THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST editi on, published in three Volumes, 1768 — 1771. SECOND , „ ten , , 1777— 1784. THIRD ,, eighteen , , 1788 — 1797. FOURTH , „ twenty , , 1801 — 1810. FIFTH , „ twenty , , 1815—1817 SIXTH , „ twenty , , 1823 — 1824 SEVENTH , , „ twenty-one , , 1830 — 1842 EIGHTH , , ,, twenty-two , 1853—1860 NINTH , , ,, twenty-five , 1875— 1889 TENTH , , ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903 ELEVENTH , , published in twenty-nine voluoif !S, I9IO igi I COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE All rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXVI SUBMARINE MINES to TOM-TOM New York Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. 342 Madison Avenue Copyright, in the United States of America, 191 1, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company, INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXVI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. A. A. R. A. Adams Reilly. J Joint-author of Life and Letters of J. D. Forbes. \ Tisserand, Francois. A. Bo.* Auguste Boudinhon, D.D., D.C.L. [ Professor of Canon Law at the Catholic University of Paris. Honorary Canon of -s Syllabus. Paris. Editor of the Canoniste contemporain. \ A. B. Go. Alfred Bradley Gough, M.A., Ph.D. f Sometime Casberd Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. English Lector in the \ Swabian League. University of Kiel, 1 896-1905. I A. Ca. Arthur Cayley, LL.D., F.R.S. I Surface (in part). See the biographical article: Cayley, Arthur. I A. Ch. Alfred Chapman, M.Inst.C.E. / Sugar: Sugar Manufacture (in Designer and Constructor of Sugar-Machinery. I pari). A. C. C. Albert Curtis Clark, M.A. f Fellow and Tutor of Queen's College, Oxford, and University Reader in Latin. A Theocritus. Editor of Cicero's Speeches (Clarendon Press). I A. C. G. Albert Charles Lewis Gotthilf Guenther, M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S. r Keeper of the Zoological Department, British Museum, 1875-1895. Gold Medallist, J _ ,„ , Royal Society, 1878. Author of Catalogues of Colubrine Snakes, Batrachia, Salientia,\ Sworansn. and Fishes in the British Museum; &c. I A. C. McG. Rev. Arthur Cushman McGiffert, M.A., Ph.D., D.D. f Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. Author of J Thonrtnrot - of Eusebius. I A. D. G. Alfred Denis Godley, M.A. I" Fellow and Tutor of Magdalen College, Oxford, and Public Orator in the University, i Xacjtus ({ n p a rt). Author of Socrates and Athenian Society; &c. Editor of editions of Tacitus. L A. F. P. Albert Frederick Pollard, M.A., F.R.Hist.S. Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Assistant-editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893- 1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c. A. G. Major Arthur George Frederick Griffiths (d. 1908). H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1 878-1 896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgate;\ Ticket-of-Leave. Secrets of the Prison House; &c. " Taylor, Rowland; Tetzel. A. Ha. Adolf Harnack, D Ph. , Theodore of Mopsuestia: See the biographical article: Harnack, Adolf. *"° »' ou *™" 1 " u ™""' f Tertullian (in part); i Theodore of Mopsues [Theodoret (in part). A. He. Arthur Hervey. f Formerly Musical Critic to the Morning Post and to Vanity Fair. Author of Masters -j Thomas, Charles. of French Music; French Music in the Nineteenth Century. [ A. H.-S. Sir A. Houtum-Schindler, CLE. j Tabriz; General in the Persian Army. Autnor of Eastern Persian Irak. \ Teheran. A. H. S. Rev. Archibald Henry Sayce, D.D., LL.D., Litt.D. -f Susa. See the biographical article: Sayce, Archibald H. \ A. J. G. Rev. Alexander James Grieve, M.A., B.D. (" Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent J Swedenborg, Emanuel; College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and Member ofl Tithes (Religion). Mysore Educational Service. I A. L. Andrew Lang, LL.D. f Tale. See the biographical article: Lang, Andrew. \ 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. v A. Mtt. A. M. F.* A.N. A. P. H. A. R. S. K. A. SI. A. Sp. A. S. C. A. S. P.-P. A. Wa. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES August Muller, Ph.D. (1848-1892). Formerly Professor of Semitic Languages in the University of Halle. Author of ' Der Islam im Morgen- und Abendland. Editor of Orientalische Bibliographic Arthur Mostyn Field, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.Met.S. Vice-Admiral R.N. Admiralty Representative on Port of London Authority. . Acting Conservator of River Mersey. Hydrographer of the Royal Navy, 1904- 1909. Author of Hydrographical Surveying; &c. Alfred Newton, F.R.S. See the biographical article: Newton, Alfred. Sunnites (in part). Surveying: Nautical. Sugar-bird; Sun-bird; Sun-bittern; Swallow; Swan; Swift; Tanager; Tapaculo; Teal; Tern; Thrush; Tinamou; Titmouse; Tody. Swaziland {in part). Alfred Peter Hillier, M.D., M.P. Author of South African Studies; The Commonweal; &c. Served in Kaffir War, 1878-1879. Partner with Dr L. S. Jameson in medical practice in South Africa till - 1896. Member of Reform Committee/Johannesburg, and Political ' Prisoner at Pretoria, 1895-1896. M.P. for the Hitchin division of Herts, 1910. Rev. Archibald R. S. Kennedy, M.A., D.D. f Professor of Hebrew and Semitic Languages in the University of Edinburgh. J Tabernacle; Professorof Hebrew in the University of Aberdeen, 1 887-1 894. Editor of '' Exodus " i Temple (in part). in the Temple Bible. I Arthur Shadwell, M.A., M.D., LL.D. » - f Member of the Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of The London Water { Temperance. Supply; Industrial Efficiency; Drink, Temperance and Legislation. I A. W. H.* A. W. R. C. B.* C. C. Archibald Sharp. Consulting Engineer and Chartered Patent Agent. Alan Summerly Cole, C.B. Formerly Assistant Secretary, Board of Education, South Kensington. Author of Ornament in European Silks; Catalogue of Tapestry, Embroidery, Lace and Egyptian' Textiles in the Victoria and Albert Museum; &c. Andrew Seth Pringle-Pattison, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 191 1. Fellow of the British Academy." Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos; The Philosophical Radicals; &c. Arthur Waugh, M.A. Managing Director of Chapman & Hall, Ltd., Publishers. Formerly literary adviser to Kegan Paul & Co. Author of Alfred Lord Tennyson; Legends of the Wheel;' Robert Browning in " Westminster Biographies." Editor of Johnson's Lives of the Poets. Arthur William Holland. Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Alexander Wood Renton, M.A., LL.B. Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. of England. Charles Bemont, D.Litt. See the biographical article: Bemont, C. Tire. Tapestry; Textile-Printing: Archaeology. Art and Theosophy (in part). Symonds, John Addington. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. f Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws \ Thurlow, Lord. I Thegn. f f Thierry; I Thou, Jacques. C. El. c. F. A. c. F. B. c. H. Ha c. H. K. c. H W. c. J. B. c. L. K. Charles Creighton, M.A., M.D. f King's College, Cambridge. Author of A History of Epidemics in Britain; Jenner < Surgery: History, and Vaccination ; Plague in India ; &c. [ Sir Charles Norton Edgcumbe Eliot, K.C.M.G., LL.D., D.C.L. r Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East Africa -i Tatars (in part). Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for German East Africa, 1900-1904. , I Charles Francis Atkinson. J Supply and Transport Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal 1 (Military) , Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbor. [ Thirty Years' War. Charles Francis Bastable, M.A., LL.D. f" Regius Professor of Laws and Professor of Political Economy in the University of J «!>_|„ n iyi__ pv Dublin. Author of Public Finance; Commerce of Nations; Theory of International | --Ken money. Trade; &c. I Carlton Huntley Hayes, A.M., Ph.D. [ Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member of -s Sully. the American Historical Association. I Clarence Hill Kelsey, A.M., LL.B. Vice-President and General Manager of the Bond and Mortgage Guarantee Company, New York City. Director of the Corn Exchange Bank; &c. Charles Theodore Hagberg Wright, LL.D. Librarian and Secretary of the London Library. Charles Jasper Blunt. Major, Royal Artillery. Title Guarantee Companies. Ordnance Officer. Served through Chitral Campaign. < Tolstoy, Leo. ■I Tirah Campaign. Charles Lethbridge Kingsford, M.A., F.R.Hist.S., F.S.A. Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. of Chronicles of London, and Stow's Survey of London. Editor \ Suffolk, William de la Pole, 1 Duke of. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES V13 C. R. B. C. S. S. C. Wi. D.Br D. C. To. D. F. T. D. Gi. D. G. H. D. H. D. H. S. D. LI. T. D. R'.-M. D. S.* D. Sch. E. Ar.* E. A. F. E.Br. E. C. B. E. G. E. Ga. E. Gr. Tasman; Tberfinn Karlsefni. Sympathetic System. -j Theatre: Spectacle. •j Teak (in part). Charles Raymond Beazley, M.A., D.Litt., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S. Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c. Charles Scott Sherrington, D.Sc, M.D., M.A., F.R.S., LL.D. Professor of Physiology, University of Liverpool. Foreign Member of Academies of Rome, Vienna, Brussels, Gottingen, &c. Author of The Integrative Action of the Nervous System. C. Wilhelm. Author of Essays on Ballet and Spectacle. Sir Dietrich Brandis, K.C.I.E., F.R.S. (1824-1007). Inspector-General of Forestry to the Indian Government, 1864-1883. Rev. Duncan Crookes Tovey, M.A. Rector of Worplesdon, Surrey. Editor of The Letters of Thomas Gray; &c. Donald Francis Tovey. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. Sir David Gill, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., D.Sc. H.M. Astronomer at the Cape of Good Hope, 1879-1907. Served on Geodetic Survey of Egypt, and on the expedition to Ascension Island to determine the Solar Parallax by observations of Mars. Directed the Geodetic Survey of Natal, Cape Colony and Rhodesia. 'Author of Geodetic Survey of South Africa; Catalogue of Stars for the Equinoxes, 1850, i860, 1885, 1800, 1000; &c. David George Hogarth, M.A. Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College. Fellow of. the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naticratis, 1899 and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. «■ David Hannay. Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal Navy ; Life of Emilio Castelar ; &c. Dukinfield Henry Scott, M.A., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. Professor of Botany, Royal College of Science, London, 1 885-1 892. Formerly 1 fhuret Gustavfl President of the Royal Microscopical Society and of the Linnean Society. Author ' luulel > wu»«*ve of Structural Botany; Studies in Fossil Botany; &c. Daniel Lleufer Thomas. Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Rhondda. -j Thomson, James (1700-1748)1 [ Suite: Music; Symphonic Poem; Symphony. Telescope (in part). Syria; Tobruk; Tokat. Suflren, Admiral; Swold, Battle of. \: Stipendiary Magistrate at Pontypridd and < Swansea. David Randall-Maciver, M.A., D.Sc. _ f Curator of Egyptian Department, University of Pennsylvania. Formerly Worcester -< Sudan: Reader in Egyptology, University of Oxford. Author of Medieval Rhodesia; &c. [ Archaeology (in part). David Sharp, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S. f Editor of the Zoological Record. Formerly Curator of the Museum of Zoology, J Termite University of Cambridge, and President of the Entomological Society of London. 1 Author of " Insecta " in the Cambridge Natural History; &c. { David Frederick Schloss, M.A. I* Formerly Senior Investigator and Statistician in the Labour Department of the i Sweating System. Board of Trade. Author of Methods of Industrial Remuneration ; &c. L Rev. Elkanah Armitage, M.A. J" Trinity College, Cambridge. Professor in Yorkshire United Independent College, "j Superintendent. Bradford. I Edward Augustus Freeman, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article: Freeman, E. A. Ernest Barker, M.A. Fellow and Lecturer in Modern History, St John's College, Oxford. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar, 1895. Rt. Rev. Edward Cuthbert Butler, M.A., O.S.B., Litt.D. ■< Syracuse. Tancred; Teutonic Order. Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath, in Cambridge Texts and Studies. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius Edmund Gosse, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article : Gosse, Edmund. Emile Garcke, M.Inst.E.E. Managing Director of the British Electric Traction Co. Ltd. Electrical Undertakings ;&c. Ernest Arthur Gardner, M.A. See the biographical article: Gardner, Percy. Author of Manual of- „[ Tertiaries; 1 Thomas of Celano. Sully-Prudhomme ; Sweden: Literature and Philosophy; Swinburne, Algernon C; Tegner, Esaias; Tennyson, Alfred; Terza Rima. Telegraph: Commercial Aspects; Telephone: Commercial Aspects. f Sunium; Tegea: Arckaeolegyi ■I Thebes (Greece); [Tiryns (in part). VU1 E. H.* E. He. E. H. M. E. K. Ed. M. E. M. W. E. 0.* E. 0. S. E. Wh. F. C. B. F. G. M. B F. G. P. F. G. P.* F. H H. F. J. G. F. J. H. f. y. g. F. P. F. Po. F. Pu. F. R. C. F. V. B. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Ernest Harrison, M.A. f Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of Studies in ■{ Terence (in Part). Theognis. I Edward Heawood, M.A. [ Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Librarian of the Royal Geographical "! Tanganyika, Lake. Society, London. I Ellis Hovell Minns, M.A. ^ J T * ur i;. University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian i Theodosia: Ancient; of Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. [ Thyssagetae. Edmund Knecht, Ph.D., F.I.C. Professor of Technological Chemistry, Manchester University. Head of Chemical Department, Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. Examiner in Dyeing, City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of A Manual of Dyeing; &c. Editor of the Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists. Textile-printing: Manu- facturing. Eduard Meyer, Ph.D., D.Litt., LL.D. f Tigranes; Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des < Tiridates; Alterthums; Geschichte des alten Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme. Tissanhernes Theopompus. Rev. Edward Mewburn Walker, M.A. Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen's College, Oxford. Edmund Owen, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. r Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, J Surgery: Modern practice; Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of 1 Tetanus. A Manual of A natomy for Senior Students. (_ Edwin Otho Sachs, F.R.S. (Edin.), A.M.Inst.M.E. Chairman of the British Fire Prevention Committee. Vice-President, National Fire Brigades' Union. Vice-President, International Fire Service Council. Author of Fires and Public Entertainments; &c. Theatre: Modern stage mechanism. Emmanuel Wheeler, M.A. i Theophrastus. Francis Crawford Burkitt, M.A., D.D. Norrisian Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Part-editor of The Four Gospels in Syriac transcribed from the< Thomas, St {in part). Sinaitic Palimpsest. Author of The Gospel History and its Transmission; Early Eastern Christianity; &c. Frederick George Meeson Beck, M.A. Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. f Suebi; Sussex, Kingdom of; -j Sweden: Early History; [ Teutoni. J Terpenes. -j Tammany Hall. {■■ Timur. Thule. Frederick Gymer Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.Anthrop. Inst. r Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on J T .. Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital, London, and the London School of Medicine for ] ieel "' Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. Frank George Pope. Lecturer on Chemistry, East London College (University of London). Franklin Henry Hooper. Assistant Editor of the Century Dictionary. Major-General Sir Frederick John Goldsmid. See the biographical article: Goldsmid: Family. Francis John Haverfield, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Censor, Student, Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Author of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain, &c. Francis Llewellyn Griffith, M.A., Ph.D., F.S.A. Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial - German Archaeological Institute. Author of Stories of the High Priests of Memphis; &c. Frank Podmore, M.A. (1856-1910). Sometime Scholar of Pembroke College, Oxford. Mesmerism and Christian Science; &c. Sir Frederick Pollock, Bart., LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article: Pollock: Family. Frederick Purser, M.A. (1840-1910). f Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. .Professor of Natural Philosophy in 1 Sur fece (in part). the University of Dublin. Member of the Royal Irish Academy. I Thebes (Egypt); Thoth. Author of Modern Spiritualism; i Table-turning. { Sword. Frank R. Cana. Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. Vincent Brooks. Managing Director of Messrs Vincent Brooks, Day & Son, Ltd., Lithograph Printers, London. Sudan: Geography and Statistics, Archaeology (in part) and History; Swaziland (in part); . Timbuktu; Tlemcen. -{ Sun Copying. F. W. Ga. F. W. R.* F. W. T. G. A. B. G. G. P.* G. H. Bo. G. H. C. G. H. D. G. J. A. G. L. G. Sa. G. Sn. G. U. G. W. P. G. W. T. H. B. Wa. H. Ch. H. De. H. D. T. H. F. T. H. H. H. H. L. H. Ja. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES IX Frederick William Gamble, D.Sc, F.R.S. ,.-... rv * Professor of Zoology in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Assistant Director of the Zoological Laboratories and Lecturer in Zoology in the University ofl Tapeworms. Manchester. Author of Animal Life. Editor of Marshall and Hurst's Practical [ Zoology; &c. ,- Frederick William Rudler, I.S.O., F.G.S. J Talc. Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. ^ President of the Geologists' Association, 1 887-1 889. Frank William Taussig. \ Tariff. See the biographical article : Taussig, Frank William. George A. Boulenger, D.Sc, F.R.S. [Tadpole; Keeper of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British -\ Xeleostomes. Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London. l George Grenville Phillimore, M.A., B.C.L. Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. -j Tithes: English. REV R?cZoFsm E ton E |a T nd y ° X Be ] d I s A "Formerly Lecturer in the Faculty of Theology J Teraphim (in part). University of Oxford, 1908-1909. Author of Translation of the Book of Isaiah; &c. I Author of Insects: 1 Thysanoptera. Tide. George Herbert Carpenter. Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin their Structure and Life. Sir George Howard Darwin, K.C.B., M.A., F.R.S., LL.D., D.Sc Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy in the University. President of the British Association, , 1905. Author of The Tides and Kindred Phenomena in the Solar System ; &c. v. George Johnston Allman, M.A., LL.D F.R S D.Sc. (1824-190;;). f Professor of Mathematics in Queen's College, Galway, and in Queen s University of 1 males 01 ffllieius. Ireland, 1 853-1 893. Author of Greek Geometry from Thales to Euclid; &c. I Georg Lunge, Ph.D., D.Ing. See the biographical article : Lunge, G. George Saintsbury, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article: Saintsbury, Grant Showerman, A.M., Ph.D. . I Svncretism* Professor of Latin at the University of Wisconsin. Member of the Archaeological J ^"T \ "' Institute of America. Member of the American Philological Association. Author laurODOllum. of With the Professor; The Great Mother of the Gods; &c. L { , George Edward Bateman. Sulphuric Acid. Thiers. Author of Wealth of] Tokyo. Goji Ukita. Formerly Chancellor of the Japanese Legation, London. Canada (in Japanese). George Walter Prothero, M.A., Litt.D., LL.D. t Editor of the Quarterly Review. Honorary Fellow, formerly Fellow of Kings College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Professor of History in the - University of Edinburgh, 1894-1899. Author of Life and Times of Simon de Mont- fort; &c. Joint-editor of the Cambridge Modern History. Rev. Griffithes Wheeler Thatcher, M.A., B.D. _ ...j Tnra fa- Tha'Slihi- Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old -j laraia, ina audi, Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. Temple, Sir William. r Suyuti; Tabari; I TirmidhL Henry Beauchamp Walters, M.A., F.S.A. Assistant to the Keeper of Greek and Roman Antiquities, British Museum, of The Art of the Greeks; History of Ancient Pottery; &c. Author -J Terracotta (in part). r Sullivan, Sir Arthur; Hugh Chisholm, M.A. , . , Tennent, Sir E.; Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition of J Theatre: Modem (in part); the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Co-editor of the 10th edition. ' Rev. Hippolyte Delehaye, S. J. Bollandist. Joint-editor of the Acta Sanctorum and the Analecta Bollandiana. H. Dennis Taylor- Inventor of the Cooke Photographic Lens. Author of A System of Applied Optics. { Thompson, Francis. ("Symeon Metaphrastes; t Synaxarium; Thecla, St. Telescope (in part). Rev. Henry Fanshawe Tozer, M.A., F.R.G.S. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Corresponding Member of the Historical Society of Greece. Author of History of Ancient Geography; Lectures on the Geography of Greece; &c. Thessaly; Thrace. Henri Simon Hymans, Ph.D. Keeper of the Bibliotheque Royale de Belgique, Brussels. vie et son auvre. Author of Rubens: sa-\ Teniers (in part). Henry Harvey Littlejohn, M.A., F.R.C.S. (Edin.)., F.R.S. (Edin.). , Professor of Forensic Medicine and Dean of the Faculty of Medicine in the University ' of Edinburgh. Henry Jackson, Litt.D., LL.D., O.M. . . Regius Professor of Greek in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of Ir. lnlt y, College. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Texts to Illustrate the History of Greek Philosophy from Thales to Aristotle. Suicide. Thales of Miletus: Philosophy, X H. L. C. H. M. C. H. R. K. H. S. , J. H. Ti. H. W. B. H. W. C. D H. W. H. I. A. I. J. c. J. A. F. J. A. H. J. A. S. J.Br. J. Bra. J. Bt. J. C. E. J. D. Pr. J. E. F. J. F.-K. J. F. St. J. Ga. J. G. F. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Hugh Longbourne Callendar, F.R.S., LL.D. C Thermodynamics; Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, London. Formerly Professor of ■> Thermoelectricity; Physics in McGill College, Montreal, and in University College, London. [ Thermometry Hector Munro Chadwick, M.A. f Teutonic Languages; Fellow and Librarian of Clare College, Cambridge, and University Lecturer in -j Teutonic Peoples; Scandinavian. Author of Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions. I Thor. Harry Robert Kempe, M.Inst.C.E. Electrician to the General Post Office, London. Book; &c. Author of The Engineer's Year Telegraph; Telephone. Henry Stuart Jones, M.A. f Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Oxford, and Director of the British J _. , ,.-./•' \ School at Rome. Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. 1 Theatre: Ancient (in part). Author of The Roman Empire; &c. I Henry Tiedemann. London Editor of the Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant. Thorbecke. Sir Hilaro William Wellesley Barlow, Bart. S Sword: Modern Military (in Lieut. -Col. Royal Artillery. Superintendent of the Royal Laboratory, Woolwich. I part). Henry William Carless Davis, M.A. f Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, i Theobald. 1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. I Hope W. Hogg, M.A. _ _ .......__. { Thapsacus. Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures in the University of Manchester. I Israel Abrahams, M.A. f Synagogue, United; Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge, j T o m i.„l v.„ m.:.. Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A 1 i, 801 ' JaC0B Ben raelr » Short History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c. I Tanna. Isaac Joslin Cox, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of History in the University of Cincinnati. President of the . Ohio Valley Historical Association. Author of The Journeys of La Salle and his Companions; &c. John Ambrose Fleming, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., ! Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow of University College, London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and University Lecturer on Applied Mechanics. Author of Magnets and Electric Currents. John Allen Howe. Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. The Geology of Building Stones. John Addington Symonds, LL.D. See the biographical article: Symonds, J. Addington. Right Hon. James Bryce, D.C.L., D.Litt. See the biographical article: Bryce, James. Joseph Braun, S.J. Author of Die liturgische Gewandung ; &c, James Bartlett. Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c, at King's College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of Junior Engineers. James Cossar Ewart, M.D., F.R.S. Regius Professor of Zoology in the University of Edinburgh. Swiney Lecturer on Geology at the British Museum, 1907. Author of The Multiple Origin of Horses and Ponies ; &c. Taylor, Zachary. Telegraph: Wireless Telegraphy. Author of i Tertiary. •j Tasso. i Theodora. f Surplice; 1 Tiara. Timber. Telegony. John Dyneley Prince, Ph.D. Professor of Semitic Languages in Columbia University, New York, in the Expedition to Southern Babylonia, 1 888-1 889. Took part \ Sumer and Sumerian. Rev. James Everett Frame, A.M. Edward Robinson Professor of Biblical Theology in Union Theological Seminary, New York. Author of Purpose of New Testament Theology. . . James Fitzmaurice-Kelly, Litt.D., F.R.Hist.S. Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University, Fellow of the British Academy. Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c. John Frederick Stenning, M.A. Dean, Fellow and Lecturer in Divinity and Hebrew, W a dham College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Aramaic. James Gairdner, C.B., LL.D. See the biographical article : Gairdner, James. Thessalonians, Epistles to the. Tamayo y Baus; Tirso de Molina. J Targum. Sir Joshua Girling Fitch, LL.D. See the biographical article: Fitch, Sir J. G. ■■! Talbot (Family) (in part). JThring, Edward. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi J. G. FT. J. G. M. J. G. Se. J. H. M, J. H. R. J. HI. R. J. Ja. J. K. I. J. K. L. J. L. E. D. J. M. J. Mt. J. McE. J. M. G. J. M. M. J. Pu. J. P. E. J. P. P. J. P. Pe. J. S. P. Author of Burma James George Frazer, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Litt.D. , . Professor of Social Anthropology, Liverpool University. Fellow of Trinity College, i Thesmophona (in part). Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of The Golden Bough; &c. John Gray McKendrick, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S. (Edin.). Emeritus Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. Professor of -^ Taste. Physiology, 1876-1906. Author of Life in Motion; Life of Helmholtz; &c. Sir James George Scott, K.C.I.E. Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. The Upper Burma Gazetteer. John Henry Middleton, M.A., Litt.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). . _. , . . ,. .. Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director Theatre: Ancient [in part); of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South -j Modern (in part); Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical 1 Tiryns (in part). Times; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times. ^ John Horace Round, M.A., LL.D. Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage and Pedigree. j Theinnl; \ Thibaw. r. Talbot (Family) (in part). John Holland Rose, M.A. ( Litt.D. f Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge J T a ii e vrand University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I.; Napoleonic | 1 <* lle J I '* uu ' Studies; The Development of the European Nations; The Life of Pitt; &c. Joseph Jacobs, Litt.D. Professor of English Literature in the Jewish Theological Seminary, New York. Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Corresponding - Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid. Author of Jews of Angevin England; Studies in Biblical Archaeology; &c. John Kells Ingram, LL.D. See the biographical article : Ingram, John Kells. Sir John Knox Laughton, M.A., Litt.D. Professor of Modern History, King's College, London. Secretary of the Navy Records Society. Served in the Baltic, 1854-1855; in China, 1856-1859. Mathe- matical and Naval Instructor, Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, 1866-1873; Greenwich, 1 873-1 885. President, Royal Meteorological Society, 1 882-1 884. " Honorary Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Fellow of King's College, London. Author of Physical Geography in its Relation to the Prevailing Winds and Currents; Studies in Naval History; Sea Fights and Adventures; &c. John Louis Emil Dreyer. f Director of Armagh Observatory. Author of Planetary Systems from Tholes to \ Time, Measurement of. Kepler; &c. I Sir John Macdonell, M.A., C.B., LL.D. Master of the Supreme Court. Formerly Counsel to the Board of Trade and the London Chamber of Commerce; Quain Professor of Comparative Law, Uni- versity College, London. Editor of State Trials; Civil Judicial Statistics; &c. Author of Survey of Political Economy; The Land Question; &c. Tabernacles, Feast of. Sumptuary Laws. Tegetthoff, Admiral. Suzerainty. Rev. James Moffatt, M.A., D.D. Minister of the United Free Church of Scotland. Author of Historical New Testament; &c. John McEwan, F.R.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. r Timothy, First Epistle to; Jowett Lecturer, London, 1907. 1 Timothy, Second Epistle I Titus, Epistle to. Tea. to; John Miller Gray (1850-1894). f Art Critic. Curator of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, 1884-1894. Author -j Tassie, James. of David Scott, R.S.A.; James and William Tassie. I John Malcolm Mitchell. Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. Terramara; Themistocles; Thucydides (in part). John Purser, M.A., LL.D. Formerly Professor of Mathematics in Queen's College, Belfast. Royal Irish Academy. Member of the j Surface (in part). Taille. Jean Paul Hippolyte Emmanuel Adhemar Esmein. Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Member of the Institute of France. Author of Cours elementaire d histoire du droit ' francais; &c. |_ John Percival Postgate, M.A., Litt.D. r Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of Trinity College, J Textual Criticism; Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Editor of the Classical Quarterly. 1 Tibullus, Albius. Editor-in-Chief of the Corpus poetarum Latinorum ; 8k. I John Punnett Peters, Ph.D., D.D. Canon Residentiary of the Protestant Episcopal Cathedral of St John the Divine, New York City. Formerly Professor of Hebrew in the University of Pennsylvania. \ Tigris,, In charge of the University Expedition to Babylonia, 1 888-1 895. Author of Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates. John Smith Flett, D.Sc, F.G.S. f Syenite; Petrographer to the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. Formerly Lecturer J Taehylytes - en Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of | Tl . ',jL ' Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society of London. I mera""»' xu J. S. Ga. J. S. R. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES J. T. Be. James Sykes Gamble, M.A., C.I.E., F.R.S., F.L.S. Indian Forest Service (retired). Formerly Director of the Imperial Forest School - at Dehra Dun. Author of A Manual of Indian Timbers; &c. James Smith Reid, M.A., LL.D., Litt.D. Professor of Ancient History and Fellow and Tutor of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Honorary Fellow, formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Christ's College. ■ Browne's and Chancellor's Medals. Editor of editions of Cicero's Academic: De Amicitia; &c. John Thomas Bealby. Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. J. T. C. J. W. J. Wal. J. W. G J. W. He. J. W. L. G. K. A. M * K. L. K. S. Teak (in pari). Tiberius. Syr-Darya (River) (in part); Syr-Darya (Province) (in part); Takla Makan; Tambov (in part); Tarim; Tian-Shan; Tiflis (Town) (in pari); Tobolsk (Government) (in part) ; Tomsk (Government) (in part). Teredo. Theatre: Law relating to Theatres; .Tithes (Law). Thermochemistry. Joseph Thomas Cunningham, M.A., F.Z.S. Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow < of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in the " University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. James Williams, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. All Souls Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln - College. Author of Wills and Succession ; &c. James Walker, D.Sc, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. Professor of Chemistry,^ University College, Dundee, 1894-1908. Author of Introduction to Physical' Chemistry. John Walter Gregory, D.Sc, F.R.S. Professor of Geology in the University of Glasgow. Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Melbourne, 1900-1904. Author of The Dead Heart' of Australia; &c. James Wycltffe Headi.am, M.A. Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education, London. Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient - History at Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the German Empire; &c. James Whitbread Lee Glaisher, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. f Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Formerly President of the Cambridge J Table Mathematical. Philosophical Society and the Royal Astronomical Society. Editor of Messenger j of Mathematics and the Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics. I Kate A. Meakin (Mrs Budgett Meakin). Rev. Kirsopp Lake, M.A. Lincoln College, Oxford. Professor of Early Christian Literature and New Testa- ment Exegesis in the University of Leiden. Author of The Text of the New Testa- ment ; The Historical Evidence for the Resurrection of Jesus Christ ; &c. Kathleen Schlesinger. r Symphonia- Tambourine- Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra. Editor of The Portfolio of Musical < T -_i, ■ * ' Tasmania: Geology. Taaffe, Count; Thun- Hohenstein. J Tetuan; Sus. r Tatian. L. A. W. L. J. S. M B. M Ba. Archaeology. Laurence Austine Waddell, C.B., CLE., LL.D. Lieut.-Colonel I. M.S. (retired). Author of Lhasa and its Mysteries; &c. Timbrel. j Tibet (in part). . c L , f Sylvanite; Sylvite; r ormerly Scholar J _ . , .. Editor of the! Tetradymite; [ Tetrahedrlte; Thorite. { Taxidermy. M. H. S. M. J. de G. M. M. Bh. Leonard James Spencer, M.A. Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum, of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Mineralogical Magazine. Montagu Browne. Author of Practical Taxidermy; Collecting Butterflies and Moths. The Hon. Maurice Baring. r Sometime Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge. War Correspondent for the Morning Post in Manchuria, 1904; and Special Correspondent in Russia, 1905-1908, -j Taine. and in Constantinople, 1909. Author of Landmarks in Russian Literature; With I the Russians in Manchuria; A Year in Russia; &c. I Marion H. Spielmann, F.S.A. f Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of the Fine Art Committee of the International Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires, Rome and the Franco-. British Exhibition, London. Author of History of "Punch"; British Portrait- Painting to the Opening of the Nineteenth Century; Works of G. F. Watts, R. A.; British Sculpture and Sculptors of To-day; Henriette Ronner; &c. Michael Jan de Goeje. See the biographical article: Goeje, Michael Jan de. Sir Mancherjee Merwanjee Bhownaggree, K.C.I.E. Fellow of Bombay University. M.P. for N.E. Bethnal Green, 1895-1906. of History of the Constitution of the East India Company; &c. Thornycroft, William Hamo. Thousand and one Nights. Author^ Takhtsingji. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xiu M. 0. B. C. N. M. N. M.* N. W. T. 0. H. D. 0. J. R. H. P. A. K. P. 61. P. 6. K. P. La. P.M.* P. McC. P. Vi. R. A. N. R. A. Sa. R. A. S. M. R. C. J. R. 6. R. 6n. R. H. C. R. I. P. Maximilian Otto Bismarck Caspari, M.A. Reader in Ancient History in London University. University, 1905-1908. Lecturer in Greek in Birmingham Norman M'Lean, M.A. Lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge University. Fellow and Hebrew Lecturer, Christ's . College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of the larger Cambridge Septuagint. Neill Malcolm, D.S.O., F.R.G.S. Major, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders. Served N.W. Frontier, India, 1897- 1898; South Africa, 1899-1900; Somaliland, 1903-1904; British Mission to Fez, - 1905. Editor of The Science of War. Northcote Whitridge Thomas, M.A. Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and' Marriage in Australia; &c. Oskar Henrik Dumrath, Ph.D. Formerly Editor of foreign news in the Nya Dagligl Allehanda. Osbert John Radcliffe Howarth, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, Oxford, 1901. Assistant Secretary of the British Association. Tegea; Theodosius I.-tli.; Theramenes; Thrasybulus. Syrlac Language; Syriac Literature; Thomas of Marga. Tactics. Prince Peter Alexeivitch Kropotkin. See the biographical article: Kropotkin, Prince P.A. Peter Giles, M.A., LL.D., Litt.D. Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philo- logical Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology. Paul George Konody. Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of the Artist. Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c. Philip Lake, M.A., F.G.S. Lecturer in Regional Geography in the University of Cambridge. Formerly of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Keyser's Comparative Geology. Sir Philip Magnus. M.P. for the University of London. Superintendent and Secretary of the City and Guilds of London Institute. President of Council of College of Preceptors; Chair- .. man of Secondary Schools Association. Member of the Royal Commission on Technical Instruction, 1881-1884. Author of Industrial Education; &c. Primrose McConnell, F.G.S. Member of the Royal Agricultural Society. Taboo; Telepathy. j Sweden: History {in part). f Sweden: Geography and \ Statistics; L Tibet {in part). Syr-Darya: River {in part); Syr-Darya: Province {in part); Tambov {in part); Tatars {in part); Tiflis: Town {in part); Tobolsk: Government {in part) ; Tomsk: Government {in part). Teniers {in part).' Sweden: Geology. Technical Education. Author of Diary of a Working Farmer. \ Thrashing. 1 Succession. Sufiism; Sunnites {in part). Sun. Paul Vinogradoff, D.C.L., LL.D. See the biographical article: Vinogradoff, Paul. Reynold Alleyne Nicholson, M.A., Litt.D. Lecturer in Persian in the University of Cambridge. Sometime Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Professor of Persian at University College, London. Author of Selected Poems from the Divani Shamsi Tabriz ; A Literary History of the Arabs; &c. Ralph Allen Sampson, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. Astronomer Royal for Scotland. Formerly Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy in the University of Durham, and Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Author of Tables of the Four Great Satellites of Jupiter; &c. | Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister, M.A., F.S.A. r St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Ex- J Tiberias, ploration Fund. | Sir Richard Claverhouse Jebb, LL.D., D.C.L. r . See the biographical article: Jebb, Sir Richard Claverhouse. j Thucyaides {in part). Richard Garnett, LL.D. See the biographical article: Garnett, Richard. Sir Robert Giffen, F.R.S. See the biographical article: Giffen, Sir Robert. < Swift, Jonathan {in part). J Taxation. Rev. Robert Henry Charles, M.A., D.D., Litt.D. (Oxon). Grinfield Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford, and Fellow of Merton College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Senior Moderator of Trinity . College, Dublin. Author and Editor of Book of Enoch; Book of Jubilees; Apoca- lypse of Baruch; Assumption of Moses; Ascension of Isaiah; &c. Testaments of Patriarchs; Testaments of Patriarchs. the Three the Twelve Reginald Innes Pocock, F.Z.S. Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. f Tarantula; \ Tardigrada; Ticks. XXV R. J. BL R. L.* R. Ma. R. N. B. R. P. S. R.R. 8. A. C. S. BL St G. L. F.-P. St G. S. S. K. S.N. T. As. T. A. A. T. A. C. T. de L. T. H. T. H. H.* INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Ronald John McNeill, M.A. f Sussex, 3rd Earl of; Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at>Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's J Tandy, James Napper; Gazette (London). [ Temple, Earl. Richard Lydekker, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. f s w j nP . Tanir (in -bart)- Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1 874-1 882. Author of I °„"™' *f" K . V ''\. Catalogue of Fosstl Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum; The Deer 1 *ar sle r, nger \in pari), of all Lands ; The Game Animals of Africa , &c. [ Tillodontia; Tltanothemdae Rev. Robert Mackintosh, M.A., D.D. Jti,..™. ti,.^™ Tutor in Lancashire Independent College, Manchester. \ lneism, ineoiogy. Svane, Hans; Sweden: History (in part); Sweyn I.; Szeehenyi, Istvan, Count; Szigligeti, Ede; Tarnowski, Jan; Tausen, Hans; Tessin, Count; Theodore I. -III. of Russia; Thfikoly, Imre; Tisza, Kalman; Toll, Johan, Count; Tolstoy, Petr, Count. Robert Nisbet Bain (d. 1909). Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, 1613 to 1725; Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796 ; &c. R. Phene Spiers, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, . London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergus son's History ef Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c. Reinhold Rost, CLE., LL.D. (1822-1896). Secretary of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1863-1869. Librarian at the India Office, London, 1869-1893. Editor of H. H. Wilson s Essays on the Religions of the Hindus; ' Hodgson's Essays on Indian Subjects; &c. Stanley Arthur Cook, M.A. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.. Examiner in Hebrew and J Talmud. Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic In- scriptions; The Laws of Moses and Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c. Temple {in part). Tamils; Thugs. f Thomsen, Grimur; 1 Thbroddsen, J6n. Sigtus Blondal. Librarian of the University of Copenhagen. St George Lane Fox-Pitt, M.R.A.S. f Associate of King's College, London. Treasurer and Vice-President of the Moral J Theosophy: Oriental. Education League and the International Moral Education Congress. [ St George Stock, M.A. r Therapeutae* Pembroke College, Oxford. Lecturer in Greek in the University of Birmingham. -j Tnhil . %jL n'nnk of Sten Konow, Ph.D. r Professor of Indian Philology in the University of Christiania. Omcier de l'Acaddmie J Tibeto-Burman Languages. Francaise. Author of Slamavidhana Brahmana; &c. ^ Simon Newcomb, D.Sc , LL.D. J See the biographical article: Newcomb, Simon. -j^ Time, Standard. Thomas Ashby, M.A., Litt.D. Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. CravenFellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member . of the imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author ot The Classical Topo- graphy of the Roman Campagna. Suessula; Sulci; Surrentum; Sutri; Sybaris; Syracuse (in part); Taormina; Taranto; Tarenium; Tarquinii; Tegglano; Tergeste; Termini Imerese; Terracina; Tharros; Thurii; Tibur; Tiburtina, Via; Ticihum. Thomas Andrew Archer, M.A. Author of The Crusade of Richard I. ; &c. ■< Templars (in part). Timothy Augustine Coghlan, I.S.O. Agent-General for New South Wales. Government Statistician, New South Wales 1886-1905. Honorary Fellow of the Royal Statistical Society. Author of Wealth . and Progress of New South Wales; Statistical Account of Australia arid New Zea- land; &c. Tasmania: Geography, Statistics and History. A. Terrien de Lacouperie, Litt.D. Formerly Professor of Indo-Chinese at University College, London. Thomas Hodgkin, D.C.L., Litt.D. See the biographical article: Hodgkin, Thomas. Sih Thomas Hungerford Holdich, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc. Superintendent of Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S.,_ London, 1887. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Countries of the King's" Award; India; Tibet. \ Tibet (in part). I Theodoric. Surveying (in part); Tibet (in part). INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES XV T. H. W. T. L.B. T.L. H. T. M. L. T. R. R. S T. Se. V. W. Gli. W.Ay W. A. B. C. w. A. P. w. B. * w. B. B. w. B. S.* W. E. Co. w. F. C. w. G. P. w. Hy. w. H.P. w. H. P. w. J. B. W.L.* W. McD. Hudson Williams. Professor of Greek in the University College of North Wales, Bangor. { Theognis of Megara. ^^Ll^^J^^^l Theodoslus of Tripolis. Treatise on Conic Sections; The Sir Thomas Lauder Brunton, Bart., M.D., Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.P. J Consulting Physician to St Bartholomew's Hospital, London. Author of Modern "j Therapeutics. Therapeutics ; Therapeutics of the Circulation ; &c. I Sir Thomas Little Heath, K.C.B., Sc.D. Assistant Secretary to the Treasury, London. Cambridge. Author of Apollonius of Perga; Thirteen Books of Euclid's Elements; &c. Rev. Thomas Martin Lindsay, M.A., D.D. f Principal and Professor of Church History, United Free Church College, Glasgow, -j Thomas a KempiS. Author of Life of Luther ; &c. L Rev. Thomas Roscoe Rede Stebbing, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S. f Fellow of King's College, London. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Tutor, of J Thvrostraca Worcester College, Oxford. Zoological Secretary of the Linnaean Society, 1903- | ' 1907. Author of A History of Crustacea; The Naturalist of Cumbrae; &c. L Thomas Seccombe, M.A. Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, . University of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson; &c. Valentine Walbran Chapman. Swift, Jonathan (in part); Tichborne Claimant. f Sugar: Sugar Manufacture (in \ part). Wilfrid Airy, M.Inst.C.E. _ J Tacheometrv Sometime Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge. Technical adviser to the Standards "] eomeiry. Department of the Board of Trade. Author of Levelling and Geodesy; &c. I Rev. William Augustus Brevoort Coolidge, M.A., F.R.G.S., Ph.D. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haut Dauphine; The Range of' the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald ; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in History; Sec. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c. Walter Alison Phillips, M.A. Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, " Oxford. Author of Modem Europe ; &c. William Burton, M.A., F.C.S. Chairman of the Joint Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great Britain. - Author of English Stoneware and Earthenware ; &c. W. Baker Brown. Lieut.-Colonel, Commanding Royal Engineers at Malta. William Barclay Squire, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. Assistant in charge of Printed Music, British Museum. Hon. Secretary of the Purcell Society. Formerly Musical Critic of the Westminster Gazette, the Saturday ' Review and the Globe. Switzerland: Geography, Government, &c, History and Literature; Tell, William; Thun (Town}; Thun, Lake of; Thurgau; Ticino (Canton); Tirol; Toggenburg, The. Surplice: Church of England; Templars (in part); Titles of Honour. Terra-cotta (in part); Tile. Submarine Mines. Thomas, Arthur Goring. Rt. Rev. William Edward Collins, D.D. 1 Bishop of Gibraltar. Formerly Professor of Ecclesiastical History, King's College, J Tait, Archbishop; London. Lecturer at Selwyn and St John's Colleges, Cambridge. Author of The 1 Testamentum Domini. Study of Ecclesiastical History ; Beginnings of English Christianity ; &c. t William Feilden Craies, M.A. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, London. Editor of Archbdld's Criminal Pleading (23rd edition). William George Freeman. Joint-author of Nature Teaching; The World's Commercial Products; &c. editor of Science Progress in the Twentieth Century. William Henry. Founder and Chief Secretary to the Royal Life Saving Society. Associate of the Order of St John of Jerusalem. Joint-author of Swimming (Badminton Library) ; &c. J Summary Jurisdiction; I Summons; Sunday (Law). Joint- < Tobacco. Sir William Henry Flower, F.R.S. See the biographical article : Flower, Sir W. H. Walter Herries Pollock, M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge. Editor of the Saturday Review, of Lectures on French Poets ; Impressions of Henry Irving ; &c. Swimming. f Tapir (in part); L Tiger (in part). 1 883-1 894. Author^ Thackeray. Rev. William Jackson Brodribb, M.A. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and Rector of Wootton-Rivers, Wilts. Tacitus (in part). Walter Lehmann, M.D. Directorial Assistant of the Royal Ethnographical Museum, Munich. Exploring Expedition in Mexico and Central America, 1907-1909. publications on Mexican and Central American Archaeology. William McDougall, M.A. _ f Wilde Reader in Mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Formerly Fellow < Suggestion. of St John's College, Cambridge. i Conducted J Toltecs. Author of XVI W. M. R. W. H. Ra. W. N. S. W. P. A. W. RL INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES w. R. S. w. Sh. w. S. R. w. W. R.* w. Y. S. { Tarsus. William Michael Rossetti. f Tintoretto; See the biographical article : Rossetti, Dante Gabriel. \ Titian. Sir William Mitchell Ramsay, Litt.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article: Ramsay, Sir W. Mitchell. William Napier Shaw, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S. Director of the Meteorological Office. Reader in Meteorology in the University of London. President of Permanent International Meteorological Committee. Member." Sunshine. of Meteorological Council, 1897-1905. Hon. Fellow of Emmanuel College, Cam- bridge. Fellow of Emmanuel College, 1877-1906; Senior Tutor, 1890-1899. Joint Author of Text-Book of Practical Physics; &c. LlEUT.-COLONEL WlLLIAM PATRICK ANDERSON, M.INST.C.E.. F.R.G.S. f Chief-Engineer, Department of Marine and Fisheries of Canada. Member of the J _ . r , Geographical Board of Canada. Past President of the Canadian Society of Civil 1 Superior. LaRe. Engineers. L William Ridgeway, M.A., D.Sc, Litt.D. Disney Professor of Archaeology, and Brereton Reader in Classics, in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of Gonville and Caius College. Fellow of the British Academy. President of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 1908. Author of The Early Age of Greece ; &c. William Robertson Smith, LL.D. See the biographical article: Smith, W. Robertson. William Sharp. See the biographical article: Sharp, William. William Smyth Rockstro. Thrace: Ancient Peopla Teraphim {in part). \ Thoreau, Henry David. liam Smyth Rockstro. f Author of A Great History of Music from the Infancy of the Greek Drama to the -J Tallis Thomas Present Period ; &c. 1 ' " William Walker Rockwell, Lic.Theol. f Toledo, Councils of. Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. \ William Young Sellar, LL.D. See the biographical article: Sellar, William Young. /Terence {in part). PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES Succession Duty. Succinic Acid. Suez Canal. Suffolk, Earls and Dukes of. Suffolk. Sulphonic Acids. Sulphur. Sumatra. Sunderland. Sundew. Sunflsh. Sunstroke. Swat. Surgical Instruments and Appliances. Surrey. Sussex, Earls of. Sussex. Sutherland, Earls Dukes of. Swabia. Sweating-Sickness. Swithun, St. Sydney (N.S.W.). Syllogism. Syracuse (N.Y.). Sze-ch'uen. Synagogue. Table. Tahiti. and Tampa. Tantalum. Tarragona. Tattooing. Taunton. Tellurium. Tenby. Teneriffe. Tennessee. Tennis. Tent Test Acts. Tewkesbury. Texas. Thallium. Thames. Theodolite. Theseus. Thorium. Thuringia. Tibbu. Tierra del Fuego. Tiglath-Pileser. Timor. Tin. Tipperary. Titanium. Togoland. Toledo. ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXVI SUBMARINE MINES. A submarine mine is a weapon of war used in the attack and defence of harbours and anchorages. It may be defined as " A charge of explosives, moored at or beneath the surface of the water, intended by its explosion to put out of action without delay a hostile vessel of the class it is intended to act against." It differs from the torpedo (q.v.) in being incapable of movement (except in the special form of drifting mines, which are not moored, but move with the tide or current). But this subdivision into two distinct classes was not made till 1870. Prior to that date the term " torpedo " was used for all explosive charges fired in the water. Submarine mines may be divided into two main classes, con- trollable and uncontrollable, or, as they are often classified, " electrical " or " mechanical." In the first class the method of firing is by electricity, the source of the electric power whether by battery or dynamo being contained in a firing station on shore and connected to the mines by insulated cables. By simply switching off the electricity in the firing station, such mines are rendered inert and entirely harmless. In the second class, the means of firing are contained in the mine itself, the source of power being a small electric battery, or being obtained from a pistol, spring or suspended weight. In all mines of this class the impulse which actuates the firing gear is given by a ship or other floating object bumping against the mine. When mechanical mines have once been set for firing they are thus dangerous to friend and foe alike. Safety arrange- ments are employed to prevent the firing apparatus working while the mine is being laid, and clockwork is sometimes added to render the mine inactive after a certain definite time or in case the mine breaks away from its mooring. Their principal advantages, as compared with the electrically controlled mines, are cheapness and rapidity of laying. " Controllable " mines are absolutely under the control of the operator on shore, their condition is always accurately known, and if any break adrift not only is the fact at once known but the mines themselves are harmless. Another advantage is that when fired by " observa- tion " as described below, they are placed at depths which will be well below the bottom of any vessels passing through the mine field. They can thus be used in channels which have to be kept open for traffic during hostilities. Electrical mines take rather longer to prepare and lay out than the other class, as the electrical cables have to be laid and jointed, and they require rather more skill and training in the operators employed to lay and fire the mines. Such mines represent the highest development of this form of warfare, and the details given below refer mainly to this class of mine. Electrical mines are arranged on two systems according to the method of ascertaining the proper moment to apply the firing xxvi. 1 current to the mine cables. These methods are by " observa- tion " or by " circuit closer." The " observation " system depends on two careful observa- tions made by an operator on shore, one of the exact position in which the mines are laid, the other of the track of hostile ships passing over the mine field. The position of the mines when laid is marked on a special chart, on which the track of ships crossing the mine field can also be plotted. When the track is seen to be crossing the position of a mine, a switch is closed on shore and the mine is fired. To allow for errors in observation such mines are fitted with large charges of explosive and are usually arranged in lines of two, three or four mines placed across the channel, all the mines in a line being fired together. Observa- tion mines are placed either resting on the bottom or moored at depths which are well below the bottom of any friendly vessels and (except that anchoring in the mine field must be forbidden for fear of injury to cables) such mines offer no obstruc- tion to friendly traffic. In the " circuit closer " or "-C.C." system, each mine contains a small piece of apparatus which is set in action by the blow of a vessel or other object against the mine. When set in action, this apparatus completes an electrical circuit in the mine, through which the mine can be fired, if the main switch on shore is closed. If it is not wished to fire, the C.C. is restored to its ordinary condition either automatically by a spring in the mine, or by an electrical device operated from the shore. Such mines are necessarily placed near the surface, and are to this extent an interference with friendly traffic. A vessel passing by mistake through a mine field of this class would run no risk of an explosion while the mines are inactive, but might do some damage to the mines. This class of mine is used in side channels which it is intended to close entirely, or to reduce the width of navigable channels where too wide to be defended by observation mines. Their principal advantage is that if the firing switch is closed they are effective in fog or mist, when observation mines could not be worked, and when the guns of the defence would be equally out of action. As they are fired only when close against the side of a ship, the charge can be comparatively small and the mines themselves are handy and easy to lay. Compared with observation mines they use much less cable, as the action of the C.C. is such that only the mine which is struck can be fired. Several mines of this class can therefore share one cable from the shore, though in practice details of mooring and arrangement limit the number' connected to one cable to four. A set of mines on one cable is referred to as a " group." The arrangements for firing the mines are contained in a firing station on shore, in which is the battery or other source of SUBSIDY— SUCCESSION electrical power for firing, and the necessary apparatus for testing the system of mines, which is usually done daily. To let the operator in the firing station know when the C.C. of a mine has been struck and the mine is ready to fire, a small electrical apparatus is provided in the firing station for each group of mines. This arrangement strikes a bell when the C.C. is worked and also closes a break in the firing circuit. The operator can then close the main switch and fire the mine, or if acting on the order to "fire all mines that signal" he has already closed his main switch, the signalling apparatus, in the act of striking the bell, completes the firing circuit A similar piece of apparatus is connected to each observing instrument, the completion of the circuit of any line at thft observing station then gives a signal in the firing station and the firing circuit is completed. The firing station can be on a vessel moored near the mine field, but is more usually on shore, where it can be made abso- lutely secure against any form of attack. But the observing stations must be on shore to give stability to the observing instruments, they cannot be entirely protected as they must have a small opening facing the mine fieid, but can be made very inconspicuous. Any explosive can be used in submarine mines, provided adequate means are taken to explode the charge, but the explo- sive which is easiest to handle and is in most general use is wet gun-cotton with a small dry primer and detonator to start ignition. The detonators for electrical mines are on the " low tension " system, that is, firing is effected by the heating of a small length of wire called a " bridge," round which is placed a priming which ignites and detonates a small charge of fulminate of mercury. The charge is contained in a steel mine-case, which has an " apparatus " inside to contain the electrical arrangements and the C.C. when used. Cases for observation mines are usually cylindrical in shape for mines, to rest on the bottom and spherical for buoyant mines. The weight of charge is about 500 lb and the size of a buoyant case for this charge would be four feet in diameter. Cases for contact mines are spherical, about 39 in. in diameter, and can hold 100 lb of gun- cotton. They are always buoyant. Buoyancy is provided for by an air-space inside the case. Buoyant cases are moored to a heavy weight or " sinker," the connexion being by a steel wire rope, or in electrical mines, the cable itself. The cable is care- fully insulated and protected with a layer of steel wires. An earth return is used for the electrical circuit. The employment of mines in any defence must depend entirely on the general character of the defence adopted, which will itself depend on the size and importance of the harbour to be defended and other details (see Coast Defence). The role of mines in a defence is to act as an obstacle to detain ships under fire and compel them to engage the artillery of the defence. Thus mines find their greatest usefulness in the defence of har- bours with long channels of approach. Mine fields can be de- stroyed by " creeping " for and cutting the electric cables, by " sweeping " for the mines themselves with long loops of chain or rope or by destroying the mines with "countermines.!' To guard against any of these, the mine field should be protected by gun fire and lit at night by electric lights. As vessels sunk by mines may obstruct the channel, mines should not be used in very narrow channels. Although the scientific development of submarine mining is the work of the last fifty years, attempts to use drifting charges against ships and bridges are recorded as early as the 16th century. Mines were used by the Americans in 1777, and in 1780 Robert Fulton produced an explosive machine which he called a " torpedo," and which was experimented with, not very successfully, up to 1815. In 1854 the Russians used mechanical mines in the Baltic, but without any marked success. The first application of electricity to the explosion of sub- merged charges was made by Sir Charles Pasley in the destruc- tion of wrecks in the Thames and of the wreck of the " Royal George " at Spithead in 1839 and subsequent years. The first military use of electrically-fired mines was made in the Americar Civil War of 1861-65 when several vessels were sunk or damaged by mines or torpedoes. From this date onwards most European nations experimented with mines, and they were actually used during the Franco-German War of 1870, the Russo-Turkish War of 1878 and the Spanish-American War of 1898. But the most interesting example of mine warfare was in the attack and defence of Port Arthur during the Russo-Japanese War (q.v.) of 1904-05 Both sides used mechanical mines only, and both suffered heavy losses from the mine warfare. Mines and tor- pedoes were first introduced into the English service about 1863, defence mines being! placed inthe charge'of the Royal Engineers, while torpedoes wire' developed by the Royal Navy. Up to 1904 there were mine defences at most of the British ports, but in that year the responsibility of mines was placed on the navy) and since then the mine defences have been much reduced. ' (W. B. B.) SUBSIDY (through Fr. from Lat. subsidium, reserve troops, aid, assistance, from subsidere, literally " to sit or remain behind or in reserve,") j an aid, subvention, assistance granted especially in money. The word has a particular use in economic histpry and practice. In English history it is the general term for a tax granted to the king by parliament, and so distinguished from those dues, such as the customs dues, which were raised by the royal prerogative; of these subsidies there were many varieties; such was the subsidy in excess of the customs on wool, leather, wine or cloth exported or imported by aliens, later extended to other articles and to native exporters and importers (see Tonnage and Poundage); there was also the subsidy which in the 14th century took the place of the old feudal levies. Apart from this application the term, in modern times, is particularly applied to the pecuniary assistance by means of bounties, &c, given by the state to industrial undertakings (see Bounty). Subsidies granted by the state to literary, dramatic or other artistic institutions, societies, &c, are generally styled " subventions " (Lat. subvenirc, to come to the aid of) ■ SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after) the act of succeeding or following, as of events, objects, places in a series, &c, but particularly, in law, the transmission or passing of rights from one to another. In every system of law provision has to be made for a readjust- ment of things or goods on the death of the human beings who owned and enjoyed them. Succession to rights may be considered from two points of view: in some ways they depend on the personality of those who are concerned with them: if you hire a servant, you acquire a claim against a certain person and your claim will disappear on his death. But personal relations are commonly implicated in the arrangement of pro- perty: if a person borrows money, the creditor expects to be paid even should the debtor die, and the actual payment will depend to a great extent on the rules as to inheritance. Succes- sion, in the sense of the partition or redistribution of the pro- perty of a former owner is, in modern systems of law, the subject of many rules. Such rules may be based on the will of a de- ceased person. They will be found in such articles as Adminis- tration; Assets; Executors and Administrators; Inheri- tance; Intestacy; Legacy; Will; &c. There are cases, however, in which a will cannot be expressed; this eventuality is discussed in the present article, and there can be no doubt that it is the most characteristic one from the point of view of social conditions. It represents the view of society at large as to what ought to be the normal course of succession in the readjustment of property after the death of a citizen. We shall dwell chiefly on the customs of succession among the nations of Aryan stock. Other customs are noticed in the articles on Village Communities; Mahommedan Law; &c. We have to start from a distinction between personal goods and the property forming the economic basis of existence for the family which is strongly expressed in early law. War booty, pro- ceeds of hunting, clothes and ornaments, implements fashioned by personal skill, are taken to belong to a man in a more persona] way than the land on which he dwells or the cattle of a herd. SUCCESSION It is characteristic that even in the strict law of paternal power formulated by the Romans an unemancipated son was protected in his rights in regard to things acquired in the camp (peculium castrense) and later on this protection spread to other chattels (peculium quasi-castrense). The personal character of this kind of property has a decisive influence on the modes of succession to it. This part of the inheritance is widely considered in early law as still in the power of the dead even after demise. We find that many savage tribes simply destroy the personal belongings of the dead: this is done by several Australian and Negro tribes (Post, Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudent, pp. 174-5) Sometimes this rule is modified in the sense that the goods remaining after deceased persons have to be taken away by strangers, which leads to curious customs of looting the house of the deceased. Such customs were prevalent, for example, among the North American Indians of the Delaware and Iro- quois tribes. Evidently the nearer relations dare not take over such things on account of a tabu rule, while strangers may appropriate them, as it were, by right of conquest. The continuance of the relation of the deceased to his own things gives rise in most cases to provisions made for the dead out of his personal succession. The habit of putting arms, victuals, clothes and ornaments in the grave seems almost universal, and there can be no doubt that the idea underlying such usages consists in the wish to provide the deceased with all matters necessary to his existence after death. A very char- acteristic illustration of this conception may be given from the customs of the ancient Russians, as described about 921 by the Arabian traveller Ibn Fadhlan. The whole of the personal property was divided into three parts: one-third went to the family, the second third was used for making clothes and other ornaments for the dead, while the third was spent in carousing on the day when the corpse was cremated. The ceremony itself consisted in the following: the corpse was put into a boat and was dressed up in the most gorgeous attire. Intoxicating drinks, fruit, bread and meat were put by its side; a dog was cut into two parts, which were thrown into the boat. Then, all the weapons of the dead man were brought in, as well as the flesh of two horses, a cock and a chicken. The concubine of the de- ceased was also sacrificed, and ultimately all these objects were burned in a huge pile, and a mound thrown up over the ashes. This description is the more interesting because it starts from a division of the goods of the deceased, one part of them being affected, as it were, to his personal usage. This rule continues to be observed in Germanic law in later times and became the starting point of the doctrine of succession to personal property in English law. According to Glanville (vii. 5, 4) the chattels of the deceased have to be divided into three equal parts, of which one goes to his heir, one to his wife and one is reserved to the deceased himself. The same reser- vation of the third to the deceased himself is observed in Magna Charta (c. 26) and in Bracton's statement of Common Law (fol. 60), but in Christian surroundings the reservation of " the dead man's part " was taken to apply to the property which had to be spent for his soul and of which, accordingly, the Church had to take care. This lies at the root of the com- mon law doctrine observed until the passing of the Court of Probate Act 1857. On the strength of this doctrine the bishop was the natural administrator of this part of the personalty of the deceased. The succession to real property, if we may use the English legal expression, is not governed by such considerations or the needs of the dead. Roughly speaking, three different views may be taken as to the proper readjustment in such cases. Taking the principal types in a logical sequence, which differs from the historical one, we may say that the aggregate of things and claims relinquished by a deceased person may: (1) pass to relatives or other persons who stood near him in a way deter- mined by law. Should several persons of the kind stand equally near in the eye of the law the consequence would be a division of the inheritance. The personal aspect of succession rules in such systems of inheritance. (2) The deceased may be considered as a subordinate member of a higher organism — a kindred, a village, a state, &c. In such a case there can be no succession proper as there has been no individual property to begin with. The cases of succession will be a relapse of certain goods used by the member of a community to that community and a consequent rearrangement of rights of usage. The law of succession will again be constructed on a personal basis, but this basis will be supplied not by the single individual whose death has had to be recorded but by some community or union to which this individual belonged. (3) The aggregate of goods and claims constituting what is commonly called an inheritance may be considered as a unit having an existence and an object of its own. The circumstance of the death of an individual owner will, as in case 2, be treated as an accidental fact. The unity of the inheritance and the social part played by it will con- stitute the ruling considerations in the arrangement of succession. The personal factor will be subordinated to the real one. In practice pure forms corresponding to these main concep- tions occur seldom, and the actual systems of succession mostly appear as combinations of these various views. We shall try to give briefly an account of the following arrangements: (1) the joint family in so far as it bears on succession; (2) voluntary associations among co-heirs; (3) division of inheri- tance; (4) united succession in the shape of primogeniture and of junior right. The large mass of Hindu juridical texts representing customs and doctrines ranging over nearly 5000 years contains many indications as to the existence of a joint family which was considered as the corporate owner of property and therefore did not admit in principle of the opening of succession through the death of any of its members. The father or head of such a joint family was in truth only the manager of its property during lifetime, and though on his demise this power and right of management had to be regulated anew, the property itself could not be said to pass by succession: it remained as formerly in the joint family itself. In stating this abstract doctrine we have to add that our evidence shows us in practice only characteristic consequences and fragments of it, but that we have not the means of observing it directly in a consistent and complete shape during the comparatively recent epochs which are reflected in the evidence. It is even a question whether such a doctrine was ever absolutely enforced in regard to chattels : even in the earliest period of Hindu law articles of personal apparel and objects acquired by personal will and strength fell to a great extent under the conception of separate property. Gains of science, art and craft are mentioned in early instances as subject to special ownership and corresponding rules of personal succession are framed in regard to them (Jolly, Tagore lectures on Partition, Inheritance and Adoption, 94). But on the other hand there are certain categories of movable goods which even in later law are considered as belong- ing to the family community and incapable of partition, e.g. water, prepared food, roads, vehicles, female slaves, property destined for pious uses and sacrifices, books. When law became rationalized these things had to be sold in order that the pro- ceeds of the sale should be divided, but originally they seem to have been regarded as owned by the joint family though used by its single members. And as to immovables — land and houses — they were demonstrably excluded in ancient customary law from partition among co-heirs. In Greek law the most drastic expression of the joint family system is to be found in the arrangements of Spartan households, where brothers clustered round the eldest or " keeper of the hearth" 1 (ecrTunrantov) , and not only the management of family property but even marriages were dependent on the unity of the shares and on the necessity of keeping down the offspring of the younger brothers. With the Romans there are hardly any traces of a primitive family community excluding succession, but the Celtic tribal system was to a great extent based On this fundamental conception (Seebohm, Tribal System in Wales). 