THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768—1771. SECOND >y >» ten „ 1777— 1784. THIRD >f ■>■■ eighteen „ 1788— 1797. FOURTH » tt twenty „ 1801 — 1810. FIFTH >» i> twenty „ 1815—1817. SIXTH >» )» twenty „ 1823 — 1824. SEVENTH ») » twenty-one „ 1830 — 1842. EIGHTH tj s» twenty-two „ 1853— 1860. NINTH » >» twenty-five ,, 1875— 1889. TENTH )» ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903. ELEVENTH )> published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE All rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXV SHUVALOV to SUBLIMINAL SELF New York Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. 342 Madison Avenue Copyright, in the United States of America, 191 1, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company. INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXV. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,! WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. A. B. 6. A, C. McG. A. D. A. De. A. E. H. A. E. S. A. F. E. A. F. P. A. Go.* A. Ha. A. H. S. A. JT. G. A. Ma. A. Mel. A. M. C. A. M. F.* Rev. Alexander Balloch Grosart, LL.D., D.D. See the biographical article: Grosart, Alexander Balloch. f Stirling, William Alexander, I Earl of (in part). Arthur Cushman McGieeertM.A., Ph.D., D.D f { Socrates (Church Historian) Professor ofChurch History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. Author of J , ■ . .\ . History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age; &c. Editor of the Historia Ecclesia of Eusebius. Henry Austin Dobson, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article: Dobson, H. Austin. Sozomen (in part). C Steele, Sir Richard (in part) ; 1 Sterne, Laurence (in part). Arthur Dendy, D.Sc, F.R.S., F.Z.S., F.L.S. f Professor of Zoology in King's College, London. Zoological Secretary of the J gnoiiffes Linnean Society of London. Author of memoirs on systematic zoology, com- | p ° ' parative anatomy, embryology, &c. I A. E. Houghton. f Formerly Correspondent of the Standard in Spain. Author of Restoration of the -s Spain: History (in part). Bourbons in Spain. I Arthur Everett Shipley, M.A., D.Sc, i .R.S. . . J Sipunculoidea; Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University, "i Smith William Robertson. Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History. I ' Allen F. Everett. f Signal: Marine Signalling Commander, R.N. Formerly Superintendent of the Signal School, H.M.S. "Victory," T a n j, ar i) Portsmouth. I ^ " Albert Frederick Pollard, M.A., F.R.Hist.Soc. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Professor of English History in the Uni- versity of London. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1 893-1 90 1. Author of England under the Protector Somerset; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c. Rev. Alexander Gordon, M.A. Lecturer in Church History in the University of Manchester. Somerset, Edward Duke of. Socinus. Seymour, Adolf Harnack, D.Ph. See the biographical article: Harnack, Adolf. Rev. Archibald Henry Sayce, Litt.D., LL.D. See the biographical article: Sayce, A. H. Rev. Alexander James Grieve, M.A., B.D. Professor of New Testament and Church History at the United Independent College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University and Member of Mysore Educational Service. Alexander Macalister, M.A., LL.D., M.D., D.Sc, F.R.S. Professor of Anatomy in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow of St John's College. Formerly Professor of Zoology in the University of Dublin. Author of Text-Book of Human Anatomy; &c. Arthur Mellor. Of Messrs J. & T. Brocklehurst & Sons, Silk Manufacturers, Macclesfield. Agnes Mary Clerke. See the biographical article: Clerke, Agnes M. (Socrates (Church Historian) (in part); Sozomen (in part). {si; Sippara. Smyth, John. Stigmatization. f Silk: Spinning of "Silk \ Waste." ( Smyth, Charles Piazzi; \ Stone, Edward James. Arthur Mostyn Field, F.R.S. , F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.Met.S. f Vice-Admiral, R.N. Admiralty Representative on Port of London Authority, i Sounding. Hydrographer of the Royal Navy, 1904-1909. i 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. V VI A. M.-Fa. A.N. A. P. H. A. S.* A. So. A. S. E. A. S. P.-P. A. W. H.* A. W. P. B. B. A. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES B. K.* B. W. G. C. A. G. B C. B.* C. D. W. c. F. A. c. H.* c. H. Ha. c. L. K. c. P.* c Pa. c Pf. 0. R. B. Alfred Morel-Fatio. Professor of Romance Languages at the College de France, Paris. Member of the . Institute of France; Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Secretary of the ficole des Chartes, 1885-1906; &c. Author of L'Espagne au XVI' et au XVII' siecles. Alfred Newton, F.R.S. See the biographical article: Newton, Alfred. Alfred Peter Hillier, M.D., M.P. Author of South African Studies; The Commonweal; &c. Served in Kaffir War, 1 878-1 879. Partner with Dr L. S. Jameson in medical practice in South Africa' till 1896. Member of Reform Committee, Johannesburg, and Political Prisoner at Pretoria, 1895-1896. M P. for Hitchin division of Herts, 1910. Arthur Schuster, F.R.S., Ph.D., D.Sc. Professor of Physics at the University of Manchester, 1 888-1 907. President of *he International Association of Seismology. Author of Theory of Optics and papers in the Proceedings and Transactions of the Royal Society. Albrecht Socin, Ph.D. (1844-1899). Formerly Professor of Semitic Philology in the Universities of Leipzig and Tubingen. Author of Arabische Grammatik; &c. Spain: Language (in part), and Literature (in part). Siskin; Skimmer; Skua; Snake-bird; Snipe; Sparrow; Spoonbill; Stilt; Stork. South Africa: History (in part). Spectroscopy. Sinai: The Biblical Mount Sinai. Arthur Stanley Eddington, M.A., M.Sc, F.R.A.S. j Chief Assistant at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. Fellow of Trinity College, 1 Star. Cambridge. '- Andrew Seth Pringle-Pattison, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. |" Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Giffcrd J _ . Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 191 1. Fellow of the British Academy. 1 Spinoza. Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos; The philosophical Radicals; &c. I Arthur William Holland. Formerly Scholar of St John's College. Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. Alfred Wallis Paul, CLE. Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1 870-1 895. Political Officer, Sikkim Expedition. . British Commissioner under Anglo-Chinese Convention of 1890. Deputy Com- missioner of Darjeeling. Braman Blanchard Adams. Associate Editor of the Railway Age Gazette, New York. Benjamin Kidd, D.C.L. Author of Social Evolution; Principles of Western Civilization; &c. Benedict William Ginsburg, M.A., LL.D. St Catharine's College, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law of the Inner Temple. Formerly Editor of the Navy, and Secretary of the Royal Statistical Society. Authcr of Hints on the Legal Duties of Shipmasters; &c. Sir Cyprian Arthur George Bridge, G.C.B. Admiral R.N. Commander-in-Chief, China Station, 1901-1904. Director of. Naval Intelligence, 1889 1894. Author of The Art of Naval Warfare; Sea-Power and other Studies; &c. Sidmouth, Viscount. Sikkim. f Signal: Army Signalling (in ■\ part), and Railway Signal- <- ling (in part). j Sociology. Steamship Lines. Charles Bemont, Litt.D. (Oxon.). See the biographical article: Bemont, Charles. Hon. Carroll Davidson Wright. See the biographical article: Wright, Hon. Carroll Davidson. Charles Francis Atkinson. Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbor. Sir Charles Holroyd, Litt. D. See the biographical article: Holroyd, Sir Charles. Carlton Huntley Hayes, A.M., Ph.D. Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York. Member of the American Historical Association. Charles Lethbridge Kingsford, M.A., F.R.Hist. Soc, F.S.A. Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor of Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London. Carl Pulfrich, Ph.D. On the staff of the Carl Zeiss Factory, Jena. Formerly Privatdozent at the University of Bonn. Member of the Astronomical Societies of Brussels and Paris. Cesare Paoli. See the biographical article: Paoli, Cesare. Christian Pfister, D. is L. Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of £tudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux; Le Duche merovingien d' Alsace et la legende de Sainte-Odile. Charles Raymond Beazley, M.A., D.Litt., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S. Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c. J Signal: Marine Signalling 1 (in part). i Sorel, Albert. Strikes and Lock-outs: United States. Spanish Succession, War of (in part). I Strang, William. Sixtus, IV.; Stiiicho, Flavius. J Somerset, Edmund Beaufort, 1 Duke of. Stereoscope. Siena (in part). Sigebert, King. Simon of St Quentin; Sindbad the Sailor, Voyages of. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES vn c. s. s. c. w. w. D. F. T. D. G. H. Charles Scott Sherrington, M.A., D.Sc, M.D., F.R.S., LL.D. Professor of Physiology in the University of Liverpool. Author of The Integrative Action of the Nervous System. Sir Charles William Wilson, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R S. (1836-1907). Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com- mission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1 886-1 894. Director-General of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti to Khartoum; Life of Lord Clive; &c. Spinal Cord: Physiology. Sivas {in part). Donald Francis Tovey. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. David George Hogarth, M.A. Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. D. H. D. M. W. E. A. E. A. F. E. C. B. E. G. E. H. M. Ed. M. E. Ms. E. M. S. E. H. T. E.O.* E.Pr. E.W.H. F. A. B. David Hannay. Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Navy ; Life of Emilio Castelar ; &c. Author of Short History of the Royal J Sonata Forms; [ Spohr, Ludwig. Side; Sis; Sivas (in part); Smyrna (in part); Soli (Asia Minor). Sluys, Battle of; Spain: History (in part); Spanish Succession, War of: Naval and Military Opera- tions; Spinola, Ambrose. Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O. Extra Groom of the Bedchamber to H.M. King George V. Director of the Foreign Department of The Times, 1891-1899. Member of Institut de Droit International and Officier de l'lnstruction Publique of France. Joint-editor of the New Volumes (10th ed.) of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Author of Russia; Egypt and the Egyptian Question ; The Web of Empire ; &c. Edward Arber, D.Litt., F.S.A. See the biographical article: Arber, Edward. Edward Augustus Freeman, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biqgraphical article : Freeman, E. A. Rt. Rev. Edward Cuthbert Butler, O.S.B., Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of in Cambridge Texts and Studies. Shuvalov, Count. M.A., D.Litt. ' The Lausiac History of Palladius ' Edmund Gosse, LL.D. See the biographical article : Gosse, Edmund. Smith, John (1579-1631). Sicily: History (in part). I Silvestrines; [ Simeon Stylites, St. Song (Literary); Stanley, Thomas; f Stevenson, Robert Louis; [ Style. Ellis Hovell Minns, M.A. University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. Slavs; Slovaks; Slovenes; Sorbs. Eduard Meyer, Ph.D., D.Litt., LL.D. f Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des -j Smerdis. Alterthums; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstdmme. [_ Edward Manson. f Barrister-at-Law. Joint-editor of the Journal of Comparative Legislation. Author -I Stocks and Shares. of Law of Trading Companies ; Practical Guide to Company Law ; &c. [ Eleanor Mildred Sidgwick (Mrs Henry Sidgwick), D.Litt., LL.D. f Principal of Newnham College, Cambridge, 1892-1910. Hon. Secretary to the J . ., Society for Psychical Research. Author of Papers in the Proceedings of the Society 1 Spiritualism. for Psychical Research. L Sir Edward Maunde Thompson, G.C.B., I.S.O., D.C.L., Litt.D., LL.D. Director and Principal Librarian. British Museum, 1898-1909. Sandars Reader in Bibliography, Cambridge University, 1895-1896. Hon. Fellow of University J College, Oxford. Author of Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography. Editor of the Chronicon Angliae. Joint-editor of publications of the Palaeographical Society the New Palaeographical Society, and of the Facsimile of the Laurentian Sophocles. Stichometry. Skull: Cranial Surgery Spinal Cord (Surgery) ; Stomach. Silva, Antonio J. da; Sousa, Luiz de. Edmund Owen, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. Edgar Prestage. f Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Com- J mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal 1 Academy of Sciences and Lisbon Geographical Society ; &c. I Ernest William Hobson, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. f . Fellow and Tutor in Mathematics, Christ's College, Cambridge. Stokes Lecturer in -j Spherical Harmonics, Mathematics in the University. I Francis Arthur Bather, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Assistant Keeper of Geology, British Museum. Rolleston Prizeman, Oxford, 1892. -j Starfish. Author of " Echinoderma " in A Treatise on Zoology; Triassic Echinoderms of Bakony; &c. Vlll F. C. S. S. F. G. M. B. F. G. P. F. J. H. F. J. S. F. LI. G. F. L. L. F. N. M. F. Po. F. R. G. F. W.* F. W. R.* G. A. C* G. A. Gr. G. C. L. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Ferdinand Canning Scott Schiller, M.A., D.Sc. C Fellow and Tutor of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Author of Riddles of the < Spencer, Herbert. Sphinx ; Studies in Humanism ; &c I Frederick George Meeson Beck, M.A. J Sigurd; Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. I Strathclyde. Skeleton; Skin and Exoskeleton; Skull; Spinal Cord (in part). Frederick Gymer Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.Anthrop.Inst. Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women, London. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. Francis John Haverfield, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Brasenose College. Formerly Censor, Student, Tutor and Librarian of Christ - Church. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain ; &c. Frederick John Snell, M.A. Balliol College, Oxford. Author of The Age of Chaucer; &c. Francis Llewellyn Griffith, M.A., Ph.D., F.S.A. r Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and . . Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial -s Sphinx {in part) German Archaeological Institute. Author of Stories of the High Priests of Memphis ; | &c. Silures; Spain: History, Ancient. I Spenser, Edmund (in part). Sokoto. Lady Lugard. See the biographical article: Lugard, Sir F. J. D. Colonel Frederic Natusch Maude, C.B. Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University. Author of War and the -\ Strategy, World's Policy ; The Leipzig Campaign ; The Jena Campaign. Sir Frederick Pollock, Bart., LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article : Pollock : Family. { Stephen, Sir J. F., Bart. Frank R. Cana. Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. Siwa; Sobat (in pari); Somaliland; South Africa: Geography and Statistics; History (in part), and Bibliography; Stanley, Sir Henry. Silk (in part). Sidon. G. C. W. G. E. H. G. G. B. G. G. C. G. G. S. Frank Warner. President of the Silk Association of Great Britain and Ireland; Hon. Secretary of the Ladies' National Silk Association. Chairman of the Silk Section, London " Chamber of Commerce, and of the Council of the Textile Institute. I Frederick William Rudler, I.S.O., F.G.S. f Sinter; Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902.^ Spinel; President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. [ Spodumene. Rev. George Albert Cooke, D.D. { Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture, Oxford, and Fellow of Oriel College. Canon of Rochester. Hon. Canon of St Mary's Cathedral, Edinburgh., " Author of Text-Book of North Semitic Inscriptions ; &c. George Abraham Grierson, CLE., Ph.D., D.Litt. Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of the Linguistic Survey of India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Royal Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice- i Sindhi and Lahnda. President of the Royal Asiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of The Languages of India; &c. George Collins Levey, C.M.G. Member of the Board of Advice to the Agent-General of Victoria. Formerly Editor and Proprietor of the Melbourne Herald. Secretary, Colonial Committee of Royal Commission to Paris Exhibition, 1900. Secretary, Adelaide Exhibition, - 1887. Secretary, Royal Commission, Hobart Exhibition, 1894-1895. Secretary to Commissioners for Victoria at the Exhibitions in London, Paris, Vienna, Phila- delphia and Melbourne. George Charles Williamson, Litt.D. f Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures; Life of Richard J g mar ( John. Cosway, R.A.; George Engleheart; Portrait Drawings; &c. Editor of new edition j ' of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers. I George Ellery Hale, LL.D., Sc.D. Director of the Mt. Wilson Solar Observatory of the Carnegie Institution of Washing- ton at Pasadena, California. Director of the Yerkes Observatory, Chicago, 1895- 1905. Foreign Member of the Royal Society of London. Inventor of the Spectro- heliograph. Author of Papers on solar and stellar physics in the Astrophysical Journal; &c. Stawell, Sir William. Spectroheliograph. Very Rev. George Granville Bradley, D.D. J~ Stanley, Dean (in part). See the biographical article: Bradley, George Granville. \ George Goudie Chisholm, MA f sicily: Geography and Lecturer on Geography in the University of Edinburgh. Secretary ot the Royal J c . . . . , . *,„-,} Scottish Geographical Society. Author of Handbook of Commercial Geography. 1 oiansncs \in pari). Editor of Longman's Gazetteer of the World. L George Gregory Smith, M.A. f Stirling, William Alexander, " Author of The\ Earl of (in part). Professor of English Literature, Queen's University of Belfast. Days of James IV. ; The Transition Period ; Specimens of Middle Scots ; &c. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES IX G. J. T. G. Mo. G. Sa. G. W. T. H.Br. H. CI. Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Selden i Soke. George James Turner. Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Society. Gaetano Mosca. Professor of Constitutional Law, University of Turin. George Saintsbury, D.C.L., LL.D. See the biographical article: Saintsbury, George E. B. Rev. Griffithes Wheeler Thatcher, M.A., B.D. f Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old i Slbawaihl. Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. L Henry Bradley, M.A., Ph.D. f Fellow of the British Academy. Joint-editor of the New English Dictionary i Slang. (Oxford). Author of The Story of the Goths; The Making of English; &c. I Sir Hugh Charles Clifford, K.C.M.G. Colonial Secretary, Ceylon. Fellow of the Royal Colonial Institute. Formerly Resident, Pahang. Colonial Secretary, Trinidad and Tobago, 1903-1907. Author of Studies in Brown Humanity; Further India, &c. Joint-author of A Dictionary of the Malay Language. J Sicily: Geography and Statistics I- {in part). Stael, Madame de. Singapore; Straits Settlements. H. E. S.* H. F. G. H. H. F. H. Ja H. M R. H M Wo Author of Life of James Russell Lowell ; 1 Stowe, Mrs Beecher, V Horace Elisha Scudder (d. 1902). Formerly Editor of the Atlantic Monthly. History of the United States ; &c. Hans Friedrich Gadow, M.A., F.R.S., Ph.D. Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. Author of " Amphibia and Reptiles " in the Cambridge Natural History; &c. H. Hamilton Fyfe. f Special Correspondent of the Daily Mail ; Dramatic critic of The World. Author of J Stepniak, SergillS. A Modern Aspasia; The New Spirit in Egypt; &c. [ Snakes; Song: Of Birds; Sphenodon. Socrates; Sophists; Speusippus. H. 0. F. H. R. T. H.St. H. S. J. H. W. C. D. LA. J. A. Co. J. A. E. J. A. H. J. B. Henry Jackson, M.A., Litt.D., LL.D., O.M. Regius Professor of Greek in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow of Trinity College. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Texts to illustrate the History of Greek Philosophy from Thales to Aristotle. Hugh Munro Ross. . . J Signal: Army Signalling (in Formerly Exhibitioner of Lincoln College, Oxford. Editor of The Times Engineering 1 part) and Railway Signalling Supplement. Author of British Railways. I n n Harold Mellor Woodcock, D.Sc. [ Assistant to the Professor of Proto-Zoology, London University. Fellow of Uni- versity College, London. Author of " Haemoflagellates " in Sir £. Ray Lankester's Treatise of Zoology, and of various scientific papers. Henry Ogg Forbes, LL.D., F.R.G.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. Director of Museums to the Corporation of Liverpool. Reader in Ethnography in the University of Liverpool. Explorer of Mount Owen Stanley, New Guinea, Chatham Islands and Sokotra. Author of A Naturalist's Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago; Editor and part-author of Natural History of Sokotra and Abd-el- Kuri; &c. Henry Richard Tedder, F.S.A. Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London. Henry Sturt, M.A. Author of Idola Thealri; The Idea of a Free Church; Personal Idealism. Henry Stuart Jones, M.A. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Oxford, and Director of the British School at Rome. Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. Author of The Roman Empire ; &c. Henry William Carless Davis, M.A. Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, 1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. Sporozoa. Sokotra (in part). Societies, Learned. ■\ Space Strabo. and Time. J Simeon of Durham; I Stephen, King of Er Israel Abrahams, M.A. Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short ' History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c. Simon Ben Yohai; Singer, Simeon; Smolenskin, Pen Steinschneider, ' Hon. Sir John Alexander Cockburn, K.C.M.G., M.D. Knight of Grace of the Order of St John of Jerusalem. Premier and Chief Secretary, j o nu fk Austra' South Australia, 1889-1890: Minister of Education and Agriculture, 1893-1898 ; 1 wluun " Agent-General in London, 1898-1901. Author of Australian Federation; &c. |_ James Alfred Ewing, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.CE. f Siemens, Si Director of (British) Naval Education. Hon. Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. J steam Eng Professor of Mechanism and Applied Mechanics in the University of Cambridge, | gt ren gt n f 1890-1903. Author of The Strength of Materials; &c. I 5 u 1890-1903. Author of The Strength of John Allen Howe. f . . Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of i Silurian Geology of Building Stones. I jrnon; James Bonar, M.A., LL.D. (" rd. Master of the Royal Mint, Ottawa. Senior Examiner to the Civil Service Com- | gocia' mission, 1 895-1 907. Author of Malthus and his Work; Philosophy and Political'] Economy; &c. I i n part). udhaile. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES J. Bra. J. Bt. J. C. Br. J. D. B. J. F.-K. Joseph Braun, SJ. Author of Die Liturgische Gewandung ; &c. { Stole. James Bartlett. . , f Staircase: Construction; Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c, at King s J g^ ee j Construction" College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of Junior | gt ' Engineers. I John Casper Branner, Ph.D., LL.D., F.G.S. C Vice-President and Professor of Geology in Leland Stanford University, California. Director of the Branner-Agassiz Expedition to Brazil, 1899. State Geologist of-j South America. Arkansas, 1 887-1 893. Author of numerous works on the geology of Brazil , Arkansas | and California. ^ James David Bourchier, M.A., F.R.G.S. King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. Silistria; Sofia; Stambolov, Stefan. J. G. C. A. J. G. M. J. H. A. H. J. H P. J. H R. J H1.B. James Fitzmaurice-Kelly, Litt.D., F.R.Hist.S. f Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Spain: Language (in part), and Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy.-^ T Urralure (in bart) Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of literature (.tn paw. Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c. ^ J Sinope. John Gray McKendrick, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S. (Edin.). f Sleep; Emeritus Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. Professor of Physi- -< smell. ology, 1876-1906. Author of Life in Motion; Life of Helmholtz; &c. L John George Clark Anderson, M.A. Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln College. Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1896. Conington Prizeman, 1893. J Sibylline Oracles. John Henry Arthur Hart, M.A. Fellow, Theological Lecturer and Librarian, St John's College, Cambridge. John Henry Poynting, D.Sc, F.R.S. r Professor of Physics and Dean of the Faculty of Science in the University of | Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Joint-author of 1 aouna. Text-Book of Physics. [_ John Horace Round, M.A., LL.D. f Stafford: Family; Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and J Stanley : Family (in part). Family History ; Peerage and Pedigree ; &c. [' John Holland Rose, M. A., Litt.D. r„. . _ . T . Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge J Sieyes, Emmanuel JOSepJl, University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I. ; Napoleonic ■) Stein, Baron. Studies ; The Development of the European Nations ; The Life of Pitt ; &c. J. H. van't H. Jacobus Hendricus van't Hoff, LL.D., D.Sc, See the biographical article Van't Hoff, Jacobus Hendbicus. i Stereoisomerism. J. K. I. J. L. M. J. L. N. J. M. J. M. H. J.O.N. J. Pe. J. P. E. J. S. F. t Slavery (in part); 1 : Soil: Soil and Disease. Sovereignty; Spheres of Influence. John Kells Ingram, LL.D. See the biographical article: Ingram, John Kells. -j Smith, Adam (in part). John Linton Myres, M.A., F.S.A. , Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College. Formerly Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient i Soli (Cyprus). Geography in the University of Liverpool, and Lecturer on Classical Archaeology in the University of Oxford. J. Lane-Notter, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.Med. f Colonel (retired), Royal Army Medical Corps. Formerly Professor of Military^ Hygiene, Army Medical School at Netley. Author of The Theory and Practice of Hygiene; &c. Sir John Macdonell, C.B., M.A., LL.D. Master of the Supreme Court, London. Formerly Counsel to the Board of Trade and the London Chamber of Commerce. Quain Professor of Comparative Law, and Dean of the Faculty of Law, University College, London. Editor of State" Trials; Civil Judicial Statistics; &c. Author of Survey of Political Economy; The Land Question ; &c. John Malcolm Mitchell. | Solon; Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London < Sphinx (in part) ; College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. 1 StrategUS. Rev. James Okey Nash, M.A. r Hertford College, Oxford. Headmaster of St John's College, Johannesburg. J Sisterhoods. Formerly Missionary of the S.P.G. in Johannesburg. [ John Percival, M.A. f St. John's College, Cambridge. Professor of Agricultural Botany at University J Soil. College, Reading. Author of Text-Book of Agricultural Botany; &c. [_ Jean Paul Hippolyte Emmanuel Adhemar Esmein. [ Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Member of the Institute of France. Author of Cours eiementaire d'histoire du droit francais; &c. John Smith Flett, D.Sc, F.G.S. Petrographer tc the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society of London. States-General: France. f Sill; \ Slate: Geology; \ Spherulites. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES XI J. S. R. J. T. Be. J. V. B. J.W. J. W. G. J. W. He. K. G. J. K.L. K. S. L. C. L. D.* L. J. S. L. W. Ch. M. Ca. M. G. M.Ja. H.M. M. N. T. H. 0. B. C N.M. O.A. James Smith Reid, M.A., LL.M., Litt.D., LL.D. Professor of Ancient History in the University of Cambridge and Fellow and Tutor . of Gonville and Caius College. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Lecturer, of Christ's College. Editor of Cicero's Academica; De Amicitia; &c. John Thomas Bealby. Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical - Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. Silius Italicus; Statius. Siberia (in pari); Simbirsk (in part); Smolensk (in part); Stavropol (in part). South Australia: Geology. James Vernon Bartlet, M.A., D.D. j Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of The Apostolic 1 Stephen, St. Age; &c. L James Williams, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. f All Souls' Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln -I Statute. College. Barrister-at-Law of Lincoln's Inn. Author of Law of the Universities ; &c. [ John Walter Gregory, D.Sc, F.R.S. f Professor of Geology in the University of Glasgow. Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Melbourne, 1900-1904. Author of The Dead Heart of Australia; &c. James Wycliffe Headlam, M.A. Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge, and Professor of Greek and Ancient History at Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the German Empire; &c. Kingsley Garland Jayne. Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford. Author of Vasco da Gama and his Successors. Rev. Kirsopp Lake, M.A. Lincoln College, Oxford. Professor of Early Christian Literature and New Testa- J o n ,i OT1 u ormanll wnn ment Exegesis in the University of Leiden. Author of The Text of the New Testa- j oouen > nermann von. ment; The Historical Evidence for the Resurrection of Jesus Christ; &c. I Kathleen Schlesinger. f cic*™™- Cmriinn. Cr.ir.ot. Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the -i *'. m ' Boralno » »Pmei, Orchestra. { Stringed Instruments. Rev. Lewis Campbell, D.C.L., LL.D. See the biographical article: Campbell, Lewis. Louis Duchesne. See the biographical article: Duchesne, Louis M. O. Matthew Arnold Prizeman, 1903. - : SteRhan, Heinrich von. J Spain: Geography and \_ Statistics. r Sophocles. J* Siricius; I Sixtus I.-III. Sillimanite; Smaltite; Sodalite; Sphene; Stannite; Staurolite; Stephanite; Stibnite; Stilbite; Strontianite. r Smoke (in part). Stevinus, Simon. Sturdza (family). O.M. Leonard James Spencer, M.A. Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineralo- gical Magazine. Laurence Wensley Chubb. Secretary of the Coal Smoke Abatement Society, and of the Commons and Foot- paths Preservation Society. Moritz Cantor, Ph.D. Honorary Professor of Mathematics in the University of Heidelberg. Hofrat of the German Empire. Author of Vorlesungen uber die Geschichte der Malhematik ; &c. Moses Gaster, Ph.D. Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine Literature, 1886 and 1891. President of the - Folk-lore Society of England. Vice-President, Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian Popular Literature ; &c. Morris Jastrow, Ph.D. f Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania. Author of Religion \ Sin (Moon-god), of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c. l_ Max Arthur Macauliffe. f Formerly Divisional Judge in the Punjab. Author of The Sikh Religion: its Gurus, J Sikh; Sacred Writings and Authors; &c. Editor of Life of Guru Nanak, in the Punjabi | Sikhism. language. I Marcus Niebuhr Tod, M.A. f Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. -< Sparta. Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. \_ Maximilian Otto Bismarck Caspari, M.A. f Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Binning- -j Sicyon. ham University, 1905-1908. [ Norman McLean, M.A. f Lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge University. Fellow and Hebrew Lecturer, Christ's -j Stephen Bar Sudhaile. College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of the larger Cambridge Septuagint. [_ Osmund Airy, M.A., LL.D. r H.M. Divisional Inspector of Schools and Inspector of Training Colleges, Board of J Sidney, Algernon; Education, London. Author of Louis XIV. and the English Restoration; Charles 1 SomerS, Lord. //. ; &c. Editor of the Lauderdale Papers ; &c. (. David Orme Masson, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. f Professor of Chemistry, Melbourne University. Author of papers on chemistry in -j Smoke (in part). the transactions of various learned societies. [_ Xll INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 0. T. P. A. A. P. A. K. P. C. M. Oldfield Thomas, F.R.S., F.Z.S. Senior Assistant, Natural History Department of the British Museum. Catalogue of Marsupialia in the British Museum. Author of i Skunk {in part). Philip A. Ashworth, M.A., D. Juris. [ . New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Translator of H. R. von Gneist's History i Simson, Martin E. VOn. of the English Constitution. I Prince Peter Alexeivitch Kropotkin. See the biographical article: Kropotkin, Prince P. A. Siberia {in part); Simbirsk {in part); Smolensk {in part); Stavropol {in part). P. C. Y. p. S. p. Vi. R. R. A. S. M R. D. H. R H. C. \ Strafford. R. H. L. R. H. V. R. I. P. R. J. M. R.L.* R. Mu. R. M. B. P. K. Peter Chalmers Mitchell, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S. , D.Sc, LL.D. Secretary of the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in J Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-3891. 1 Species. Author of Outlines of Biology ; &c. I Philip Chesney Yorke, M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford. Editor of Letters of Princess Elizabeth of England Philip Schidrowitz, Ph.D., F.C.S. f Member of the Council, Institute of Brewing; Member of the Committee of Society J gpjjjts. of Chemical Industry. Author of numerous articles on the Chemistry and! Technology of Brewing, Distilling, &c, L Paul Vinogradoff, D.C.L., LL.D. •! Socage. See the biographical article: Vinogradoff, Paul. \ Lord Rayleigh. f „. See the biographical article: Rayleigh, 3RD Baron. \ " Kv ' Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister, M.A., F.S.A. f St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Ex- -j Sodom and Gomorrah. ploration Fund. 1 Robert Drew Hicks, M.A. f ct j cs Fellow, formerly Lecturer in Classics, Trinity College, Cambridge. \ Rev. Robert Henry Charles, M.A., D.D., D.Litt. f Grinfield Lecturer, and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford, and Fellow of Merton | College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Professor of Biblical Greek, -j Solomon, The Psalms of. Trinity College, Dublin. Author of Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life; Book of Jubilees; &c. I Robin Humphrey Legge. f Principal Musical Critic for the Daily Telegraph. Author of Annals of the Norwich < Strauss, Richard. Festivals; &c. L Robert Hamilton Vetch, C.B. Colonel R.E. Employed on the defences of Bermuda, Bristol Channel, Plymouth Harbour and Malta, 1861-1876. Secretary of R.E. Institute, Chatham, 1877-1883. . Deputy Inspector-General of Fortifications, 1889-1894. Author of Gordon's Campaign in China ; Life of Lieutenant-General Sir Gerald Graham. Editor of the RE. Journal, 1 877-1 884. Reginald Innes Pocock, F.Z.S. Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. Strathnairn, Lord. Spiders. Ronald John McNeill, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Gazette (London). Formerly Editor of the St James's Richard Lydekker, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1 874-1 882. Author of Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum; The Deer of all Lands; The Game Animals of Africa; &c. Sidney, Sir Henry; Simnel, Lambert; Smith, Sir Henry; Somerset, Earls and Dukes of; Stone, Archbishop. Sifaka; Sirenia; Skunk {in part); Souslik; Squirrel; Squirrel Monkey. Stonehenge; Stone Monuments. Robert Munro, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Edin.). Dalrymple Lecturer on Archaeology in the University of Glasgow for 1910. Rhind Lecturer on Archaeology, 1888. Secretary of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 1888-1899. Founder of the Munro Lectureship on Anthropology and Prehistoric Archaeology in the University of Edinburgh. Author of The Lake-dwellings of Europe ; Prehistoric Scotland, and its place in European Civilization ; &c. Richard Makdougall Brisbane Francis Kelly, D.S.O. f Colonel R.A. Commanding R.G.A., Southern Defences, Portsmouth. Served J Sights, through the South African War, 1899-1902. Chief Instructor at the School of ] Gunnery, 1904-1908. L Sigismund R. N. B. K.OBERT NlSBET BAIN (d. IO09). Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: The Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 15 13-1900; The First Romanovs, 1613-1725 ; Slavonic Europe: The Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796; &c. and III. of I., II. Poland; Skarga, Piotr; Skram, Peder; Skrzynecki, Jan Zygmunt; Sophia Aleksyeevna; Sprengtporten, Count Goran; Sprengtporten, Jakob; Stanislaus I. and II. of Poland; Stephen I. and V. of Hungary,' Stephen Bathory; Struensee, Johan F.; Sture {family). INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Xlll R. P. S. R.Sn. R. S. C. S. A. C. S. BI. S. F. M. St G. S. S.N. T.As. T. A. A. T. A. C. T. Ba. T. F. c. T. Se. T. W. -D. T. W. F. T. W. R. D V. w. m. A. B. c. W. A. G. W. A. J. F. R. Phene Spiers, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. f Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past J Stair; President of the Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, 1 Stairease: Architecture; London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's Spire. History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c. ^ Examiner in Silk Throwing and Spinning for the City and Guilds of London Institute. L Silk: Trade and Commerce - Robert Seymour Conway, M.A., D.Litt. f Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. J cj pu ij (irihA Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville 1 olcuu \frloej. and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. I Stanley Arthur Cook. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Simeon; Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Author of Glossary of~\ Solomon. A ramaic Inscriptions ; The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi ; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c. Sigfus Blondal. Librarian of the University of Copenhagen. Sir Shirley Forster Murphy, F.R.C.S. Medical Officer of Health for the County of London. St George Stock, M.A. Pembroke College, Oxford. Lecturer in Greek in the University of Birmingham. Simon Newcomb, D.Sc, LL.D. See the biographical article : Newcomb, Simon. \ SigurSsson, Jdn. | Slaughter-house. \ Simon Magus. | Solar System. Thomas Ashby, M.A., D.Litt. Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of 1 the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topography of the Roman Campagna. { Thomas Andrew Archer, M.A. Author of The Crusade of Richard I. ; &c. Timothy Augustlne Coghlan, I.S.O. r Agent-General for New South Wales. Government Statistician, New South Wales, 1 886-1 905. Honorary Fellow of the Royal Statistical Society. Author of Wealth -j and Progress of New South Wales; Statistical Account of Australia and New Zealand; &c. I Sir Thomas Barclay. Member of the Institute of International Law. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Black- burn, 1910. Theodore Freylinghuysen Collier, Ph.D. Sicily: Geography and Statistics {in part), and History [$n part); Siena {in pari); Signia; Soluntum; Sora; Spoleto; Stabiae; Subiaco. Silvester II. South Australia: Geography and Statistics. Spy {in part); State. Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass. \ " lxtus v ' Thomas Seccombe, M.A. r Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, J Smollett; University of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of 1 Stephen Sir Leslie. Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson; &c. L Walter Theodore Watts-Dunton. J See the biographical article: Watts-Dunton, Walter Theodore. j_ Sonnet. Thomas William Fox. f Professor of Textiles in the University of Manchester. Author of Mechanics of-< Spinning. Weaving. (. Thomas William Rhys Davids, M.A., LL.D., Ph.D. Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. President of the Pali Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Professor of Pali and Buddhist Literature, University College, London, 1 882-1904. Secretary and Librarian of" Royal Asiatic Society, 1 885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the Buddhists; Early Buddhism; Buddhist India; Dialogues of the Buddha; &c. The Hon. Lady Welby. Formerly Maid of Honour to Queen Victoria. Sense ; What is Meaning? Sigiri. Author of Links and Clues ; Grains of J. Signifies. Rev. William Augustus Brevoort Coolidge, M.A., F.R.G.S., Ph.D. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of • the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c. Walter Armstrong Graham. Adviser to his Siamese Majesty's Minister for Agriculture. Commander, Order of the White Elephant. Member of the Burma Civil Service, 1 889-1 903. Author of " The French Roman Catholic Mission in Siam ; Kelantan, a Handbook ; &c. Walter Armitage Justice Ford. Sometime Scholar of King's College, Cambridge. College of Music, London. Simler, Josias; Simplon Pass; Sion {town); Soleure {canton); Soleure {town); Splttgen Pass; Stans; . Stumpf, Johann. Siam. Teacher of Singing at the Royal -j Song {in music). Xiv INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES W. A. P. w. CD. W w. E. G. w. Ho. w. Hu. w. L. C. ► w. L. G. W. M. w. MacC. w. McD. w. M. F. P w. M. R. w. M. Ra. w. N. S. W. W. P.* Sir; Spain: History (in pari); States-General; Stole (in part). Solution. Walter Alison Phillips, M.A. Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Author of Modern Europe ; &c. William Cecil Dampier Whetham, M.A., F.R.S. f Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of Theory of Solution ; 1 Recent Development of Physical Science ; The Family and the Nation ; &c. I Sir William Edmund Garstin, G.C.M.G. f British Government Director, Suez Canal Co. Formerly Inspector-General of \ Sobat (in part). Irrigation, Egypt. Adviser to the Ministry of Public Works in Egypt, 1904-1908. I Wynnard Hooper, M.A. Clare College, Cambridge. Financial Editor of The Times, London. Rev. William Hunt, M.A., Litt.D. President of the Royal Historical Society, 1905-1909. Author of History of the - English Church, $97-1666; The Church of England in the Middle Ages, &c. William Lee Corbin, A.M. Associate Professor of English, Wells College, Aurora, New York State. William Lawson Grant, M.A. Professor of Colonial History, Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly J Stratheona and Mount Royal, Beit Lecturer in Colonial History, Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy 1 Lord. Council (Canadian Series). | f Statistics; I Stock Exchange. Stubbs, William. \ Spaiks, Jared. William Minto, M.A. See the biographical article : Minto, William. Sir William MacCormac, Bart. See the biographical article: MacCormac, Sir William, Bart. William McDougall, M.A. Wilde Reader in Mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford, of St John's College, Cambridge. William Matthew Flinders Petrie, F.R.S., D.C.L., Litt.D. See the biographical article: Petrie, W. M. Flinders. William Michael Rossetti. See the biographical article: Rossetti, Dante Gabriel. Sir William Mitchell Ramsay, LL.D., D.C.L., D.Litt. See the biographical article: Ramsay, Sir W. Mitchell. William Napier Shaw, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S. Director of the Meteorological Office, London. Reader in Meteorology in the University of London. President of Permanent International Meteorological Committee. Member of Meteorological Council, 1897-1905. Hon. Fellow of Emmanuel College, Cambridge. Fellow of Emmanuel College, 1877-1906; Senior Tutor, 1890-1899. Joint author of Text Book of Practical Physics; &c. William Warde Fowler, M.A. Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer, Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans; The Roman Festivals of the Republican Period ; &c. Spenser, Edmund (in pari) ;. Steele, Sir Richard (in part); Sterne, Laurence (in part). Simon, Sir John. Formerly Fellow J Subliminal Self. ■! Sinai: The Peninsula. Signorelli, Luca; Sodoma, II. -1 Smyrna (in part). Squall. Silvanus. PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES Sibyls. Sodium. Speaker. Stem. Sierra Leone. Soissons. Spectacles. Stettin. Sign-board. Solanaceae. Speranski, Count. Stickleback. Sikh Wars. Solicitor. Sphere. Stirling. Silesia. Solomon Islands. Spitsbergen. Stirlingshire. Silicon. Somersetshire. Springfield. Stockholm. Silver. Somme. Staff. Stoichiometry. Simony. Somnambulism. Stafford. Stolen Goods. Sind. Sorbonne. Staffordshire. Strassburg. Skating. Southampton. Stalactites. Stratford-on-Avon. Ski. South Carolina. Stamford. Straw and Straw Manufactures Skin Diseases. South Dakota. Stammering. Strawberry. Skye. South Sea Bubble. Stamp. Strontium. Sligo. Southwark. Starch. Strophanthus. Smallpox. Sowing. S tar-Chamber. Strychnine. Smithsonian Institution. Spalato. Staten Island. Sturgeon. Snail. Spanish-American War. State Rights. Stuttgart. Soap. .Spanish Reformed Church. Steenkirk, Styria. ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXV SHUVALOV (sometimes written Schouvaloff), PETER ANDREIVICH, Count (1827-1889), Russian diplomatist, was born in 1827 of an old Russian family which rose to distinction and imperial favour about the middle of the 18th century. Several of its members attained high rank in the army and the civil administration, and one of them may be regarded as the founder of the Moscow University and the St Petersburg Academy of the Fine Arts. As a youth Count Peter Andreivich showed no desire to emulate his distinguished ancestors. He studied just enough to qualify for the army, and for nearly twenty years he led the agreeable, commonplace life of a fashionable officer of the Guards. In 1864 Court influence secured for him the appointment of Governor-General of the Baltic Provinces, and in that position he gave evidence of so much natural ability and tact that in 1866, when the revolutionary fermentation in the younger section of the educated classes made it advisable to place at the head of the political police a man of exceptional intelligence and energy, he was selected by the emperor for the post. In addition to his regular functions, he was entrusted by his Majesty with much work of a confidential, delicate nature, including a mission to London in 1873. The ostensible object of this mission was to arrange amicably certain diplomatic difficulties created by the advance of Russia in Central Asia, but he was instructed at the same time to prepare the way for the marriage of the grand duchess Marie Alexandrovna with the duke of Edinburgh, which took place in January of the following year. At that time the emperor Alexander II. was anxious to establish cordial relations with Great Britain, and he thought this object might best be attained by appointing as his diplo- matic representative at the British Court the man who had con- ducted successfully the recent matrimonial negotiations. Count Shuvalov was accordingly appointed ambassador to London; and he justified his selection by the extraordinary diplomatic ability he displayed during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 and the subsequent negotiations, when the relations between Russia and Great Britain were strained almost to the point of rupture. After the publication of the treaty of San Stefano, which astonished Europe and seemed to render a conflict inevit- able, he concluded with Lord Salisbury a secret convention which enabled the two powers to meet in congress and find a pacific solution for all the questions at issue. In the delibera- tions and discussions of the congress he played a leading- part, and defended the interests of his country with a dexterity which excited the admiration of his colleagues; but when it became known that the San Stefano arrangements were profoundly modified by the treaty of Berlin, public opinion in Russia con- xxv. 1 demned him as too conciliatory, and reproached him with having needlessly given up many of the advantages