feeling of the time that even Bacon 6 compares experiment in nature to torture in civil matters as the best means of eliciting truth. Muyart de Vouglans 6 derives the origin of torture from the law of God. Other apologists are Simancas, bishop of Badajoz, 7 Engel, 8 Pedro de Castro, 9 and in England Sir R. Wiseman. 10 Greece. — The opinion of Aristotle was in favour of torture as a mode of proof. " It is," he says, " a kind of evidence, and appears to carry with it absolute credibility because a kind of constraint is applied." It is classed as one of the " artless persuasions " (&Tex voi Tr£o-ms). n " It was the surest means of obtaining evidence, says Demosthenes. 12 At Athens slaves, and probably at times resident aliens, were tortured, 13 in the former case generally with the master's consent, but torture was seldom applied to free citizens, 14 such application being forbidden by a psephism passed in the archonship of Scamandrius. After the mutilation of the Hermae in 415 B.C. a proposition was made, but not carried, that it should be applied to two senators named by an informer. In this particular case Andocides gave up all his slaves to be tortured. 15 Torture was sometimes inflicted in open court. The rack was used as a punish- ment even for free citizens. Antiphon was put to death by this means. 18 The torture of Nicias by the Syracusans is alluded to by Thucydides 17 as an event likely to happen, and it was only in order to avoid the possibility of inconvenient disclosures that he was put to death without torture. Isocrates and Lysias refer to torture under the generic name of (rxpe/SXoxrts, but it was generally called fiaaai'OL, in the plural, like tormenta. As might be expected, torture was frequently inflicted by the Greek despots, and both Zeno and Anaxarchus are said to have been put to it by such irre- sponsible authorities. At Sparta the despot Nabis was accustomed, as we learn from Polybius, 18 to put persons to death by an instrument of torture in the form of his wife Apega, a mode of torture no doubt resembling the Jungfernkuss once used in Germany. At Argos, as Diodorus informs us (xv. 57), certain conspirators were put to the torture in 371 B.C. 19 I Dei Delitti e delle pene, c. xvi. 2 Osservazioni sulla tortura. 3 Storia delta Colonna infame. 4 Works, vii. 525. 5 Nov. Org., bk. i. aph. 98. In the Advancement of Learning, bk. iv. ch. 4, Bacon collects many instances of constancy under torture. 6 Institute du droit criminel (Paris, 1757). 7 De catholicis institutionibus liber, ad praecavendas et extirpandas haereses admodum necessarius (Rome, 1575). 8 De tortura ex f oris christianis non proscribenda (Leipzig, 1733). * Defensa de la tortura (Madrid, 1778). 10 Law of Laws, p. 122 (London, 1686). II Rhet. i. 15, 26. 12 In Onetum, i. 874. 13 Usually by the diaetetae in the Hephaestaeum, Isocrates, Trapez. 361. 14 The opinion of Cicero (De partitionibus oratoriis, § 34), that it was so applied at Athens and Rhodes, seems, as far as regards Athens, not to be justified by existing evidence. 15 The demand for, or the giving up of, a slave for torture was called TrpoK\ri(TLs ets fiacravov. 16 In the Ranae of Aristophanes, v. 617, there is a list of kinds of torture, and the wheel is alluded to in Lysistrata, v. 846. 17 vii. 86. 18 xiii. 7. 19 For the whole subject, see Diet. Ant., s.v. Tormenta. Rome. — The Roman system was the basis of all subsequent European systems which recognized torture as a part of their pro- cedure, and the rules attained a refinement beyond anything approached at Athens. The law of torture was said by Cicero to rest originally on custom (mores majorum), but there is no allusion to it in the Twelve Tables. There are frequent allusions to it in the classical writers, 20 both of the republic and the empire. The law, as it existed under the later empire, is contained mainly in the titles De quaestionibus 21 of the Digest and the Code 22 — the former consisting largely of opinions from the Sentenliae receptae of Paulus, 23 the latter being for the most part merely a repetition of constitutions contained in the Theodosian Code. 24 Both substantive law and procedure were dealt with by these texts of Roman law, the latter, however, not as fully as in medieval codes, a large discretion being left to the judges. Torture was used both in civil and criminal trials, but in the former only upon slaves and freedmen or infamous persons (after Nov. xc. I, 1, upon ignoli and obscuri if they showed signs of corrup- tion) — such as gladiators — and in the absence of alia manifesta indicia, 2 * as in cases affecting the inheritance (res hereditariae). Its place in the case of free citizens was taken by the reference to the oath of the party. During the republic torture appears to have been confined to slaves in all cases, but with the empire a free man became liable to it if accused of a crime, though in most cases not as a witness. On an accusation of treason every one, whatever his rank, was liable to torture, for in treason the condition of all was equal. 