1 The term illustrates the intimate connexion between inheritance and household religion in ancient Aryan custom. SUCCESSION During three generations the offspring of father, grandfather and great-grandfather held together in regard to land. The consequence was that, although separate plots and houses were commonly reserved for the uses of the smaller families included within the larger unit, the death of the principal brought about an equalization of shares first per stirpes and ultimately per capita until the final break-up of the community when it reached the stage of the great-grandsons of the original founder. But the most elaborate system of family ownership is to be observed in the history of the latest comers among the Aryan races — the Slavs. In the backward mountain regions which they occupied in the Balkan Peninsula and in the wilderness of the forests and moors of Eastern Europe they developed many characteristic tribal institutions and, among these, the joint family, the Zadruga, inokoshtina. The huge family communities of the southern Slavs have been described at length by recent observers, and there can be no doubt that their roots go back to a distant past (see Village Communities). There is no room in them for succession proper: what has to be provided for is the con- tinuity of business management by elders and the repartition of rights of usage and maintenance, a repartition largely depen- dent on varying customs and on the policy of the above-men- tioned elders. In Russia the so-called large family appears as a much less extensive application of the same idea. It extends rarely over more than three generations, but even as a cluster of members gathering around a grandfather or a great-uncle it presents an arrangement which hampers greatly private enter- prise and staves off succession until the moment when the great household breaks up between the descendants of a great-grand- father. In Germanic law we catch a glimpse of a state of things in which side relations were not admitted to succession at all. The Frankish Edict of Chilperic (a.d. 571) tells us that if some- body died without leaving sons or daughters, his brother was to succeed him and not his neighbours (non vicini). This has to be construed as a modification of the older rule according to which the neighbours succeeded and not the brother. Under " neighbours " we cannot understand merely people connected with a person by proximity of settlement, but rather his kinsmen in their usual capacity of neighbours. The fact that kinsmen forming a settlement have precedence of such near relations as the brothers is characteristic enough, especially, as even the succession of sons and daughters is mentioned in a way which shows that there was still some doubt whether neighbouring kinsmen should not take inheritance instead of the latter. These are systems of a very archaic arrangement based on a close tribal community between the members of a kindred. Such a community is not apparent in later legal custom, but there are many signs of a close union between members of the same family. The law of Scania, a province of southern Sweden, shows us a group settled around a grandfather. His sons even when married hold part of the property under him and it is with some difficulty that they and their wives succeed in separating some of the goods acquired by personal work or brought in by marriage from the rest of the household property (Scanian Law, Danish Text i. 5)- The same arrangement appears in Lombard law as regards brothers who remain settled in a common house (Edict of Rothari c. 167). Of course, in all such cases, there could be no real inheritance and succession, but merely the stepping in of the next generation into the rights and duties of the representative of an older generation on the latter's demise. In legal terminology it is a case of accretion and not of succession. The next stage in the development of succession is presented by an arrangement which was common in Germany, viz. by the management of property under the rule of so-called Ganerb- schaft. Ganerben is the same as the Latin coheredes, com- participes, consortes. A capitulary of 818 mentions such com- munities of heirs holding in common (cf. Boretius Capitularia, i. 282). While the community lasted none of the shareholders could dispose of any part of the property by his single will. Legally and economically all transactions had to proceed from common consent and common resolve. This did not preclude the possibility of any one among the shareholders claiming his own portion, in which case part of the property had to be meted out to him according to fair computation (swascara). There was no legal constraint over the shareholders to remain in common: division could be brought about either by common consent or by claims of individuals, and yet the constant occur- rence of these settlements of co-heirs shows that as a matter of fact it was more profitable to keep together and not to break up the unit of property by division. The customary union of co-heirs appears in this way as a corrective of the strict legal principle of equal rights between heirs of the same degree. In English practice the joint management of co-heirs is not so fully described, but there can be no doubt that under the older Saxon rule admitting heirs of the same degree to equal rights in suc- cession the interests of economic efficiency were commonly pre- served by the carrying on of common husbandry without any realization of the concurrent claims which would have broken up the object of succession. This accounts for the fact that notwithstanding the prevalence among the early English of the rule admitting all the sons or heirs in the same position to equal shares in the inheritance, the organic units of hides, yardlands, &c. are kept up in the course of centuries. In the management of so-called gavelkind succession in Kent partition was legally possible and came sometimes to be effected, but there was the customary reaction against it in the shape of keeping up the " yokes " and " sulungs." A trace of the same kind of union between co-heirs appears in the so-called parage communities so often mentioned in Domesday Book. In all these cases the principle of union and joint manage- ment is kept up by purely economic means and considerations. The legal possibility of partition is admitted by the side of it. It is interesting to watch two divergent lines of further develop- ment springing from this common source; on the one side we see the full realization of individual right resulting in frequent divisions; on the other side we watch the rise of legal restraints on subdivision resulting in the establishment, in respect of certain categories of property, of rules excluding the plurality of heirs for the sake of preserving the unity of the household. The first system is, of course, most easily carried out in countries where individualistic types of husbandry prevail. In Europe it is especially prevalent in the south with its intense cultivation of the arable and its habits of wine and olive growing. We shall not wonder, therefore, that the unrestricted subdivision among heirs is represented most completely by Roman law. Not to speak of the fact that already in the XII. Tables the principal mode of inheritance was considered to be inheritance by will while intestate succession came in as a subsidiary ex- pedient, we have to notice that there is no check on the dis- persion of property among heirs of the same degree. The only survival of a regime of family community may be found in the distinction between heredes sui (heirs of their own) and heredes extranet (outside heirs of the deceased). The first entered by their own right and took possession of property which had belonged to them potentially even during their ancestor's life. The latter drew their claims from their relationship to the deceased and this did not give them a direct hold on the property in question. Apart from that the civil law of ancient Rome favoured complete division and the same principle is represented in all European legislation derived from Roman law or strongly influenced by it. Sometimes, as in the French Code Civil, even the wish of the owner cannot alter the course of such succession as no person can make a will depriving any of his children of their legal share. In full contrast with this mode of succession prevailing in romanized countries we find the nations proceeding from Germanic stock and strongly influenced by feudalism developing two different kinds of restraints on subdivision. In Scandi- navian law this point of view is expressed by the Norwegian customs as to Odal. The principal estates of the country, which, according to the law of the Gulathing have descended through five generations in the same family, cannot be dispersed and SUCCESSION DUTY alienated at pleasure. They are considered as rightly belong- ing to the kindred with which a historical connexion has been established. In order to keep these estates within the kindred they are to descend chiefly to men: women are admitted to property in them only in exceptional cases. Originally it is only the daughter of a man who has left no sons and the sister of one who has left no children and no brothers that are admitted to take Odal as if they were men. Nieces and first-cousins are admitted in the sense that they have to pass the property to their nearest male heir. They may, in certain eventualities, be bought out by the nearest male relative. A second peculiarity of Odal consists in the right of relations descending from one of the common ancestors to prevent strangers from acquiring Odal estate. Any holder of such an estate who wants to sell it in its entirety or in portion has first to apply to his relatives and they may acquire the estate at the price proposed by a stranger less one-fifth. Even if no relative has taken advantage of this privilege an Odal estate sold to a stranger may be bought back into the family by compulsory redemption if the relatives subsequently find the means and have the wish to resort to such redemption. Odal right does not curtail the claims of the younger sons or of any heirs in a similar position. As a matter of fact, however, customary succession in Norwegian peasant families sets great price on holding the property of the household well together. It is keenly felt that a gaard (farm) ought not to be parcelled up into smaller holdings, and in the common case of several heirs succeeding to the farm, they generally make up among themselves who is to remain in charge of the ancestral household: the rest are compensated in money or helped to start on some other estate or perhaps in a cottage by the side of the principal house. In medieval England, France and Ger- many the same considerations of economic efficiency are felt as regards the keeping up of united holdings, and it may be said that the lower we get in the scale of property the stronger these considerations become. If it is possible, though not perhaps profitable, to divide the property of a large farm, it becomes almost impossible to break-up the smaller units — so-called yardlands and oxgangs. Through being parcelled up into small plots, land loses in value, and, as to cattle, it is impossible to divide one ox or one horse in specie without selling them. No wonder that we find practices and customs of united suc- cession arising in direct contradiction with the ancient rule that all heirs of the same degree should be admitted to equal shares. Glanville mentions expressly that the socagers of his time held partly by undivided succession and partly by divided inherit- ance. The relations of feudalism and serfdom contributed strongly towards creating such individual tenancies. It was certainly in the interest of the lord that his men, whether holding a military fief or an agricultural farm, should not weaken the value of their tenancies by dispersing the one or the other among heirs. But apart from these interests of over-lords there was the evident self-interest of the tenants themselves and therefore the point of view of unification of holdings is by no means confined to servile tenements or to military fiefs. The question whether the successor should be the eldest son or the youngest son is a secondary one. The latter practice was very prevalent all through Europe and pro- duced in England what is termed the Borough English rule. The quaint name has been derived from the contrast in point of succession between the two parts of the borough of Nottingham. The French burgesses transmitted their tenements by primogeniture, while in the case of the English tenants the youngest sons succeeded. A usual explanation of this passage of the holdings to the youngest is found in the fact that the youngest son remains longest in his father's house, while the elder brothers have opportunities of going out into the world at a time when the father is still alive and able to take care of his land. This is well in keeping with the view that customs of united succession arise in connexion with compensa- tion provided for co-heirs waiving their claims in regard to settlement in the original household. The succession of the youngest ai»pears also very characteristic in so far as it illustrates the break up into small tenancies, as the youngest in the family is certainly not a fit representative of hierarchy and authority and could not have been meant to rule anything but his own restricted household. One more feature of the ancient law of succession has to be noticed in conclusion, viz. the exclusion of women from inheritance in land. There can be no doubt that as regards movable goods women held property and transmitted it on a par with males right from the earliest time. According to Germanic conception personal ornaments and articles of household furni- ture are specially effected to their use and follow a distinct line of succession from woman to woman (Gerade). Norse law puts women and men on the same footing as to all forms of property equated to " movable money " (Losore); but as to land there is a prevalent idea that men should be privileged. Women are admitted to a certain extent, but always placed behind men of equal degree. Frankish and Lombard law originally excluded women from inheritance in land, and this exclusion seems as ancient as the patriarchial system itself, whatever we may think about the position of affairs in prehistoric times when rules of matriarchy were prevalent. A common-sense explanation of one side of this doctrine is tendered by the law of the Thurin- gians {Lex Anglorum et Werinorum, c. 6). It is stated there that inheritance in land goes with the duty of taking revenge for the homicide of relatives and with the power of bearing arms. One of the most potent adversaries of this system of exclusion proved to be the Church. It favoured all through the view that land should be transmitted in the same way as money or chattels. A Frankish formula (Marculf) shows us a father who takes care to endow his daughter with a piece of land according to natural affection in spite of the strict law of his tribe. Such instruments were strongly backed by the Church, and the view that women should be admitted to hold land on certain occasions had made its way in England as early as Anglo-Saxon times. Authorities. — Mayne, Hindu Law and Usage (1878); Julius Jolly, Outlines of a History of the Hindu Law of Partition, Inheritance and Adoption (Tagore law lectures) (Calcutta, 1883); B. W. Leist, Altarisches jus Civile (1892); F. Seebohm, Tribal System in Wales (2nd ed., 1904); the same, Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon Law (1902) ; Arbois de Jubainville, La Famille celtique (1906) ; A. Heusler, Institutionen des deutschen Privatrechts, i. (1885); H. Brunner, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte (vol. i., 2nd. ed., 1907) ; Jul. Ficker, Unler- suchungen zur Erbenfolge (Innsbruck, 189 1 ff.); Kraus, Sitte und Brauch der Siid-Slaven; Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law, ii. (1895) ; Kenny, Law of Primogeniture (1878) ; P. Vinogradoff, The Growth of the Manor (1905); Brandt, Forelaesninger om norsk Retshistorie Kristiania (1880); Boden, "Das Odalsrecht " in the Zeitschrift der Savignystiftung fur Rechtsgeschichte (Ger. Abth. xxiii.); H. Brunner, "Der Totentheil " in the same Zeitschrift (Ger. Abth. xix.); L. Mitteis, Romisches Privatrecht (1908;, vol. i.; Fustel de Coulanges, La CM antique (4th ed., 1872). (P. Vi.) SUCCESSION DUTY, in the English fiscal system, "a tax placed on the gratuitous acquisition of property which passes on the death of any person, by means of a transfer from one person (called the predecessor) to another person (called the successor)." In order properly to understand the present state of the English law it is necessary to describe shortly the state of affairs prior to the Finance Act 1894 — an act which effected a considerable change in the duties payable and in the mode of assessment of those duties. The principal act which first imposed a succession duty in England was the Succession Duty Act 1853. By that act a duty varying from 1 to 10 % according to the degree of con- sanguinity between the predecessor and successor was imposed upon every succession which was defined as " every past or future disposition of property by reason whereof any person has or shall become beneficially entitled to any property, or the income thereof, upon the death of any person dying after the time appointed for the commencement of this act, either immediately or after any interval, either certainly or contin- gently, and either originally or by way of substitutive limitation and every devolution by law of any beneficial interest in pro- perty, or the income thereof, upon the death of any person dying after the time appointed for the commencement of this act to SUCCINIC ACID any other person in possession or expectancy." The property which is liable to pay the duty is in realty or leasehold estate in the United Kingdom and personalty— not subject to legacy duty — which the beneficiary claims by virtue of English, Scottish or Irish law. Personalty in England bequeathed by a person domiciled abroad is not subject to succession duty. Successions of a husband or a wife, successions where the princi- pal value is under £100, and individual successions under £20, are exempt from duty. Leasehold property and personalty directed to be converted into real estate are liable to succession, not to legacy duty. Special provision is made for the collection of duty in the cases of joint tenants and where the successor is also the predecessor. The duty is a first charge on property, but if the property be parted with before the duty is paid the liability of the successor is transferred to the alienee. It is, therefore, usual in requisitions on title before conveyance, to demand for the protection of the purchaser the production of receipts for succession duty, as such receipts are an effectual protection notwithstanding any suppression or misstatement in the account on the footing of which the duty was assessed or any insufficiency of such assessment. The duty is by this act directed to be assessed as follows: on personal property, if the successor takes a limited estate, the duty is assessed on the principal value of the annuity or yearly income estimated according to the period during which he is entitled to receive the annuity or yearly income, and the duty is payable in four yearly instalments free from interest. If the successor takes absolutely he pays in a lump sum duty on the principal value. On real property the duty is payable in eight half-yearly instal- ments without interest on the capital value of an annuity equal to the annual value of the property. Various minor changes were made. By the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1881, personal estates under £300 were exempted. By the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1888 an additional |% was charged on successions already paying 1% and an additional i\% on successions paying more than 1%. By the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1889 an additional duty of 1% called estate duty was payable on successions over £10,000. The Finance Acts 1894 and 1909 effected large changes in the duties payable on death (for which see Estate Duty; Legacy). As regards the succession duties they enacted that payment of the estate duties thereby created should include payment of the additional duties mentioned above. Estates under £1000 (£2000 in the case of widow or child of deceased) are exempted from payment of any succession duties. The succession duty payable under the Succession Duty Act 1853 was in all cases to be calculated according to the principal value of the property, i.e. its selling value, and though still payable by instalments interest at 3% is chargeable. The additional succession duties are still payable in cases where the estate duty is not charged, but such cases are of small importance and in practice are not as a rule charged. United Slates. — The United States imposed a succession duty by the War Revenue Act of 1898 on all legacies or distributive shares of personal property exceeding $10,000. It is a tax on the privilege of succession. Devises or distributions of land are not affected by it. The rate of duty runs from 75 cents on fche $100 to $5 on the §100, if the legacy or share in question does not exceed $25,000. On those of over that value the rate is multiplied l| times on estates up to $100,000, twofold on those from $100,000 to $500,000, 2j times on those from $500,000 to a million, and threefold for those exceeding a million. This statute has been supported as constitutional by the Supreme Court. Many of the states also impose succession duties, or transfer taxes; generally, however, on collateral and remote successions; sometimes progressive, according to the amount of the succession. The state duties generally touch real estate successions as well as those to personal property. If a citizen of state A owns registered bonds of a corporation chartered by state B, which he has put for safe keeping in a deposit vault in state C, his estate may thus have to pay four succession taxes, one to state A, to which he belongs and which, by legal fiction, is the seat of all his personal property; one to state B, for permitting the transfer of the bonds to the legatees on the books of the corporation; one to state C, for allowing them to be removed from the deposit vault for that purpose; and one to the United States. SUCCINIC ACID, C2H 4 (C0 2 H) 2 . Two acids corresponding to this empirical formula are known — namely ethylene suc- cinic acid, H0 2 C-CH2-CH 2 -G02rI and ethylidene succinic acid CH 3 -CH(C0 2 H) 2 . Ethylene succinic acid occurs in amber, in various resins and lignites, in fossilized wood, in many members of the natural Orders of Papaveraceae and Compositae, in unripe grapes, urine and blood. It is also found in the thymus gland of calves and in the spleen of cattle. It may be prepared by the oxidation of fats and of fatty acids by nitric acid, and is also a product of the fermentation of malic and tartaric acids. It is usually obtained by the distillation of amber, or by the fermentation of calcium malate or ammonium tartrate. Synthetically it may be obtained by reducing malic or tartaric acids with hydriodic acid (R. Schmitt, Ann., i860, 114, p. 106; V. Dessaignes, ibid., i860, 115, p. 120; by reducing fumaric and maleic acids with sodium amalgam; by heating bromacetic acid with silver to 130 C; in small quantity by the oxidation of acetic acid with potassium persulphate (C. MoritzandR. Wolffehstein, Ber., 1899, 32, p. 2534); by the hydrolysis of succinonitrile (from ethylene dibromide) C 2 H4-^C 2 Il4Br 2 -^C 2 H4(CN) 2 -^C 2 H 4 (C0 2 H) 2 ; by the hydrolysis of (3-cyanpropionic ester; and by the condensation of sodiomalonic ester with monochloracetic ester and hydrolysis of theresultirtg ethane tricarboxylic ester (R0 2 C) 2 CH- CH 2 -C0 2 R; this method is applicable to the preparation of substituted succinic acids. It is also produced by the electrolysis of a concentrated solution of potassium ethyl malonate. It crystallizes in prisms or plates which melt at 185 C. and boil at 23 5 C. with partial conversion into the anhydride. It is readily soluble in water. Aqueous solutions of the acid are decomposed in sunlight by uranium salts, with evolution of carbon dioxide and the formation of propionic acid. Potassium permanganate, in acid solution, oxidizes it to carbon dioxide and water. The sodium salt on distillation with phosphorus trisulphide gives thiophene. The esters of the acid condense readily with aromatic aldehydes and ketones to form 7-di- substituted itaconic acids and 7-alkylen pyrotartaric acids (H. Stobbe, Ann., 1899, 308, p. 71). 7-Oxyacids are formed when aldehydes are heated with sodium succinate and sodium acetate. Numerous salts of the acid are known, the basic ferric salt being occasionally used in quantitative analysis for the separation of iron from aluminium. Succinyl chloride, obtained by the action of phosphorus penta- chloride on succinic acid, is a colourless liquid which boils at I90°C. In many respects it behaves as though it were dichlorbutyro-lactone, CjHi'f NO; e.g. on reduction it yields butyro-lactone, and when condensed with benzene in the presence of aluminium chloride it yields chiefly 7-diphenylbutyro-lactone. Succinic anhydride, C 2 H4(CO) 2 0, is obtained by heating the acid or its sodium salt with acetic anhydride; by the action of acetyl chloride on the barium salt; by distilling a mixture of succinic acid and succinyl chloride, or by heating succinyl chloride with anhydrous oxalic acid. It crystallizes in plates which melt at 120 C, and distils without decomposition. It is slowly dissolved by water with the formation of the acid. It combines readily with the meta-aminophenols to form rhodamines, which are valuable dyestuffs. Heated in a current of ammonia it gives succinimide, which is also obtained on heating acid ammon- ium succinate. It crystallizes in colourless octahedra which melt at 125-126 O, and is easily soluble in water. When warmed with baryta water it yields succinamic acid, H02C-CH2-CH 2 -C0NH 2 ; and with alcoholic ammonia at ioo° C. it gives succinamide. The imino hydrogen atom is easily replaced by metals. Distillation with zinc dust gives pyrrol (q.v.). By the action of bromine in alkaline solution it is converted into /S-aminoprbpionic acid. Succinamide, C 2 H4(CONH 2 ) 2 , best obtained by the action of ammonia on diethyl succinate, crystallizes in needles which melt at 242- 243 C, and is soluble in hot water. Succinonitrile, C 2 H4(CN) 2 , is obtained by the action of potassium cyanide on ethylene dibromide or by the electrolysis of a solution of potassium cyan- acetate. It is an amorphous solid which melts at 54~55° C. On reduction with sodium in alcoholic solution it yields tetraethylene diamine (putrescein) and pyrollidine. . . ; , . Methyl succinic acid (pyrotartaric acid), H0 2 C-CH 2 -CH(CHa) -00211, is formed by the dry distillation of tartaric acid ; by heating pyruvic acid with concentrated hydrochloric acid to 180° C. ; by the 1 reduction of citraconic and mesaconic acids with sodium amalgam; and by SUCHER— SUCKLING the hydrolysis of /3-cyanbutyric acid. It crystallizes in small prisms which melt at 112° C. and are soluble in water. It forms an anhydride when heated. The sodium salt oh heating with phosphorus trisulphide yields methylthiophen. Elhylidene succinic acid or isosuccinic acid, CH 3 -CH(C02H) 2 , is produced by the hydrolysis of o-cyanpropionic acid and by the action of methyl iodide on sodio-malonic ester. It crystallizes in prisms which melt at 120° C. (T. Salzer, Journ. prak. Chem., 1898 [2], 57, p. 497), and dissolve in water. It does not yield an anhydride, but when heated loses carbon dioxide and leaves a residue of propionic acid. It may be distinguished from the isomeric ethylene succinic acid by the fact that its sodium salt does not give a precipitate with ferric chloride. SUCHER, ROSA (1849- ), German opera singer, ne'e Hasselbeck, was the wife of Josef Sucher (1844-1908), a well- known conductor and composer. They were married in 1876, when she had already had various engagements as a singer and he was conductor at the Leipzig city theatre. Frau Sucher soon became famous for her performances in Wagner's operas, her seasons in London in 1882 and 1892 proving her great capacity both as singer and actress; in 1886 and 1888 she sang at Bayreuth, and in later years she was principally associated with the opera stage in Berlin, retiring in 1903. Her magnificent rendering of the part of Isolde in Wagner's opera is especially remembered. SUCHET, LOUIS GABRIEL, Due D'Albufera da Vaiencia (1770-1826), marshal of France, one of the most brilliant of Napoleon's generals, was the son of a silk manufacturer at Lyons, where he was born on the 2nd of March 1770. He originally intended to follow his father's business; but having in 1792 served as volunteer in the cavalry of the national guard at Lyons, he manifested military abilities which secured his rapid promotion. As chef de bataillon he was present at the siege of Toulon in 1793, where he took General O'Hara prisoner. During the Italian campaign of 1796 he was severely wounded at Cerea on the 1 ith of October. In October 1797 he was appointed to the command of a demi-brigade, and his services, under Joubert in the Tirol in that year, and in Switzerland under Brune in 1797-98, were recognized by his promotion to the rank of general of brigade. He took no part in the Egyptian campaign, but in August was made chief of the staff to Brune, and restored the efficiency and discipline of the army in Italy. In July 1 799 he was made general of division and chief of staff to Joubert in Italy, and was in 1800 named by Mass6na his second in command. His dexterous resistance to the superior forces of the Austrians with the left wing of Massena's army, when the right and centre were shut up in Genoa, not only prevented the invasion of France from this direction but contributed to the success of Napoleon's crossing the Alps, which culminated in the battle of Marengo on the 14th of June. He took a prominent part in the Italian campaign till the armistice of Treviso. In the campaigns of 1805 and 1806 he greatly increased his reputation at Austerlitz, Saalfeld, Jena, Pultusk and Ostrolenka. He obtained the title of count on the 19th of March 1808, married Mlle-de Saint Joseph, a niece of Joseph Bonaparte's wife, and soon afterwards was ordered to Spain. Here, after taking part in the siege of Saragossa, he was named commander of the army of Aragon and governor of the province, which, by wise and (unlike that of most of the French generals) disinterested administration no less than by his brilliant valour, he in two years brought into com- plete submission. He annihilated the army of Blake at Maria on the 14th of June 1809, and on the 22nd of April 1810 defeated O'Donnell at Lerida. After being made marshal of France (July 8, 1811) he in 1812 achieved the conquest of Valencia, for which he was rewarded with the title of due d'Albufera da Valencia (181 2). When the tide set against the French Suchet defended his conquests step by step till compelled to retire into France, after which he took part in Soult's defensive campaign. By Louis XVIII. he was on the 4th of June made a peer of France, but, having during the Hundred Days commanded one of Napoleon's armies on the Alpine frontier, he was deprived of his peerage on the 24th of July 1815. He died near Marseilles on the 3rd of January 1826. Suchet wrote M (moires dealing with the Peninsular War, which were left by the marshal in an unfinished condition, and the two volumes and atlas appeared in 1829^1834 under the editorship of his former chief staff officer, Baron St Cyr-Nogues. See C. H. Barault-Roullon, Le Marechal Suchet (Paris, 1854); Choumara, Considerations militaires sur les memoires du Marechal Suchet (Paris, 1840), a controversial work on the last events of the Peninsular War, inspired, it is supposed, by Soult ; and Lieutenant- General Lamarque's obituary notice in the Spectateur mililaire (1826). See also bibliography in article Peninsular War. SU-CHOW. There are in China three cities of this name which deserve mention. 1. Su-chow-Fu, in the province of Kiang-su, formerly one of the largest cities in the world, and in 1907 credited still with a population of 500,000, on the Grand Canal, 55 m. W.N.W. of Shanghai, with which it is connected by railway. The site is practically a cluster of islands to the east of Lake Tai-hu. The walls are about 10 m. in circumference and there are four large suburbs. Its silk manufactures are represented by a greater variety of goods than are produced anywhere else in the empire; and the publication of cheap editions of the Chinese classics is carried to great perfection. There is a Chinese proverb to the effect that to be perfectly happy a man ought to be born in Su-chow, live in Canton and die in Lien-chow. The nine- storeyed pagoda of the northern temple is one of the finest in the country. In i860 Su-chow was captured by the T'aip'ings, and when in 1863 it was recovered by General Gordon the city was almost a heap of ruins. It has since largely recovered its prosperity, and besides 7000 silk looms has cotton mills and an important trade in rice. Of the original splendour of the place some idea may be gathered from the beautiful plan on a slab of marble preserved since 1247 in the temple of Confucius and reproduced in Yule's Marco Polo, vol. i. Su-chow was founded in 484 by Ho-lu-Wang, whose grave is covered by the artificial " Hill of the Tiger " in the vicinity of the town. The literary and poetic designation of Su-chow is Ku-su, from the great tower of Ku-su-tai, built by Ho-lu-Wang. Su-chow was opened to foreign trade by the Japanese treaty of 1895. A Chinese and European school was opened in 1900. 2. Su-chow, formerly Tsiu-tsuan-tsiun, a free city in the province of Kan-suh, in 39 48' N., just within the extreme north-west angle of the Great Wall, near the gate of jade. It is the great centre of the rhubarb trade. Completely destroyed in the great Mahommedan or Dungan insurrection (1865-72), it was recovered by the Chinese in 1873 and has been rebuilt. 