secured by the war. For a time Alexander II. resisted the popular clamour, but in the autumn of 1879, when Prince Bismarck assumed an attitude of hostility towards Russia, Count Shuvalov, who had been long regarded as too amenable to Bismarckian influence, was recalled from his post as ambassador in London; and after living for nearly ten years in retirement, he died at St Petersburg in 1889. (D. M. W.) SHUYA, a town in the government of Vladimir, 68 m. by rail N.E. of the town of Vladimir. It is one of the chief centres of the cotton and linen industries in middle Russia. It is built on the high left bank of the navigable Teza, a tributary of the Klyazma, with two suburbs on the right bank. Annalists men- tion princes of Shuya in 1403. Its first linen manufactures were established in 1755; but in 1800 its population did not exceed 1500. In 1882 it had 19,560 inhabitants, and 18,968 in 1897. Tanneries, especially for the preparation of sheepskins — widely renowned throughout Russia — still maintain their importance, although this industry has migrated to a great extent to the country districts. The cathedral (1 799) is a large building, with five gilt cupolas. Nearly every village in the vicinity has a specialty of its own — bricks, pottery, wheels, toys, packing- boxes, looms and other weaving implements, house furniture, sieves, combs, boots, gloves, felt goods, candles, and so on. The manufacture of linen and cotton in the villages, as well as the preparation and manufacture of sheepskins and rough gloves, occupies about 40,000 peasants. The Shuya merchants carry on an active trade in these products all over Russia, and in corn, spirits, salt and other food stuffs, imported. SHWEBO, a town and district in the Sagaing division of Upper Burma. The town is situated in the midst of a rice plain, 53 m. by rail N.E. from Mandalay: pop. (1901) 9626. It is of historic interest as the birthplace and [capital of Alompra, the founder of the last Burmese dynasty. After British annexation it became an important military cantonment; but only the wing of a European regiment is now stationed here. The area of the district is 5634 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 286,891, showing an increase of 24 % in the decade. It lies between the Katha, Upper and Lower Chindwin and Mandalay districts. The Irrawaddy forms the dividing line on the east. The physical features of the district vary considerably. The Minwun range runs down the whole eastern side, skirting the Irrawaddy. In the north it is a defined range, but at Sheinmaga, in the south, it sinks to an undulation. West of the Mu river, in the centre of the district, there is a gradual ascent to the hills which divide n SIALKOT— SIAM Sagaing from the Upper Chindwin. Between these ranges and on both sides of the Mu is a plain, unbroken except for some isolated hills in the north and north-east and the low Sadaung-gyi range in the south-east. The greater part of this plain is a rice- growing tract, but on the sloping ground maize, millets, sesamum, cotton and peas are raised. A good deal of sugar is also produced from groves of the tart palm. The Mu river is navigable for three months in the year, from June to August, but in the dry season it can be forded almost anywhere. A good deal of salt is produced in a line which closely follows the railway. Coal has been worked at Letkokpin, near the Irrawaddy. The Ye-u reserved forests are much more valuable than those to the east on the Minwun and the Mudein. Extensive irrigation works existed in Shwebo district, but they fell into disrepair in King Thibaw's time. Chief of these was the Mahananda Lake. The old works have recently been in process of restoration, and in 1906 the main canal was formally opened. The rainfall follows the valleys of the Mu and the Irrawaddy, and leaves the rest of the district comparatively dry. It varies from an average of 29 to 49 in. The average temperature is 90° in the hot season, and falls to 60° or 61° in the cold season, the maximum and minimum readings being 104 and 56°. SIALKOT, or Sealkote, a town and district of British India, in the Lahore division of the Punjab. The town, which has a station on the North- Western railway, is 72 m. N.E. of Lahore. Pop. (1901) 57,956. It is a military cantonment, being the headquarters of a brigade in the 2nd division of the northern army. There are remains of a fort dating from about the 10th century; but the mound on which they stand is traditionally supposed to mark the site of a much earlier stronghold, and some authorities identify it with the ancient Sakala or Sagal. Other ancient buildings are the shrine of Baba Nanak, the first Sikh Guru, that of the Mahommedan Imam Ali-ul-hakk and Raja Tej Singh's temple. The town has an extensive trade, and manufactures of sporting implements, boots, paper, cotton, cloth and shawl-edging. There are Scottish and American missions, a Scottish mission training institution and an arts college. The District of Sialkot has an area of 1991 sq. m. It is an oblong tract of country occupying the submontane portion of the Rechna (Ravi-Chenab) Doab, fringed on either side by a line of fresh alluvial soil, above which rise the high banks that form the limits of the river-beds. The Degh, which rises in the Jammu hills, traverses the district parallel to the Ravi, and is likewise fringed by low alluvial soil. The north-eastern boundary is 20 m. distant from the outer line of the Himalayas; but about midway between the Ravi and the Chenab is a high dorsal tract, extending from beyond the border and stretching far into the district. Sialkot is above the average of the Punjab in fertility. The upper portion is very productive; but the southern portion, farther removed from the influence of the rains, shows a marked decrease of fertility. The district is also watered by numerous small torrents; and several swamps or jhils, scattered over the face of the country, are of considerable value as reservoirs of surplus water for purposes of irrigation. Sialkot is reputed to be healthy; it is free from excessive heat, judged by the common standard of the Punjab; and its average annual rainfall varies . from 35 in. near the hills to 22 in. in the parts farthest from them. The population in 1901 was 1,083,909, showing a decrease of 3 % as against an increase of 11% in the previous decade. This is explained by the fact that Sialkot contributed over 100,000 persons to the Chenab colony (q.v.). The principal crops are wheat, barley, maize, millets and sugar-cane. The district is crossed by a branch of the North-Western railway from Wazirabad to Jammu. The early history of Sialkot is closely interwoven with that of the rest of the Punjab. It was annexed by the British after the second Sikh war in 1849; since then its area has been consider- ably reduced, assuming its present proportions in 1867. During the Mutiny of 1857 the native troops plundered the treasury and destroyed all the records, when most of the European residents took refuge in the fort. SIAM (known to its inhabitants as Muang Thai), an inde- pendent kingdom of the Indo-Chinese peninsula or Further India. It lies between 4° 20' and 20 15' N. and between 96 30' and 106° E., and is bounded N. by the British Shan States and by the French Laos country, E. by the French Laos country and by Cambodia, S. by Cambodia and by the Gulf of Siam, and W. by the Tenasserim and Pegu divisions of Burma. A part of Siam which extends down the Malay Peninsula is bounded E. by the Gulf of Siam and by the South China Sea, S. by British Malaya and W. by the lower part of the Bay of Bengal. The total area is about 220,000 sq. m. (For map, see Indo-China.) The country may be best considered geographically in four parts: the northern, including the drainage area of the four rivers which unite near Pak-Nam Po to form the Menam Chao Phaya; the eastern, including the drainage area of the Nam Mun river and its tributaries; the central, including the drainage area of the Meklong, the Menam Chao Phaya and the Bang Pakong rivers; and the southern, including that part of the country which is situated in the Malay Peninsula. Northern Siam is about 60,000 sq. m. in area. In general appearance it is a series of parallel ranges of hills, lying N. and S., merely gently sloping acclivities in the S., but rising into precipitous mountain masses in the N. Between these ranges flow the rivers Meping, Mewang, Meyom and Menam, turbulent shallow streams in their upper reaches, but slow-moving and deep where they near the points of junction. The longest of them is over 250 m. from its source to its mouth. The Meping and Mewang on the W., rising among the loftiest ranges, are rapid and navigable only for small boats, while the Meyom and Menam, the eastern pair, afford passage for large boats at all seasons and for deep draught river-steamers during the flood-time. The Menam is the largest, deepest and most sluggish of the four, and in many ways resembles its continuation, the Menam Chao- Phaya lower down. On the W. the river Salween and its tributary the Thoung Yin form the frontier between the Siam and Burma for some distance, draining a part of northern Siam, while in the far north-east, for a few miles below Chieng Sen, the Mekong does the same. The districts watered by the lower reaches of the four rivers are fertile and are inhabited by a considerable population of Siamese. Farther north the country is peopled by Laos, scattered in villages along all the river banks, and by numerous communities of Shan, Karen, Kamoo and other tribes living in the uplands and on the hilltops. Eastern Siam, some 70,000 sq. m. in area, is encircled by well-defined boundaries, the great river Mekong dividing it clearly from French Laos on the N. and E., the Pnom Dang Rek hill range from Cambodia on the S. and the Dom Pia Fai range from central Siam on the W. The right bank of the Mekong being closely flanked by an almost continuous hill range, the whole of this part of Siam is practically a huge basin, the bottom of which is a plain lying from 200 to 300 ft. above sea-level, and the sides hill ranges of between 1000 and 2000 ft. elevation. The plain is for the most part sandy and almost barren, subject to heavy floods in the rainy season, and to severe drought in the dry weather. The hills are clothed with a thin shadeless growth of stunted forest, which only here and there assumes the character- istics of ordinary jungle. The river Nam Mun, which is perhaps 200 m. long, has a large number of tributaries, chief of which is the Nam Si. The river flows eastward and falls into the Mekong at 1 5 20' N. and 105 40' E. A good way farther north two small rivers, the Nam Kum and the Nam Song Kram, also tributaries of the Mekong, drain a small part of eastern Siam. Nearly two million people, mixed Siamese, Lao and Cambodian, probably among the poorest peasantry in the world, support existence in this inhospitable region. Central Siam, estimated at 50,000 sq. m. in area, is the heart of the kingdom, the home of the greater part of its population, and the source of nine-tenths of its wealth. In general appear- ance it is a great plain flanked by high mountains on its western border, inclining gently to the sea in the 3. and round the inner Gulf of Siam, and with a long strip of mountainous sea-board stretching out to the S.E. The mountain range on the W. is a SIAM continuation of one of the ranges of northern Siam, which, extending still farther southward, ultimately forms the backbone of the Malay Peninsula. Its ridge is the boundary between central Siam and Burma. The highest peak hereabouts is Mogadok, 5000 ft., close to the border. On the E. the Dom Pia Fai throws up a point over 4000 ft., and the south-eastern range which divides the narrow, littoral, Chantabun and Krat districts from Cambodia, has the Chemao, Saidao and Kmoch heights, between 3000 and 5000 ft. The Meklong river, which drains the western parts of central Siam, rises in the western border range, follows a course a little E. of S., and runs into the sea at the western corner of the inner gulf, some 200 m. distant from its source. It is a rapid, shallow stream, subject to sudden rises, and navigable for small boats only. The Bang Pakong river rises among the Wattana hills on the eastern ^border, between the Battambong province of Cambodia and Siam. It flows N., then W., then S., describing a semicircle through the fertile district of Pachim, and falls into the sea at the north-east corner of the inner gulf. The whole course of this river is about 100 m. long; its current is sluggish, but that of its chief tributary, the Nakhon Nayok river, is rapid. The Bang Pakong is navi- gable for steamers of small draught for about 30 m. The Menam Chao Phaya, the principal river of Siam, flows from the point where it is formed by the junction of the rivers of northern Siam almost due S. for 154 m., when it empties itself into the inner gulf about midway between the Meklong and Bang Pakong mouths. In the neighbourhood of Chainat, 40 m. below Paknam Poh, it throws off three branches, the Suphan river and the Menam Noi on the right, and the Lopburi river on the left bank. The latter two rejoin the parent stream at points considerably lower down, but the Suphan river remains distinct, and has an outlet of its own to the sea. At a point a little more than half- way down its course, the Menam Chao Phaya receives the waters of its only tributary, the Nam Sak, a good-sized stream which rises in the east of northern Siam a.nd waters the most easterly part (the Pechabun valley) of that section of the country. The whole course of the Menam Chao Phaya lies through a perfectly flat country. It is deep, fairly rapid, subject to a regular rise and flood every autumn, but not to sudden freshets, and is affected by the tide 50 m. inland. For 20 m. it is navigable for vessels of over 1000 tons, and were it not for the enormous sand bar which lies across the mouth, ships of almost any size could he at the port of Bangkok about that distance from the sea (see Bangkok). Vessels up to 300 tons and 12 ft. draught can ascend the river 50 m. and more, and beyond that point large river-boats and deep-draught launches can navigate for many miles. The river is always charged with a great quantity of silt which during flood season is deposited over the surrounding plain to the great enhancement of its fertility. There is prac- tically no forest growth in central Siam, except on the slopes of the hills which bound this section. The rest is open rice-land, alternating with great stretches of grass, reed jungle and bamboo scrub, much of which is under water for quite three months of the year. Southern Siam, which has an area of about 20,000 sq. m., consists of that part of the Malay Peninsula which belongs to the Siamese kingdom. It extends from 10° N. southwards to 6° 35' N. on the west coast of the peninsula, and to 6° 25' N. on the east coast, between which points stretches the frontier of British Malaya. It is a strip of land narrow at the north end and widening out towards the south, consisting roughly of the continuation of the mountain range which bounds central Siam on the W., though the range appears in certain parts as no more than a chain of hillocks. The inhabitable part of the land consists of the lower slopes of the range with the valleys and small alluvial plains which lie between its spurs. The remainder is covered for the most part with dense forest containing several kinds of valuable timber. The coast both east and west is much indented, and is studded with islands. The rivers are small and shallow. The highest mountain is Kao Luang, an almost isolated projection over 5000 ft. high, round the base of which lie the most fertile lands of this section, and near which are situated the towns of Bandon, Nakhon Sri Tammarat (Lakhon) and Patalung, as well as many villages. Geology. 