26 The same was the case of those accused of sorcery (magi), who were regarded as humani generis inimiciP A wife might be tortured (but only after her slaves had been put to the torture) if accused of poisoning her husband. In accusations of crimes other than treason or sorcery, certain persons were protected by the dignity of their position or their tender age. The main exemptions were contained in a constitution of Diocletian and Maximian, and included soldiers, nobles of a particular rank, i.e. eminentissimi and perfectis- simi, and their descendants to the third generation, and decuriones and their children to a limited extent (tormenta moderata) — that is to say, they were subject to the torture of the plumbatae in certain cases, such as fraud on the revenue and extortion. In addition to these, priests (but not clergy of a lower rank), children under fourteen and pregnant women were exempt. A free man could be tortured only where he had been inconsistent in his depositions, or where there was a suspicion that he was lying. 23 The rules as to the torture of slaves were numerous and precise. It was a maxim of Roman law that torture of slaves was the most efficacious means of obtaining truth. 29 They could be tortured either as accused or as witnesses for their masters in all cases, but against their masters only in accusations of treason, adultery, frauds oft the revenue, coining, and similar offences (which . were regarded as a species of treason), attempts by a husband or wife on the life of the other, and in cases where a master had bought a slave for the special reason that he should not give evidence against him. The privilege from accusa- tions by the slave extended to the master's father, mother, wife, or tutor, and also to a former master. On the same principle a freedman could not be tortured against his patron. The privilege did not apply where the slave was joint property, and one of his masters had been murdered by the other, or where he was the property of a corporation, for in such a case he could be tortured in a charge against a member of the corporation. Slaves belonging to the inheritance could be tortured in actions concerning the inheritance. The adult slaves of a deceased person could be tortured where the deceased had been murdered. In a charge of adultery against a wife, her husband's, her own and her father's slaves could be put to the torture. A slave manumitted for the express purpose of escaping torture was regarded as still liable to it. Before putting a slave to torture without the consent of his master, security must be given to the master for his value and the oath of calumny must be taken. 30 The master of a slave tortured on a false accusation could recover double his value from the accuser. The undergoing of torture had at one time a serious effect upon the after-life of the slave, for in the time of Gaius a slave who had been tortured could on manumission obtain no higher civil rights than those of a dediticius. 31 The rules of procedure were conceived in a spirit of as much fairness as such rules could be. Some of the most important were these: The amount of torture was at the discretion of the judge, but it was to be so 20 An instance is Pliny's letter to Trajan (Epist. x. 97), where he mentions having put to the torture two Christian deaconesses (ministrae). The words are confitentes iterum ac tertio interrogavi. This supports Tertullian's objection to the torture of Christians, torquemur confitentes (Apol. c. 2). 21 Quaestio included the whole process of which torture was a part. In the words of Cujacius, Quaestio est interrogatio quae fit per tormenta, vel de reis, vel de testibus qui facto intervenisse dicuntur. 22 Dig. xlviii. 18; Cod. ix. 41. 23 v. 14, 15, 16. 24 ix. 35. 25 Cod. ix. 8. 3. 26 Ibid. ix. 8, 4. 27 Ibid. ix. 18, 7. 28 Ibid. iv. 20, 13. 29 Ibid. i. 3, 8. 30 Ibid. ii. 59, 1,1. The demand of another man's slave for torture was postulare. 31 Gaius i. 13. 