3. Su-chow, a commercial town situated in the province of Sze-ch'uen at the junction of the Min River with the Yang-tse- Kiang, in 28° 46' 50" N. Population (1907) about 50,000. SUCKLING, SIR JOHN (1609-1642), English poet, was born at Whitton, in the parish of Twickenham, Middlesex, and bap- tized there on the 10th of February 1609. His father, S ; r John Suckling (1569-1627), had been knighted by James I. and was successively master of requests, comptroller of the household and secretary of state. He sat in the first and second parlia- ments of Charles I.'s reign, and was made a privy councillor. During his career he amassed a considerable fortune, of which the poet became master at the age of eighteen. He was sent to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1623, and was entered at Gray's Inn in 1627. He was intimate with Thomas Carew, Richard Lovelace, Thomas Nabbes and especially with John Hales and Sir William Davenant, who furnished John Aubrey with information about his friend. In 1628 he left London to travel in France and Italy, returning, however, before the autumn of 1630, when he was knighted. In 1631 he volunteered for the force raised by the marquess of Hamilton to serve under Gustavus Adolphus in Germany. He was back at Whitehall in May 1632; but during his short service he had been present at the battle of Breitenfeld and in many sieges. He was hand- some, rich and generous; his happy gift in verse was only one of many accomplishments, but it commended him especially to Charles I. and his queen. He says of himself (" A Sessions of the Poets ") that he " prized black eyes or a lucky hit at bowls above all the trophies of wit." He was the best card- player and the best bowler at court. Aubrey says that he 8 SUCRE— SUCZAWA invented the game of cribbage, and relates that his sisters came weeping to the bowling green at Piccadilly to dissuade him from play, fearing that he would lose their portions. In 1634 great scandal was caused in his old circle by a beating which he received at the hands of Sir John Digby, a rival suitor for the hand of the daughter of Sir John Willoughby; and it has been suggested that this incident, which is narrated at length in a letter (Nov. 10, 1634) from George Garrard 1 to Strafford, had something to do with his beginning to seek more serious society. In 1635 ne retired to his country estates in obedience to the proclamation of the 20th of June 1632 enforced by the Star Chamber 2 against absentee landlordism, and employed his leisure in literary pursuits. In 1637 " A Sessions of the Poets " was circulated in MS., and about the same time he wrote a tract on Socinianism entitled An Account of Religion by Reason (pr. 1646). As a dramatist Suckling is noteworthy as having applied to regular drama the accessories already used in the production of masques. His Aglaura (pr. 1638) was produced at his own expense with elaborate scenery. Even the lace on the actors' coats was of real gold and silver. The play, in spite of its felicity of diction, lacks dramatic interest, and the criticism of Richard Flecknoe {Short Discourse of the English Stage), 3 that it seemed " full of flowers, but rather stuck in than growing there," is not altogether unjustified. The Goblins (1638, pr. 1646) has some reminiscences of The Tempest; Brennoralt, or the Discontented Colonel (1639, pr. 1646) is a satire on the Scots, who are the Lithuanian rebels of the play; a fourth play, The Sad One, was left unfinished owing to the outbreak of the Civil War. Suckling raised a troop of a hundred horse, at a cost of £12,000, and accompanied Charles on the Scottish expedi- tion of 1639. He shared in the earl of Holland's retreat before Duns, and was ridiculed in an amusing ballad (pr. 1656), in Musarum deliciae, " on Sir John Suckling'.! most war- like preparations for the Scottish war." 4 He was elected as member for Bramber for the opening session (1640) of the Long Parliament; and in that winter he drew up a letter addressed to Henry Jermyn, afterwards earl of St Albans, advising the king to disconcert the opposition leaders by making more con- cessions than they asked for. In May of the following year he was implicated in an attempt to rescue Strafford from the Tower and to bring in French troops to the king's aid. The plot was exposed by the evidence of Colonel George Goring, and Suckling fled beyond the seas. The circumstances of his short exile are obscure. He was certainly in Paris in the summer of 1641. One pamphlet related a story of his elopement with a lady to Spain, where he fell into, the hands of the Inquisition. The manner of his death is uncertain, but Aubrey's statement that he put an end to his life by poison in May or June 1642 in fear of poverty is generally accepted. Suckling's reputation as a poet depends on his minor pieces. They have wit and fancy, and at times exquisite felicity of expression. " Easy, natural Suckling," Millamant's comment in Congreve's Way of the World (Act iv., sc. i.) is a just tribute to their spontaneous quality. Among the best known of them are the " Ballade upon a Wedding," on the occasion of the marriage of Roger Boyle, afterwards earl of Orrery, and Lady !Hargaret Howard, "I prithee, send me back my heart," "Out upon it, I have loved three whole days together," and "Why so pale and wan, fond lover?" from Aglaura. "A 'Sessions of the Poets," describing a meeting of the con- temporary versifiers under the presidency of Apollo to decide who should wear the laurel wreath, is the prototype of many later satires. A collection of Suckling's poems was first published in 1646 as Fragmenta aurea, the so-called Selections (1836) published by the 1 Strafford's Letters and Despatches (1739), t. 336. 2 For an account of the proceedings see Historical Collections, ed. by Rushworth (1680), 2nd pt., pp. 288-293. 3 Reprinted in Eng. Drama and Stage, ed. W. C. Hazlitt, Rox- burghe Library (1869), p. 277. 4 Attributed by Aubrey to Sir John Mennis (1599-1671). See also a song printed in the tract, Vox borealis (Harl. Misc. iii. 235), Rev. Alfred Inigo Suckling, author of the History and Antiquities of Suffolk ( 1 846-1 848) with Memoirs based on original authorities and a portrait after Van Dyck, is really a complete edition of his works, of which W. C. Hazlitt's edition (1874 ; revised ed., 1892) is little more than a reprint with some additions. The Poems and Songs of Sir John Suckling, edited by John Gray and decorated with woodcut border and initials by Charles Ricketts, was artistically printed at the Ballantyne Press in 1896. In T9io Suckling's works in prose and verse were edited by A. Hamilton Thompson. For anecdotes of Suckling's life see John Aubrey's Brief Lives (Clarendon Press ed., ii. 242). SUCRE, or Chuquisaca, a city of Bolivia, capital of the department of Chuquisaca and nominal capital of the republic, 46 m. N.E. of Potosi in 19 2' 45" S., 65° 17' W. Pop. (1900), 20,967; (1906, estimate), 23,416, of whom many are Indians and cholos. The city is in an elevated valley opening southward on the narrow ravine through which flows the Cachimayo, the principal northern tributary of the Pilcomayo. Its elevation, 8839 ft., gives it an exceptionally agreeable climate. There are fertile valleys in the vicinity which provide the city's markets with fruit and vegetables, while the vineyards of Camargo (formerly known as Cinti), in the southern part of the depart- ment, supply wine and spirits of excellent quality. The city is laid out regularly, with broad streets, a large central plaza and a public garden, or promenade, called the prado. Among its buildings are the cathedral, dating from 1553 and once noted for its wealth; the president's palace and halls of congress, which are no longer occupied as such by the national govern- ment; the cabildo, or town-hall; a mint dating from 1572; the courts of justice, and the university of San Xavier, founded in 1624, with faculties of law, medicine and theology. There is a pretty chapel called the " Rotunda," erected in 1852 at the lower end of the prado by President Belzu, on the spot where an attempt had been made to assassinate him. Sucre is the seat of the archbishop of La Plata and Charcas, the primate of Bolivia. It is not a commercial town, and its only note- worthy manufacture is the " clay dumplings " which are eaten with potatoes by the inhabitants of the Bolivian uplands. Although the capital of Bolivia, Sucre is one of its most isolated towns because of the difficult character of the roads leading to it. It is reached from the Pacific by way of Challapata, a station on the Antofagasta & Oruro railway. The Spanish town, according to Velasco, was founded in 1 538 by Captain Pedro Angules on the site of an Indian village called Chuquisaca, or Chuquichaca (golden bridge), and was called Charcas and Ciudad de la Plata by the Spaniards, though the natives clung to the original Indian name. It became the capital of the province of Charcas, of the comarca of Chuquisaca, and of the bishopric of La Plata and Charcas, and in time it became the favourite residence and health resort of the rich mine-owners of Potosi. The bishopric dates from 1552 and the archbishopric from 1609. In the latter year was created the Real Audiencia de la Plata y Charcas, a royal court of justice having jurisdiction over Upper Peru and the La Plata provinces of that time. Sucre was the first city of Spanish South America to revolt against Spanish rule — on the 25th of May 1809. In 1840 the name Sucre was adopted in honour of the patriot commander who won the last decisive battle of the war, and then became the first president of Bolivia. The city has suffered much from partisan strife, and the removal of the government to La Paz greatly diminished its importance. SUCZAWA (Rumanian, Suceava), a town in Bukovina, Austria, 50 m. S. of Czernowitz by rail. Pop. (1900), 10,955. It is situated on the river Suczawa, which forms there the boundary between Bukovina and Rumania. One of its two churches, dating from the 14th century, contains the grave of the patron saint of Bukovina. The principal industry is the tanning and leather trade. Not far from Suczawa lies the monastery of Dragomirna, in Byzantine style, built at the beginning of the 17th century. Suczawa is a very old town and was until 1565 the capital of the principality of Moldavia. It was many times besieged by Poles, Hungarians, Tatars and Turks. In 1675 it was besieged by Sobieski, and in 1679 it was plundered by the Turks. SUDAN SUDAN (Arabic Bilad-es-Sudan, country of the blacks), that region of Africa which stretches, south of the Sahara and Egypt, from Cape Verde on the Atlantic to Massawa on the Red Sea. It is bounded S. (i) by the maritime countries of the west coast of Africa, (2) by the basin of the Congo, and (3) by the equatorial lakes, and E. by the Abyssinian and Galla high- lands. The name is often used in Great Britain in a restricted sense to designate only the eastern part of this vast territory, but it is properly applied to the whole area indicated, which corresponds roughly to that portion of negro Africa north of the equator under Mahommedan influence. The terms Nigritia and Negroland, at one time current, referred to the same region. A '5° B 30° G -is D Anglo-Egyptian ££?£C '••?pfe^~t;;^^^ nTTT\ 1 \T -y.-yp^-v. -i ~ -.*- *J? """if- % - <*^Murrat H-Vm,,™! "' -,\ fe t£*^ttas^=z. P^ Longfturie East »5° of Greenwich 3 The Sudan has an ethnological rather than a physical unity, and politically it is divided into a large number of states, all now under the control of European powers. These countries being separately described, brief notice only is required of the Sudan as a whole. Within the limits assigned it has a length of about 4000 m., extending southwards at some points 1000 m., with a total area of over 2,000,000 sq. m., and a population, approximately, of 40,000,000. Between the arid and sandy northern wastes and the well-watered and arable Sudanese lands there is a transitional zone of level grassy steppes (partly covered with mimosas and acacias) with a mean breadth of about 60 m. The zone lies between 17 and 18° N., but towards the centre reaches as far south as 15° N. Excluding this transitional zone, the Sudan may be described as a moderately elevated region, with extensive open or rolling plains, level plateaus, and abutting at its eastern and western ends on mountainous country. Crystalline rocks, granites, gneisses and schists, of the Central African type, occupy the greater part of the country. Towards the south-east, slates, quartzites and iron-bearing schists occur, but their age is not known. The Congo sandstones do not appear to extend as far north. The Nubian sandstone borders the Libyan desert on the south and south-west, but it is doubtful if this sandstone is of Cretaceous or earlier date. The Sudan contains the basin of the Senegal and parts of three other hydrographic systems, namely: the Niger, draining southwards to the Atlantic; the central depression of Lake Chad; and the Nile, flowing northwards to the Mediterranean. Lying within the tropics and with an average elevation of not more than 1500 to 2000 ft. above the sea, the climate of the Sudan is hot and in the river valleys very un- healthy. Few parts are suitable for the residence of Europeans. Cut off from North Africa by the Saharan desert, the inhabitants, who belong in the main to the negro family proper, are thought to have received their earliest civilization from the East. Arab influence and the Moslem religion began to be felt in the western Sudan as early as the 9th century and had taken deep root by the end of the nth. The existence of native Chris- tian states in Nubia hindered for some centuries the spread of Islam in the eastern Sudan, and throughout the country some tribes have remained pagan. It was not until the last quarter of the 19th century that the European nations became the ruling force. The terms western, central and eastern Sudan are indicative of geographical position merely. The various states are politically divisible into four groups: (1) those west of the Niger; (2) those between the Niger and Lake Chad; (3) those between Lake Chad and the basin of the Nile; (4) those in the upper Nile valley. The first group includes the native states of Bondu, Futa Jallon, Masina, Mossi and all the tribes within the great bend of the Niger. In the last quarter of the 19th century they fell under the control of France, the region being styled officially the French Sudan. In 1900 this title was abandoned. The greater part of what was the French Sudan is now known as the Upper Senegal and Niger Colony (see Senegal, French West Africa, &c). The second group of Sudanese states Emu^^ittrss j s a i mos t entirely within the British protectorate of Northern Nigeria. It includes the sultanate of Sokoto and its dependent emirates of Kano, Bida, Zaria, &c, and the ancient sultanate of Bornu, which, with Adamawa, is partly within the German colony of Cameroon (see Nigeria and Cameroon). The third or central group of Sudanese states is formed of the sultanates of Bagirmi (q.v.) with Kanem and Wadai (q.v.). Wadai was the last state of the Sudan to come under European influence, its conquest being effected in 1909. This third group is included in French Congo (q.v.). The fourth group consists of the states conquered during the 19th century by the Egyptians and now under the joint control of Great Britain and Egypt. These countries are known collectively as the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (see below). For the regions west of Lake Chad the standard historical work is the Travels of Dr Heinrich Barth (5 vols., London, 1857-1858). Consult also P. C. Meyer, Erforschungsgrschichte und Staatenbildungen des Westsudan (Gotha, 1897), an admirable summary with biblio- graphy and maps; Karl Kumm, The Sudan (London, 1907); Lady IO SUDAN Lugard, A Tropical Dependency (London, 1905); and the biblio- graphies given under the various countries named. For sources and history see Timbuktu. For the central Sudan the most im- g^rtant work is that of Gustav Nachtigal, Sahara und Sudan (3 vols., erlin 1879-1889). See also Boyd Alexander, From the Niger to the Nile (2 vols., London, 1907) ; Karl Kumm, From Haussaland to Egypt (London, 1910). For the eastern Sudan see the bibliographies under the following section. A good general work is P. Paulitschke's Die Sudanlander (Freiburg, 1885). The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan The region which before the revolt of the Arabized tribes under the Mahdi Mahommed Ahmed in 1881-84 was known as the Egyptian Sudan has, since its reconquest by and Area. * the Anglo-Egyptian expeditions of 1896-98, been under the joint sovereignty of Great Britain and Egypt. The limits of this condominium differ slightly from those of the Egyptian Sudan of the pre-Mahdi period. It is bounded N. by Egypt (the 22nd parallel of N. lat. being the dividing-line), E. by the Red Sea, Eritrea and Abyssinia, S. by the Uganda Protectorate and Belgian Congo, W. by French Congo. North of Darfur is the Libyan Desert, in which the western and northern frontiers meet. Here the boundary is undefined. 1 As thus constituted the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan forms a com- pact territory which, being joined southwards by the Uganda Protectorate, brings the whole of the Nile valley from the equatorial lakes to the Mediterranean under the control of Great Britain. The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan extends north to south about 1200 m. in a direct line, and west to east about 1000 m. also in a direct line. It covers 950,000 sq. m., beitig about one- fourth the area of Europe. In what follows the term Sudan is used to indicate the Anglo-Egyptian condominium only. Physical Features. — The Sudan presents many diversified features. It may be divided broadly into two zones. The northern portion, from about 16° N., is practically the south-eastern continuation of the Saharan desert; the southern region is fertile, abundantly watered, and in places densely forested. West ot the Nile there is a distinctly marked intermediate zone of steppes. In the southern district, between 5° and io° N., huge swamps extend on either side of the Nile and along the Bahr-el-Ghazal. From south to north the Sudan is traversed by the Nile (5.".), and all the great tributaries of that river are either partly or entirely within its borders. The most elevated district is a range of mountains running parallel to the Red Sea. These mountains, which to the south join the Abyssinian highlands, present their steepest face eastward, attaining heights within the Sudan of 4000 to over 7000 ft. Jebel Erba, 7480 ft., and Jebel Soturba, 6889 ft. (both between 21 and 22 N.), the highest peaks, face the Red Sea about 20 m. inland. Westward the mountains slope gradually to the Nile valley, which occupies the greater part of the country and has a general level of from 600 to 1600 ft. In places, as between Suakin and Berber and above Roseires on the Blue Nile, the mountains approach close to the river. Beyond the Nile westward extend vast plains, which in Kordofan and Dar Nuba (between io° and 15 N.) are broken by hills reaching 2000 ft. Farther west, in Darfur, the country is more elevated, the Jebel Marra range being from 5000 to 6000 ft. high. In the south-west, beyond the valley of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, the country gradually rises to a ridge of hills, perhaps 2000 ft. high, which running south-east and north-west form the water-parting between the Nile and the Congo. Apart from the Nile system, fully described elsewhere, the Sudan has two other rivers, the Gash and the Baraka. These are inter- mittent streams rising in the eastern chain of mountains in Eritrea and flowing in a general northerly direction. The Gash enters the Sudan near Kassala and north of that town turns west towards the Atbara, but its waters are dissipated before that river is reached. The Gash nevertheless fertilizes a considerable tract of country. The Khor Baraka lies east of the Gash. It flows towards the Red Sea in the neighbourhood of Trinkitat (some 50 m. south of Suakin), but about 30 m. from the coast forms an inland delta. Except in seasons of great rain its waters do not reach the sea. The Coast Region. — The coast extends along the Red Sea north to south from 22 N. to 18 N., a distance following the indentations of the shore of over 400 m. These indentations are numerous but not deep, the general trend of the coast being S.S.E. The most prominent headland is Ras Rawaya (21 N?) which forms the northern shore ot Dokhana Bay. There are few good harbours, Port 1 It was supposed to be indicated by the line which, according to the Turkish firman of 1841, describes a semicircle from the Siwa Oasis to Wadal, approaching the Nile between the Second and Third Cataracts. This line is disregarded by the Sudan government. Sudan and Suakin being the chief port9. South of Stiakin is the shallow bay of Trinkitat. A large number of small islands He off the coast. A belt of sandy land covered with low scrub stretches inland ten to twenty miles, and is traversed by khors (generally dry) with ill-defined shifting channels. Beyond this plain rise Lhe mountain ranges already mentioned. Their seaward slopes often bear a considerable amount of vegetation. The Desert Zone. — The greater part of the region between the coast and the Nile is known as the Nubian Desert. It is a rugged, rocky, barren waste, scored with khors or wadis, along whose beds there is scanty vegetation. The desert character of the country increases as the river is neared, but along either bank of the Nile is a narrow strip of cultivable land. West of the Nile there are a few oases — those of Selima, Zaghawa and El Kab — -but this district, part of the Libyan Desert, is even more desolate than the Nubian Desert. The Intermediate Zone and the Fertile Districts. — East of the Nile the region of absolute desert ceases about the point of the Atbara confluence. The country enclosed by the Nile, the Atbara and the Blue Nile, the so-called Island of Merog, consists of very fertile soil, and along the eastern frontier, by the upper courses of the rivers named, is a district of rich land alternating with prairies and open forests. The fork between the White and Blue Niles, the Gezira, is also fertile land. South of the Gezira is Sennar, a well- watered country of arable and grazing land. West of the Nile the desert zone extends farther south than on the east, and Kordofan, which comes between the desert and the plains of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, is largely barren and steppe land. South of 10° N. there is everywhere abundance of water. Darfur is mainly open, steppe-like country with extensive tracts of cultiv- able land and a central mountain massif, the Jebel Marra (see Sennar Kordofan, Darfur). Climate. — The country lies wholly within the tropics, and as the greater part of it is far removed from the ocean and less than 1500 ft. above the sea it is extremely hot. The heat is greatest in the central regions, least in the desert zone, where the difference between summer and winter is marked. Even in winter, however, the day temperatures are high. Of this region the Arabs say " the soil is like fire and the wind like a flame." Nevertheless, the dryness of the air renders the climate healthy. The steppe countries, Kordofan and Darfur, are also healthy except after the autumn rains. At Khartum, centrally situated, the minimum temperature is about 40 ° F., the maximum 113 , the mean annual temperature being 8o°. January is the coldest and June the hottest month. Violent sand- storms are frequent from June to August. Four rain zones may be distinguished. The northern (desert) region is one of little or no rain. There are perhaps a few rainy days in winter and an occasional storm in the summer. In the central belt, where " the rainy season " is from mid- June to September, there are some 10 in. of rain during the year. The number of days on which rain falls rarely exceeds, however, fifteen. The rainfall increases to about 20 m. per annum in the eastern and south-eastern regions. In the swamp district and throughout the Bahr-el-Ghazal heavy rains (40 in. or more a year) are experienced. The season of heaviest rain is from April to September. In the maritime district there are occasional heavy rains between August and January. In the sudd region thunderstorms are frequent. Here the temperature averages about 85 F., the air is always damp and fever is endemic. Flora. — In the deserts north of Khartum vegetation is almost confined to stunted mimosa and, in the less arid districts, scanty herbage. Between the desert and the cultivated Nile lands is an open growth of samr, hashab {Acacia verek) and other acacia trees. Between Khartum and 12 N. forest belts line the banks of the rivers and khors, in which the most noteworthy tree is the sant or sunt {Acacia arabica). Farther from the rivers are open woods of heglig {Balanites aegyptiaca), hashab, &c, and dense thickets of laot (Acacia nubica) and kittr {Acacia mellifera). These open woods cover a considerable part of Kordofan, the hashab and talh trees being the chief producers of gum arabic. South of 12 ° N. the forest lands of the White Nile as far south as the sudd region are of similar character to that described. On the Blue Nile the forest trees alter, the most abundant being the babanus (Sudan ebony) and the silag {Anogeissus leiocarpus), while gigantic baobabs, called tebeldi in the Sudan, and tarfa {Sierculia cinerea) are numerous. In southern Kordofan and in the higher parts of the Bahr-el-Ghazal the silag and ebony are also common, as well as African mahogany (homraya, Khaya senegalensis) and other timber trees. In the Ghazal province also are many rubber-producing lianas, among them the Landolphia owariensis. There are also forest regions in the Bahr-el-Jebel, in the Mongalla mudiria and along the Abyssinian- Eritrean frontier. East of the Bahr-el-Jebel and north of the Bahr-el-Ghazal are vast prairies covered with tall coarse grass. Cotton is indigenous in the valley of the Blue Nile, and in some districts bamboos are plentiful. The castor-oil plant grows in almost every province. (See also § Agriculture, and, for the vegetation of the swamp region, Nile.) Fauna. — Wild animals and birds are numerous. Elephants are abundant in the Bahr-el-Ghazal and Bahr-el-Jebel forests, and are found in fewer numbers in the upper valley of the Blue Nile. SUDAN ii The hippopotamus and crocodile abound in the swamp regions, which also shelter many kinds of water-fowl. The lion, leopard, giraffe and various kinds of antelope are found in the prairies and in the open woods. In the forests are numerous bright-plumaged birds and many species of monkeys, mostly ground monkeys — the trees being too prickly for climbing. Snakes are also plentiful, many poisonous kinds being found. In the steppe regions of Kordo- fan, Darfur, &c, and in the Nubian Desert ostriches are fairly plentiful. Insect life is very abundant, especially south of 12° N., the northern limit of the tsetse fly. The chief pests are mosqui- toes, termites and the serut, a brown fly about the size of a wasp, with a sharp stab, which chiefly attacks cattle. Locusts are less common, but, especially in the eastern districts, occasionally cause great destruction. For domestic animals see § Agriculture. Inhabitants. — The population, always sparse in the desert and steppe regions, was never dense even in the more fertile southern districts. During the Mahdia the country suffered severely from war and disease. Excluding Darfur the popula- tion before the Mahdist rule was estimated at 8,500,000. In 1905 an estimate made by the Sudan government put the population at 1,853,000 only, including 11,000 foreigners, of whom 2800 were Europeans. Since that year there has been a considerable natural increase and in 1910 the population was officially estimated at 2,400,000. There has also been a slight immigration of Abyssinians, Egyptians, Syrians and Europeans — the last named chiefly Greeks. The term " Bilad-es-Sudan " (" country of the blacks ") is not altogether applicable to the Anglo-Egyptian condominium, the northern portion being occupied by Hamitic and Semitic tribes, chiefly nomads, and classed as Arabs. In the Nile valley north of Khartum the inhabitants are of very mixed origin. This applies particularly to the so-called Nubians who inhabit the Dongola mudiria (see Nubia). Elsewhere the inhabitants north of 12 N. are of mixed Arab descent. In the Nubian Desert the chief tribes are the Ababda and Bisharin, the last named grazing their camels in the mountainous districts towards the Red Sea. In the region south of Berber and Suakin are the Hadendoa. The Jaalin, Hassania and Shukria inhabit the country between the Atbara and Blue Nile; the Hassania and Hassanat are found chiefly in the Gezira. The Kabbabish occupy the desert country north of Kordofan, which is the home of the Baggara tribes. In Darfur the inhabitants are of mixed Arab and negro blood. Of negro Nilotic tribes there are three or four main divisions. The Shilluks occupy the country along the west side of the Nile northward from about Lake No. The country east of the Nile is divided between the Bari, Nuer and Dinka tribes. The Dinkas are also widely spread over the Bahr-el-Ghazal province. South of Kordofan and west of the Shilluk territory are the Nubas, apparently the original stock of the Nubians. In the south-west of the Bahr-el-Ghazal are the Bongos and other tribes, and along the Nile-Congo water-parting are the A-Zande or Niam-Niam, a comparatively light-coloured race. (All the tribes mentioned are separately noticed.) Social Conditions. — In contrast with the Egyptians, a most industrious race, the Sudanese tribes, both Arab and negro, are as a general rule indolent. Where wants are few and simple, where houses need not be built nor clothes worn to keep out the cold, there is little stimulus to exertion. Many Arabs " clothed in rags, with only a mat for a house, prefer to lead the life of the free-born sons of the desert, no matter how large their herds or how numerous their followings" {Egypt, No. 1 [1904], p. 147). Following the establishment of British control slave-raiding and the slave trade were stopped, but domestic slavery continues. A genuine desire for education is manifest among the Arabic- speaking peoples and slow but distinct moral improvement is visible among them. Among the riverain " Arabs " some were found to supply labour for public works, and with the money thus obtained cattle were bought and farms started. The Dongolese are the keenest traders in the country. The Arab tribes are all Mahommedans, credulous and singularly liable to fits of religious excitement. Most of the negro tribes are pagan, but some of them who live in the northern regions have embraced Islam. Divisions and Chief Towns. — Darfur is under native rule. The rest of the Sudan is divided into mudirias (provinces) and these are subdivided intomamuria. The mudirias are Haifa, Red Sea, Dongola and Berber in the north (these include practically all the region known as Nubia) ; Khartum, Blue Nile and White Nile in the centre; Kassala and Sennar in the east; Kordofan in the west; and Bahr- el-Ghazal, Upper Nile (formerly Fashoda) and Mongalla in the south. The mudirias vary considerably in size. The capital, Khartum (a. v.), pop. with suburbs about 70,000, is built in the fork formed by the junction of the White and Blue Niles. Opposite Khartum, on the west bank of the White Nile, is Omdurman (q.v.), pop. about 43,000, the capital of the Sudan during the Mahdia. On the Nile north of Khartum at the towns of Berber, Abu Hamed, Merawi (Merowe), Dongola and Wadi Haifa. On the Red Sea are Port Sudan and Suakin. Kassala is on the river Gash east of the Atbara and near the Eritrean frontier. (These towns are separately noticed.) On the Blue Nile are Kamlin, Sennar, Wad Medani (a. v.), pop. about 20,000, a thriving business centre and capital of the Blue Nile mudiria, and Roseires', which marks the limit of navigability by steamers of the river. Gallabat is a town in the Kassala mudiria close to the Abyssinian frontier, and Gedaref lies between the Blue Nile and Atbara a little north of 14 N. El Obeid, the chief town of Kordofan, is 230 m. south- west by south of Khartum. Duiem, capital of the White Nile mudiria, is the river port for Kordofan. El Fasher, the capital of Darfur, is 500 m. W.S.W. of Khartum. All the towns named, except Roseires, are situated north of 13 N. In the south of the Sudan there are no towns properly so called. The native villages are composed of straw or palm huts; the places occupied by Europeans or Egyptians are merely " posts " where the administrative business of the district is carried on. Fashoda (q.v.), renamed Kodok, is the headquarters of the Upper Nile mudiria. Communications. — North of Khartum the chief means of com- munication is by railway ; south of that city by steamer. There are two trunk railways, one connecting the Sudan with Egypt, the other affording access to the Red Sea. The first line runs from the Nile at Wadi Haifa across the desert in a direct line to Abu Hamed, and from that point follows more or less closely the right (east) bank of the Nile to Khartum. At Khartum the Blue Nile is bridged and the railway is continued south through the Gezira to Sennar. Thence it turns west, crosses the White Nile near Abba Island, and is continued to El Obeid. The length of the line from Haifa to Khartum is 575 m. ; from Khartum to Obeid 350 m. The railway from the Nile to the Red Sea starts from the Haifa-Khartum line at Atbara Junction, a mile north of the Atbara confluence. It runs somewhat south of the Berber-Suakin caravan route. At Sallom, 278 m. from Atbara Junction, the line divides, one branch going north to Port Sudan, the other south to Suakin. The total distance to Port Sudan from Khartum is 493 m., the line to Suakin being 4 m. longer. Besides these main lines a railway, 138 m. long, runs from Abu Hamed on the right bank of the Nile to Kareima (opposite Merawi) in the Dongola mudiria below the Fourth Cataract. (The railway which started from Haifa and followed the right bank of the Nile to Kerma, 201 m. from Haifa, was abandoned in 1903.) The railways are owned and worked by the state. In connexion with the Khartum-Haifa railway steamers ply on the Nile between Haifa and Shellal (Assuan) where the railway from Alexandria ends. The distance by rail and steamer between Khartum and Alexandria is about 1490 m. Steamers run on the Nile between Kerma and Kareima, and above Khartum the govern- ment maintains a regular service of steamers as far south as Gondo- koro in the Uganda Protectorate. During flood season there is also a steamship service on the Blue Nile. Powerful dredgers and sudd-cutting machines are used to keep open communications in the upper Nile and Bahr-el-Ghazal. The ancient caravan routes Korosko-Abu Hamed and Berber- Suakin have been superseded by the railways, but elsewhere wells and rest-houses are maintained along the main routes between the towns and the Nile. On some of these roads a motor car service is maintained. From Port Sudan and Suakin there is a regular steamship service to Europe via the Suez Canal . There are also services to Alexandria, the Red Sea ports of Arabia, Aden and India. There is an extensive telegraphic system. Khartum is connected by land lines with Egypt and Uganda, thus affording direct tele- graphic connexion between Alexandria and Mombasa (2500 m.). From Khartum other lines go to Kassala and the Red Sea ports. In some places the telegraph wires are placed 16 ft. 6 in. above the ground to protect them from damage by giraffes. Agriculture and other Industries. — North of Khartum agricul- tural land is confined to a narrow strip on either side of the Nile and to the few oases in the Libyan Desert. In the Gezira and in the plains of Gedaref between the Blue Nile and the Atbara there are wide areas of arable land, as also in the neighbourhood of Kassala along the banks of the Gash. In Kordofan and Darfur cujtivation is confined to the khors or valleys. The chief grain crop is durra, the staple food of the Sudanese. Two crops are obtained yearly in several districts. On lands near the rivers the durra is sown after the flood has gone down and also at the beginning of the rainy season. Considerable quantities of wheat and barley are also 12 SUDAN grown. Other foodstuffs raised are lentils, beans, onions and melons. The date-palm is cultivated along the Nile valley below Khartum, especially on the west bank in the Dongola mudiria and in the neighbouring oases. Dates are also a staple product in Darfur and Kordofan. Ground-nuts and sesame are grown in large quantities for the oil they yield, and cotton of quality equal to that grown in the Delta is produced. The Sudan was indeed the original home of Egyptian cotton. For watering the land by the river banks sakias (water-wheels) are used, oxen being employed to turn them. There are also a few irrigation canals. In 1910, apart from the date plantations, about 1,500,000 acres were under cultivation. In 1910 a system of basin irrigation was begun in Dongola mudiria. Gum and rubber are the chief forest products. The gum is obtained from eastern Kordofan and in the forests in the upper valley of the Blue Nile, the best gum coming from Kordofan. It is of two kinds, hashab (white) and talk (red), the white being the most valuable. Rubber is obtained from the Bahr-el-Ghazal — where there are Para and Ceara rubber plantations— and in the Sobat district. The wood of the sunt tree is used largely for boat- building and for fuel, and the mahogany tree yields excellent timber. Fibre is made from several trees and plants. Elephants are hunted for the sake of their ivory. The wealth of the Arab tribes consists largely in their herds of camels, horses and cattle. They also keep ostrich farms, the feathers being of good quality. The Dongola breed of horses is noted for its strength and hardness. The camels are bred in the desert north of Berber, between the Nile and Red Sea, in southern Dongola, in the Hadendoa country and in northern Kordofan. The Sudanese camel is lighter, faster and better bred than the camel of Egypt. The camel, horse and ostrich are not found south of Kordofan and Sennar. The negro tribes living south of those countries possess large herds of cattle, sheep and goats. The cattle are generally small and the sheep yield little wool. The Arabs use the cattle as draught-animals as well as for their milk and flesh; the negro tribes as a rule do not eat their oxen. Fowls are plentiful, but of poor quality. Donkeys are much used in the central regions; they make excellent transport animals. Mineral Wealth. — In ancient times Nubia, i.e. the region between the Red Sea and the Nile south of Egypt and north of the Suakin- Berber line, was worked for gold. Ruins of an extensive gold- mine exist near Jebel Erba at a short distance from the sea. In 1905 gold mining recommenced in Nubia, in the district of Um Nabardi, which is in the desert, about midway between Wadi Haifa and Abu Hamed. A light railway, 30 m. long, opened in June 1905, connects Um Nabardi with the government railway system. The producing stage was reached in 1908, and between September 1908 and August 1909 the mines yielded 4500 oz. of gold. Small quantities of gold-dust are obtained from Kordofan, and gold is found in the Beni-Shangul country south-west of Sennar, but this region is within the Abyssinian frontier (agreement of the 15th of May 1902). There is lignite in the Dongola mudiria and iron ore is found in Darfur, southern Kordofan and in the Bahr-el-Ghazal. In the last-named mudiria iron is worked by the natives. The district of Hofrat-el-Nahas (the copper mine) is rich in copper, the mines having been worked intermittently from remote times. Trade. — The chief products of the Sudan for export are gum, ivory, ostrich feathers, dates and rubber. Cotton, cotton-seed and grain (durra, wheat, barley) sesame, livestock, hides and skins, beeswax, mother-of-pearl, senna and gold are also exported. Before the opening (1906) of the railway to the Red Sea the trade was chiefly with Egypt via the Nile, and the great cost of carriage hindered its development. Since the completion of the railway named goods can be put on the world's markets at a much cheaper rate. Besides the Egyptian and Red Sea routes there is considerable trade between the eastern mudirias and Abyssinia and Eritrea, and also some trade south and west with Uganda and the Congo countries. The Red Sea ports trade largely with Arabia and engage in pearl fishery. The principal imports are cotton goods, food-stuffs (flour, rice, sugar, provisions), timber, tobacco, spirits (in large quantities), iron and machinery, candles, cement and perfumery. The value of the trade, which during the Mahdist rule (1 884-1 898) was a few thousands only, had increased in 1905 to over £1,500,000. In 1908 the exports of Sudan produce were valued at ^Esis.ooo 1 ; the total imports at £Ei, 892,000. Government. — The administration is based on the provisions of a convention signed on the 19th of January 1809 between the British and Egyptian governments. The authority of the sovereign powers is represented by a governor-general appointed by Egypt on the recommendation of Great Britain. In 1910 a council consisting of four ex officio members and from two to four non-official nominated members was created to advise the governor-general in the exercise of his executive arid legislative functions. Subject to the power of veto retained by the governor- general all questions are decided by a majority of the council. 