1 — Very little is known of the geology of Siam. It appears to be composed chiefly of Palaeozoic rocks, concealed, in the plains, by Quaternary, and possibly Tertiary, deposits. Near Luang Prabang, just beyond the border, in French territory, limestones with Productus and Schwagerina, like the Productus limestone of the Indian Salt Range, have been found; also red clays and grau- wacke with plants similar to those of the Raniganj beds ; and violet clays with Dicynodon, supposed to be the equivalents of the Panche series of India. All these beds strike from north-east to south-west and must enter the northern part of Siam. Farther south, at Vien- Tiane, the Mekong passes through a gorge cut in sandstone, arkose and schists with a similar strike ; while at Lakhon there are steeply inclined limestones which strike north-west. Climate. — Although enervating, the climate of Siam, as is natural from the position of the country, is not one of extremes. The wet season — May to October — corresponds with the prevalence of the south-west monsoon in the Bay of Bengal. The full force of the monsoon is, however, broken by the western frontier hills; and while the rainfall at Mergui is over 180, and at Moulmein 240 in., that of Bangkok seldom exceeds 54, and Chiengmai records an average of about 42 in. Puket and Chantabun, being both on a lee shore, in this season experience rough weather and a heavy rainfall ; the latter, being farther from the equator, is the worse off in this respect. At this period the temperature is generally moderate, 65 to 75 F. at night and 75 ° to 85° by day; but breaks in the rains occur which are hot and steamy. The cooi season begins with the commencement of the north-east monsoon in the China Sea in November. While Siam enjoys a dry climate with cool nights (the thermometer at night often falling to 40 — 50 F., and seldom being over 90 in the shade by day), the eastern coast of the Malay Penin- sula receives the full force of the north-easterly gales from the sea. This lasts into February, when the northerly current begins to lose strength, and the gradual heating of the land produces local sea breezes from the gulf along the coast-line. Inland, the thermometer rises during the day to over 100 F., but the extreme continental heats of India are not known. The comparative humidity of the atmosphere, however, makes the climate trying for Europeans. Flora. — In its flora and fauna Siam combines the forms of Burma and the Shan States with those of Malaya, farther south, and of Cambodia to the south-east. The coast region is characterized by mangroves, Pandanus, rattans, and similar palms with long flexible stems, and the middle region by the great rice-fields, the coco-nut and areca palms, and the usual tropical plants of culture. In the temperate uplands of the interior, as about Luang Prabang, Hima- layan and Japanese species occur — oaks, pines, chestnuts, peach and great apple trees, raspberries, honeysuckle, vines, saxifrages, Cichoraceae, anemones and Violaceae; there are many valuable timber trees — teak, sappan, eagle-wood, wood-oil (Hopea), and other Dipterocarpaceae, Cedrelaceae, Pterocarpaceae, Xylia, iron- wood and other dye-woods and resinous trees, these last forming in many districts a large proportion of the more open forests, with an undergrowth of bamboo. The teak tree grows all over the hill districts north of latitude 15 , but seems to attain its best develop- ment on the west, and on the east does not appear to be found south of 17°. Most of the so-called Burma teak exported from Moulmein is floated down from Siamese territory. Among other valuable forest products are thingan wood (Hopea odorata), largely used for boat-building; damar oil, taken throughout Indo-China from the Dipterccarpus levis; agilla wood, sapan, rosewood, iron- wood, ebony, rattan. Among the chief productions of the plains are rice (the staple export of the country) ; pepper (chiefly from Chantabun) ; sirih, sago, sugar-cane, coco-nut and betel, Palmyra or sugar and attap palms; 'many forms cf banana and other fruit, such as durian, orange-pommelo, guava, bread-fruit, mango, jack fruit, pine-apple, custard-apple and mangosteen. Fauna. — Few countries are so well stocked with big game as is Siam. Chief of animals is the elephant, which roams wild in large numbers, and is extensively caught and tamed by the people for transport. The tiger, leopard, fishing-cat, leopard-cat, and other species of wild-cat, as well as the honey-bear, large sloth-bear, and one- and two-horned rhinoceros, occur. Among the great wild cattle are the formidable gaur, or seladang, the banting, and the water-buffalo. The goat antelope is found, and several varieties of deer. Wild pig, several species of rats, and many bats — one of the commonest being the flying-fox, and many species of monkey — especially the gibbon — are also met with. Of snakes, 56 species are known, but only 12 are poisonous, and of these 4 are sea-snakes. The waters of Siam are particularly rich in fish. The crocodile is common in many of the rivers and estuaries of Siam, and there are many lizards. The country is rich in birds, a large number of which appear to be common to Burma and Cambodia. 1 See E. Joubert in F. Gamier, Voyage a" exploration en Indo- Chine (Paris, 1873), vol. ii.; Counillon, Documents pour servir & I'etude ghlogique des environs de Luang Prabang (Cochinchine) , Comptes rendus (1896), cxxiii. 1330-1333. SIAM Inhabitants. — A census of the rural population was taken for the first time in 1905. The first census of Bangkok and its suburbs was taken in 1909. Results show the total population of the country to be about 6,230,000. Of this total about 3,000,000 are Siamese, about 2,000,000 Laos, about 400,000 Chinese, 1 1 5,000 Malay, 80,000 Cambodian and the rest Burmese, Indian, Mohn, Karen, Annamite, Kache, Lawa and others. Of Europeans and Americans there are between 1300 and 1500, mostly resident in Bangkok. Englishmen number about 500; Germans, 190; Danes, 160; Americans, 150, and other nation- alities are represented in smaller numbers. The Siamese inhabit central Siam principally, but extend into the nearer districts of all the other sections. The Laos predominate in northern and eastern Siam, Malays mingle with the Siamese in southern Siam, and the Chinese are found scattered all over, but keeping mostly to the towns. Bangkok, the capital, with some 650,000 inhabitants, is about one-third Chinese, while in the suburbs are to be found settlements of Mohns, Burmese, Annamites and Cambodians, the descendants of captives taken in ancient wars. The Eurasian population of Siam is very small compared with that of other large cities of the East. Of the tribes which occupy the mountains of Siam some are the remnants of the very ancient inhabitants of the country, probably of the Mohn-Khmer family, who were supplanted by a later influx of more civilized Khmers from the south-east, the forerunners and part-ancestors of the Siamese, and were still farther thrust into the remoter hills when the Lao-Tai descended from the north. Of these the principal are the Lawa, Lamet, Ka Hok, Ka Yuen and Kamoo, the last four collectively known to the Siamese as Ka. Other tribes, whose presence is probably owing to immigration at remote or recent periods, are the Karens of the western frontier range, the Lu, Yao, Yao Yin, Meo and Musur of northern Siam. The Karens of Siam number about 20,000, and are found as far. south as 13 N. They are mere offshoots from the main tribes which inhabit the Burma side of the boundary range, and are suDposed by some to be of Burmo-Tibetan origin. The Lu, Yao, Yao Yin, Meo and Musur have Yunnanese charac- teristics, are met with in the Shan States north of Siam and in Yun-nan, and are supposed to have found their way into northern Siam since the beginning of the 19th century. In the mountains behind Chantabun a small tribe called Chong is found, and in southern Siam the Sakei and Semang inhabit the higher ranges. These last three have Negrito characteristics, and probably represent a race far older even than the ancient Ka. The typical Siamese is of medium height, well formed, with olive complexion, darker than the Chinese, but fairer than the Malays, eyes well shaped though slightly inclined to the oblique, nose broad and flat, lips prominent, the face wide across the cheek-bones and the chin short. A thin moustache is common, the beard, if present, is plucked out, and the hair of the head is black, coarse and cut short. The lips are usually deep red and the teeth stained black from the habit of betel-chewing. The children are pretty but soon lose their charm, and the race, generally speaking, is ugly from the European standpoint. The position of women is good. Polygamy is permitted, but is common only among the upper classes, and when it occurs the first wife is acknowledged head of the household. In disposition the Siamese are mild-mannered, patient, submissive to authority, kindly and hospitable to strangers. They are a light-hearted, apathetic people, little given to quarrelling or to the commission of violent crime. Though able and intelligent cultivators they do not take kindly to any form of labour other than agricultural, with the result that most of the industries and trades of the country are in the hands of Chinese. The national costume of the Siamese is the panung, a piece of cloth about I yd. wide and 3 yds. long. The middle of it is passed round the body, which it covers from the waist to the knees, and is hitched in front so that the two ends hang down in equal length before; these being twisted together are passed back between the legs, drawn up and tucked into the waist at the middle of the back. The panung is common to both sexes, the women supplementing it with a scarf worn round the body under the arms. Among the better classes both sexes wear also a jacket buttoned to the throat, stockings and shoes, and all the men, except servants, wear hats. The staple food of the Siamese is rice and fish. Meat is eaten, but, as the slaughter of animals is against Buddhist tenets, is not often obtainable, with the exception of pork, killed by Chinese. The men smoke, but the women do not. Everybody chews betel. The principal pastimes are gambling, boat-racing, cock- and fish- fighting and kite-flying, and a kind of football. Slavery, once common, has been gradually abolished by a series of laws, the last of which came into force in 1905. No such thing as caste exists, and low birth is no insuperable bar to the attainment of the highest dignities. There are no hereditary titles , those in use being conferred for life only and being attached to some particular office. Towns. — There are very few towns with a population of over 10,000 inhabitants in Siam, the majority being merely scattered townships or clusters of villages, the capitals of the provinces (muang) being often no more than a few houses gathered round the market-place, the offices and the governor's residence. The more important places of northern Siam include Chieng Mai (q.v.), the capital ,of the north, Chieng Rai, near the northern frontier; Lampun, also known as Labong (originally Haribunchai), the first Lao settlement in Siam ; Lampang, Tern, Nan and Pre, each the seat of a Lao chief and of a Siamese commissioner; Utaradit, Pichai, Pichit, Pechabun and Raheng, the last of importance as a timber station, with Phitsnulok, Sukhotai, Swankalok, Kampeng Pet and Nakhon Sawan, former capitals of Khmer-Siamese king- doms, and at present the headquarters of provincial governments. In eastern Siam the only towns of importance are Korat and Ubon, capitals of divisions, and Nong Kai, an ancient place on the Mekong river. In central Siam, after Bangkok and Ayuthia, places of im- portance on the Menam Chao Phaya are Pak-Nam at the river mouth, the seat of a governor, terminus of a railway and site of modern fortifications; Paklat, the seat of a governor, a town of Mohns, descendants of refugees from Pegu ; Nontaburi, a few miles above Bangkok, the seat of a governor and possessing a large market; Pratoomtani, Angtong, Prom, Inburi, Chainat and Saraburi, all administrative centres ; and Lopburi, the last capital before Ayuthia and the residence of kings during the Ayuthia period, a city of ruins now gradually reawakening as a centre of railway traffic. To the west of the Menam Chao Phaya lie Suphanburi and Ratburi, ancient cities, now government headquarters; Pechaburi (the Piply of early travellers), the terminus of the western railway; and Phrapa- toom, with its huge pagoda on the site of the capital of Sri Wichaiya, a kingdom of 2000 years ago, and now a place of military, agricultural and other schools. To the east, in the Bang Pakong river-basin and down the eastern shore of the gulf, are Pachim, a divisional headquarters; Petriou (q.v.) ; Bang Plasoi, a fishing centre, with Rayong, Chantabun (q.v.) and Krat, producing gems and pepper. In southern Siam the chief towns are Chumpon; Bandon, with a growing timber industry ; Nakhon Sri Tammarat (q.v.) ; Singora Xq-v.) ; Puket (q.v.) ; Patani. Communications. — Central Siam is supplied with an exceptionally complete system of water communications; for not only has it the three rivers with their tributaries and much-divided courses, but all three are linked together by a series of canals which, running in parallel lines across the plain from E. to W., make the farthest corners of this section of the kingdom easily accessible from the capital. The level of the land is so low, the soil so soft, and stone suitable for metal so entirely absent, that the making and upkeep of roads would here be ruinously expensive. Former rulers have realized this and have therefore confined themselves to canal making. Some of the canals are very old, others are of comparatively recent construction. In the past they were often allowed to fall into dis- repair, but in 1903 a department of government was formed to control their upkeep, with the result that most of them were soon furnished with new locks, deepened, and made thoroughly service- able. The boat traffic on them is so great that the collection of a small toll more than suffices to pay for all maintenance expenses. In northern and southern Siam, where the conditions are different, roads are being slowly made, but natural difficulties are great, and travelling in those distant parts is still a matter of much discomfort. In 1909 there were 640 miles of railway open. All but 65 miles was under state management. The main line from Bangkok to the north had reached Pang Tong Phung, some distance north of Utaradit and 10 m. south of Meh Puak, which was selected as the terminus for the time being, the continuation to Chieng Mai, the original objective, being postponed pending the construction of another and more important line. This latter was the continuation through southern Siam of the line already constructed from Bangkok south-west to Petchaburi (no m.), with funds borrowed, under a recent agreement, from the Federated (British) Malay States government, which work, following upon surveys made in 1907, was begun in 1909 under the direction of a newly constituted southern branch of the Royal Railways department. From Ban Paji on the main line a branch extends north-eastwards no m. to Korat. To the east of Bangkok the Bangkok-Petriew line (40 m.) was completed and open for traffic. The postal service extends to all parts of the country and is fairly efficient. Siam joined the Postal Union in 1885. The inland tele- graph is also widely distributed, and foreign lines communicate with Saigon, the Straits Settlements and Moulmein. Agriculture. — The cultivation of paddi (unhusked rice) forms the SIAM occupation of practically the whole population of Siam outside the capital. Primitive methods obtain, but the Siamese are efficient cultivators and secure good harvests nevertheless. The sowing and planting season is from June to August, and the reaping season from December to February. Forty or fifty varieties of paddi are grown, and Siam rice is of the best in the world. Irrigation is rudimentary, for no system exists for raising the water of the in- numerable canals on to the fields. Water-supply depends chiefly, therefore, on local rainfall. In 1905 the government started pre- liminary surveys for a system of irrigation. Tobacco, pepper, coco-nuts and maize are