74 TORTURE applied as not to injure life or limb. If so applied the judge was infamis. The examination was not to begin by torture; other proofs must be exhausted first. The evidence 1 must have advanced so far that nothing but the confession of the slave was wanting to complete it. Those of weakest frame and tenderest age were to be tortured first. Except in treason, the unsupported testimony of a single witness was not a sufficient ground for torture. The voice and manner of the accused were to be carefully observed. A spon- taneous confession, or the evidence of a personal enemy, was to be received with caution. Repetition of the torture could only be ordered in case of inconsistent depositions or denial in the face of strong evidence. There was no rule limiting the number of repeti- tions. Leading questions were not to be asked. A judge was not liable to an action for anything done during the course of the examina- tion. An appeal from an order to torture was competent to the accused, except in the case of slaves, when an appeal could be made only by the master. 2 The appellant was not to be tortured pending the appeal, but was to remain in prison. 3 The quaesitor asked the questions, the tortores applied the instruments. The principal forms of torture in use were the equuleus, or rack (mentioned as far back as Cicero), 4 the plumbatae, or leaden balls, the ungulae, or barbed hooks, the lamina, or hot plate, the mala mansio, h and the fidiculae, or cord compressing the arm. Other allusions in the Digest and Code, in addition to those already cited, may be shortly noticed. The testimony of a gladiator or infamous person (such as an accomplice) was not valid without torture. 6 This was no doubt the origin of the medieval maxims (which were, however, by no means universally recognized) — Vilitas personae est justa causa torquendi testem, and Tortura purgatur infamia. Torture could not be inflicted during the forty days of Lent. 7 Robbers and pirates might be tortured even on Easter day, the divine pardon being hoped for where the safety of society was thus assured. 8 Capital punish- ment was not to be suffered until after conviction or confession under torture. 9 Withdrawal from prosecution (abolitio) was not to be allowed as a rule after the accused had undergone the torture. 10 In charges of treason the accuser was liable to torture if he did not prove his case. 11 The infliction of torture, not judicial, but at the same time countenanced by law, was at one time allowed to creditors. They were allowed to keep their debtors in private prisons, and most cruelly ill-use them, in order to extort payment. 12 Under the empire private prisons were forbidden. 13 In the time of Juvenal the Roman ladies actually hired the public torturers to torture their domestic slaves. 14 As a part of the punishment torture was in frequent use. Crucifixion, mutilation, exposure to wild beasts in the arena and other cruel modes of destroying life were common, especially in the time of the persecution of the Christians under Nero. 15 Crucifixion as a punishment was abolished by Constantine in 315, in veneration of the memory of Him who was crucified for mankind. On the other hand, where the interests of the Church were concerned the tendency was in favour of greater severity. Thus, by the Theodosian Code, a heretic was to be flogged with lead (contusus plumbo) before banishment, 16 and Justinian made liable to torture and exile any one insulting a bishop or priest in a church, or saying litany, if a layman. 17 1 The evidence on which the accused might be tortured was expressed in Roman law by the terms argumentum and indicium (used technically as early as Cicero, Verres, i. 10 and 17). The latter term, as will be seen, afterwards became one of the most important in the law of torture, but the analysis of indicium is later than Roman law. Indicium was not quite the same thing as semi- plena probatio, though the terms appear to be occasionally used as synonyms. Indicium was rather the foundation or cause of probatio, whether plena or semiplena. An indicium or a concurrence of indicia might, according to circumstances, constitute a plena or semiplena probatio. The phrase legitima indicia was sometimes used. In Sir T. Smith's work, c. 24 (see below), index means a prisoner acting as an approver under torture. Tormentum, tortura and quaestio appear to be equivalent terms. The medieval jurists derived the first of these from torquere mentem, an etymology as false as testamentum from testatio mentis {Inst. ii. 10 pr.). 2 Dig. xlix. i. 15. 3 Cod. vii. 62, 12. 4 Milo, lvii. 6 Of doubtful meaning, but perhaps like the " Little Ease " of the Tower of London. 6 Dig. xxii. 5, 21, 2. 7 Cod. iii. 12, 6. 8 Ibid. iii. 12, 10. 9 Ibid. ix. 47, 16. 10 Ibid. ix. 42, 3. u Ibid. ix. 8, 3. 12 See, for instance, Livy vi. 36. 13 Cod. i. 4, 23; ix. 5. 14 Ibid. vi. 480. 15 As an example of such punishments, cf. the well-known lines of Juvenal (Sat. i. 155): — " Taeda lucebis in ilia, Qua stantes ardent qui fixo,gutture fumant." For other poetical allusions, see vi. 480, xiv. 21; Lucr. iii. 1030; Propert. iv. 7, 35. 