1 A£E(pound Egyptian) is equal to £1, os. 6d. British currency. Each of the mudirias into which the country is divided is presided over by a mudir (governor) responsible to the central govern- ment at Khartum. The governor-general, the chiefs of the various departments of state and the mudirs are all Europeans, the majority being British military officers The minor officials are nearly all Egyptians or Sudanese. Revenue is derived as to about 60% from the customs and revenue-earning depart- ments (i.e. steamers, railways, posts and telegraphs), and as to the rest from taxes on land, date-trees and animals, from royalties on gum, ivory and ostrich feathers, from licences to sell spirits, carry arms, &c, and from fees paid for the shooting of game. Expenditure is largely on public works, education, justice and the army. Financial affairs are managed from Khartum, but control over expenditure is exercised by the Egyptian financial department. The revenue, which in 1898 was £E3 5,000, for the first time exceeded a million in 1909, when the amount realized was £E 1,040, 200. The expenditure in 1909 was £Ei, 153.000. Financially the government had been, up to 1910, largely dependent upon Egypt. In the years 1901- 1909 ££4,378,000 was advanced from Cairo for public works in the Sudan; in the same period a further sum of about £E 2, 7 50,000 had been found by Egypt to meet annual deficits in the Sudan budgets (see Egypt, No. 1 [1910], pp. 5-6). Justice. — The Sudan judicial codes, based in part on those of India and in part on the principles of English law and of Egyptian commercial law, provide for the recognition of " cus- tomary law " so far as applicable and " not repugnant to good conscience." In each mudiria criminal justice is administered by a court, consisting of the mudir (or a judge) and two magis- trates, which has general competence. The magistrates are members of the administrative staff, who try minor cases without the help of the mudir (or judge). The governor-general possesses revising powers in all cases. Civil cases of importance are heard by a judge (or where no judge is available by the mudir or his representative); minor civil cases are tried by magistrates. From the decision of the judges an appeal lies to the legal secretary of the government, in his capacity of judicial com- missioner. Jurisdiction in all legal matters as regards personal status of Mahommedans is administered by a grand cadi and a staff of subordinate cadis. The police force of each mudiria is independently organized under the control of the mudirs. Education. — Education is in charge of the department of public instruction. Elementary education, the medium of instruction being Arabic, is given in kuttabs or village schools. There are primary schools in the chief towns where English, Arabic, mathematics, and in some cases land-measuring is taught. There are also government industrial workshops, and a few schools for girls. The Gordon College at Khartum trains teachers and judges in the Mahommedan courts and has annexed to it a secondary school. The college also contains the Wellcome laboratories for scientific research. Among the pagan negro tribes Protestant and Roman Catholic missions are established. These missions carry on educational work, special attention being given to industrial training. Defence. — The defence of the country is entrusted to the Egyptian army, of which several regiments are stationed in the Sudan. The governor-general is sirdar (commander-in-chief) of the army. A small force of British troops is also stationed in the Sudan — chiefly at Khartum. They are under the com- mand of the governor-general in virtue of an arrangement made in 1905, having previously been part of the Egyptian command. For topography, &c. ,see The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, a compendium prepared by officers of the Sudan government and edited by Count Gleichen (2 vols., London, 1905) ; for administration, finance and trade the annual Reports [by the British agent at Cairo] on Egypt and the Sudan, since 1898; and the special report (Blue Book Egypt, No. ii., 1883) by Colonel D. H. Stewart. Consult also J. Petherick, Travels in Central Africa (2 vols., London, 1862); W. Junker, Travels in Africa, 1875-1886 (3 vols., London, 1890-1892); G. Schweinfurth The Heart of Africa (2 vols., London, 1873); J. Baumgarten, Ost- afrika, der Sudan und das Seengebiet (Gotha., 1890); E. D. Schoenfeld, ErythrOa und der agyptische Suddn (Berlin, 1904); C. E. Muriel, Report on the Forests of the Sudan (Cairo, 1901); H. F. Witherby, Bird Hunting on the White Nile (London, 1902). For ethnology. SUDAN 13 &c, see A. H. Keane, Ethnology of the Egyptian Sudan (London, 1884) ; H. Frobenius, Die Heiden-Neger des agyptischen Sudan (Berlin, 1893). Scientific and medical subjects are dealt with in the Reports of the Wellcome Research Laboratories, Gordon College, Khartum. The Sudan Almanac is a valuable official publication. (F. R. C.) Archaeology. — Archaeological study in the Sudan was retarded for many years by political conditions. The work which had been begun by Cailliaud, Champollion, Lepsius and others was interrupted by the rise of the Mahdist power; and with the frontiers of Egypt itself menaced by dervishes, the country south of Aswan (Assuan) was necessarily closed to the student of antiquity. Even after the dervishes had been overthrown at the battle of Omdurman (1898) it was some time before archaeologists awoke to a sense of the historical importance of the regions thus made accessible to them. Dr Wallis Budge visited several of the far southern sites and made some tentative excavations, but no extensive explorations were undertaken until an unexpected event produced a sudden outburst of activity. This was the resolution adopted by the Egyptian government to extend the great reservoir at the First Cataract by raising the height of the Aswan dam. As a result of this measure all sites bordering the river banks from Aswan to Abu Simbel were threatened with inundation and the scientific world took alarm. A large sum of money was assigned by the government, partly for the preservation of the visible temples in the area to be submerged, partly for an official expedition under the charge of Dr G. A. Reisner which was to search for all remains of antiquity hidden beneath the ground. At the same time the university of Pennsylvania despatched the Eckley B. Coxe, jun., expedition, which devoted its attention to the southern half of Lower Nubia from Haifa to Korosko, while the govern- ment excavators explored from Korosko to Aswan. Thus in the five years 1907-1911 inclusive an immense mass of new material was acquired which throws a flood of light on the archaeology at once of Egypt and the Sudan. For it must be clearly appreciated that though all except the southern twenty miles of Lower Nubia has been attached for purposes of admini- stration of Egypt proper, yet this political boundary is purely artificial. The natural geographical and ethnical southern frontier of Egypt is the First Cataract; Egyptian scribes of the Old Empire recognized this truth no less clearly than Diocletian, and Juvenal anticipates the verdict of every modern observer when he describes the " porta Syenes " as the gate of Africa. It is the more necessary to emphasize this fact as the present article must unavoidably be concerned principally with the most northern regions of the country of the Blacks — for since the days of Lepsius there has been little new investigation south of Haifa. The hasty reconnaissances of Dr Wallis Budge, Professor A. H. Sayce, Mr Somers Clarke and Professor J. Garstang must be followed by more thorough and intensive study before it can be possible to write in more than very general terms of anything but the well-known monuments left by Egyptian kings whose history is already tolerably familiar from other sources. The inscriptions of these kings and their officials have been collected by Professor J. H. Breasted and some account of the temples and fortresses from Haifa to Khartum will be found in the following section, Ancient Monuments south of Haifa, while the history of the early and medieval Christian kingdoms is outlined in the articles Ethiopia and Dongola. The central and southern Sudan is therefore almost a virgin field for the archaeologist, but the exploration of Lower Nubia has made it possible to write a tentative preface to the new chapters still unrevealed. The Sudan was well named by the medieval Arab historians, for it is primarily and above all the country of the black races, of those Nilotic negroes whose birthplace may be supposed to have been near the Great Lakes. But upon this aboriginal stock were grafted in very early times fresh shoots of more vigorous and intellectual races coming probably from the East (cf. Africa: Ethnology). Lower Nubia was one of the crucibles in which several times was formed a mixed nation which defied or actually dominated Egypt. There is some scientific ground for dating the earliest example of such a fusion to the exact period of the Egyptian Old Empire. It is certain in any case that the process was constantly repeated at different dates and in different parts of the country from Aswan to Axum, and to the stimulation which resulted from it must be ascribed the principal political and intellectual movements of the Sudanese nations. Thus the Ethiopians who usurped the crown of the Pharaohs from 740-660 B.C. were of a mixed stock akin to the modern Barabra; the northern Nubians who successfully defied the Roman emperors were under the lordship of the Blemyes (Blemmyes), an East African tribe, and the empire of the Candace dynasty, no less than the Christian kingdoms which succeeded it, included many heterogeneous racial elements (see also Nubia). The real history of the Sudan will therefore be concerned with the evolution of what may be called East African or East Central African civilizations. Up to the present, however, this aspect has been obscured, for until 1907 scholars had little opportunity of studying ancient Ethiopia except as a colonial extension of Egypt. From the purely Egyptological standpoint there is much of value to be learned from the Sudan. The Egyptian penetration of the country began, according to the evidence of inscriptions, as early as the Old Empire. Under the XII th Dynasty colonies were planted and fortresses established down to the Batn-el-Hagar. During the XVIIIth Dynasty the political subjugation was com- pleted and the newly won territories were studded with cities and temples as far south as the Fourth Cataract. Some two hundred years later the priests of Amen (Ammon), flying from Thebes, founded a quasi-Egyptian capital at Napata. But after this date Egypt played no part in the evolution of Ethiopia. Politically moribund, it succumbed to the attacks of its virile southern neigh- bours, who, having emerged from foreign tutelage, developed according to the natural laws of their own genius and environ- ment. The history of Ethiopia therefore as an independent civilization may be said to date from the 8th century B.C., though future researches may be able to carry its infant origins to a remoter past. Of the thousand years or more of effective Egyptian occupa- tion many monuments exist, but on a broad general view it must be pronounced that they owe their fame more to the accident of survival than to any special intrinsic value. For excepting Philae, which belongs as much to Egypt as to Ethiopia, Abu Simbel is the only temple which can be ranked among first rate products of Egyptian genius. The other temples, attractive as they are, possess rather a local than a universal interest. Similarly while the exploration of the Egyptian colonies south of the First Cataract has added many details to our knowledge of political history, of local cults and provincial organization, yet with one exception it has not affected the known outlines of the history of civilization. This exception is the discovery made by Dr G. A. Reisner that the archaic culture first detected at Nagada and Abydos and then at many points as far north as Giza extended southwards into Nubia at least as far as Gerf Husein. This was wholly unexpected, and if, as seems probable, the evidence stands the test of criticism, it is a new historical fact of great importance. The government expedition found traces between Aswan and Korosko of all the principal periods from this early date down to the Christian era. The specimens ^obtained are kept in a separate room of the Cairo Museum, where they form a collection of great value. The work of the Pennsylvanian expedition, however, while adding only a few details to the archaeology of the Egyptian periods, has opened a new chapter in the history of the African races. No records indeed were discovered of the founders of the first great Ethiopian kingdom from Piankhi to Tirhakah, nor has any fresh light been thrown upon the relations which that remarkable king Ergamenes maintained with the Egyptian Ptolemies. But the exploration of sites in the southern half of Lower Nubia has revealed the existence of a wholly unsus- pected independent civilization which grew up during the first six -centuries after Christ. The history of the succeeding periods, moreover, has been partially recovered and the study H SUDAN of architecture enriched by the excavation of numerous churches dating from the time of Justinian, when Nubia was first Christian- ized, down to the late medieval period when Christianity was extirpated by Mahommedanism. The civilization of the first six centuries a.d. may be called " Romano-Nubian," a term which indicates its date and suggests something of its character. It is the product of a people living on the borders of the Roman Empire who inherited much of the Hellenistic tradition in minor arts but combined it with a remarkable power of independent origination. The sites on which it has been observed range from Dakka to Haifa, that is to say within the precise limits which late Latin and Greek writers assign to the Blemyes, and there is good reason t to identify the people that evolved it with this hitherto almost unknown barbarian nation. Apart from this, however, the greatest value of the new discoveries will consist in the fact that they may lay the foundations for a new documentary record of past ages. For the graves yielded not only new types of statues, bronzes, ivory carvings and painted pottery — all of the highest artistic value — but also a large number of stone stelae inscribed with funerary formulae in the Meroitic script. In the course of sixty years the small collection of Meroitic inscriptions made by Lepsius had not been enlarged and no progress had been made towards decipherment. But the cemeteries of Shablul and Karanog alone yielded 1 70 inscriptions on stone, besides some inscribed ostraka. This mass of material brought the task of decipherment within the range of possibility, and even without any bilingual record to assist him, Mr F. LI. Griffith rapidly succeeded in the first stages of translation. As further explorations bring more inscriptions to light the records of Ethiopia will gradually be placed on a firm documentary basis and the names and achievements of its greatest monarchs will take their place on the roll of history. Bibliogra phy. — C .R.Lepsius, Denkmaler aus A egypten tmd A ethio- pien (1849), Abh. vi., Briefe aus Aegypien, Aethiopien, &c. (1852), Nubische Grammatik (1880); H. Brugsch, Zeitschrift fur aegyptische Sprachc (1887); F. Cailliaud, Voyage & Miroe et au Fleuve Blanc (1826); E. A. Wallis Budge, The Egyptian Sud&n (1907); G. A. Reisner and C. M. Firth, Reports on The Archaeological Survey of Nubia; G. Elliott Smith and F. Wood Jones, ibid. vol. ii. "The Human Remains" (1910); J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt (1906-1907), A History of Egypt (1905), Temples of Lower \Nubia (1906), Monuments of Sudanese Nubia (1908); D. Randall-Maclver and C. L. Woolley, Reports of the Eckley B. Coxe, jun. expedition, viz. vol. i. Areika (1909), vols, iii., iv., v. Karanog (vol.- iii. "The Romano-Nubian Cemetery," text, vol. iv. ibid., plates, 1910), vol. vii. Behen; G. S. Mileham, Reports of the Eckley B. Coxe, jun., expedition, vol. ii. Churches in Lower Nubia (1910) ; F. LI. Griffith, Reports on the Eckley B. Coxe, jun., expedition, vol. vi. Meroitic Inscriptions from Shablul and Karanog, Meroitic Inscriptions, and 2 vols, on Tombs of- El Amarna; and the " Archaeological Survey " of the Egypt Exploration Fund. (D. R.-M.) Ancient Monuments south of Haifa. — Ruins of pyramids, temples, churches and other monuments are found along both banks of the Nile almost as far south as the Fourth Cataract, and again in the " Island of Meroe." In the following list the ruins are named as met with on the journey south from Wadi Haifa. Opposite that town on the east bank are the remains of Bohon, where was found the stele, now at Florence, com- memorating the conquest of the region by Senwosri (Usertesen) I. of Egypt (c. 2750 B.C.). Forty-three miles farther south are the ruins of the twin fortresses of Kumma and Semna. Here the Nile narrows and passes the Semna cataract, and graven on the rocks are ancient records of " high Nile." At Amara, some 80 m. above Semna, are the ruins of a temple with Meroitic hieroglyphics. At Sai Island, 130 m. above Haifa, are remains of a town arid of a Christian church. Thirteen miles south of Sai at Soleb are the ruins of a fine temple commemorating Amenophis (Amenhotep) III. (c. 1414 B.C.) to whose queen Taia was dedicated a temple at Sedeinga, a few miles to the north. At Sesebi, 40 m. higher up the Nile, is a temple of the heretic king Akhenaton re-worked by Seti I. (c. 1327 B.C.). Opposite Hannek at the Third Cataract on Tombos Island are extensive ancient granite quarries, in one of which lies an unfinished colossus. On the east side of the river near Kerma are the remains of an Egyptian city. Argo Island, a short distance higher up, abounds in ruins, and those at Old Dongola, 320 m. from Haifa, afford evidence of the town having been of consider- able size during the time of the Christian kingdom of Dongola. From Old Dongola to Merawi (a distance of 100 m. by the river) are numerous ruins of monasteries, churches and fortresses of the Christian era in Nubia — notably at Jebel Deka and Magal. In the immediate neighbourhood of Jebel Barkal (the " holy mountain " of the ancient Egyptians), a flat-topped hill which rises abruptly from the desert on the right bank of the Nile a mile or two above the existing village of Merawi (Merowe), are many pyramids and six temples, the pyramids having a height of from 35 to 60 ft. Pyramids are also found at Zuma and Kurru on the right bank, and at Tangassi on the left bank of the river, these places being about 20 m. below Merawi. That village is identified by some archaeologists with the ancient Napata, which is known to have been situated near the " holy mountain." On the left bank of the Nile opposite Merawi are the pyramids of Nuri, and a few miles distant in the Wadi Ghazal are the ruins of a great Christian monastery, where were found gravestones with inscriptions in Greek and Coptic. Ruins of various ages extend from Merawi to the Fourth Cataract. Leaving the Nile at this point and striking direct across the Bayuda Desert, the river is regained at a point above the Atbara confluence. Thirty miles north of the town of Shendi are the pyramids of Meroe (or Assur) in three distinct groups. From one of these pyramids was taken " the treasure of Queen Candace," now 1 in the Berlin Museum. Many of the pyramids have a small shrine on the eastern side inscribed with debased Egyptian or Meroite hieroglyphics. These pyramids are on the right bank of the Nile, that is in the " Island of Meroe." Portions (in- cluding a harbour) of the site of the city of MeroS, atBegerawia, not far from the pyramids named, were excavated in 1909-1910 (see MeroE). In this region, and distant from the river, are the remains of several cities, notably Naga, where are ruins of four temples, one in the Classic style. On the east bank of the Blue Nile, about 13 m. above Khartum at Soba, are ruins of a Christian basilica. Farther south still, at Ceteina on the White Nile (in 1904), and at Wad el-Hadad, some miles north of Sennar, on the Blue Nile (in 1908), Christian remains have been observed. Between the Nile at Wadi Haifa and the Red Sea are the remains of towns inhabited by the ancient miners who worked the district. The most striking of these towns is Deraheib (Castle Beautiful), so named from the picturesque situation of the castle, a large square building with pointed arches. The walls of some 500 houses still stand. For a popular account (with many illustrations) of these ruins see J. Ward, Our Sudan: Its Pyramids and Progress (London, 1905). (F. R. C.) History A. From the Earliest Time to the Egyptian Conquest. — The southern regions of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan are without recorded history until the era of the Egyptian conquest in the 19th century. In the northern regions, known as Ethiopia or Nubia, Egyptian influence made itself felt as early as the Old Empire. In process of time powerful states grew up with capitals at Napata and Meroe (see ante § Archaeology and Ethiopia and Egypt). The Nubians — that is the dwellers in the Nile valley between Egypt and Abyssinia — did not embrace Christianity until the 6th century, considerably later than their Abyssinian neighbours. The Arab invasion of North Africa in the 7th century, which turned Egypt into a Mahommedan country, had not the same effect in Nubia, the Moslems, though they frequently raided the country, being unable to hold it. On the ruins of the ancient Ethiopian states arose christian the Christian kingdoms of Dongola and Aloa, with Kingdoms ot capitals at Dongola and Soba (corresponding roughly " a ' to Napata and Meroe). These kingdoms continued to exist until the middle of the 14th century or later (see Dongola: Mudirio). Meanwhile Arabs of the Beni Omayya tribe, under pressure from the Beni Abbas, had begun to cross the Red Sea SUDAN 15 as early as the 8th century and to settle in the district around Sennar on the Blue Nile, a region which probably marked the southern limits of the kingdom of Aloa. The Omayya, who during the following centuries were reinforced by further immigrants from Arabia, intermarried with the negroid races, and gradually Arab influence became predominant and Islam the nominal faith of all the inhabitants of Sennar. In this way a barrier was erected between the Christians of Nubia and those of Abyssinia. By the 15th century the Arabized negro races of the Blue Nile had grown into a powerful nation known as the Funj (.]). Wad Helu and Sherif were stripped of their power and gradually all chiefs and amirs not of the Baggara tribe were got rid of except Osman Digna, whose sphere of operations was on the Red Sea coast. Abdullah's rule was a pure military despotism which brought the country to a state of almost complete agricultural and commercial ruin. He was also almost constantly in conflict either with the Shilluks, Nuers and other negro tribes of the south; with the peoples of Darfur, where at one time an anti-Mahdi gained a great following; with the Abyssinians; with the Kabbabish and other Arab tribes who 5 Sennar town held out until the 19th of August, while the Red Sea ports of Suakin and Massawa never fell into the hands of the Mahdists. The garrisons of some other towns were rescued by the Abyssinians. 6 This period in the history of the Sudan is known as the Mahdia. i8 SUDAN had never embraced Mahdism, or with the Italians, Egyptians and British. Notwithstanding all this opposition the khalifa found in his own tribesmen and in his black -troops devoted adherents and successfully maintained his position. The attempt to conquer Egypt ended in the total defeat of the dervish army at Toski (Aug. 3, 1889). The attempts to subdue the Equatorial Provinces were but partly successful. Emin Pasha, to whose relief H. M. Stanley had gone, evacuated Wadelai in April 1889. The greater part of the region and also most of the Bahr-el-Ghazal relapsed into a state of complete savagery. In the country under his dominion the khalifa's government was carried on after the manner of other Mahommedan states, but pilgrimages to the Mahdi's tomb at Omdurman were substi- tuted for pilgrimages to Mecca. The arsenal and dockyard and the printing-press at Khartum were kept busy (the workmen being Egyptians who had escaped massacre) . Otherwise Khartum was deserted, the khalifa making Omdurman his capital and compelling disaffected tribes to dwell in it so as to be under better control. While Omdurman grew to a huge size the population of the country generally dwindled enormously from constant warfare and the ravages of disease, small-pox being endemic. The Europeans in the country were kept prisoners at Omdurman. Besides ex-officials like Slatin and Lupton, they included several Roman Catholic priests and sisters, and numbers of Greek merchants established at Khartum. Although several were closely imprisoned, loaded with chains and repeatedly flogged, it is a noteworthy fact that none was put to death. From time to time a prisoner made his escape, and from the accounts of these ex-prisoners knowledge of the character of Dervish rule is derived in large measure. The fanaticism with which the Mahdi had inspired his followers remained almost unbroken to the end. The khalifa after the fatal day of Omdur- man fled to Kordofan where he was killed in battle in November 1899. In January 1900 Osman Digna, a wandering fugitive for months, was captured. In 1902 the last surviving dervish amir of importance surrendered to the sultan of Darfur. Mahdism as a vital force in the old Egyptian Sudan ceased, however, with the Anglo-Egyptian victory at Omdurman. 1 D. The Anglo-Egyptian Condominium. — Of the causes which led to the reconquest of the Sudan — the natural desire of the Egyptian government to recover lost territory, the equally natural desire in Great Britain to "avenge " the death of Gordon were among them — the most weighty was the necessity of securing for Egypt the control of the Upper Nile, Egypt being wholly dependent on the waters of the river for its prosperity. That control would have been lost had a European power other than Great Britain obtained possession of any part of the Nile valley; and at the time the Sudan was reconquered (1896-98) France was endeavouring to establish her authority on the river between Khartum and Gondokoro, as the Marchand expedition from the Congo to Fashoda demonstrated. The Nile constitutes, in the words of Lord Cromer, the true justification of the policy of re-occupation, and makes the Sudan a priceless possession for Egypt. 2 The Sudan having been reconquered by " the joint military and financial efforts" of Great Britain and Egypt, the British government claimed " by right of conquest " to share in the settlement of the administration and legislation of the country. To meet these claims an agreement (which has been aptly called the constitutional charter of the Sudan) between Great Britain and Egypt, was signed on the 19th of January 1899, establishing the joint sovereignty of the two states throughout 1 In the autumn of 1903 Mahommed-el-Amin, a native of Tunis, proclaimed himself the Mahdi and got together a following in Kor- dofan. He was captured by the governor of Kordofan and publicly executed at El Obeid. In April 1908 Abd-el-Kader, a Halowin Arab and ex-dervish, rebelled in the Blue Nile province, claiming to be the prophet Issa (Jesus). On the 29th of that month he murdered Mr C. C. Scott-Moncrieff, deputy inspector of the province, and the Egyptian mamur. The rising was promptly suppressed, Abd-el- Kader was captured and was hanged on the 17th of May. 8 Egypt, No. 1 (1905), P- no- the Sudan. 3 The reorganization of the country had already begun, supreme power being centred in one official termed the " governor-general of the Sudan." To this post was appointed Lord Kitchener, the sirdar (commander-in-chief) of the Egyptian army, under whom the Sudan had been reconquered. On Lord Kitchener going to South Africa at the close of 1899 he was succeeded as sirdar and governor-general by Major-General Sir F. R. Wingate, who had served with the Egyptian army since 1883. Under a just and firm administration, which from the first was essentially civil, though the principal officials were officers of the British army, the Sudan recovered in a surprising manner from the woes it suffered during the Mahdia. At the head of every mudiria (province) was placed a British official, though many of the subordinate posts were filled by Egyptians. An exception was made in the case of Darfur, which before the battle of Omdurman had thrown off the khalifa's rule and was again under a native sovereign. This potentate, the sultan Ali Dinar, was recognized by the Sudan government, on condition of the payment of an annual tribute. The first duty of the new administration, the restoration of public order, met with comparatively feeble opposition, though tribes such as the Nuba mountaineers, accustomed from time immemorial to raid their weaker neighbours, gave some trouble. In 1906, in 1908, and again in 1910 expeditions had to be sent against the Nubas. In the Bahr-el-Ghazal the Niam-Niams at first disputed the authority of the government, but Sultan Yambio, the recalcitrant chief, was mortally wounded in a fight in February 1905 and no further disturbance occurred. The delimitation (1903-1904) of the frontier between the Sudan and Abyssinia enabled order to be restored in a particularly lawless region, and slave-raiding on a large scale ended in that quarter with the capture and execution of a notorious offender in 1904. In Kordofan, Darfur and the Bahr-el-Ghazal the slave trade continued however for some years later. With good administration and public security the population increased steadily. The history of the country became one of peaceful progress marked by the growing content- ment of the people. The Sudan government devoted much attention to the revival of agriculture and commerce, to the creation of an educated class of natives, and to the establishment of an adequate judicial system. Their task, though one of immense difficulty, was however (in virtue of the agreement of the 19th of January 1899) free from all the international fetters that bound the administration of Egypt. It was moreover rendered easier by the decision to govern, as far as possible, in accordance with native law and custom, no attempt being made to Egyptianize or Anglicize the Sudanese. The results were eminently satis- factory. The Arab-speaking and Mahommedan population found their religion and language respected, and from the first showed a marked desire to profit by the new order. To the negroes of the southern Sudan, who were exceedingly suspicious of all strangers — whom hitherto they had known almost exclusively as slave-raiders — the very elements of civilization had, in most cases, to be taught. In these pagan regions the Sudan government encouraged the work of missionary societies, both Protestant and Roman Catholic, while discouraging propaganda work among the Moslems. In their general policy the Sudan government adopted a system of very light taxation; low taxation being in countries such as Egypt and the Sudan the keystone of the political arch. This policy was amply justified by results. In 1899 the revenue derived from the country was £Ei26,ooo, in 1909 it had risen to £E 1, 040,000, despite slight reductions in taxation, a proof of the growing prosperity of the land. This prosperity was brought about largely by improving the water-supply, and thus bringing more land under cultivation, by the creation of new industries, and by the improvement of means of communication. Ashorter route to the sea than that through Egypt being essential for the ' At first Suakin was excepted from some of the provisions of this agreement, but these exceptions were done away with by a supplementary agreement of the 10th of July 1899. The Re- generative Work of Great Britain. SUDATORIUM— SUDBURY J 9 commercial development of the country, a railway from the Nile near Berber to the Red Sea was built (1004-1006). This line shortened the distance from Khartum to the nearest seaport by nearly 1000 m., and by reducing the cost of carriage of mer- chandise enabled Sudan produce to find a profitable outlet in the markets of the world. At the same time river communi- cations were improved and the numbers of wells on caravan roads increased. Steps were furthermore taken by means of irrigation works to regulate the Nile floods, and those of the river Gash. To the promotion of education and sanitation, and in the administration of justice, the government devoted much energy with satisfactory results. Indeed the regenerative work of Great Britain in the Sudan has been fully as successful and even more remarkable than that of Great Britain in Egypt. A large part of this work has been accomplished by officers of the British army. Some of the most valuable suggestions about such matters as land settlement, agricultural loans, &c, emanated from officers who a short time before were performing purely military duties. Nevertheless civil servants gradually replaced military officers in the work of administration, army officers being liable to be suddenly removed for war or other service, often at