other agricultural products. Tobacco of good quality supplies local requirements but is not exported ; pepper, grown chiefly in Chantabun and southern Siam, annually yields about 900 tons for export. From coco-nuts about 10,000 tons of copra are made for export each year, and maize is used for local consumption only. Of horned cattle statistical returns show over two million head in the whole country. Mining. — The minerals of Siam include gold, silver, rubies, sapphires, tin, copper, iron, zinc and coal. Tin-mining is a flourish- ing industry near Puket on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, and since 1905 much prospecting and some mining has been done on the east coast. The export of tin in 1908 exceeded 5000 tons, valued at over £600,000. Rubies and sapphires are mined in the Chantabun district in the south-east. The Mining Department of Siam is a well-organized branch of the government, employing several highly-qualified English experts. Timber. — The extraction of teak from the forests of northern Siam employs a large number of people. The industry is almost entirely in the hands of Europeans, British largely predominating. The number of teak logs brought out via the Salween and Menam Chao Phaya rivers average 160,000 annually, Siam being thus the largest teak-producing country of the world. A Forest Department, in which experienced officers recruited from the Indian Forest Service are employed, has for many years controlled the forests of Siam. Technology. — The government has since 1903 given attention to sericulture, and steps have been taken to improve Siamese silk with the aid of scientists borrowed from the Japanese Ministry of Agriculture. Surveying and the administration of the land have for a long time occupied the attention of the government. A Survey Department, inaugurated about 1887, has completed the general survey of the whole country, and has made a cadastral survey of a large part of the thickly inhabited and highly cultivated districts of central Siam. A Settlement Commission, organized in 1901, decided the ownership of lands, and, on completion, handed over its work to a Land Registration Department. Thus a very complete settlement of much of the richest agricultural land in the country has been effected. The education of the youth of Siam in the technology of the industries practised has not been neglected. Pupils are sent to the best foreign agricultural, forestry and mining schools, and, after going through the prescribed course, often with distinction, return to Siam to apply their knowledge with more or less success. Moreover, a college under the control of the Ministry of Lands and Agriculture, which was founded in 1909, provides locally courses of instruction in these subjects and also in irrigation engineer- ing, sericulture and surveying. Commerce. — Rice-mills, saw-mills and a few distilleries of locally consumed liquor, one or two brick and tile factories, and here and there a shed in which coarse pottery is made, are all Siam has in the way of factories. All manufactured articles of daily use are imported, as is all ironware and machinery. The foreign commerce of Siam is very ancient. Her commerce with India, China and probably Japan dates from the beginning of the Christian era or earlier, while that with Europe began in the 16th century. Trade with her immediate neighbours is now insignificant, the total value of annual imports and exports being about £400,000; but sea- borne commerce is in a very flourishing condition. Bangkok, with an annual trade valued at £13,000,000, easily overtops all the rest of the country, the other ports together accounting for a total of imports and exports not exceeding £3,000,000. On both the east and west coasts of southern Siam trade is increasing rapidly, and is almost entirely with the Straits Settlements. The trade of the west coast is carried in British ships exclusively, that on the east coast by British and Siamese. Art. — The Siamese are an artistic nation. Their architecture, drawing, goldsmith's work, carving, music and dancing are all highly developed in strict accordance with the traditions of Indo-Chinese art. Architecture, chiefly exercised in connexion with religious buildings, is clearly a decadent form of that practised by the ancient Khmers, whose architectural remains are among the finest in the world. The system of music is elaborate but is not written, vocalists and instrumentalists performing entirely by ear. The interval corre- sponding to the octave being divided into seven equal parts, each about if semitone, it follows that Siamese music sounds strange in Western ears. Harmony is unknown, and orchestras, which include fiddles, flutes, drums and harmonicons, perform in unison. The goldsmith's work of Siam is justly celebrated. Repousse work in silver, which is still practised, dates from the most ancient times. Almost every province has its special patterns and processes, the most elaborate being those of Nakhon Sri Tammarat (Ligore), Chantabun and the Laos country. In the Ligore ware the hammered ground-work is inlaid with a black composition of sulphides of baser metals which throws up the pattern with distinctness. Government. — The government of Siam is an absolute monarchy. The heir to the throne is appointed by the king, and was formerly chosen from among all the members of his family, collateral as well as descendants. The choice was sometimes made early . in the reign when the heir held the title of " Chao Uparach " or " Wang' Na," miscalled " Second King " in English, and sometimes was left until the death of the king was imminent. The arrangement was fraught with danger to the public tran- quillity, and one of the reforms of the last sovereign was the abolition of the office of " Chao Uparach " and a decree that the throne should in future descend from the king to one of his sons born of a queen, which decree was immediately followed by the appointment of a crown prince. There is a council consisting of the ten ministers of state — for foreign affairs, war, interior, finance, household, justice, metropolitan government, public works, public instruction and for agriculture — together with the general adviser. There is also a legislative council, of which the above are ex officio members, consisting of forty-five persons appointed by the king. The council meets once a week for the transaction of the business of government. The king is an autocrat in practice as well as in theory, he has an absolute power of veto, and the initiative of measures rests largely with him. Most departments have the benefit of European advisers. The government offices are conducted much on European lines. The Christian Sunday is observed as a holiday and regular hours are prescribed for attendance. The numerous palace and other functions make some demand upon ministers' time, and, as the king transacts most of his affairs at night, high officials usually keep late office hours. The Ministry of Interior and certain technical departments are recruited from the civil service schools, but many appointments in government service go by patronage. For administrative purposes the country is divided into seventeen montons (or divisions) each in charge of a high commissioner, and an 'eighteenth, including Bangkok and the surrounding suburban provinces, under the direct control of the minister for metropolitan government (see Bangkok). The high commissioners are responsible to the minister of interior, and the montons are furnished with a very complete staff for the various branches of the administration. The montons consist of groups of the old rural provinces (muang), the hereditary chiefs of which, except in the Lao country in the north and in the Malay States, have been replaced by governors trained in administrative work and subordinate to the high commissioner. Each muang is subdivided into ampurs under assistant commissioners, and these again are divided into village circles under headmen (kamnans), which circles comprise villages under the control of elders. The suburban provinces of the metropolitan monton are also divided as above. The policing of the seventeen montons is provided for by a gendarmerie of over 7000 men and officers (many of the latter Danes), a well-equipped and well-disciplined force. That of the sub- urban provinces is effected by branches of the Bangkok civil police. Finance. — The revenue administration is controlled by the ministers of the interior, of metropolitan government and of finance, by means of well-organized departments and with expert European assistance. The total revenue of the country for 1908-1909 amounted to 58,000,000 ticals, or, at the prevailing rate of exchange, about £4,300,000, made up as follows : — Farms and monopolies (spirits, gambling, &c.) . £783,000 Opium revenue 823,000 Lands, forests, mines, capitation. . . . 1,330,000 Customs and octroi 653,000 Posts, telegraphs and railways .... 331,000 Judicial and other fees 270,000 Sundries 110,000 Total £4,300,000 The unit of Siamese currency is the tieal, a silver coin about equal in weight and fineness to the Indian rupee. In 1902, owing to the serious depreciation of the value of silver, the Siamese mint was closed to free coinage, and an arrangement was made providing for the gradual enhancement of the value of the tical until a suitable value should be attained at which it might be fixed. This measure was SIAM successful, the value of the tical having thereby been increased from n jd. in 1902 to is. 5{|d. in 1909, to the improvement of the national credit and of the value of the revenues. A paper currency was established in 1902, and proved a financial success. In 1905 Siam contracted her first public loan, £1,000,000 being raised in London and Paris at 95^ and bearing 4.5 % interest. This sum was employed chiefly in railway construction, and in 1907 a second loan of £3,000,000 was issued in London, Paris and Berlin at 93! for the same purpose and for extension of irrigation works. A further sum of £4,000,000 was borrowed in 1909 from the government of the Federated (British) Malay States at par and bearing interest at 4 %, also for railway construction. Weights and Measures. — In accordance with the custom formerly prevalent in all the kingdoms of Further India, the coinage of Siam furnishes the standard of weight. The tical (baht) is the unit of currency and also the unit of weight. Eighty ticals equal one chang and fifty chang equal one haph, equivalent to the Chinese picul, or 1332ft avoirdupois. For the weighing of gold, gems, opium, &c, the fuang, equal to J tical, and the salung, equal to i tical, are used. The unit of linear measure is the wah, which is subdivided into J wah or sauk, f wah or kup, and into fa wah or niew. Twenty wah equal one sen and 400 sen equal one yote. The length of the wah has been fixed at two metres. The unit of land measure is the rai, which is equal to 400 square wah, and is subdivided into four equal ngan. Measures of capacity are the tang or bucket, and the sat or basket. Twenty tanan, originally a half coco-nut shell, equal one tang, and twenty-five of the same measure equal one sat. The tang is used for measuring rice and the sat for paddi and other grain. One sat of paddi weighs 42 J ft avoirdupois. Army and Navy. — By a law passed in 1903, the ancient system of recruiting the army and navy from the descendants of former prisoners of war was abolished in favour of compulsory service by all able-bodied men. The new arrangement, which is strictly terri- torial, was enforced in eight montons by the year 1909, resulting in a standing peace army of 20,000 of all ranks, in a marine service of about 10,000, and in the beginnings of first and second reserves. The navy, many of the officers of which are Danes and Norwegians, comprises a steel twin-screw cruiser of 2500 tons which serves as the royal yacht, four steel gunboats of between 500 and 700 tons all armed with modern quick-firing guns, two torpedo-boat destroyers and three torpedo boats, with other craft for river and coast work. Justice.— Since the institution of the Ministry of Justice in 1892 very great improvements have been effected in this branch of the administration. The • old tribunals where customary law was administered by ignorant satellites of the great, amid unspeakable corruption, have all been replaced by organized courts with qualified judges appointed from the Bangkok law school, and under the direct control of the ministry in all except the most outlying parts. The ministry is well organized, and with the assistance of European and Japanese officers of experience has drafted a large number of laws and regulations, most of which have been brought into force. Extra-territorial jurisdiction was for long secured by treaty for the subjects of all foreign powers, who could therefore only be sued in the courts maintained in Siam by their own governments, while European assessors were employed in cases where foreigners sued Siamese. An indication, however, foreshadowing the disappearance of extra-territorial rights, appeared in the treaty of 1907 between France and Siam, the former power therein surrendering all such rights where Asiatics are concerned so soon as the Siamese penal and procedure codes should have become law, and this was followed by a much greater innovation in 1909 when Great Britain closed her courts in Siam and surrendered her subjects under certain temporary conditions to the jurisdiction of the Siamese courts. When it is understood that there are over 30,000 Chinese, Annamese, Burmese and other Asiatic foreign subjects living in Siam, the importance to the country of this change will be to some extent realized. Religion. — While the pure-blooded Malays of the Peninsula are Mahommedans, the Siamese and Lao profess a form of Buddhism which is tinged by Cingalese and Burmese influences, and, especially in the more remote country districts, by the spirit-worship which is characteristic of the imaginative and timid Ka and other hill peoples of Indo-China. In the capital a curious admixture of early Brah- minical influence is still noticeable, and no act of public importance takes place without the assistance of the divinations of the Brahmin priests. The Siamese, as southern Buddhists, pride themselves on their orthodoxy; and since Burma, like Ceylon, has lost its inde- pendence, the king is regarded in the light of the sole surviving defender of the faith. There is a close connexion between the laity and priesthood, as the Buddhist rule, which prescribes that every man should enter the priesthood for at least a few months, is almost universally observed, even young princes and noblemen who have been educated in Europe donning the yellow robe on their return to Siam. A certain amount of scepticism prevails among the educated classes, and political motives may contribute to their apparent orthodoxy, but there is no open dissent from Buddhism, and those who discard its dogmas still, as a rule, venerate it as an ethical system. The accounts given by some writers as to the profligacy and immorality in the monasteries are grossly exaggerated. Many of the temples in the capital are under the direct supervision of the king, and in these a stricter rule of life is observed. Some of the priests are learned in the Buddhist scriptures, and most of the Pali scholarship in Siam is to be found in monasteries, but there is no learning of a secular nature. There is little public worship in the Christian sense of the word. On the day set apart for worship (Wan Phra, or " Day of the Lord ") the attendance at the temples is small and consists mostly of women. Religious or semi-religious cere- monies, however, play a great part in the life of the Siamese, and few weeks pass without some great function or procession. Among these the cremation ceremonies are especially conspicuous. The more exalted the personage the longer, as a rule, is the body kept before cremation. The cremations of great people, which often last several days, are the occasion of public festivities and are celebrated with processions, theatrical shows, illuminations and