16 xvi. 53. 17 Nov. cxxiii. 31. On the subject of torture in Roman law reference may be made to Wasserscheben, Historia quaestionum per tormenta apud Romanos (Berlin, 1836); H. Wallon. Histoire de I'esclavage duns Vantiquite (Paris, 1879); Mommsen, Romisches The Leges barbarorum are interesting as forming the link of connexion between the Roman and the medieval systems. Through them the Roman doctrines were transmitted into the Roman law countries. The barbarian codes were based chiefly on the Theodosian Code. As compared with Roman law there seems to be a leaning towards humanity, e.g. the provision for redemption of a slave after confession by s. 40 of the Lex salica. After the edict of Gundobald in 501 the combat rather than the torture became the expression of the judicium Dei. The Church. — As far as it could the Church adopted the Roman law. The Church generally secured the almost entire immunity of its clergy, at any rate of the higher ranks, from torture by civil tribunals; 18 but in general, where laymen were concerned all persons were equal. In many instances councils of the Church pronounced against torture, e.g. in a synod at Rome in 384. 19 Torture even of heretics seems to have been originally left to the ordinary tribunals. Thus a bull of Innocent IV., in 1282, directed the torture of heretics by the civil power, as being robbers and murderers of souls, and thieves of the sacraments of God. 20 The Church also enjoined torture for usury. 21 A characteristic division of torture, accepted by the Church, but not generally acknowledged by lay authorities, was into spiritual and corporal, the latter being simply the imposition of the oath of purgation, the only form originally in use in the ecclesiastical courts. The canon law contains little on the subject of torture, and that little of a comparatively humane nature. It laid down that it was no sin in the faithful to inflict torture, 22 but a priest might not do so with his own hands, 23 and charity was to be used in all punishments. 24 No confession was to be extracted by torture 25 and it was not to be ordered indiciis non praecedentibus . w The principal ecclesiastical tribunal by which torture was inflicted in more recent times was the Inquisition. The code of instructions issued by Torquemada in Spain in 1484 provided that an accused person might be put to the torture if semiplena probatio existed against the accused — that is, so much evidence as to raise a grave and not merely a light presump- tion of guilt, often used for the evidence of one eye or ear witness of a fact. If the accused confessed during torture, and afterwards confirmed the confession, he was punished as convicted ; if he retracted, he was tortured again, or subjected to extraordinary punishment. One or two inquisitors, or a commissioner of the Holy Office, were bound to be present at every examination. Owing to the occurrence of certain cases of abuse of torture, a decree of Philip II. was issued, in 1558, forbidding the administration of torture without an order from the council. But this decree does not appear to have been fully observed. By the edict of the inquisitor-general Valdes, in 1561, torture was to be left to the prudence and equity of the judges. They must consider motives and circumstances before decreeing torture, and must declare whether it is to be employed in caput proprium, i.e. to extort a confession, or in caput alienum, i.e. to incriminate an accomplice. Torture was not to be decreed until the termination of the process and after defence heard, and the decree was subject to appeal, but only in doubtful cases, to the Council of the Supreme. It was also only in doubtful cases that the inquisitors were bound to consult the council; where the law was clear (and of this they were the judges) there need be no consultation, and no appeal was allowed. On ratification twenty-four hours afterwards of a confession made under torture, the accused might be reconciled, if the inquisitors believed him to be sincerely repentant. If convicted of bad faith he might be relaxed, i.e. delivered to the secular power to be burned. The inquisitors had a discretion to allow the accused to make the canonical purgation by oath instead of undergoing corporal torture, but the rule which allows this to be done at the same time discountenances it as fallacious. It is remarkable that the rules do not allow much greater efficacy to torture. They speak of it almost in the terms of Roman law as dangerous and uncertain, and depending for its effects on physical strength. 