times when the presence of officials possessed of local experience was most important. In efficiency and devotion to duty the Egyptian officials under the new regime also earned high praise. The relations of the Sudan government with its Italian, Abyssinian and French neighbours was marked by cordiality, Bahr-ei- but with the Congo Free State difficulties arose over Ohszaiaad claims made by that state to the Bahr-el-Ghazal Lado. ( see Africa, § 5). Congo State troops were in 1904 stationed in Sudanese territory. The difficulty was adjusted in 1906 when the Congo State abandoned all claims to the Ghazal province (whence its troops were withdrawn during 1907), and it was agreed to transfer the Lado enclave (q.v.) to the Sudan six months after the death of the king of the Belgians. Under the terms of this agreement the Lado enclave was incorporated in the Sudan in 1910. As to the general state of the country Sir Eldon Gorst after a tour of inspection declared in his report for 1909, " I do not suppose that there is any part of the world in which the mass of the population have fewer unsatisfied wants." Authorities. — Summaries of ancient and medieval history will be found in E A. Wallis Budge, The Egyptian Sudan (2 vols., 1907) and The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1095), edited by Count Gleichen. The story of the Egyptian conquest and events up to 1850 are summarized in H. Deherain's he Soudan igyptien sous Mehemet Ali (Paris, 1898). For the middle period of Egyptian rule see Sir Samuel Baker's Ismailia (1874) ; Col. Gordon in Central Africa, edited by G. Birkbeck Hill (4th ed., 1885), being extracts from Gordon's diary, 1 874-1 880; Seven Years in the Soudan, by Romolo Gessi Pasha (1892); and Der Sudan unter dgyptischer Herrschaft, by R. Buchta (Leipzig, 1888). The rise of Mahdism and events down to 1900 are set forth in (Sir) F. R. Wingate's Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan (1891). This book contains translations of letters and proclamations of the Mahdi and Khalifa. For this period the Journals of Major General Gordon at Khartoum (1885); F. Power's Letters from Khartoum during the Siege (1885), and the following four books written by prisoners of the dervishes are specially valuable : Slatin Pasha, Fire and Sword in the Sudan (1896); Father J. Ohrwalder (from the MSS. of, by F. R. Wingate), Ten Years' Captivity in the Mahdi' s Camp {1882-1892) (1892); Father Paolo Rosignoli, / miei dodici anni di prigionia in mezzo ai dervice del Sudan (Mondovi, 1898); C. Neufeldt, A Prisoner of the Khaleefa (1899). See also G. Dujarric, L'lttat mahdiste du Soudan (Paris, 1901). For the " Gordon Relief " campaign, &c, see the British official History of the Sudan Campaign (1890); for the campaigns of 1896-98, H. S. L. Alford and W. D. Sword, The Egyptian Soudan, its Loss and Recovery (1898); G. W. Steevens, With Kitchener to Khartum (Edinburgh, 1898) ; Winston S. Churchill, The River War (revised ed., 1902). The story of the Fashoda incident is told mainly in British and French official despatches ; consult also for this period G. Hanotaux, Fachoda (Paris, 1910); A. Lebon, La Politique de la France 1896-1898 (Paris, 1901); and R. de Caix, Fachoda, la France et I'Angleterre (Paris, 1899). Lord Cromer's Modern Egypt (1908) covers Sudanese history for the years 1881-1907. Consult also the authorities cited under Egy pt) : Modern History, and H . Pensa, L'Egypte et le Soudan egyptien (Paris, 1895). Unless otherwise stated the place of publication is London. (F. R. C.) SUDATORIUM, the term in architecture for the vaulted sweating-room {sudor, sweat) of the Roman thermae, referred to in Vitruvius (v. 2), and there called the concamerata sudatio. In order to obtain the great heat required, the whole wall was lined with vertical terra-cotta flue pipes of rectangular section, placed side by side, through which the hot air and the smoke from the suspensura passed to an exit in the roof. SUDBURY, SIMON OF (d. 138 1), archbishop of Canterbury, was born at Sudbury in Suffolk, studied at the university of Paris, and became one of the chaplains of Pope Innocent VI., who sent him, in 1356, on a mission to Edward III. of England. In October 1361 the pope appointed him bishop of London, and he was soon serving the king as an ambassador and in other ways. In 1375 he succeeded William Wittlesey as archbishop of Canter- bury, and during the rest of his life was a partisan of John of Gaunt. In July 1377 he crowned Richard II., and in 1378 John Wycliffe appeared before him at Lambeth, but he only took proceedings against the reformer under great pressure. In January 1380 Sudbury became chancellor of England, and the revolting peasants regarded him as one of the principal authors of their woes. Having released John Ball from his prison at Maidstone, the Kentish insurgents attacked and damaged the archbishop's property at Canterbury and Lambeth; then, rushing into the Tower of London, they seized the archbishop himself. Sudbury was dragged to Tower Hill and, on the 14th of June 1381, was beheaded. His body was afterwards buried in Canterbury Cathedral. Sudbury rebuilt part of the church of St Gregory at Sudbury, and with his brother, John of Chertsey, he founded a college in this town; he also did some building at Canterbury. His father was Nigel Theobald, and he is some- times called Simon Theobald or Tybald. See W. F. Hook, Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury. SUDBURY, a post town and outport of Nipissing district, Ontario, Canada, on the Canadian Pacific railway, 443 m. W. of Montreal. Pop. (1901), 2027. It has manufactures of explosives, lumber and planing mills, and is the largest nickel mining centre in the world. Gold, copper and other minerals are also raised. Practically all the ore is shipped to the United States. SUDBURY, a market town and municipal borough of England, chiefly in the Sudbury parliamentary division of Suffolk, but partly in the Saffron Walden division of Essex. Pop. (1901), 7109. It lies on the river Stour (which is navigable up to the town), 59 m. N.E. from London by the Great Eastern railway. All Saints' parish church, consisting of chancel, nave, aisles and tower, is chiefly Perpendicular — the chancel being Decorated. It possesses a fine oaken pulpit of 1490. The church was restored in 1882. St Peter's is Perpendicular, with a finely carved nave roof. St Gregory's, once collegiate, is Perpendicular. It has a rich spire-shaped font-cover of wood, gilt and painted. The grammar school was founded by William Wood in 1491. There are some old half-timbered houses, including one very fine example. The principal modern buildings are the town-hall, Victoria hall and St Leonard's hospital. Coco-nut matting is an important manufacture; silk manufactures were transferred from London during the 19th century, and horsehair weaving was established at the same time. There are also flour-mills, malt-kilns, lime- works, and brick and tile yards. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. The borough lies wholly in the administrative county of West Suffolk. Area, 1925 acres. The ancient Saxon borough of Sudbury (Sudbyrig, Sudberi, Suthberia) was the centre of the southern portion of the East Anglian kingdom. Before the Conquest it was a borough owned by the mother of Earl Morcar, from whom it was taken by William I., who held it in 1086. It was alienated from the Crown to an ancestor of Gilbert de Clare, 9th earl of Gloucester. In 1 27 1 the earl gave the burgesses their first charter confirming to them all their ancient liberties and customs. The earl of March granted a charter to the mayor and bailiffs of Sudbury in 1397. In 1440 and again in 1445 the men and tenants of Sudbury obtained a royal confirmation of their privileges. They were incorporated in 1553 under the name of the mayor, aldermen and burgesses of Sudbury, and charters were granted to the town by Elizabeth, Charles II. and James II. Its constitution was re- formed by the act of 1835. It was represented in parliament 1 by two burgesses from 1558 till its disfranchisement in 20 SUDD— SUEBI 1844.. The lord of the borough had a market and fair in the 13th century, .and three fairs in March, July and December were held in 1792. Markets still exist on Thursdays and Saturdays. Weavers were introduced by Edward III., and the town became the chief centre of the Suffolk cloth industry after the Restoration. SUDD, or Sadd (an Arabic word meaning "to dam"), the name given to the vegetable obstruction which has at various dates closed the waters of the Upper Nile to navigation. It is composed of masses of papyrus and um suf ( Vossia procera) and the earth adhering to the roots of those reeds. Mingled with the papyrus and um suf (Arabic for " mother-of-wool" ) are small swimming plants and the light brittle ambach. The papyrus and um suf grow abundantly along the Nile banks and the con- nected lagoons between 7 N. and 13 N. Loosened by storms these reeds drift until they lodge on some obstruction and form a dam across the channel, converted by fresh arrivals into blocks that are sometimes 25 m. in length, and extend 15 to 20 ft. below the surface. These masses of decayed vegetation and earth, resembling peat in consistency, are so much compressed by the force of the current that men can walk over them every- where. In parts elephants could cross them without danger. The pressure of the water at length causes the formation of a side channel or the bursting of the sudd. (For sudd cutting see Nile.) In the Bahr-el-Ghazal the sudd, being chiefly composed of small swimming plants, is of less formidable nature than that of the main stream. Consult, O. Deuerling, Die Pflanzenbarren der afrikanischen Fliisse (Munich, 1909), a valuable monograph; and the bibliography under Nile, especially Captain H. G. Lyons, The Physiography of the Nile and its Basin (Cairo, 1906). SUDERMANN, HERMANN (1857- ), German dramatist and novelist, was born on the 30th of September 1857 at Matzi- ken in East Prussia, close to the Russian frontier, of a Mennonite family long settled near Elbing. His father owned a small brewery in the village of Heydekrug, and Sudermann received his early education at the Realschule in Elbing, but, his parents having been reduced in circumstances, he was apprenticed to a chemist at the age of fourteen. He was, however, enabled to enter the Realgymnasium in Tilsit, and to study philosophy and history at Konigsberg University. In order to complete his studies Sudermann went to Berlin, where he was tutor in several families. He next became a journalist, was from 1881-1882 editor of the Deutsches Reichsblatt, and then devoted himself to novel-writing. The novels and romances Im Zwielickt (1886), Frau Sorge (1887), Geschwister (1888) and Der Katzensteg (1890) failed to bring the young author as much recognition as his first drama Die Ehre (1889), which inaugurated a new period in the history of the German stage. Of his other dramas the most successful were Sodoms Ende (1891), Heimat (1893), Die Schmetter- lingsschlacht (1894), Das Gliick im Winkel (1895), Morituri (1896), Johannes (1898), Die drei Reiherfedern (1899), Johannesfeuer (1900), Es lebe das Leben ! (1902), Der Sturmgeselle Sokrates (1903) and Stein unter Steinen (1905). Sudermann is also the author of a powerful social novel, Es war (1904), which, like Frau Sorge and Der Katzensteg, has been translated into English. See W. Kawerau, Hermann Sudermann (1897); H. Landsberg, Hermann Sudermann (1902); H. Jung, Hermann Sudermann (1902); H. Schoen, Hermann Sudermann, po'ete dramatique et romancier (1905); and I. Axelrod, Hermann Sudermann (1907). SUE, EUGENE [Joseph Marte] (1804-1857), French novelist, was born in Paris on the 20th of January 1804. He was the son of a distinguished surgeon in Napoleon's army, and is said to have had the empress Josephine for godmother. Sue himself acted as surgeon both in the Spanish campaign undertaken by France in 1823 and at the battle of Navarino (1828). In 1829 his father's death put him in possession of a considerable fortune, and he settled in Paris. His naval experiences supplied much of the materials of his first novels, Kernock le pirate (1830), Atar-Gull (1831), La Salamandre (2 vols., 1832), La Coucaratcha (4 vols., 1 83 2-1 834), and others, which were composed at the height of the romantic movement of 1830. In the quasi-historical style he wrote Jean Cavalier, ouLes Fanatiquesdes Cevennes (4 vols., 1840) and Latrtaumont (2 vols., 1837). He was strongly affected by the Socialist ideas of the day, and these prompted his most famous works: Les Mysteres de Paris (10 vols., 1842-1843) and Le Juif errant (10 vols., 1844-1845), which were among the most popular specimens of the roman-feuilleton. He followed these up with some singular and not very edifying books: Les Sept pechis capitaux (16 vols., 1847-1849), which contained stories to illustrate each sin, Les Mystbres du peuple (1849-1856), which was suppressed by the censor in 1857, and several others, all on a very large scale, though the number of volumes gives an exaggerated idea of their length. Some of his books, among them the Juif errant and the Mysteres de Paris, were dramatized by himself, usually in collab- oration with others. His period of greatest success and popu- larity coincided with that of Alexandre Dumas, with whom some writers have put him on an equality. Sue has neither Dumas's wide range of subject, nor, above all, his faculty of conducting the story by means of lively dialogue; he has, however, a com- mand of terror which Dumas seldom or never attained. From the literary point of view his style is bad, and his construction prolix. After the revolution of 1848 he sat for Paris (the Seine) in the Assembly from April 1850, and was exiled in consequence of his protest against the coup d'itat of the 2nd of December 1851. This exile stimulated his literary production, but the works of his last days are on the whole much inferior to those of his middle period. Sue died at Annecy (Savoy) on the 3rd of August 1857. SUEBI, or Suevi, a collective term applied to a number of peoples in central Germany, the chief of whom appear to have been the Marcomanni, Quadi, Hermunduri, Semnones and Langobardi. From the earliest times these tribes inhabited the basin of the Elbe. The Langobardic territories seem to have lain about the lower reaches of the river, while the Semnones lay south. The Marcomanni occupied the basin of the Saale, but under their king, Maroboduus, they moved into Bohemia during the early part of Augustus's reign, while the Quadi, who are first mentioned in the time of Tiberius, lay farther east towards the sources of the Elbe. The former home of the Marcomanni was occupied by the Hermunduri a few years before the Christian era. Some kind of political union seems to have existed among all these tribes. The Semnones and Langobardi were at one time subject to the dominion of the Marcomannic king Marobo- duus, and at a much later period we hear of Langobardic troops taking part against the Romans in the Marcomannic War. The Semnones claimed to be the chief of the Suebic peoples, and Tacitus describes a great religious festival held in their tribal sanctuary, at which legations were present from all the other tribes. Tacitus uses the name Suebi in a far wider sense than that denned above. With him it includes not only the tribes of the basin of the Elbe, but also all the tribes north and east of that river, including even the Swedes (Suiones). This usage, which is not found in other ancient writers, is probably due to a confusion of the Suebi with the agglomeration of peoples under their supremacy, which as we know from Strabo extended to some at least of the eastern tribes. In early Latin writers the term Suebi is occasionally applied to any of the above tribes. From the 2nd to the 4th century, however, it is seldom used except with reference to events in the neighbourhood of the Pannonian frontier, and here probably means the Quadi. From the middle of the 4th century onward it appears most frequently in the regions south of the Main, and soon the names Alamanni and Suabi are used synonymously. The Alamanni (q.v.) seem to have been, in part at least, the descendants of the ancient Hermunduri, but it is likely that they had been joined by one or more other Suebic peoples, from the Danubian region, or more probably from the middle Elbe, the land of the ancient Semnones. It is probably from the Alamannic region that those Suebi came who joined the Vandals in their invasion of Gaul, and eventually founded a kingdom in north-west Spain. After the 1st century the term Suebi seems never to be applied to the Langobardi and seldom to the Baiouarii (Bavarians), the descendants of the ancient Marcomanni. But besides the Alamannic Suebi we hear SUECA— SUETONIUS TRANQUILLUS 21 also of a people called Suebi, who shortly after the middle of the 6th century settled north of the Unstrut. There is evidence also for a people called Suebi in the district above the mouth of the Scheldt. It is likely that both these settle- ments were colonies from the Suebi of whom we hear in the Anglo-Saxon poem Widsith as neighbours of the Angli, and whose name may possibly be preserved in Schwabstedt on the Treene. The question has recently been raised whether these Suebi should be identified with the people whom the Romans called Heruli. After the 7th century the name Suebi is practically only applied to the Alamannic Suebi (Schwaben), with whom it remains a territorial designation in Wurttemberg and Bavaria until the present day. See Caesa% De hello gallico, i. 37, 51 sqq., iv. I sqq., vi. 9 sqq. ; Strabo, p. 290 seq. ; Tacitus, Germania, 38 sqq. ; K. Zeuss, Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstamme, pp. 55 sqq., 315 sqq.; C. Bremer in Paul's Grundriss (2nd ed.), iii. 915-950; H.M.Chadwick, Originof the English Nation, 216 sqq. (Cambridge, 1907). (F. G. M. B.) SUECA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Valencia, near the left bank of the river Jucar, and on the Silla-Cullera railway. Pop. (1900), 14,435. Sueca is separated from the Mediterranean Sea (7 m. east) by the Sierra de Cullera. It is a modern town, although many of the houses have the flat roofs, view-turrets (miradores) and horseshoe arches characteristic of Moorish architecture. There are a few handsome public buildings, such as the hospital, town-hall and theatre. Sueca has a thriving trade in grain and fruit from the Jucar valley, which is irrigated by waterways created by the Moors. SUESS, EDUARD (1831- ), Austrian geologist, was born in London on the 20th of August 1831, his father, a native of Saxony, having settled there as a German merchant. Three years later the family removed to Prague, and in 1845 to Vienna. Eduard Suess was educated for commercial life, but early dis- played a bent for geology. At the age of nineteen he published a short sketch of the geology of Carlsbad and its mineral waters; and in 1852 he was appointed an assistant in the Imperial museum of Vienna. There he studied the fossil Brachiopoda, and manifested such ability that in 1857 he was appointed professor of geology at the university. In 1862 he relinquished his museum duties, and gave his whole time to special research and teaching, retaining his professorship until 1901. Questions of ancient physical geography, such as the former connexion between northern Africa and Europe, occupied his attention; and in 1862 he published an essay on the soils and water-supply of Vienna. He was elected a member of the town council, and in 1869 to a seat in the Diet of Lower Austria, which he retained until 1896. Meanwhile he continued his geological and palaeontological work dealing with the Tertiary strata of the Vienna Basin, also turning his attention to the problems connected with the evolu- tion of the earth's surface-features, on which he wrote a monu- mental treatise. This, the great task of his life, embodied the results of personal research and of a comprehensive study of the work of the leading geologists of all countries; it is entitled Antlitz der Erde, of which the first volume was published in 1885, the second in 1888, and pt. i. of the third volume in 1901. The work has been translated into French, and (in part) into English. Suess was elected a corresponding member of the Institute of France in 1889, and a foreign member of the Royal Society in 1894. In 1896 the Geological Society of London awarded to him the Wollaston medal. Memoir (with portrait), by Sir A. Geikie, Nature (May 4, 1905). SUESSULA, an ancient town of Campania, Italy, in the plain 15 m. W. of the modern Cancello, 9 m. S.E. of the ancient Capua. Its earlier history is obscure. In 338 B.C. it obtained Latin rights from Rome. In the Samnite and Hannibalic wars it was strategically important as commanding the entrance to the Caudine pass. Sulla seems to have founded a colony here. It is frequently named as an episcopal see up till the 10th century A.D., and was for a time the chief town of a small Lombard principality. It was several times plundered by the Saracens, and at last abandoned by the inhabitants in consequence of the malaria. The ruins of the town lie within the Bosco d'Acerra, a picturesque forest. They were more conspicuous in the 18th century than they now are, but traces of the theatre may still be seen, and debris of other buildings. Oscan tombs were excavated there between 1878 and 1886, and important finds of vases, bronzes, &c, have been made. The dead were generally buried within slabs of tufa arranged to form a kind of sarcophagus (see F. von Duhn in Romische Mitteilungen, 1887, p. 235 sqq.). Suessula lay on the line of the Via Popillia, which was here intersected by a road which ran from Neapolis through Acerrae, and on to the Via Appia, which it reached just west of the Caudine pass. On the hills above Cancello to the east of Suessula was situated the fortified camp of M. Claudius Marcellus, which covered Nola and served as a post of observation against Hannibal in Capua. (T. As.) SUET (M. Eng. sewet, a diminutive of O. Fr. seu, suis, mod. suif, lard, from Lat. sebum, or sevum, tallow, grease, probably allied to sapo, soap), the hard flaked white fat lying round the kidneys of the sheep or ox; that of the pig forms lard. Beef- suet is especially used in cookery. SUETONIUS TRANQUILLUS, GAIUS, Roman historian, lived during the end of the 1st and the first half of the 2nd century a.d. He was the contemporary of Tacitus and the younger Pliny, and his literary work seems to have been chiefly done in the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian (a.d. 98-^38). His father was military tribune in the XHIth legion, and he himself began life as a teacher of rhetoric and an advocate. To us he is known as the biographer of the twelve Caesars (including Julius) down to Domitian. The lives are valuable as covering a good deal of ground where we are without the guidance of Tacitus. As Suetonius was the emperor Hadrian's private secretary (magister epistolarum), he must have had access to many important documents in the Imperial archives, e.g. the decrees and transactions of the senate. In addition to written and official documents, he picked up in society a mass of information and anecdotes, which, though of doubtful authenticity, need not be regarded as mere inventions of his own. They give a very good idea of the kind of court gossip prevalent in Rome at the time. He was a friend and cor- respondent of the younger Pliny, who when appointed governor of Bithynia took Suetonius with him. Pliny also recommended him to the favourable notice of the emperor Trajan, " as a most upright, honourable, and learned man, whom persons often remember in their wills because of his merits," and he begs that he may be made legally capable of inheriting these bequests, for which under a special enactment Suetonius was, as a childless married man, disqualified. Hadrian's biographer, Aelius Spartianus, tells us that Suetonius was deprived of his private secretaryship because he had not been sufficiently observant of court etiquette towards the emperor's wife during Hadrian's absence in Britain. The Lives of the Caesars has always been a popular work. It is rather a chronicle than a history. It gives no picture of the society of the time, no hints as to the general character and tenden- cies of the period. It is the emperor who is always before us, and yet the portrait is drawn without any real historical judgment or insight. It is the personal anecdotes, several of which are very amusing, that give the lives their chief interest; but the author panders rather too much to a taste for scandal and gossip. None the less he throws considerable light on an important period, and next to Tacitus and Dio Cassius is the chief (sometimes the only) authority. The language is clear and simple. The work was continued by Marius Maximus (3rd century), who wrote a history of the emperors from Nerva to Elagabalus (now lost). Suetonius was a voluminous writer. Of his De viris illustrious, the lives of Terence and Horace, fragments of those of Lucan and the elder Pliny and the greater part of the chapter on grammarians and rhetoricians, are extant. Other works by him (now lost) were: Praia (= Aci/iffices ■= patch- work), in ten books, a kind of encyclopaedia ; the Roman Year, Roman Institutions and Customs, Children's Games among the Greeks, Roman Public Spectacles, On the Kings, On Cicero's Republic. Editio princeps, 1470; editions by great scholars: Erasmus, Isaac Casaubon, J. G. Graevius, P. Burmann; the best complete annotated edition is still that of C. G. Baumgarten-Crusius (1816); recent editions by H. T. Peck (New York, 1889); Leo Preud'homme (1906); M. Ihm (1907). Editions of separate lives: Augustus, by E. S. Shuckburgh (with useful introduction, 1896); Claudius, by H. Smilda (1896), with notes and parallel passages from other authorities. The best editions of the text are by C. L. Roth (1886), and A. Reiffer- scheid (not including the Lives, i860). On the De viris illustribus, see 22 SUEZ— SUEZ CANAL G. Kortge in Dissert, philolog. halenses (1900), vol. xtv. ; and, above all, A. Mace, Essai sur Suilone (1900), with an exhaustive bibliography. There are English translations by Philemon Holland (reprinted in the Tudor Translations, 1900), and by Thomson and Forester (in Bohn's Classical Library). SUEZ, a port of Egypt on the Red Sea and southern terminus of the Suez Canal (q.v.), situated at the head of the Gulf of Suez in 29°s8'37'N.,32°3i'i8"'E. It is 80 m. E. by S". of Cairo in a direct line but 148 m. by rail, and is built on the north-west point of the gulf. Pop. (1907), 18,347. From the heights to the north, where there is a khedival chalet, there is a superb view to the south with the Jebel Ataka on the right, Mt Sinai on the left and the waters of the gulf between. Suez is supplied with water by the fresh-water canal, which starts from the Nile at Cairo and is terminated at Suez by a lock which, north of the town, joins it to the gulf. Before the opening of this canal in 1863 water had to be brought from " the Wells of Moses," a small oasis 3 m. distant on the east side of the gulf. About 2 m. south of the town are the harbours and quays constructed on the western side of the Suez Canal at the point where the canal enters the gulf. The harbours are connected with the town by an embankment and railway built across a shallow, dry at low water save for a narrow channel. On one of the quays is a statue to Thomas Waghorn, the organizer of the " overland route " to India. The ground on which the port is built has all been reclaimed from the sea. The accommodation provided includes a dry dock 410 ft. long, 100 ft. broad and nearly 36 ft. deep. There are separate basins for warships and merchant ships, and in the roadstead at the mouth of the canal is ample room for shipping. Suez is a quarantine station for pilgrims from Mecca; otherwise its importance is due almost entirely to the ships using the canal. In the 7th century a town called Kolzum stood, on a site adjacent to that of Suez, at the southern end of the canal which then joined the Red Sea to the Nile. Kolzum retained some of the trade of Egypt with Arabia and countries farther east long after the canal was closed, but by the 13th century it was in ruins and Suez itself, which had supplanted it, was also, according to an Arab historian, in decay. On the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in the 16th century Suez became a naval as well as a trad- ing station, and here fleets were equipped which for a time dis- puted the mastery of the Indian Ocean with the Portuguese. According to Niebuhr, in the 18th century a fleet of nearly twenty vessels sailed yearly from Suez to Jidda, the port of Mecca and the place of correspondence with India. When the French occupied Suez in 1 798 it was a place of little importance, and the conflicts which followed its occupation in 1800 by an English fleet laid the greater part in ruins. The overland mail route from England to India by way of Suez was opened in 1 83 7 . The regular Peninsular & Oriental steamer service began a few years later, and in 1857 a railway was opened from Cairo through the desert. This line is now abandoned in favour of the railway which follows the canal from Suez to Ismailia, and then ascends the Wadi Tumilat to Zagazig, whence branches diverge to Cairo and Alexandria. SUEZ CANAL. Before the construction of the Suez Canal there was no direct water communication between the Mediter- ranean and the Red Sea, but at various eras such communication existed by way of the Nile. Trade between Egypt and countries to the east was originally overland to ports south of the Gulf of Suez; the proximity of the roadstead at the head of that gulf to Memphis and the Delta nevertheless marked it as the natural outlet for the Red Sea commerce of Lower Egypt. The fertile Wadi Tumilat extending east of the Nile valley almost to the head of the gulf (which in ancient times reached north to the Bitter Lakes) afforded an easy road between the Nile and the Red Sea, while the digging of a navigable canal connecting the river and the gulf gave the northern route advantages not possessed by the desert routes farther south, e.g. that between Coptos and Kosseir. Aristotle, Strabo and Pliny attribute to the legendary Sesostris (q.v.) the distinction of being the first of the pharaohs to build a canal joining the Nile and the Red Sea. From an inscription on the temple at Karnak it would appear that such a canal existed in the time of Seti I. (1380 B.C.). This canal diverged from the Nile near Bubastis and was carried along the Wadi Tumilat to Heroopolis, near Pithom, a port at the head of the Heroopolite Gulf (the Bitter Lakes of to-day) . The channel of this canal is still traceable in parts of the Wadi Tumilat, and its direction was frequently followed by the engineers of the fresh- water canal. Seti's canal appears to have fallen into decay or to have been too small for later requirements, for Pharaoh Necho (609 B.C.) began to build another canal; possibly his chief object was to deepen the channel between the Heroopolite Gulf and the Red Sea, then probably silting up. Necho's canal was not completed — according to Herodotus 120,000 men perished in the undertaking. Darius (520 B.C.) continued the work of Necho, rendering navigable the channel of the Heroopolite Gulf, which had become blocked. Up to this time there appears to have been no connexion between the waters of the Red Sea and those of the Bubastis-Heroopolis canal ; vessels coming from the Mediterranean ascended the Pelusiac arm of the Nile to Bubastis and then sailed along the canal to Heroopolis, where their merchandise had to be transferred to the Red Sea ships. Ptolemy Philadelphus (285 B.C.) connected the canal with the waters of the sea, and at the spot where the junction was effected he built the town of Arsinoe. The dwindling of the Pelusiac branch of the Nile rendered this means of communication impossible by the time of Cleopatra (31 B.C.). Trajan (a.d. 98) is said to have repaired the canal, and, as the Pelusiac branch was no longer available for navigation, to have built a new canal between Bubastis and Babylon (Old Cairo), this new canal being known traditionally as Amnis Trajanus or Amnis Augustus. According to H. R. Hall, however, " It is very doubtful if any work of this kind, beyond repairs, was undertaken in the times of the Romans; and it is more probable that the new canal was the work of 'Amr " (the Arab conqueror of Egypt in the 7th century). The canal was certainly in use in the early years of the Moslem rule in Egypt; it is said to have been closed c. a.d. 770 by order of Abu Ja'far (Mansur), the second Abbasid caliph and founder of Bagdad, who wished to prevent supplies from reaching his enemies in Arabia by this means. 