fireworks. The missionaries in Siam are entirely French Roman Catholics and American Protestants. They have done much to help on the general work of civilization, and the progress of education has been largely due to their efforts. Education. — As in Burma, the Buddhist monasteries scattered throughout the country carry on almost the whole of the elementary education in the rural districts. A provincial training college was established in 1903 for the purpose of instructing priests and laymen in the work of teaching, and has turned out many qualified teachers whose subsequent work has proved satisfactory. By these means, and with regular government supervision and control, the monastic schools are being brought into line with the government educational organization. They now contain not far short of 100,000 pupils. In the metropolitan monton there are primary, secondary and special schools for boys and girls, affording instruction to some 10,000 pupils. There are also the medical school, the law school, the civil service school, the military schools and the agricultural college, which are entered by students who have passed through the secondary grade for the purpose of receiving professional instruction. Many of the special . schools use the English language for conveying instruction, and there are three special schools where the whole curriculum is conducted in English by English masters. Two scholarships of £300 a year each for four years are annually com- peted for by the scholars of these schools, the winners of which proceed to Europe to study a subject of their own selection which shall fit them for the future service of their country. Most of the special schools also give scholarships to enable the best of their pupils to complete their studies abroad. The result of the wide- spread monastic school system is that almost all men can read and write a little, though the women are altogether illiterate. History. Concerning the origin of the name " Siam " many theories have been advanced. The early European visitors to the country noticed that it was not officially referred to by any such name, and therefore apparently conceived that the term must have been applied from outside. Hence the first written accounts give Portuguese, Malay and other derivations, some of which have continued to find credence among quite recent writers. It is now known, however, that " Siam " or " Sayam " is one of the most ancient names of the country, and that at least a thousand years ago it was in common use, such titles as Swankalok-Sukhotai, Shahr-i-nao, Dwarapuri, Ayuthia, the last sometimes corrupted to " Judea," by which the kingdom has been known at various periods of its history, being no more than the names of the different capital cities whose rulers in turn brought the land under their sway. The Siamese (Thai) call their country Muang Thai, or " the country of the Thai race," but the ancient name Muang Sayam has lately been revived. The gradual evolution of the Siamese (Thai) from the fusion of Lao-Tai and Khmer races has been mentioned above. Their language, the most distinctively Lao-Tai" attribute which they have, plainly shows their very close relationship with the latter race and its present branches, the Shans (Tai Long) and the Ahom of Assam, while their appearance, customs, written character and religion bear strong evidence of their affinity with the Khmers. The southward movement of the Lao-Tai family from their original seats in south-west China is of very ancient date, the Lao states of Luang Prabang and Wieng Chan on the Mekong having been founded at least two thousand years ago. The first incursions of Lao-Tai among the Khmers of northern Siam were probably later, for the town of Lampun (Labong or Haribunchai), the first Lao capital in Siam, was founded about a.d. 575. The fusion of races may be said to have begun then, for it was during the succeeding centuries that the kings of Swankalok-Sukhotai gradually assumed Lao characteristics, and that the Siamese language, written character and other racial peculiarities were in course of formation. But the finishing SIAM touches to the new race were supplied by the great expulsion of Lao-Tai from south-west China by Kublai Khan in a.d. 1250, which profoundly affected the whole of Further India. There- after the north, the west and the south-west of Siam, comprising the kingdom of Swankalok-Sukhotai, and the states of Suphan and Nakhon Sri Tammarat (Ligore), with their sub-feudatories, were reduced by the Siamese (Thai) , who, during their southern progress, moved their capital from Sukhotai to Nakhon Sawan, thence to Kampeng Pet, and thence again to Suvarnabhumi near the present Kanburi. A Sukhotai inscription of about 1284 states that the dominions of King Rama Kamheng ex- tended across the country from the Mekong to Pechaburi, and thence down the Gulf of Siam to Ligore; and the Malay annals say that the Siamese had penetrated to the extremity of the peninsula before the first Malay colony from Menangkabu founded Singapore, i.e. about 1160. Meanwhile the ancient state of Lavo (Lopburi), with its capital at Sano (Sornau or Shahr-i-nao), at one time feudatory to Swankalok-Sukhotai, remained the last stronghold of the Khmer, although even here the race was much modified by Lao-Tai blood; but presently Sano also was attacked, and its fall completed the ascendancy of the Siamese (Thai) throughout the country. The city of Ayuthia which rose in a.d. 1350 upon the ruins of Sano was the capital of the first true Siamese king of all Siam. This king's sway extended to Moulmein, Tavoy, Tenasserim and the whole Malacca peninsula (where among the traders from the west Siam was known as Sornau, i.e. Shahr-i-nau, long after Sano had disappeared — Yule's Marco Polo, ii. 260), and was felt even in Java. This is corroborated by Javan records, which describe a " Cambodian " invasion about 1340; but Cambodia was itself invaded about this time by the Siamese, who took Angkor and held it for a time, carrying off 90,000 captives. The great southward expansion here recorded is confirmed by the Chinese annals of the period. The wars with Cambodia continued with varying success for some 400 years, but Cambodia gradually lost ground and was finally shorn of several provinces, her sovereign falling entirely under Siamese influence. This, how- ever, latterly became displeasing to the French, now in Cochin China, and Siam was ultimately obliged to recognize the pro- tectorate forced on Cambodia by that power. Vigorous attacks were also made during this period on the Lao states to the north- west and north-east, followed by vast deportation of the people, and Siamese supremacy was pretty firmly established in Chieng- mai and its dependencies by the end of the 18th century, and over the great eastern capitals, Luang Prabang and Vien-chang, about 1828. During the 15th and 16th centuries Siam was frequently invaded by the Burmese and Peguans, who, attracted probably by the great wealth of Ayuthia, besieged it more than once without success, the defenders being aided by Portuguese mercenaries, till about 1555, when the city was taken and Siam reduced to dependence. From this condition, however, it was raised a few years later by the great conqueror and national hero Phra Naret, who after subduing Laos and Cambodia invaded Pegu, which was utterly overthrown in the next century by his successors. But after the civil wars of the 18th century the Burmese, having previously taken Chieng-mai, which appealed to Siam for help, entered Tenasserim and took Mergui and Tavoy in 1764, and then advancing simultaneously from the north and the west captured and destroyed Ayuthia after a two years' siege (1767). The intercourse between France and Siam began about 1680 under Phra Narain, who, by the advice of his minister, the Cephalonian adventurer Constantine Phaulcon, sent an embassy to Louis XIV. When the return mission arrived, the eagerness of the ambassador for the king's conversion to Christianity, added to the intrigues of Phaulcon with the Jesuits with the supposed intention of establishing a French supremacy, led to the death of Phaulcon, the persecution of the Christians, and the cessation of all intercourse with France. An interesting episode was the active intercourse, chiefly commercial, between the Siamese and Japanese governments from 1502 to 1632. Many Japanese settled in Siam, where they were much employed. They were dreaded as soldiers, and as individuals commanded a position resembling that of Europeans in most eastern countries. The jealousy of their increasing influence at last led to a massacre, and to the expulsion or absorption of the survivors. Japan was soon after this, in 1636, closed to foreigners; but trade was carried on at all events down to 1745 through Dutch and Chinese and occasional English traders. In 1752 an embassy came from Ceylon, desiring to renew the ancient friendship and to discuss religious matters. After the fall of Ayuthia a great general, Phaya Takh Sin, collected the remains of the army and restored the fortunes of the kingdom, establishing his capital at Bangkok; but, becoming insane, he was put to death, and was succeeded by another successful general, Phaya Chakkri, who founded the present dynasty. Under him Tenas- serim was invaded and Tavoy held for the last time by the Siamese in 1792, though in 1825, taking advantage of the Bur- mese difficulty with England, they bombarded some of the towns on that coast. The supremacy of China is indicated by occasional missions sent, as on the founding of a new dynasty, to Peking, to bring back a seal and a calendar. But the Siamese now repudiate this supremacy, and have sent neither mission nor tribute for sixty years, while no steps have been taken by the Chinese to enforce its recognition. The sovereign, Phra Para- mendr Maha Mongkut, was a very accomplished man, an en- lightened reformer and devoted to science; his death, indeed, was caused by iatigue and exposure while observing an eclipse. Many of his predecessors, too, were men of different fibre from the ordinary Oriental sovereign, while his son Chulalong Korn, who succeeded him in 1868, showed himself an administrator of the highest capacity. He died on the 23rd of October 1910. Of European nations the Portuguese first established inter- course with Siam. This was in 1511, after the conquest of Malacca by D 'Albuquerque, and the intimacy lasted over a century, the tradition of their greatness having hardly yet died out. They were supplanted gradually in the 17th century by the Dutch, whose intercourse also lasted for a similar period; but they have left no traces of their presence, as the Portuguese always did in these countries to a greater extent than any other people. English traders were in Siam very early in the 17th century; there was a friendly interchange of letters between James I. and the king of Siam, who had some Englishmen in his service, and, when the ships visited " Sia " (which was " as great a city as London ") or the queen of Patani, they were hospitably received and accorded privileges — the important items of export being, as now, tin, varnish, deer-skins and " precious drugs." Later on, the East India Company's servants, jealous at the employment of Englishmen not in their service, attacked the Siamese, which led to a massacre of the English at Mergui in 1687, and the factory at Ayuthia was abandoned in 1688. A similar attack is said to have been made in 1719 by the governor of Madras. After this the trade was neglected. Pulo Penang, an island belonging to the Siamese dependency of Kedah, was granted on a permanent lease to the East India Company in 1786, and treaties were entered into by the sultan of Kedah with the company. In 1822 John Crawfurd was sent to Bangkok to negotiate a treaty with the suzerain power, but the mission was unsuccessful. In 1824, by treaty with the Dutch, British interests became paramount in the Malay Peninsula and in Siam, and, two years later, Captain Burney signed the first treaty of friendship and commerce between England and Siam. A similar treaty was effected with America in 1833. Subsequently trade with British possessions revived, and in time a more elaborate treaty with England became desirable. Sir J. Brooke opened negotiations in 1850 which came to nothing, but in 1855 Sir J. Bowring signed a new treaty whereby Siam agreed to the appointment of a British consul in Bangkok, and to the exercise by that official of full extra- territorial powers. Englishmen were permitted to own land in certain defined districts, customs and port dues and land revenues were fixed, and many new trade facilities were granted. This important arrangement was followed at intervals by similar treaties with the other powers, the last two being those with 8 SIAM Japan in 1898 and Russia in 1899. A further convention afterwards provided for a second British consular district in northern Siam, while England and France have both appointed vice-consuls in different parts of the country. Thus foreigners in Siam, except Chinese who have no consul, could only be tried for criminal offences, or sued in civil cases, in their own consular courts. A large portion of the work of the foreign consuls, especially the British, was consequently judicial, and in 1901 the office of judge was created by the British government, a special judge with an assistant judge being appointed to this post. Meanwhile, trade steadily increased, especially with Great Britain and the British colonies of Hong Kong and Singapore. The peaceful internal development of Siam seemed also likely to be favoured by the events that were taking place outside her frontiers. For centuries she had been distracted by wars with Cambodians, Peguans and Burmans, but the incorporation of Lower Cochin China, Annam and Tongking by the French, and the annexation of Lower and Upper Burma successively by the British, freed her from all further danger on the part of her old rivals. Unfortunately, she was not destined to escape trouble. The frontiers cf Siam, both to the east and the west, had always, been vague and ill-defined, as was natural in wild and unexplored regions inhabited by more or less barbarous tribes. The frontier between Siam and the new British possessions in Burma was settled amicably and without difficulty, but the boundary question on the east was a much more intricate one and was still outstanding. Disputes with frontier tribes led to complica- tions with France, who asserted that the Siamese were occupying territory that rightfully belonged to Annam, which was now under French protection. France, while assuring the British Government that she laid no claim to the province of Luang Prabang, which was situated on both banks of the upper Mekong, roughly between the 18th and 20th parallels, claimed that farther south the Mekong formed the true boundary between Siam and Annam, and demanded the evacuation of certain Siamese posts east of the river. The Siamese refused to yield, and early in 1893 encounters took place in the disputed area, in which a French officer was captured and French soldiers were killed. The French then despatched gunboats from Saigon to enforce their demands at Bangkok, and these made their way up to the capital in spite of an attempt on the part of the Siamese naval forces to bar their way. In consequence of the resistance with which they had met, the French now greatly increased their demands, insisting on the Siamese giving up all territory east of the Mekong, including about half of Luang Prabang, on the payment of an indemnity and on the permanent with- drawal of all troops and police to a distance of 25 kilometres from the right bank of the Mekong. Ten days' blockade of the port caused the Siamese government to accede to these demands, and a treaty was made, the French sending troops to occupy Chantabun until its provisions should have been carried out. In 1895 lengthy negotiations took place between France and England concerning their respective eastern and western frontiers in Farther India. These negotiations bore important fruit in the Anglo-French convention