27 Torture had ceased to be inflicted before the suppression of the Inquisition, and in 1816 a papal bull decreed that torture should cease, that proceedings should be public, and that the accuser should be confronted with the accused. The rules in themselves were not so cruel as the construction put upon them by the inquisitors. For instance, by Torquemada's instruc- tions torture could not be repeated unless in case of retractation. This led to the subtlety of calling a renewed torture a continuation, Strafrecht, iii. 5 (Leipzig, 1899); Greenidge, Legal Procedure of Cicero's Time, p. 479 (Oxford, 1901). 18 See Escobar, Theol. Mor. tract, vi. c. 2. They were to be tor- tured only by the clergy, where possible, and only on indicia of special gravity. 19 Lea, Superstition and Force, p. 419 (3rd ed., Philadelphia, 1878). 20 Leges et constitutiones contra haerelicos, § 26. 21 Lecky, Rationalism in Europe, ii. 34. 22 Decretum, pt. ii. 23, 4, 45. 23 Ibid. pt. i. 86, 25. 24 Ibid. pt. ii. 12, 2, II. 25 Ibid. pt. ii. 15, 6, I. 26 Decretals, v. 41, 6. 27 The rules will be found in H. C. Lea, Hist, of the Inquisition of Spain (1906). See also Hist, of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages (New York, 1888) by the same writer; R.Schmidt, Die Herkunft des Inquisitionsprocesses (Berlin, 1902). TORTURE 75 and not a repetition. The rules of Torquemada and of Valdes are those of the greatest historical importance, the latter forming the code of the Holy Office until its suppression, not only in Spain, but in other countries where the Inquisition was established. But several other manuals of procedure existed before the final perfec- tion of the system by Valdes. The earliest is perhaps the instruc- tions for inquisitors (Directorium inquisitorum) compiled a century earlier than Torquemada by Nicholas Eymerico, grand inquisitor of Aragon about 1368. 1 Rules of practice were also framed two centuries later by Simancas, whose position as an apologist has been already stated. The textbook of procedure of the Italian Inquisi- tion was the Sacro arsenate. 2 In 1545 and 1550 instructions for the guidance of inquisitors were issued by Charles V. The liability of a judge for exceeding the law was not always recognized by the Inquisition to the same extent as by the lay tribunals. Llorente gives an instance of a warrant by an inquisitor to a licentiate order- ing the torture of an accused person, and protesting that, in case of death or fracture of limbs, the fact is not to be imputed to the licentiate. 3 Thus far of the law. In practice all the ingenuity of cruelty was exercised to find new modes of torment. 4 These cruelties led at times to remonstrance from the civil power. One example is the edict of Philip II. just mentioned. Another and an earlier one is an ordonnance of Philip the Fair, in 1302, bidding the Inquisition confine itself within the limits of the law. 6 At Venice the senate decreed that three senators should be present as inquisitors. As the practice of torture became more systematized, it grew to be the subject of casuistical inquiry by churchmen to an extent far exceeding the scanty discussion of the question in the text of the canon law. It will be sufficient here to cite as an example the treat- ment of it by Liguori, who incorporates the opinions of many of the Spanish casuists. On the whole, his views appear to be more humane than the prevailing practice. The object of torture he defines very neatly as being to turn semiplena into plena probatio. For this proper indicia are necessary. He then proceeds to decide certain questions which had arisen, the most interesting of which deal with the nature of the sin of which the accused and the judge are guilty in particular instances. A judge sins gravely if he does not attempt all milder means of discovering truth before resorting to torture. He sins in a criminal cause, or in one of notable infamy, if he binds the accused by oath to tell the truth before there is proof against him. It is the same if without oath he uses threats, terror or exhibition of torments to confound the witness. 6 If any one, to avoid grave torments, charges himself with a capital crime, he does not sin mortally. 7 It was a doubtful question whether he sinned gravely in such a case. Escobar at an earlier date supported the morally dangerous view that an inquisitor may follow a probable opinion in ordering torture, relinquishing a more probable. 