'Amr's canal (of which the Khalig which passed through Cairo and was closed in 1897 is said to have formed part) had its ter- minus on the Red Sea south of the Heroopolite Gulf near the present town of Suez. In this neighbourhood was the ancient city of Clysma, to which in 'Amr's time succeeded Kolzum, perhaps an Arabic corruption of Clysma. The exact situation of Clysma is unknown, but Kolzum occupied the site of Suez, the hills north of which are still called Kolzum. After the closing of the canal in the 8th century it does not appear for certain that it was ever restored, although it is asserted that in the year 1000 Sultan Hakim rendered it navigable. If so it must speedily have become choked up again. Parts of the canal continued to be filled during the Nile inundations until Mehemet Ali (a.d. 181 i) ordered it to be closed ; the closing, however, was not completely effected, for in 1861 the eld canal from Bubastis still flowed as far as Kassassin. This part of the canal, after over 2500 years of service, was utilized by the French engineers in building the fresh-water canal from Cairo to Suez in 1861-1863. This canal follows the lines of that of 'Amr (or Trajan). Maritime Canal Projects. — Apart from water communication between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea by way of the Nile, the project of direct communication by a canal piercing the isthmus of Suez was entertained as early as the 8th century a.d. by H&run al-Rashid, who is said to have abandoned the scheme, being persuaded that it would be dangerous to lay open the coast of Arabia to the Byzantine navy. After the discovery of the Cape route to India at the close of the 15th century, the Venetians, who had for centuries held the greater part of the trade of the East with Europe via Egypt and the Red Sea, began negotiations with the Egyptians for a canal across the isthmus, but the con- quest of Egypt by the Turks put an end to these designs. In 1671 Leibnitz in his proposals to LouisXIV. of France regarding an expedition to Egypt recommended the making of a maritime canal, and the Sheikh al-Balad Ali Bey (c. 1770) wished to carry out the project. Bonaparte when in Egypt in 1798 ordered the SUEZ CANAL 23 isthmus to be surveyed as a preliminary to the digging of a canal across it, and the engineer he employed, J. M. Lepere, came to the conclusion that there was a difference in level of 29 ft. between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. This view was combated at the time by Laplace and Fourier on general grounds, and was finally disproved in 1 846-1 847 as the result of surveys made at the instance of the SocietS d'Etudes pour le Canal de Suez. This society was organized in 1846 by Prosper Enfantin, the Saint Simonist, who thirteen years before had visited Egypt in con- nexion with a scheme for making a canal across the isthmus of Suez, which, like the canal across the isthmus of Panama, was part of the Saint Simonist programme for the regeneration of the world. The expert commission appointed by this society reported by a majority in favour of Paulin Talabot's plan, according to which the canal would have run from Suez to Alexandria by way of Cairo. injure British maritime supremacy, and that the proposal was merely a device for French interference in the East. Although the sultan's confirmation of the concession was not actually granted till 1866, de Lesseps in 1858 opened the sub- scription lists for his company, the capital of which was 200 million francs in 400,000 shares of 500 francs each. In less than a month 314,494 shares were applied for; of these over 200,000 were subscribed in France and over 96,000 were taken by the Ottoman Empire. From other countries the subscriptions were trifling, and England, Austria and Russia, as well as the United States of America, held entirely aloof. The residue of 85,506 shares 1 was taken over by the viceroy. On the 25th of April 1859 the work of construction was formally begun, the first spadeful of sand being turned near the site of Port Said, but progress was not very rapid. By the beginning of 1862 the fresh- water canal had reached Lake Timsa, and towards the end of the (Topography only from L'Isthme et le Canal de Suez, by G. Charles-Roux, by permission of Messrs Hachette & Co.) BmcryWjJkef ac For some years after this report no progress was made; indeed, the society was in a state of suspended animation when in 1854 Ferdinand de Lesseps came to the front as the chief exponent of the idea. He had been associated with the Saint Simonists and for many years had been keenly interested in the question. His opportunity came in 1854 when, on the death of Abbas Pasha, his friend Said Pasha became viceroy of Egypt. From Said on the 30th of November 1854 he obtained a concession authorizing' him to constitute the Compagnie Universelle du Canal Maritime de Suez, which should construct a ship canal through the isthmus, and soon afterwards in concert with two French engineers, Linant Bey and Mougel Bey, he decided that the canal should run in a direct line from Suez to the Gulf of Pelusium, passing through the depressions that are now Lake Timsa and the Bitter Lakes, and skirting the eastern edge of Lake Menzala. In the following year an international commission appointed by the viceroy approved this plan with slight modifications, the chief being that the channel was taken through Lake Menzala instead of along its edge, and the northern termination of the canal moved some 175 m. westward where deep water was found closer to the shore. This plan, according to which there were to be no locks, was the one ultimately carried out, and it was embodied in a second and amplified concession, dated the 5th of January 1856, which laid on the company the obligation of constructing, in addition to the mrritime canal, a fresh -water canal from the Nile near Cairo to Lake TimSa, with branches running parallel to the maritime canal, one to Suez and the other to Pelusium. The concession was to last for 09 years from the date of the open- ing of the canal between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean, after which, in default of other arrangements, the canal passes into the hands of the Egyptian government. The confirmation of the sultan of Turkey being required, de Lesseps went to Con- stantinople to secure it, but found himself baffled by British diplomacy; and later in London he was informed by LoTd Palmerston that in the opinion of the British government the <;anal was a physical impossibility, that if it were made it would same year a narrow channel had been formed between that lake and the Mediterranean. In 1863 the fresh- water canal was continued to Suez. So far the work had been performed by native labour; the concession of 1856 contained a provision that at least four-fifths of the labourers should be Egyptians, and later in the same year Said Pasha undertook to supply labourers as required by the engineers of the canal company, which was to house and feed them and pay them at stipulated rates. Although the wages and the terms of service were better than the men obtained normally, this system of forced labour was strongly disapproved of in England, and the khedive Ismail who succeeded Said on the latter's death in 1863 also considered it as being contrary to the interests of his country. Hence in July the Egyptian foreign minister, Nubar Pasha, was sent to Constantinople with the pro- posal that the number of labourers furnished to the company should be reduced, and that it should be made to hand back to the Egyptian government the lands that had been granted it by Said in 1856. These propositions were approved by the sultan, and the company was informed that if they were not accepted the works would be stopped by force. Naturally the company objected, and in the end the various matters in dispute were referred to the arbitration of the emperor Napoleon III. By his award, made in July 1864, the company was allowed 38 million francs as an indemnity for the abolition of the corvie, 16 million francs in respect of its retrocessions of that portion of the fresh- water canal that lay between Wadi, Lake Timsa and Suez (the remainder had already been handed back by agreement), and 30 million francs in respect of the lands which had been granted it by Said. The company was allowed to retain a certain amount of land along the canals, which was necessary for purposes of con- struction, erection of workshops, &c, and it was put under the obligation of finishing the fresh-water canal between Wadi and 'These formed part of the 176,602 shares which were bought for the sum of £3,976,582 from the khedive by England in 1875 at the instance of Lord Beaconsfield (q.v.). 24 SUEZ CANAL Suez to such dimensions that the depth of water in it would be 2 1 metres at high Nile and at least i metre at low Nile. The supply of Port Said with water it was allowed to manage by any means it chose; in the first instance it laid a double line of iron piping from Timsa, and it was not till 1885 that the original plan of supplying the town by a branch of the fresh-water canal was carried out. The indemnity, amounting to a total of 84 million francs, was to be paid in instalments spread over 1 5 years. The abolition of forced labour was probably the salvation of the enterprise, for it meant the introduction of mechanical appli- ances and of modern engineering methods. The work was divided into four contracts. The first was for the supply of 250,000 cubic metres of concrete blocks for the jetties of Port Said; the second, for the first 60 kilometres of the channel from Port Said, involved the removal of 22 million cubic metres of sand or mud; the third was for the next length of 13 kilometres, which included the cutting through the high ground at EI Gisr; and the fourth and largest was for the portion between Lake Timsa and the Red Sea. The contractors for this last section were Paul Borel and Alex- andre Levalley, who ultimately became responsible also for the second or 60 kilometres contract. For the most part the material was soft and therefore readily removed. At some points, how- ever, as at Shaluf and Serapeum, rock was encountered. Much of the channel was formed by means of dredgers. Through Lake Menzala, for instance, native workmen made a shallow channel by scooping out the soil with their hands and throwing it out on each side to form the banks; dredgers were then floated in and completed the excavation to the required depth, the soil being delivered on the other side of the banks through long spouts. At Serapeum, a preliminary shallow channel having been dug out, water was admitted from the fresh-water canal, the level of which is higher than that of the ship canal, and the work was completed by dredgers from a level of about 20 ft. above the sea. At El Gisr, where the soil, composed largely of loose sand, rises 60 ft. above the sea, the contractor, Alphonse Couvreux, employed an excavator of his own design, which was practically a bucket- dredger working in the dry. A long arm projecting downwards at an angle from an engine on the bank carried a number of buckets, mounted on a continuous chain, which, scooped up the stuff at the bottom and discharged it into wagons at the top. In 1865 de Lesseps, to show the progress that had been made, entertained over 100 delegates from chambers of commerce in different parts of the world, and conducted them over the works. In the following year the company, being in need of money, realized 10 million francs by selling to the Egyptian government the estate of El Wadi, which it had purchased from Said, and it also succeeded in arranging that the money due to it under the award of 1864 should be paid off by 1869 instead of 1879. Its financial resources still being insufficient, it obtained in 1867 permission to invite a loan of 100 million francs; but though the issue was offered at a heavy discount it was only fully taken up after the attractions of a lottery scheme had been added to it. Two years later the company got 30 million francs from the Egyptian government in consideration of abandoning certain special rights and privileges that still belonged to it and of hand- ing over various hospitals, workshops, buildings, &c, which it had established on the isthmus. The government liquidated this debt, not by a money payment, but by agreeing to forego for 25 years the interest on the 176,602 shares it held in the company, which was thus enabled to raise a loan to the amount of the debt. Altogether, up to the end of the year (1869) in which the canal was sufficiently advanced to be opened for traffic, the accounts of the company showed a total expenditure of 432,807,882 francs, though the International Technical Commission in 1856 had estimated the cost at only 200 millions for a canal of larger dimensions. The formal opening of the canal was celebrated in November 1869. On the 16th there was an inaugural ceremony at Port Said, and next day 68 vessels of various nationalities, headed by the " Aigle " with the empress Eugenie on board, began the passage, reaching Ismailia (Lake Timsa) the same day. On the 19th they continued their journey to the Bitter Lakes, and on the 20th they arrived at Suez. Immediately afterwards regular traffic began. In 1870 the canal was used by nearly 500 vessels, but the receipts for the first two years of working were considerably less than the expenses. The company attempted to issue a loan of 20 million francs in 1871, but the response was small, and it was only saved from bankruptcy by a rapid increase in its revenues. The total length of the navigation from Port Said to Suez is 100 m. The canal was originally constructed to have a depth of 8 metres with a bottom width of 22 metres, but it soon became evident that its dimensions must be enlarged. Certain improvements in the channel were started in 1876, but a more extensive plan was adopted in 1885 as the result of the inquiries of an international commission which recommended that the depth should be increased first to 8| metres and finally to 9 metres, and that the width should be made on the straight parts a minimum of 65 metres between Port Said and the Bitter Lakes, and of 75 metres between the Bitter Lakes and Suez, increasing on curves to 80 metres. To pay for these works a loan of 100 million francs was issued. These widenings greatly improved the facilities for ships travelling in opposite directions to pass each other. In the early days of the canal, except in the Bitter Lakes, vessels could pass each other only at a few crossing places or gares, which had a collective length of less than a mile; but owing to the widenings that have been carried out, passing is now possible at any point over the greater part of the canal, one vessel stopping while the other proceeds on her way. From March 1887 navigation by night was permitted to ships which were provided with electric search-lights, and now the great majority avail themselves of this facility. By these measures the average time of transit, which was about 36 hours in 1886, has been reduced by half. The maximum speed permitted in the canal itself is 10 kilometres an hour. The dues which the canal company was authorized to charge by its concession of 1856 were 10 francs a ton. In the first instance they were levied on the tonnage as shown by the papers on board each vessel, but from March 1872 they were charged on the gross register tonnage, computed according to the method of the British Merchant Shipping Act 1854. The result was that the shipowners had to pay more, and, objections being raised, the whole question 0/ the method of charge was submitted to an international conference which met at Con- stantinople in 1873. It fixed the dues at 10 francs per net register ton (English reckoning) with a surtax of 4 francs per ton, which, however, was to be reduced to 3 francs in the case of ships having on board papers showing their net tonnage calculated in the required manner. It also decided that the surtax should be gradually diminished as the traffic increased, until in the year after the net tonnage passing through the canal reached 2,600,000 tons it should be abolished. De Lesseps protested against this arrangement, but on the sultan threaten- ing to enforce it, if necessary by armed intervention, he gave in and brought the new tariff into operation in April 1874. By an arrangement with the canal company, signed in 1876, the British government, which in 1875 by the purchase of the khedive's shares, had become a large shareholder, undertook negotiations to secure that the successive reductions of the tariff should take effect on fixed dates, the sixth and last instalment of 50 centimes being removed in January 1884, after which the maximum rate was to be 10 francs per official net ton. But before this happened British shipowners had started a vigorous agitation against the rates, which they alleged to be excessive, and had even threatened to construct a second canal. In consequence a meeting was arranged between them and repre- sentatives of the canal company in London in November 1883, and it was agreed that in January 1885 the dues should be reduced to 9 J francs a ton, that subsequently they should be lowered on a sliding scale as the dividend increased, and that after the dividend reached 25% all the surplus profits should be applied in reducing the rates until they were lowered to 5 francs a ton. Under this arrangement they were fixed at 7I francs SUFFOLK, EARLS AND DUKES OF— SUFFOLK, ist DUKE OF 25 per ton at the beginning of 1906. For ships in ballast reduced rates are in force. For passengers the dues remain at 10 francs a head, the figure at which they were originally fixed. By the concessions of 1854 and 1856 the dues were to be the same for all nations, preferential treatment of any kind being forbidden, and the canal and its ports were to be open " comme passages neutres " to every merchant ship without distinction of nationality. The question of its formal neutralization by international agreement was raised in an acute form during the Egyptian crisis of 1881-82, and in August of the latter year a few weeks before the battle of Tel-el-Kebir, navigation upon it was suspended for four days at the instance of Sir Garnet Wolseley, who was in command of the British forces. At the international conference which was then sitting at Constanti- nople various proposals were put forward to ensure the use of the canal to all nations, and ultimately at Constantinople on the 29th of October 1888 Great Britain, Germany, Austria, Spain, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Russia and Turkey signed the Suez Canal Convention, the purpose of which was to ensure that the canal should " always be free and open, in time of war as in time of peace, to every vessel of commerce or of war, without distinction of flag. " Great Britain, however, in signing, formulated a reservation that the provisions of the convention should only apply so far as they were compatible with the actual situation, namely the " present transitory and excep- tional condition of Egypt, " and so far as they would not fetter the liberty of action of the British government during its occupa- tion of that country. But by the Anglo-French agreement of the 8th of April 1904 Great Britain declared her adherence to the stipulations of the convention, and agreed to their being put in force, except as regards a provision by which the agents in Egypt of the signatory Powers of the convention were to meet once a year to take note of the due execution of the treaty. It was by virtue of this new agreement that the Russian war- ships proceeding to the East in 1904-1905 were enabled to use the canal, although passage was prohibited to Spanish war- ships in 1898 during the war between Spain and the United States. L'Isthme el le Canal de Suez, historique, itat actuel, by J. Charles- Roux (2 vols., Paris 1901), contains reprints of various official documents relating to the canal, with plates, maps and a biblio- graphy extending to 1499 entries. SUFFOLK, EARLS AND DUKES OF. These English titles were borne in turn by the families of Ufford, Pole, Brandon, Grey and Howard. A certain holder of land in Suffolk, named John de Peyton, had a younger son Robert, who acquired the lordship of Ufford in that county and was known as Robert de Ufford. He held an important place in the government of Ireland under Edward I. and died in 1298; his son Robert (1279-1316) was created Baron Ufford by a writ of summons to parliament in 1309, and increased his possessions by marriage with Cicely, daughter and heiress of Robert de Valoines. This Robert had several sons, one of whom was Sir Ralph de Ufford (d. 1346), justiciar of Ireland, who married Maud, widow of William de Burgh, earl of Ulster, and daughter of Henry Plantagenet, earl of Lancaster. Robert's eldest surviving son, another Robert (c. 1298-1369), was an associate of the young king Edward III., and was one of the nobles who arrested Roger Mortimer in 1330. In 1337 he was created earl of Suffolk. The earl was employed by Edward III. on high military and diplomatic duties and was present at the battles of Crecy and Poitiers. His son William, the 2nd earl (c. 1330-1382), held important appointments under Edward III. and Richard II. He played a leading part in the suppression of the Peasants' Revolt in 138 1, but in the same year he supported the popular party in parliament in the attack on the misgovernment of Richard II. Although twice married he left no sons, and his earldom became extinct, his extensive estates reverting to the Crown. In 1385 the earldom of Suffolk and the lands of the Uffords were granted by Richard II. to his friend Michael Pole (c. 1330- 1389), a son of Sir William atte Pole, a baron of the exchequer and a merchant (see Pole Family). After an active public life as the trusted adviser of Richard II. Pole was dismissed from his office of chancellor, was impeached and sentenced to death, but escaped to France, where he died. His titles and estates were forfeited, but in 1399 the earldom of Suffolk and most of the estates were restored to his son Michael (c. 1361- 1415). Michael, the 3rd earl (1394-1415), was killed at the battle of Agincourt, and the earldom passed to his brother William (1396- 1450), who was created earl of Pembroke in 1443, marquess of Suffolk in 1444, and duke of Suffolk in 1448 (see Suffolk, William de la Pole, Duke of). The duke's son, John, 2nd duke of Suffolk (1442-1491), married Elizabeth, daughter of Richard, duke of York, and sister of King Edward IV., by whom he had six sons. The eldest, John (c. 1464-1487), was created earl of Lincoln, and was named heir to the throne by Richard III. He was killed fighting against Henry VII. at the battle of Stoke, and was attainted. His brother Edmund (c. 1472-1513) should have succeeded his father in the duke- dom in 149 1, but he surrendered this to Henry VII. in return for some of the estates forfeited by the earl of Lincoln, and was known simply as earl of Suffolk. Having incurred the displeasure of the king, he left his own country in 1501 and sought help for an invasion of England. Consequently he was attainted in 1504 and was handed over in 1506 to Henry. He was kept in prison until 15 13, when he was beheaded by Henry VIII. His brother Richard now called himself duke of Suffolk, and put forward a claim to the English crown. Known as the " white rose," he lived abroad until 1525, when he was killed at the battle of Pavia. In 1 5 14 the title of duke of Suffolk was granted by Henry VIII. to his friend, Charles Brandon (see Suffolk, Charles Brandon, Duke of) and it was borne successively by his two sons, Henry and Charles, becoming extinct when Charles died in July 1 551. In the same year it was revived in favour of Henry Grey, marquess of Dorset, who had married Frances, a daughter of the first Brandon duke. Grey, who became mar- quess of Dorset in 1530, was a prominent member of the reform- ing party during the reign of Edward VI. He took part in the attempt to make his daughter, Jane, queen of England in 1553, but as he quickly made his peace with Mary he was not seriously punished. In 1554, however, he took part in the rising headed by Sir Thomas Wyat; he was captured, tried for treason and beheaded in February 1554, when the dukedom again became extinct. In 1603 Thomas Howard, Lord Howard de Walden, son of Thomas Howard, 4th duke of Norfolk, was created earl of Suffolk, and the earldom has been held by his descendants to the present day (see Suffolk, Thomas Howard, ist earl of). SUFFOLK, CHARLES BRANDON, ist Duke of (c. 1484- I 545)> was the son of William Brandon, standard-bearer ot Henry VII., who was slain by Richard III. in person on Bos- worth Field. Charles Brandon was brought up at the court of Henry VII. He is described by Dugdale as "a person comely of stature, high of courage and conformity of disposition to King Henry VIII.," with whom he became a great favourite. He held a succession of offices in the royal household, becoming master of the horse in 1513, and received many valuable grants of land. On the 15th of May 1513 he was created Viscount Lisle, having entered into a marriage contract with his ward, Elizabeth Grey, Viscountess Lisle in her own right, who, how- ever, refused to marry him when she came of age. He dis- tinguished himself at the sieges of Terouenne and Tournai in the French campaign of 1513. One of the agents of Margaret of Savoy, governor of the Netherlands, writing from before Terouenne, reminds her that Lord Lisle is a second king and advises her to write him a kind letter. At this time Henry VIII. was secretly urging Margaret to marry Brandon, whom he created duke of Suffolk, though he was careful to disclaim (March 4, 1514) any complicity in the project to her father, the emperor Maximilian I. The regent herself left a curious account of the proceedings (Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. vol. i. 4850-4851). Brandon took part in the jousts which celebrated the marriage of Mary Tudor, Henry's sister, with Louis XII. 26 SUFFOLK, ist EARL OF of France. He was accredited to negotiate various matters with Louis, and on his death was sent to congratulate the new king Francis I. An affection between Suffolk and the dowager queen Mary had subsisted before her marriage, and Francis roundly charged him with an intention to marry her. Francis, perhaps in the hope of Queen Claude's death, had himself been one of her suitors in the first week of her widowhood, and Mary asserted that she had given him her confidence to avoid his importunities. Francis and Henry both professed a friendly attitude towards the marriage of the lovers, but Suffolk had many political enemies, and Mary feared that she might again be sacrificed to political considerations. The truth was that Henry was anxious to obtain from Francis the gold plate and jewels which had been given or promised to the queen by Louis in addition to the reimbursement of the expenses of her marriage with the king; and he practically made his acquiescence in Suffolk's suit dependent on his obtaining them. The pair cut short the difficulties by a private marriage, which Suffolk an- nounced to Wolsey, who had been their fast friend, on the 5th of March. Suffolk was only saved from Henry's anger by Wolsey, and the pair eventually agreed to pay to Henry £24,000 in yearly instalments of £1000, and the whole of Mary's dowry from Louis of £200,000, together with her plate and jewels. They were openly married at Greenwich on the 13th of May. The duke had been twice married already, to Margaret Mortimer and to Anne Browne, to whom he had been betrothed before his marriage with Margaret Mortimer. Anne Browne died in 1511, but Margaret Mortimer, from whom he had obtained a divorce on the ground of consanguinity, was still living. He secured in 1528 a bull from Pope Clement II. assuring the legitimacy of his marriage with Mary Tudor, and of the daughters of Anne Browne, one of whom, Anne, was sent to the court of Margaret of Savoy. After his marriage with Mary, Suffolk lived for some years in retirement, but he was present at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520, and in 1523 he was sent to Calais to command the English troops there. He invaded France in company with Count de Buren, who was at the head of the Flemish troops, and laid waste the north of France, but disbanded his troops at the approach of winter. Suffolk was entirely in favour of Henry's divorce from Catherine of Aragon, and in spite of his obligations to Wolsey he did not scruple to attack him when his fall was imminent. The cardinal, who was acquainted with Suffolk's private history, reminded him of his ingratitude: " If I, simple cardinal, had not been, you should have had at this present no head upon your shoulders wherein you should have had a tongue to make any such report in despite of us. " After Wolsey's disgrace Suffolk's influence increased daily. He was sent with the duke of Norfolk to demand the great seal from Wolsey; the same noblemen conveyed the news of Anne Boleyn's marriage to Queen Catherine, and Suffolk acted as high steward at the new queen's coronation. He was one of the commissioners appointed by Henry to dismiss Catherine's household, a task which he found distasteful. He supported Henry's ecclesiastical policy, receiving a large share of the plunder after the suppression of the monasteries. In 1544 he was for the second time in command of an English army for the invasion of France. He died at Guildford on the 24th of August in the following year. After the death of Mary Tudor on the 24th of June 1533 he had married in 1534 his ward Catherine (1520-1580), Baroness Willoughby de Eresby in her own right, then a girl of fifteen. His daughters by his marriage with Anne Browne were Anne, who married firstly Edward Grey, Lord Powys, and, after the dissolution of this union. Randal Harworth; and Mary (b. 1510), who married Thomas Stanley, Lord Monteagle. By Mary Tudor he had Henry earl of Lincoln (1516-1634); Frances, who married Henry Grey, marquess of Dorset, and became the mother of Lady Jane Grey; and Eleanor, who married Henry Clifford, second earl of Cumberland. By Katherine Willoughby he had two sons who showed great promise, Henry (1535—1551) and Charles (c. 1537-1551), dukes of Suffolk. They died of the sweating sickness within an hour of one another. Their tutor, Sir Thomas Wilson, compiled a memoir of them, Vita et obitus duorum fratrum Sujfolcensium (1551). There is abundant material for the history of Suffolk's career in the Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. (ed. Brewer in the Rolls Series). See also Dugdale, Baronage of England (vol. ii. 1676); and G. E. C, Complete Peerage. An account of his matrimonial adventures is in the historical appendix to a novel by E. S. Holt entitled The Harvest of Yesterday. SUFFOLK, THOMAS HOWARD, ist Earl of (1561-1626), second son of Thomas Howard, 4th duke of Norfolk, was born on the 24th of August 1561. He behaved very gallantly during the attack on the Spanish armada and afterwards took part in other naval expeditions, becoming an admiral in 1599. Created Baron Howard de Walden in 1597 and earl of Suffolk in July 1603, he was lord chamberlain of the royal household from 1603 to 1614 and lprd high treasurer from 1614 to 1618, when he was deprived of his office on a charge of misappropriating money. He was tried in the Star-chamber and was sentenced to pay a heavy fine. Suffolk's second wife was Catherine (d. 1633), widow of the Hon. Richard Rich, a woman whose avarice was partly responsible for her husband's downfall. She shared his trial and was certainly guilty of taking bribes from Spain. One of his three daughters was the notorious Frances Howard, who, after obtaining a divorce from her first husband, Robert Devereux, earl of Essex, married Robert Carr, earl of Somerset, and instigated the poisoning of Sir Thomas Overbury. The earl died on the 28th of May 1626. He built a magnificent residence at Audley End, Essex, which is said to have cost £200,000. One of Suffolk's seven sons was Sir Robert Howard (1 585-1653), who inherited Clun Castle, Shropshire, on the death of his brother, Sir Charles Howard, in 1622. He was twice imprisoned on account of his illicit relations with Frances, Viscountess Purbeck (d. 1645), a daughter of Sir Edward Coke, and after sitting in six parliaments was expelled from the House of Commons for executing the king's commission of array in 1642. He died on the 22nd of April 1653, Another of Suffolk's sons, Edward (d. 1675), was created baron Howard of Escrick in 1628. He was one of the twelve peers who signed the petition on grievances, which he presented to Charles I. at York in 1640, and after the abolition of the House of Lords in 1649 he sat in the House of Commons as member for Carlisle, being also a member of the council of state. In 1651 he was expelled from parliament for taking bribes and he died on the 24th of April 1675. . His second son, William, 3rd lord Howard of Escrick {c. 1626-1694), was a member of the republican party during the Commonwealth; later he associated himself with the opponents of the arbitrary rule of Charles II., but turning informer he was partly respon- sible for the conviction of Lord William Russell and of Algernon Sydney in 1683. On the death of William's son, Charles, the 4th lord, in 1715 the barony of Howard of Escrick became extinct. Suffolk's eldest son, Theophilus, 2nd earl of Suffolk (1584- 1640), was captain of the band of gentlemen pensioners under James I. and Charles I., and succeeded to the earldom in May 1626, obtaining about the same time some of the numerous offices which had been held by his father, including the lord- lieutenancy of the counties of Suffolk, Cambridge and Dorset. He died on the 3rd of June 1640, when his eldest son James (1619-1689) became 3rd earl. This nobleman, who acted as earl marshal of England at the coronation of Charles II., died in January 1689 when his barony of Howard de Walden fell into abeyance between his two daughters. 1 His earldom, however, passed to his brother George (c. 1625-1691), who 1 Having thus fallen into abeyance in 1689 the barony of Howard de Walden was revived in 1784 in favour of John Griffin Griffin, afterwards Lord Braybrooke, on whose death in May 1797 it fell again into abeyance. In 1799 the bishop of Derry, Frederick Augustus Hervey, 4th earl of Bristol, a descendant of the 3rd earl of Suffolk, became the sole heir to the barony. On Bristol's death in July 1803 it passed to Charles Augustus Ellis (1799-1868), a grandson of the bishop's elder son, John Augustus, Lord Hervey (175 7- 1 796), who had predeceased his father. It was thus separated from the marquessate of Bristol, which paseed to the bishop's only surviving son, and it has since been held by the family 01 Ellis. SUFFOLK, DUKE OF 27 became 4th earl of Suffolk. George's nephew, Henry, the 6th earl (c. 1670-1718), who was president of the board of trade from 1715 to 1718, left an only son, Charles' William (1693- 1722), who was succeeded in turn by his two uncles, the younger of them, Charles (1675-1733) becoming 9th earl on the death of his brother Edward in June 1731. This earl was the husband of Henrietta countess of Suffolk (c. 1681-1767), the mistress of George II., who was a daughter of Sir Henry Hobart, bart., of Blickling, Norfolk. When still the Hon. Charles Howard, he and his wife made the acquaintance of the future king in Hanover; after the accession of George I. to the English throne in 1 7 14 both husband and wife obtained posts in the household of the prince of Wales, who, when he became king as George II., publicly acknowledged Mrs Howard as his mistress. She was formally separated from her husband before 1731 when she became countess of Suffolk. The earl died on the 28th of Sep- tember 1733, but the countess, having retired from court and married the Hon. George Berkeley (d. 1746), lived until the 26th of July 1767. Among Lady Suffolk's friends wete the poets Pope and Gay and Charles Mordaunt (earl of Peterborough) . A collection of Letters to and from Henrietta Countess of Suffolk, and her Second. Husband, the Hon. George Berkeley, was edited by J. W. Croker (1824). The 9th earl's only son Henry, the 10th earl (1706-1745), died without sons in April 1745, when his estate at Audley End passed to the descendants of the 3rd earl, being inherited in 1762 by John Griffin Griffin (1719-1797), afterwards Lord Howard de Walden and Lord Braybrooke. As owners of this estate the earls of Suffolk of the Howard line had hitherto been hereditary visitors of Magdalene College, Cambridge, but this office now passed away from them. The earldom of Suffolk was inherited by Henry Bowes Howard, 4th earl of Berkshire (1696-17 5 7), who was the great-grandson of Thomas Howard (c. 1 590-1669), the second son of the 1st earl of Suffolk, Thomas having been created earl of Berkshire in 1626. Since 1745 the two earldoms have been united, Henry Molyneux Paget Howard (b. 1877) succeeding his father, Henry Charles (1833-1898), as 19th earl of Suffolk and 12th earl of Berkshire in 1898. SUFFOLK, WILLIAM DE LA POLE, Duke of (1396-1450), second son of Michael de la Pole, second earl of Suffolk, was born on the 16th of October 1396. His father died at the siege of Harfleur, and his elder brother was killed at Agincourt on the 25th of October 141 5. Suffolk served in all the later French campaigns of the reign of Henry V., and in spite of his youth held high command on the marches of Normandy in 1421-22. In 1423 he joined the earl of Salisbury in Champagne, and shared his victory at Crevant. He fought under John, duke of Bedford, at Verneuil on the 17th of August 1424, and throughout the next four years was Salisbury's chief lieutenant in the direction of the war. When Salisbury was killed before Orleans on the 3rd of November 1428, Suffolk succeeded to the command. After the siege was raised, Suffolk was defeated and taken prisoner by Jeanne d'Arc at Jargeau on the 12th of June 1429. He was soon ransomed, and during the next two years was again in command on the Norman frontier. He returned to England in November 143 1, after over fourteen years' continuous service in the field. Suffolk had already been employed on diplomatic missions by John of Bedford, and from this time forward he had an important share in the work of administration. He attached himself naturally to Cardinal Beaufort, and even thus early seems to have been striving for a general peace. But public opinion in England was not yet ripe, and the unsuccessful con- ference at Arras, with the consequent defection of Burgundy, strengthened the war party. Nevertheless the cardinal's authority remained supreme in the council, and Suffolk, as his chief supporter, gained increasing influence. The question of Henry VI. 