8 England. — It is the boast of the common law of England that it never recognized torture as legal. One, perhaps the chief, reason for this position taken by the law is the difference of the nature of the procedure in criminal cases from that in general use in European countries. To use words more familiar in foreign jurisprudence, the English system is accusatorial as distinguished from inquisitorial. In the former the accuser has to prove guilt, in the latter the accused has to prove innocence. The common law of England has always shown itself averse from the inquisitorial system, and so (at least in theory) to the torture which may be regarded as an outcome of the system whose one end was to obtain a confession from the accused. The tendency of the small amount of statute law bearing on the subject is in the same direction. It was provided by Magna Carta, § 29, " that no free man . . . should be destroyed in any way unless by legal judgment of his equals or by the law of the land." On this Sir E. Coke comments, " No man destroyed, &c, that is, fore- judged of life or limb, disinherited, or put to torture or death." 9 The act of 27 Hen. VIII. c. 4 enacted that, owing to the frequent escape of pirates in trials by the civil law, " the nature whereof is that before any judgment of death can be given against the offenders they must plainly confess their offence (which they will never do without torture or pains)," such persons should be tried by jury before commissioners under the Great Seal. Finally, the Bill of Rights provided that cruel and unusual punishments ought not to be inflicted. The opinions of the judges have been invariably against torture in theory, however much some of them may have 1 An edition was published at Rome in 1558, and a compendium at Lisbon in 1 762, and by Marchena at Montpellier in 1 82 1. 2 It was by Father Masini, and went through numerous editions (complete or compendia) from 1558 to 1730. Among other manuals of practice were those of Carenas Caesar (1655), Moreltet (1762). 3 Llorente c. xiv. 4 Among others were the gradual pouring of water drop by drop on a particular spot of the body, the tormento de toca, or pouring of water into a gauze bag in the throat, which gradually forced the gauze into the stomach, and the pendola, or swinging pendulum, so graphically described in one of Edgar Poe's tales. 5 Ordonnances des rois, i. 346. 6 Theol. mor. bk. ix. § 202. ' Ibid. § 274. 8 Ibid. v. 3 and 7. 9 2 Inst. 48 b. been led to countenance it in practice. The strongest authority is the resolution of the judges in Felton's case (1628), " that he ought not by the law to be tortured by the rack, for no such punishment is known or allowed by our law." 10 In accordance with this are the opinions of Sir John Fortescue, 11 Sir Thomas Smith 12 and Sir E. Coke. The latter says, " As there is no law to warrant tortures in this land, nor can they be justified by any prescription, being so lately brought in." 13 In spite of all this, torture in criminal proceedings was inflicted in England with more or less frequency for some centuries, both as a means of obtaining evidence and as a part of the punishment. But it should be remarked that torture of the former kind was invariably ordered by the Crown or council, or by some tribunal of extraordinary authority, such as the Star Chamber, not professing to be bound by the rules of the common law. In only two instances was a warrant to torture issued to a common law judge. 14 A licence to torture is found as early as the Pipe Roll of 34 Hen. II. 16 The Templars were tortured in 13 10 by royal warrant addressed to the mayor and sheriffs of London. 16 In this case it is recorded that torture was unknown in England, and that no torturer was to be found in the realm. 17 A commission was issued concerning the tortures at Newgate in 1334. 18 The rack in the Tower is said to have been introduced by the duke of Exeter in the reign of Henry VI., and to have been thence called "the duke of Exeter's daughter." 19 In this reign torture seems to have taken its place as a part of what may be called extraordinary criminal procedure, claimed, and it may be said tacitly recognized, as exercisable by virtue of the prerogative, and continued in use down to 1640. 20 The infliction of torture gradually became more common under the Tudor monarchs. Under Henry VIII. it appears to have been in frequent use. Only two cases are recorded under Edward VI., and eight under Mary. 21 The reign of Elizabeth was its culminating point. In the words of Hallam, " the rack seldom stood idle in the Tower for all the latter part of Elizabeth's reign." 22 The varieties of torture used at this period are fully described by Dr Lingard, 23 and consisted of the rack, the scavenger's daughter, 24 the iron gauntlets or bilboes, and the cell called " Little Ease." The registers of the council during the Tudor and early Stuart reigns are full of entries as to the use of torture, both for state and for ordinary offences. 26 Among notable prisoners put to the torture were Anne Askew, the Jesuit Campion, Guy Fawkes 26 and Peacham (who was examined by Bacon " before torture, in torture and after torture "). 27 The prevalence of torture in Elizabeth's reign led to the well-known defence at- tributed to Lord Burghley, " A declaration of the favourable dealing of Her Majesty's commissioners appointed for the examination of certain traitors, and of tortures unjustly reported to be done upon them for matter of religion," 1583. 28 The use of torture in England being always of an extraordinary and extra-judicial nature, it is 10 3 State Trials, 371. 11 De laudibus legum Angliae, c. 22. 12 Commonwealth of England, bk. ii. c. 27 (1583; ed. by L. Alston, 1906). It is curious that Sir T. Smith, with all his hatred of torture, was directed by a warrant under the queen's seal alone (not through the council) to torture the duke of Norfolk's servants in 1571. In a letter to Lord Burghley he pleaded for exemption from so hateful a task. 13 3 Inst. 35. Nevertheless, in the trials of Lord Essex and Southampton, Coke is found extolling the queen's mercy for not racking or torturing the accused (1 State Trials, 1338). (See further authorities in Pollock and Maitland, Hist, of English Law, ii. 656.) 14 Jardine, Reading on the Use of Torture in the Criminal Law of England (1837), p. 52. 15 L. O. Pike, Hist, of Crime in England, i. 427. 16 Rymer, Foedera, iii. 228, 232. 17 Walter of Hemingford, p. 256. 18 Pike I. 481. M 3 Inst. 34. 20 This is the date of the latest warrant in Jardine's work, but it was used on three Portuguese at Plymouth during the Common- wealth (Thurloe iii. 298). 21 It is to be noticed, as Jardine observes, that all these are cases of an ordinary nature, and afford no. ground for the assertions made by Strutt and Bishop Burnet that torture was used to heretics as heretics. 22 Const. Hist. i. 201. 23 Hist, of England, vol. viii. app. note v. 24 These two were exactly opposite in principle. The rack stretched the limbs of the sufferer; the scavenger's daughter compressed him into a ball. 25 Fifty-five of these will be found in the appendix to Mr Jardine's work. An ordinary robber of plate was threatened with torture in 1567. — Froude, Hist, of England, viii. 386. 26 It is not certain whether he was racked, but probably he was, in accordance with the king's letter: " If he will not otherwise confess the gentlest tortures are to be first used to him, and so on, step by step, to the most severe, and so God speed the good work." 27 Dalrymple, Memoirs and Letters of James I. p. 85 ; Macaulay's essay on the works of Bacon. 28 Lord Somers's Tracts, i. 189. 76 TORTURE comparatively certain that it could hardly have been applied with that observation of forms which existed in countries where it was regulated by law. There were no rules and no responsibility beyond the will of the Crown or council. This irresponsibility is urged by Selden 1 as a strong objection to the use of torture. The main differences between the infliction of torture in England and on the continent of Europe seem to be that English lawyers made no dis- tinction of those liable to it, never allowed torture of witnesses, and elaborated no subtle rules as to plena and semiplena probatio. So far of what may be called torture proper, to which the common law professed itself a stranger. There were, however, cases fully recognized by the common law which differed from torture only in name. The peine forte et dure was a notable example of this. If a prisoner stood mute of malice instead of pleading, he was condemned to the peine, that is, to be stretched upon his back and to have iron laid upon him as much as he could bear, and more, and so to continue, fed upon bad bread and stagnant water through alternate days until he pleaded or died. 2 It was abolished by 12 Geo. III. c. 20. 7 and 8 Geo. IV. c. 28 enacted that a plea of " not guilty " should be entered for a prisoner so standing mute. A case of peine occurred as lately as 1726. At times tying the thumbs with whip-cord was used instead of the peine. This was said to be a common practice at the Old Bailey up to the 18th century. 3 In trials for witchcraft the legal proceedings often partook of the nature of torture, as in the throwing of the reputed witch into a pond to see whether she would sink or swim, in drawing her blood, 4 and in thrusting pins into the body to try to find the insensible spot. Confessions, too, appear to have been often extorted by actual torture, and torture of an unusual nature, as the devil was supposed to protect his votaries from the effects of ordinary torture. Torture as a part of the punishment existed in fact, if not in name, down to a very recent period. Mutilation as a punishment appears in some of the pre-Conquest codes, such as those of Alfred, .