's marriage brought him to the front. Humphrey of Gloucester favoured an Armagnac alliance. Suffolk brought about the match with Margaret of Anjou. Report already represented Suffolk as too friendly with French leaders like Charles of Orleans, and it was with reluctance that he undertook the responsibility of an embassy to France. However, when he returned to England in June 1444, after negotiating the marriage and a two years' truce, he received a triumphant reception. He was made a marquess, and in the autumn sent again to France to bring Margaret home. The French contrived to find occasion for extorting a promise to surrender all the English possessions in Anjou and Maine, a concession that was to prove fatal to Suffolk and his policy. Still for the time his success was com- plete, and his position as the personal friend of the young king and queen seemed secure. Humphrey of Gloucester died in February 1447, within a few days of his arrest, and six weeks later Cardinal Beaufort died also. Suffolk was left without an obvious rival, but his difficulties were great. Rumour, though without sufficient reason, made him responsible for Humphrey's death, while the peace and its consequent concessions rendered him unpopular. So also did the supersession of Richard of York by Edmund Beaufort, duke of Somerset, in the French com- mand. Suffolk's promotion to a. dukedom in July 1448, marked the height of his power. The difficulties of his position may have led him to give some countenance to a treacherous attack on Fougeres during the time of truce (March 1449). The renewal of the war and the loss of all Normandy were its direct conse- quences.. When parliament met in November 1449, the oppo- sition showed its strength by forcing the treasurer, Adam Molyneux, to resign. Molyneux was murdered by the sailors at Portsmouth on the 9th of January 1450. Suffolk, realizing that an attack on himself was inevitable, boldly challenged his enemies in parliament, appealing to the long and honourable record of his public services. On the 7th of February and again on the 9th of March the Commons presented articles of accusa- tion dealing chiefly with alleged maladministration and the ill success of the French policy; there was a charge of aiming at the throne by the betrothal of his son to the little Margaret Beaufort, but no suggestion of guilt concerning the death of Gloucester. The articles were in great part baseless, if not absurd. Suffolk, in his defence on the 13th of March, denied them as false, untrue and too horrible to speak more of. Ultimately, as a sort of compromise, the king sentenced him to banishment for five years. Suffolk left England on the 1st of May, He was inter- cepted in the Channel by the ship " Nicholas of the Tower, " and next morning was beheaded in a little boat alongside. The " Nicholas " was a royal ship, and Suffolk's murder was probably instigated by his political opponents. Popular opinion at the time judged Suffolk as a traitor. This view was accepted by Yorkist chroniclers and Tudor historians, who had no reason to speak well of a Pole. Later legend made him the paramour of Margaret of Anjou. Though utterly baseless, the story gained currency in the Mirrour for Magis- trates, and was adopted in Shakespeare's 2 Henry VI. (act in. sc. ii.) . Suffolk's best defence is contained in the touching letter of farewell to his son, written on the eve of his departure (Paston Letters, i. 142), and in his noble speeches before parlia- ment (Rolls of Parliament, v. 176, 182). Of the former Lingard said well that it is " difficult to believe that the writer could have been either a false subject or a bad man. " The policy of peace which Suffolk pursued was just and wise; he foresaw from the first the personal risk to which its advocacy exposed him. This alone should acquit him of any base motive ; his conduct was " throughout open and straightforward " (Stubbs). What- ever his defects as a statesman, he was a gallant soldier, a man of culture and a loyal servant. Suffolk's wife, Alice, was widow of Thomas, earl of Salisbury, and granddaughter of Geoffrey Chaucer. By her he had an only son John, second duke of Suffolk. Bibliography. — Suffolk is necessarily prominent in all contem- porary authorities. The most important are J. Stevenson's Wars of the English in France, Thomas Beckington's Correspondence, T. Wright's Political Poems and Songs, ii. 222-234 (for the popular view) — these three are in the Rolls Series; and the Paston Letters. Of French writers E. de Monstrelet and Jehan de Waurin are most useful for his military career, T. Basin and Matthieu d'Escouchy for his fall (all these are published by the Soci6t£ de l'Histoire de 28 SUFFOLK France). For modern accounts see especially W. Stubbs, Constitu- tional History (favourable), The Political History of England (1906), vol. iv., by C. Oman (unfavourable), and G. du Fresne de Beau- court's Histoire de Charles VII. See also H. A. Napier's Historical Notices of Swincombe and Ewelme (1858). (C. L. K.) SUFFOLK, an eastern county of England, bounded N. by Norfolk, E. by the North Sea, S. by Essex and W. by Cambridge- shire. The area is 1488-6 sq. m. The surface is as a whole but slightly undulating. In the extreme north-west near Mildenhall, a small area of the Fen district is included. This is bordered by a low range of chalk hills extending from Haverhill northwards along the western boundary, and thence by Bury St Edmunds to Thetford. The coast-line has a length of about 62 m., and is comparatively regular, the bays being generally shallow and the headlands rounded and only slightly prominent. The estuaries of the Deben, Orwell and Stour, however, are between 10 and 12 m. in length. The shore is generally low and marshy, with occasional clay and sand cliffs. It includes, in the declivity on which Old Lowestoft stands, the most easterly point of English land. Like the Norfolk coast, this shore has suffered greatly from incursions of the sea, the demolition of the ancient port of Dun- wich (q.v.) forming the most noteworthy example. The prin- cipal seaside resorts are Lowestoft, Southwold, Aldeburgh and Felixstowe. The rivers flowing northward are the Lark, in the north-west corner, which passes in a north-westerly direction to the Great Ouse in Norfolk; the Little Ouse or Brandon, also a tributary of the Great Ouse, flowing by Thetford and Brandon and forming part of the northern boundary of the county; and the Waveney, which rises in Norfolk and forms the northern boundary of Suffolk from Palgrave till it falls into the mouth of the Yare at Yarmouth. The Waveney is navigable from Bungay, and by means of Oulton Broad also communicates with the sea at Lowestoft. The rivers flowing in a south-easterly direction to the North Sea are the Blyth; the Aide or Ore, which has a course for nearly 10 m. parallel to the seashore; the Deben, from Debenham, flowing past Woodbridge, up to which it is navigable; the Orwell or Gipping, which becomes navigable at Stowmarket, whence it flows past Needham Market and Ipswich; and the Stour, which forms nearly the whole southern boundary of the county, receiving the Brett, which flows past Lavenham and Hadleigh; it is navigable from Sudbury. At the union of its estuary with that of the Orwell is the important port of Harwich (in Essex). The county has no valuable minerals. Flints are worked, as they have been from pre-historic times; a considerable quantity of clay is raised and lime and whiting are obtained in various districts. Geology. — The principal geological formations are the Chalk and the Tertiary deposits. The former occupies the surface, except where covered by superficial drift, in the central and north-west portions of the county, and it extends beneath the Tertiaries in the south-east and east. In the extreme north-west round Mildenhall the Chalk borders a tract of fen land in a range of low hills from Haverhill by Newmarket and Bury St Edmunds to Thetford. The Chalk is quarried near Ipswich, Bury St Edmunds, Mildenhall and elsewhere ; at Brandon the chalk flints for gun-locks and building have been exploited from early times. The Tertiary formations include Thanet sand, seen near Sudbury; and Reading Beds and London Clay which extend from Sudbury through Hadleigh, Ipswich, Wood- bridge and thence beneath younger deposits to the extreme north-east of the county. Above the Eocene formations lie the Pliocene " Crags," which in the north overlap the Eocene boundary on to the chalk. The oldest of the crag deposits is the Coralline Crag, pale sandy and marly beds with many fossils; this is best exposed west and north of Aldeburgh and about Sudbourne and Orford. Resting upon the Coralline beds, or upon other formations in their absence, is the Red Crag, a familiar feature above the London Clay in the cliffs at Felixstowe, and Baudsey, where many fossils used to be found ; inland it appears at Bentley, Stutton and Chillesford, where the " Scrobicularia Clay " and Chillesford beds of Prestwich appear above it. The last-named beds probably correspond with the Norwich Crag, the name given to the upper, paler portion of the Red Crag, together with certain higher beds in the north part of east Suffolk. The Norwich Crag is visible at Dunwich, Bavent, Easton and Wang- ford. In the north the Cromer Forest beds, gravels with fresh-water fossils and mammalian remains, may be seen on the coast at Corton and Pakefield. Between the top of the London Clay and the base of the Crags is the " Suffolk Bone Bed " with abundant mammalian bones and phosphatic nodules. Glacial gravel, sand and chalky boulder clay are scattered over much of the county, generally forming stiffer soils in the west and lighter sandy soils in the east. Pebble gravels occur at Westleton and Halesworth, and later gravels, with palaeolithic implements, at Hoxne; while old river-gravels of still later date border the present river valleys. The chalk and gault have been penetrated by a boring at Stutton, revealing a hard palaeozoic slaty rock at the depth of about 1000 ft. _ • Agriculture. — Suffolk is one of the most fertile counties in England. In the 18th century it was famed for its dairy products. The high prices of grain during the wars of the French Revolution led to the extensive breaking up of its pastures, and it is now one of the principal grain-growing counties in England. There is con- siderable variety of soils, and consequently in modes of farming in different parts of the county. Along the sea-coast a sandy loam or thin sandy soil prevails, covered in some places with the heath on which large quantities of sheep are fed, interspersed with tracts, more or less marshy, on which cattle are grazed. The best land adjoins the rivers, and consists of a rich sandy loam, with patches of lighter and easier soil. In the south-west and the centre is much finer grain-land having mostly a clay subsoil, but not so tenacious as the clay in Essex. In climate Suffolk is one of the driest of the English counties; thus, the mean annual rainfall at Bury St Edmunds is rather less than 24 in. Towards the north-west the soil is generally Eoor, consisting partly of sand on chalk, and partly of peat and open eath. Some four-fifths of the total area of the county is under cultivation. Barley, oats and wheat are the most important of the grain crops. The breed of horses known as Suffolk punches is one of the most valued for agricultural purposes in England. The breed of cattle native to the county is a polled variety, on the improvement of which great pains have been bestowed. The old Suffolk cows, famous for their great milking qualities, were of various Colours, yellow predominating. The improved are all red. Much milk is sent to London, Yarmouth, &c. Many cattle, mostly imported from Ireland, are grazed in the winter. The sheep are nearly all of the blackfaced improved Suffolk breed, a cross between the old Norfolk horned sheep and Southdowns. The breed of pigs most common is small and black. Manufactures and Trade. — The county is essentially agricultural, and the most important manufactures relate to this branch of industry. They include that of agricultural implements, especially at Ipswich, Bury St Edmunds and Stowmarket, and that of artificial manures at Ipswich and Stowmarket, for which coprolites are dug. Malting is extensively carried on throughout the county. There are chemical and gun-cotton manufactories at Stowmarket and gun flints are still made at Brandon. At other towns small miscel- laneous manufactures are carried on, including silk, cotton, linen, woollen, and horsehair and coco-nut matting. The principal ports are Lowestoft, Southwold, Aldeburgh, Woodbridge and Ipswich. Lowestoft is the chief fishing town. Herrings and mackerel are the fish most abundant on the coasts. Communications. — The main line of the Great Eastern railway, entering the county from the south, serves Ipswich and Stowmarket, continuing north into Norfolk. The east Suffolk branch from Ipswich serves Woodbridge, Saxmundham. Halesworth, and Beccles, with branches to Felixstowe, to Framlingham, to Aldeburgh, and to Lowestoft; while the Southwold Light railway connects with that town from Halesworth.- The other principal branches are those from Stowmarket to Bury St Edmunds and westward into Cambridge- shire, from Essex into Norfolk by Long Melford, Bury St Edmunds and Thetford, and from Long Melford to Haverhill, which is the northern terminus of the Colne Valley railway. Population and Administration. — The area of the ancient county is 952,710 ac.-es, with a population in 1891 of 371,235 and in 1901 of 384,293. Suffolk comprises 21 hundreds, and for administrative purposes is divided into the counties of East Suffolk (557,854 acres) and West Suffolk (390,914 acres). The following are municipal boroughs and urban districts. (1) East Suffolk. Municipal boroughs — Aldeburgh (pop. 2405), Beccles (6898), Eye (2004), Ipswich, a county borough and the county town (66,630), Lowestoft (29,850), Southwold (2800). Urban districts — Bungay (3314), Felixstowe and Walton (5815), Halesworth (2246), Leiston-cum-Sizewell (3259), Oulton Broad (4044), Saxmundham (1452), Stowmarket (4162), Woodbridge (4640). (2) West Suffolk. Municipal boroughs — Bury St Edmunds (16,255), Sudbury (7109). Urban districts — Glemsford (1975), Hadleigh (3245), Haverhill (4862), Newmarket (10,688), which is mainly in the ancient county of Cambridge. Small market and other towns are numerous, such are Brandon, Clare, Debenham, Framlingham, Lavenham, Mildenhall, Needham Market and Orford. For parliamentary purposes the county constitutes five divisions, each returning one member, viz. north or Lowestoft division, north-east or Eye, north-west or Stow- market, south or Sudbury, and south-east or Woodbridge. Bury St Edmunds returns one member and Ipswich two; part of the borough of Great Yarmouth falls within the county. There is one court of quarter sessions for the two administrative counties, which is usually held at Ipswich for east Suffolk, and then by SUFFRAGAN 29 adjournment at Bury St Edmunds for west Suffolk. East Suffolk is divided into 1 1 and west Suffolk into 8 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Bury St Edmunds, Ipswich, Sudbury, Eye, Lowestoft and Southwold have separate commissions of the peace, and the three first-named have also separate courts of quarter sessions. The total number of civil parishes is 519. The ancient county contains 465 ecclesiastical parishes and districts, wholly or in part ; it is situated partly in the diocese of Ely and partly in that of Norwich. History. — The county of Suffolk (Sudfole, Suthfolc) was formed from the south part of the kingdom of East Anglia which had been settled by the Angles in the latter half of the 5th century. The most important Anglo-Saxon settlements appear to have been made at Sudbury and Ipswich. Before the end of the Norman dynasty strongholds had arisen at Eye, Clare, Walton and Framlingham. Probably the establishment of Suffolk as a separate shire was scarcely completed before the Conquest, and although it was reckoned as distinct from Nor- folk in the Domesday Survey of 1086, the fiscal administration of Norfolk and Suffolk remained under one sheriff until 1575. The boundary of the county has undergone very little change, though its area has been considerably affected by coast erosion. Parts of Gorleston and Thetford, which formerly belonged to the ancient county of Suffolk, are now within the administrative county of Norfolk, and other slight alterations of the administrative boundary have been made. Under the Local Government Act of 1888 Suffolk was divided into the two administrative counties of east and west Suffolk. At first the whole shire lay within the diocese of Dunwich which was founded c. 631. In 673 a new bishopric was estab- lished at Elmham to comprise the whole of Norfolk which had formerly been included in the see of Dunwich. The latter came to an end with the incursion of the Danes, and on the revival of Christianity in this district Suffolk was included in the diocese of Elmham, subsequently removed from South Elmham to Thetford and thence to Norwich. In 1835-1836 the archdeaconry of Sudbury was transferred by the ecclesiastical commissioners to the diocese of Ely. This archdeaconry had been separated from the original archdeaconry of Suffolk in 1127. In 1256 the latter included thirteen deaneries which have since been sub- divided, so that- at present it contains eighteen deaneries; Sud- bury archdeaconry which comprised eight deaneries in 1256 now includes eleven. There were also three districts under peculiar jurisdiction of Canterbury and one under that of Rochester. The shire-court was held at Ipswich. In 1831 the whole county contained twenty-one hundreds and three municipal boroughs. Most of these hundreds were identical with those of the Domesday Survey, but in 1086 Babergh was rated as two hundreds, Cosford, Ipswich and Parham as half hundreds and Samford as a hundred and a half. Hoxne hundred was formerly known as Bishop's hundred and the vills which were included later in Thredling hundred were within Claydon hundred in 1086. Two large ecclesiastical liberties extended over more than half of the county; that of St Edmund included the hundreds of Risbridge, Thedwastry, Thingoe, Cosford, Lackford and Blackbournin which the king's writ did not run, and St Aethelreda of Ely claimed a similar privilege in the hundreds of Carleford, Colneis, Plumesgate, Loes, Wilford and Thredling. Among others who had large lands in the county with co-extensive jurisdiction were the lords of the honor of Clare, earls of Gloucester and Hereford and the lords of the honor of Eye, held successively by the Bigods, the Uffords and the De la Poles, earls of Suffolk. The Wingfields, Bacons and Herveys have been closely connected with the county. Suffolk suffered severely from Danish incursions, and after the Treaty of Wedmore became a part of the Danelagh. In 1 1 73 the earl of Leicester landed at Walton with an army of Flemings and was joined by Hugh Bigod against Henry II. In 13 17 and the succeeding years a great part of the county was in arms for Thomas of Lancaster. Queen Isabella and Mortimer having landed at Walton found all the district in their favour. In 1330 the county was raised to suppress the supporters of the earl of Kent; and again in 138 1 there was a serious rising of the peasantry chiefly in the neighbourhood of Bury St Edmunds. Although the county was for the most part Yorkist it took little part in the Wars of the Roses. In 1525 the artisans of the south strongly resisted Henry VIII. 's forced loan. It was from Suffolk that Mary drew the army which supported her claim to the throne. In the Civil Wars the county was for the most part parliamentarian, and joined the Association of the Eastern Counties for defence against the Papists. The county was constantly represented in parliament by two knights from 1290, until the Reform Bill of 1832 gave four members to Suffolk, at the same time disfranchising the boroughs of Dunwich, Orford and Aldeburgh. Suffolk was early among the most populous of English counties, doubtless owing to its proximity to the continent. Fishing fleets have left its ports to bring back cod and ling from Iceland and herring and mackerel from the North Sea. From the 14th to the 17th century it was among the chief manufacturing counties of England owing to its cloth-weaving industry, which was at the height of its prosperity during the 15th century. In the 17th and 18th centuries its agricultural resources were utilized to provide the rapidly-growing metropolis with food. In the following century various textile industries, such as the manufacture of sail-cloth, cocoa-nut fibre, horse-hair and clothing were estab- lished; silk- weavers migrated to Suffolk from Spitalfields, and early in the 19th century an important china factory flourished at Lowestoft. Antiquities. — Of monastic remains the most important are those of the great Benedictine abbey of Bury St Edmunds, noticed under that town; the college of Clare, originally a cell to the abbey of Bee in Normandy and afterwards to St Peter's Westminster, converted into a college of secular canons in the reign of Henry VI., still retaining much of its ancient architecture, and now used as a boarding-school ; the Decorated gateway of the Augustinian priory of Butley ; and the remains of the Grey Friars monastery at Dunwich. A peculiarity of the church architecture is the use of flint for purposes of ornamentation, often of a very elaborate kind, especially on the porches and parapets of the towers. Another characteristic is the round towers, which are confined to East Anglia, but are considerably more numerous in Norfolk than in Suffolk, the principal being those of Little Saxham and Herringfleet, both good examples of Norman. It is questionable whether there are any remains of pre-Norman architecture in the county. The Decorated is well represented, but by far the greater proportion of the churches are Perpendicular, fine examples of which are so numerous that it is hard to select ex- amples. But the church of Blythburgh in the east and the exquisite ornate building at Lavenham in the west may be noted as typical, while the church of Long Melford, another fine example, should be mentioned on account of its remarkable lady chapel. Special features are the open roofs and woodwork (as at St Mary's, Bury St Edmunds, Earl Stonham and Stonham Aspall, Ufford and Blythburgh), and the fine fonts. The remains of old castles are comparatively unimportant, the principal being the entrenchments and part of the walls of Bungay, the ancient stronghold of the Bigods; the picturesque ruins of Mettingham, built by John de Norwich in the reign of Edward III.; Wingfield, surrounded by a deep moat, with the turret walls and the drawbridge still existing; the splendid ruin of Framlingham, with high and massive walls, originally founded in the 6th century, but restored in the 12th; the outlines of the extensive fortress of Clare Castle, anciently the baronial residence of the earls of Clare; and the fine Norman keep of Orford Castle, on an eminence overlooking the sea. Among the many fine residences within the county there are several interesting examples of domestic architecture of the reigns of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth. Hengrave Hall (c. 1530), 4 m. north-west from Bury St Edmunds, is a noteworthy example — an exceedingly picturesque building of brick and stone, enclosing a court-yard. Another is Helmingham Hall, a Tudor mansion of brick, surrounded by a moat crossed by a drawbridge. West Stow Manor is also Tudor; its gatehouse is fine, but the mansion has been adapted into a farmhouse. See A. Suckling, The History and Antiquities of Suffolk (1846- 1848); William White, History, gazetteer and directory of Suffolk (1855); John Kirby, The Suffolk Traveller (1735); A. Page, Supple- ment to the Suffolk Traveller (1843) ; Victoria County History; Suffolk. SUFFRAGAN (Med. Lat. suffraganeus suffragator, one who assists, from suffragari, to vote in favour of, to support) in the Christian Church, (1) a diocesan bishop in his relation to the metropolitan; (2) an assistant bishop. (See the article Bishop.) 3° SUFFRAGE— SUFFREN SAINT TROPEZ SUFFRAGE (Lat. suffragium), the right or the exercise of the right of voting in political affairs; in a more general sense, an expression of opinion, assent or approval; in ecclesiastical use, the short intercessory prayers in litanies spoken or sung by the people as distinguished from those of the priest or minister. (See Representation; Vote and Voting, and Registration: and, for the Women's Suffrage Movement, Women: § Political Rights.) The etymology of the Latin word sujfragium has been much discussed. It is usually referred to sub- and the root of frangere, to break, and its original meaning must thus have been a piece of broken tile or a potsherd' on which the names or initials of the candidates were inscribed and used as a voting tablet or tabella. There is, however, no direct evidence that this was ever the practice in the case of voting upon legislation in the assembly (see W. Corssen, Ueber Aussprache, &c, der Lateinischen Sprache, i. 397, and Mommsen, Rbmische Geschichte, iii. 412 n. i.). SUFFREN SAINT TROPEZ, PIERRE ANDRfi DE (1720-1788), French admiral, was the third son of the marquis de Saint Tropez, head of a family of nobles of Provence which claimed to have emigrated from Lucca in the 14th century. He was born in the Chateau de Saint Canat in the present department of Aix on the 17th of July 1729. The French navy and the Order of Malta offered the usual careers for the younger sons of noble families of the south of France who did not elect to go into the Church. The connexion between the Order and the old French royal navy was close. Pierre Andre de Suffren was destined by his parents to belong to both. He entered the close and aristo- cratic corps of French naval officers as a " garde de la marine " — : cadet or midshipman, in October 1743, in the " Solide, " one of the line of battleships which took part in the confused engage- ment off Toulon in 1744. He was then in the " Pauline " in the squadron of M. Macnemara on a cruise in the West Indies. In 1746 he went through the due D'Anville's disastrous expedi- tion to retake Cape Breton, which was ruined by shipwreck and plague. Next year (1747) he was taken prisoner by Hawke in the action with the French convoy in the Bay of Biscay. His biographer Cunat assures us that he found British arro- gance offensive. When peace was made in 1 748 he went to Malta to perform the cruises with the galleys of the Order technically called " caravans," a reminiscence of the days when the knights protected the pilgrims going from Saint John d'Acre to Jerusalem. In Suffren's time this service rarely went beyond a peaceful tour among the Greek islands. During the Seven Years' War he had the unwonted good fortune to be present as lieutenant in the " Orphee " in the action with Admiral Byng {q.v.), which, if not properly speaking a victory, was at least not a defeat for the French, and was followed by the surrender of the English garrison of Minorca. But in 1757 he was again taken prisoner, when his ship the " Ocean " was captured by Boscawen off Lagos. On the return of peace in 1 763 he intended again to do the service in the caravans which was required to qualify him to hold the high and lucrative posts of the Order. He was, however, named to the command of the " Cam61eon, " a zebec — a vessel of mixed square and lateen rig peculiar to the Mediterranean — in which he cruised against the pirates of the Barbary coast. Between 1767 and 1771 he performed his caravans, and was promoted from knight to commander of the Order. From that time till the beginning of the War of American Independence he commanded vessels in the squadron of evolution which the French government had established for the purpose of giving practice to its officers. His nerve and skill in handling his ship were highly commended by his chiefs. In 1778 and 1779 he formed part of the squadron of D'Estaing (q.v.) throughout its operations on the coast of North America and in the West Indies. He led the line in the action with Admiral John Byron off Grenada, and his ship, the " Fantasque " (64), lost 62 men. His letters to his admiral show that he strongly disapproved of D'Estaing's half-hearted methods. In 1780 he was captain cf the " Zele " (74), in the combined French and Spanish fleets which captured a great English convoy in the Atlantic. His candour towards his chief had done him no harm in the opinion of D'Estaing. It is said to have been largely by the advice of this admiral that Suffren was chosen to command a squadron of five ships of the line sent out to help the Dutch who had joined France and Spain to defend the Cape against an expected English attack, and then to go on to the East Indies. He sailed from Brest on the 22nd of March on the cruise which has given him a unique place among French admirals, and puts him in the front rank of sea commanders. He was by nature even more vehement than able. The dis- asters which had befallen the navy of his country during the last two wars, and which, as he knew, were due to bad adminis- tration and timid leadership, had filled him with a burning desire to retrieve its honour. He was by experience as well as by temperament impatient with the formal manoeuvring of his colleagues, which aimed at preserving their own ships rather than at taking the English, and though he did not dream of restoring the French power in India, he did hope to gain some such success as would enable his country to make an honourable peace. On the 16th of April 1781 he found the English expedi- tion on its way to the Cape under the command of Commodore, commonly called Governor, George Johnstone (1 730-1 787), at anchor in Porto Praya, Cape de Verd Islands. Remembering how little respect Boscawen had shown for the neutrality of Portugal at Lagos, he attacked at once. Though he was in- differently supported, he inflicted as much injury as he suffered, and proved to the English that in him they had to deal with an admiral of quite a different type from the Frenchmen they had been accustomed to as yet. He pushed on to the Cape, which he saved from capture by Johnstone, and then made his way to the Isle de France (Mauritius), then held by the French. M. D'Orves, his superior officer, died as the united squadrons, now eleven sail of the line, were on their way to the Bay of Bengal. The campaign, which Suffren now conducted against the English admiral Sir Edward Hughes (17207-1794), is famous for the number and severity of the encounters between them. Four actions took place in 1782: on the 17th of February 1782, south of Madras; on the 12th of April near Trincomalee; on the 6th of July off Cuddalore, after which Suffren seized upon the anchorage of Trincomalee compelling the small British garrison to surrender; and again near that port on the 3rd of September. No ship was lost by Sir Edward Hughes in any of these actions, but none were taken by him. Suffren attacked with unprecedented vigour on every occasion, and if he had not been ill-supported by some of his captains he would undoubtedly have gained a distinct victory; as it was, he maintained his squadron without the help of a port to refit, and provided him- self with an anchorage at Trincomalee. His activity encouraged Hyder Ali, who was then at war with the Company. He refused to return to the islands for the purpose of escorting the troops coming out under command of Bussy, maintaining that his proper purpose was to cripple the squadron of Sir Edward Hughes. During the north-east monsoon he would not go to the islands but refitted in the Malay ports in Sumatra, and returned with the south-west monsoon in 1783. Hyder Ali was dead, but Tippoo Sultan, his son, was still at war with the Company. Bussy arrived and landed. The operations on shore were slackly con- ducted by him, and Suffren was much hampered, but when he fought his last battle against Hughes (April 20, 1783), with fourteen ships to eighteen he forced the English admiral to retire to Madras, leaving the army then besieging Cuddalore in a very dangerous position. The arrival of the news that peace had been made in Europe put a stop to hostilities, and Suffren returned to France. While refitting at the Cape on his way home, several of the vessels also returning put in, and the captains waited on him. Suffren said in one of his letters that their praise gave him more pleasure than any other compliment paid him. In France he was received with enthusiasm, and an additional office of vice-admiral of France was created for him. He had been promoted bailli in the Order of Malta during his absence. His death occurred very suddenly on the 8th of December 1788, when he was about to take command of a fleet collected in Brest. The official version of the cause of death was apoplexy, and as SUFIISM 31 he was a very corpulent man it appeared plausible. But many years afterwards his body servant told M. Jal, the historio- grapher of the French navy, that he had been killed in a duel by the prince de Mirepoix. The cause of the encounter, accord- ing to the servant, was that Suffren had refused in very strong language to use his influence to secure the restoration to the navy of two of the prince's relations who had been dismissed for misconduct. Suffren was crippled to a large extent by the want of loyal and capable co-operation on the part of his captains, and the vehemence of his own temperament sometimes led him to disregard prudence, yet he had an indefatigable energy, a wealth of resource, and a thorough understanding of the fact— so habitually disregarded by French naval officers — that success at sea is won by defeating an enemy and not by merely out- manoeuvring him; and this made him a most formidable enemy. The portraits of Suffren usually reproduced are worthless, but there is a good engraving by Mme de Cernel after an original by Gerard. The standard authority for the life of Suffren is the Histoire du Bailli de Suffren by Ch. Cunat (1852). The Journal de Bord du Bailli de Suffren dans I'lnde, edited by M. Mores, was published in 1888. There is an appreciative study in Captain Mahan's Sea Power in History. (D. H.) SUFllSM {ta$awwuf), a term used by Moslems to denote any variety of mysticism, is formed from the Arabic word S&fi, which was applied, in the 2nd century of Islam, to men or women who adopted an ascetic or quietistic way of life. There can be no doubt that Sufi is derived from suf (wool) in reference to the woollen garments often, though not invariably, worn by such persons: the phrase labisa's-suf ("he clad himself in wool") is commonly used in this sense, and the Persian word pashmina- push, which means literally "clothed in a woollen garment,," is synonymous with Sufi. Other etymologies, such as Safd (purity) — a derivation widely accepted in the East — and ao6s, are open to objection on linguistic grounds. In order to trace the origin and history of mysticism in Islam we must go back to Mahomet. On one side of his nature' the Prophet was an ascetic and in some degree a mystic. Not- withstanding his condemnation of Christian monkery (rah- bdniya) , i. e. of celibacy and the solitary life, the example of the Hanifs, with some of whom he was acquainted, and the Christian hermits made a deep impression on his mind and led him to preach the efficacy of ascetic exercises, such as prayer, vigils and fasting. Again, while Allah is described in the Koran as the One God working his arbitrary will in unapproachable supremacy, other passages lay stress on his all-pervading pres- ence and intimate relation to his creatures, e.g. " Wherever ye turn, there is the face of Allah " (ii. 109), " We (God) are nearer to him (Man) than his neck-vein " (1. 15). The germs of mys- ticism latent in Islam from the first were rapidly developed by the political, social and intellectual conditions which prevailed in the two centuries following the Prophet's death. Devastat- ing civil wars, a ruthless military despotism caring only for the things of this world, Messianic hopes and presages, the luxury of the upper classes, the hard mechanical piety of the orthodox creed, the spread of rationalism and freethought, all this induced a revolt towards asceticism, quietism, spiritual feeling and emotional faith. Thou c ands, wearied and disgusted with worldly vanities, devoted themselves to God. The terrors of hell, so vividly depicted in the Koran, awakened in them an intense consciousness of sin, which drove them to seek salvation in ascetic practices. Sufiism was originally a practical religion, not a speculative system; it arose, as Junayd of Bagdad says, " from hunger and taking leave of the world and breaking familiar ties and renouncing what men deem good, not from disputation. " The early Sufis were closely attached to the Mahommedan church. It is said that Abu Hashim of Kufa (d. before a.d. 800) founded a monastery for Sufis at Ramleh in Palestine, but such fraternities seem to have been exceptional. Many ascetics of this period used to wander from place to place, either alone or in small parties, sometimes living by alms and sometimes by their own labour. They took up and emphasized certain Koranic terms. Thus dhikr (praise of God) consisting of recitation of the Koran, repetition of the Divine names, &c, was regarded as superior to the five canonical prayers incumbent on every Moslem, and tawakkul (trust in God) was defined as renunciation of all personal initiative and volition, leaving one's self entirely in God's hands, so that some fanatics deemed it a breach of " trust " to seek any means of livelihood, engage in trade, or even take medicine. Quietism soon passed into mysticism. The attainment of salvation ceased to be the first object, and every aspiration was centred in the inward life of dying to self and living in God. " O God ! " said Ibrahim ibn Adham, " Thou knowest that the eight Paradises are little beside the honour which Thou hast done unto me, and beside Thy love, and Thy giving me intimacy with the praise of Thy name, and beside the peace of mind which Thou hast given me when I meditate on Thy majesty." Towards the end of the 2nd century we find the doctrine of mystical love set forth in the sayings of a female ascetic, Rabi'a of Basra, the first of a long line of saintly women who have played an important role in the history of Sufiism. Henceforward the use of symbolical expressions, borrowed from the vocabulary of love and wine, becomes increasingly frequent as a means of indicating holy mysteries which must not be divulged. This was not an unneces- sary precaution, for in the course of the 3rd century, Sufiism assumed a new character. Side by side with the quietistic and devotional mysticism of the early period there now sprang up a speculative and pantheistic movement which was essentially anti-Islamic and rapidly came into conflict with the orthodox tdemd. It is significant that the oldest representative of this tendency— Ma'ruf of Bagdad- — was the son of Christian parents and a Persian by race. He defined Sufiism as a theosophy; his aim was "to apprehend the Divine realities." A little later Abu Sulaiman al-