of 1896, the chief provision of which was the neutralization by the contracting parties of the central portion of Siam, consisting of the basin of the river Menam, with its rich and fertile land, which contains most of the population and the wealth of the country. Neither eastern nor southern Siam was included in this agreement, but nothing was said to impair or lessen in any way the full sovereign rights of the king of Siam over those parts of the country. Siam thus has its independence guaranteed by the two European powers who alone have interests in Indo-China, England on the west and France on the east, and has therefore a considerable political interest similar to that of Afghanistan, which forms a buffer state between the Russian and British possessions on the north of India. Encouraged by the assurance of the Anglo-French convention, Siam now turned her whole attention to internal reform, and to such good purpose that, in a few years, improved government and expansion of trade aroused a general interest in her welfare, and gave her a stability which had before been lacking. With the growth of confidence negotiations with France were reopened, and, after long discussion, the treaty of 1893 was set aside and Chantabun evacuated in return for the cession of the provinces of Bassac, Melupre, and the remainder of Luang Prabang, all on the right bank of the Mekong, and of the maritime district of Krat. These results were embodied in a new treaty signed and ratified in 1904. Meanwhile, in 1899, negotiations with the British government led to agreements defining the status of British subjects in Siam, and fixing the frontier between southern Siam and the British Malay States, while in 1900 the provisions of Sir J. Bowring's treaty of 1855, fixing the rates of land revenue, were abrogated in order to facilitate Siamese financial reform. In 1907 a further convention was made with France, Siam returning to the French protectorate of Cambodia the province of Battambang conquered in 181 1, and in compensation receiving back from France the maritime province of Krat and the district of Dansai, which had been ceded in 1904. This convention also modified the extra-territorial rights enjoyed by France in Siam, and disclosed an inclination to recognize the material improve- ments of the preceding years. In 1907 also negotiations were opened with Great Britain, the objects of which were to modify the extra-territorial rights conceded to that power by the treaty of 1855, and to remove various restrictions regarding taxation and general administration, which, though diminished from time to time by agreement, still continued to hamper the government very much. These negotiations continued all through 1908 and resulted in a treaty, signed and ratified in 1909, by which Siam ceded to Great Britain her suzerain rights over trie dependencies of Kedah, Kelantan, Trengganu and Perlis, Malay states situated in southern Siam just north of British Malaya, containing in all about a million inhabitants and for the most part flourishing and wealthy, and obtained the practical abolition of British jurisdiction in Siam proper as well as relief from any obligations which, though probably very necessary when they were incurred, had long since become mere useless and vexatious obstacles to progress towards efficient government. This treaty, a costly one to Siam, is important as opening up a prospect of ultimate abandonment of extra- territorial rights by all the powers. Administrative reform and an advanced railway policy have made of Siam a market for the trade of Europe, which has become an object of keen competition. In 1908 the British empire retained the lead, but other nations, notably Germany, Denmark, Italy and Belgium, had recently acquired large interests in the commerce of the country. Japan also, after an interruption of more than two hundred years, had resumed active commercial relations with Siam. Authorities. — H. Alabaster, Wheel of the Law (London, 1871); Dr Anderson, English Intercourse with Siam in the 17th Century (London, 1890) ; W. J. Archer, Journey in the Mekong Valley (1892) ; C. Bock, Temples and Elephants; Sir John Bowring, The Kingdom and People of Siam (London, 1857) ; J. G. D. Campbell, Siam in the Twentieth Century (London, 1902) ; A. C. Carter, The Kingdom of Siam (New York, 1904) ; A. R. Colquhoun, Amongst the Shans (London, 1885) ; J. Crawfurd, Journal of an Embassy to Siam (London, 1829); Lord Curzon, Nineteenth Century (July, 1893); H.R.H. Prince Damrong, " The Foundation of Ayuthia," Siam Society Journal (1905); Diplomatic and Consular Reports for Bangkok and Chien Mai (1 888-1 907); Directory for Bangkok and Siam {Bangkok Times Office Annual); Francis Gamier, Voyage d' exploration en Indo-Chine (Paris, 1873); Geographical Journal, papers by J. S. Black, Lord Curzon, Lord Lamington, Professor H. Louis, J. M'Carthy, W. H. Smythe; Colonel G. E. Gerini,'; The Tonsure Ceremony," " The Art of War in Indo-Cbina "; " Siam's Intercourse with China," Asiatic Quarterly Review (1906) ; " Historical Retrospect of Junkceylon Island," Siam Society's Journal (1905); W. A. Graham, " Brief History of the R.C. Mission in Siam," Asiatic Quarterly Review (1901) ; Mrs Grindrod, Siam: a Geographical Summary; H. Hallet, A Thousand Miles on an Elephant (London, 1890) ; Captain Hamilton, A New Account of the East Indies (1688- 1723); Prince Henri d'Orleans, Around Tonquin and Siam (London, 1894); Professor A. H. Keane, Eastern Geography: Asia; Dr Keith, Journal Royal Asiatic Society (1892); C. S. Leckie, Journal Society of Arts (1894), vol. xlii. ; M. de la Loubere, Description du royaume de Siam (Amsterdam, 1714); Captain Low, Journal Asiatic Society, SIAM vol. vii. ; J. M'Carthy, Surveying and Exploring in Siam (London, 1900); Henri Mouhot, Travels in Indo-China (London, 1844); F. A. Neale, Narrative of a Residence in Siam (London, 1852) ; Sir H. Norman, The Far East (London, 1904); Bishop Pallegoix, Description du royaume Thai on Siam (Paris, 1854); H. W. Smythe, Five Years in Siam (London, 1898); J. Thomson, Antiquities of Cambodia, Malacca, Indo-China and China (London, 1875); P. A. Thompson, Lotus Land (London, 1906) ; Turpin, Histoire de Siam (Paris, 1719); F. Vincent, Land of the White Elephant; E. Young, The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe (London, 1898). Language and Literature. Siamese belongs to the well-defined Tai group of the Siamese- Chinese family of languages. Its connexion with Chinese is clear though evidently distant, but its relationship with the other languages of the Tai group is very close. It is spoken throughout central Siam, in all parts of southern Siam except Patani Monton, in northern Siam along the river-banks as far up as Utaradit and Raheng, and in eastern Siam as far as the confines of the Korat Monton. In Patani the common language is still Malay, while in the upper parts of northern, and the outlying parts of eastern, Siam the prevailing language is Lao, though the many hill tribes which occupy the ranges of these parts have distinct languages of their own. Originally Siamese was purely monosyllabic, that is, each true word consisted of a single vowel sound preceded by, or followed by, a consonant. Of such monosyllables there are less than two thousand, and therefore many syllables have to do duty for the expression of more than one idea, confusion being avoided by the tone in which they are spoken, whence the term tonal," which is applied to all the languages of this family. The language now consists of about 15,000 words, of which compounds of two monosyllabic words and appropriations from foreign sources form a very large part. Bali, the ancient language of the kingdom of Magadha, in which the sacred writings of Buddhism were made, was largely instrumental in forming all the languages of Further India, including Siamese — a fact which accounts for the numerous connecting links between the M6n, Burmese and Siamese languages of the present time, though these are of quite separate origin. When intercourse with the West began, and more especially when Western methods of government and education were first adopted in Siam, the tendency to utilize European words was very marked, but recently there has been an effort to avoid this by the coining of Siamese or Bali compound words. The current Siamese characters are derived from the more monu- mental Cambodian alphabet, which again owes its origin to the alphabet of the inscriptions, an offshoot of the character found on the stone monuments of southern India in the 6th and 8th centuries. The sacred books of Siam are still written in the Cambodian character. The Siamese alphabet consists of 44 consonants, in each of which the vowel sound " aw " is inherent, and of 32 vowels all marked not by individual letters, but by signs written above, below, before or after the consonant in connexion with which they are to be pro- nounced. It may seem at first that so many as 44 consonants can scarcely be necessary, but the explanation is that several of them express each a slightly different intonation of what is practically the same consonant, the sound of " kh," for instance, Being repre- sented by six different letters and the sound of " t " by eight. More- over, other letters are present only for use in certain words imported from Bali or Sanskrit. The vowel signs have no sound by them- selves, but act upon the vowel sound " aw " inherent in the con- sonants, converting it into " a," " i," " o," " ee," " ow," &c._ Each of the signs has a name, and some of them produce modulations so closely resembling those made by another that at the present day they are scarcely to be distinguished apart. A hard-and-fast rule of pronunciation is that only vowel or diphthong sounds, or the letters " m," " n," " ng," " k," " t " and " p " are permissible at the end of words, and hence the final letter of all words ending in anything else is simply suppressed or is pronounced as though it were a letter naturally producing one or other of those sounds. Thus many of the words procured from foreign sources, not ex- cluding Bali and Sanskrit, are more or less mutilated in pronuncia- tion, though the entirely suppressed or altered letter is still retained in writing. Siamese is written from left to right. In manuscript there is usually no space between words, but punctuation is expressed by intervals isolating phrases and sentences. The greatest difficulty with the Siamese language lies in the tonal system. Of the simple tones there are five — the even, the circumflex, the descending, the grave and the high — any one of which when applied to a word may give it a quite distinct meaning. Four of the simple tones are marked in the written character by signs placed over the consonant affected, and the absence of a mark implies that the one remaining tone is to be used. A complication B caused by the fact that the. consonants are grouped into three classes, to each of which a special tone applies, and consequently the application of a tonal sign to a letter has a different effect, accord- ing to the class to which such letter belongs. Though many syllables have to do duty for the expression of more than one idea, the majority have only one or at most two meanings, but there are some which are used with quite a number of different inflections, each of which gives the word a new meaning. Thus, for example, the syllable khao may mean " they," " badly," " rice," " white," " old," or " news," simply according to the tone in which the word is spoken. Words are unchangeable and incapable of inflection. There is no article, and no distinction of gender, number or case. These, when it is necessary to denote them, are expressed by ex- planatory words after the respective nouns; only the dative and ablative are denoted by subsidiary words, which precede the nouns, the nominative being marked by its position before, the objective by its position after, the verb, and the genitive (and also the ad- jective) by its place after the noun it qualifies. Occasionally, how- ever, auxiliary nouns serve that purpose. Words like " mother," " son," " water " are often employed in forming compounds to express ideas for which the Siamese have no single words, e.g. Idk cdn, " the son of hire," a labourer; mi mil, " the mother of the hand," the thumb. The use of class words with numerals obtains in Siamese as it does in Chinese, Burmese, Anamese, Malay and many other Eastern languages. As in these, so in Siamese the personal pronouns are mostly represented by nouns expressive of the various shades of superior or lower rank according to Eastern etiquette. The verb is, like the noun, perfectly colourless — person, number, tense and mood being indicated by auxiliary words only when they cannot be inferred from the context. Such auxiliary words are yu, " to be," " to dwell " (present) ; dai, " to have," leas, " end " (past) ; ci, " also " (future) ; the first and third follow, the second and fourth precede, the verb. H&i, " to give " (prefixed), often indicates the subjunctive. As there are compound nouns, so there are compound verbs; thus, e.g. pai, " to go," is joined to a transitive verb to convert it into an intransitive or neuter; and thtik, " to touch," and ibng, " to be compelled," serve to form a sort of passive voice. The number of adverbs, single and compound, is very large. The prepositions mostly consist of nouns. The construction of the sentence in Siamese is straightforward and simple. The subject of the sentence precedes the verb and the object follows it. The possessive pronoun follows the object. The adverb usually follows the verb. In compound sentences the verbs are placed together as in English, not separated by the object as in German. When an action is expressed in the past the word which forms with the verb the past tense is divided from the verb itself by the object. Examples are: — Rao (We) dekchai (boy) sam (three) kon (persons) cha (will) pai (go) chap (catch) pla (fish) samrap (for) hai (give) paw (father) kin (eat). Me (Mother) tan (you) yu (live) ti (place) nai (where) , or " Where is your mother ? " Me (Mother) pai (go) talat (bazaar) leao (finish), or " (My) mother has gone to the bazaar." The difficulties of the Siamese language are increased by the fact that in addition to the ordinary language of the people there is a completely different set of words ordained for the use of royalty. This " Palace language " appears to have come into existence from a desire to avoid the employment in the presence of royalty of downright expressions of vulgarity or of words which might be capable of conveying an unpleasant or indelicate idea other than the meaning intended. In the effort to escape from the vulgar, words of Sanskrit origin have been freely adopted and many Cam- bodian words are also used. The language is so complete that the dog, pig, crow and other common or unclean animals are all ex- pressed by special words, while the actions of royalty, such as eating, sleeping, walking, speaking, bathing, dying, are spoken of in words quite distinct from those used to describe similar actions of ordinary people. The prose literature of Siam consists largely of mythological and historical fables, almost all of which are of Indian origin, though many of them have come to Siam through Cambodia. Their number is larger than is usually supposed, many of them being known to few beyond the writers who laboriously copy them and the professional " raconteurs " who draw upon them to replenish their stock-in-trade. The best known have all been made into stage-plays, and it is in this form that they usually come before the notice of the general public. Amongst them are Ramakien, taken from the great Hindu epic Ramayana; Wetyasunyin, the tale of a king who became an ascetic after contemplation of a withered tree; Worawongs, the story of a prince who loved a princess and was killed by the thrust of a magic spear which guarded her; Chalaivan, the tale of a princess beloved by a crocodile; Unarud, the life story of Anuruddha, a demigod, the grandson of Krishna; Phumhon, the tale of a princess beloved by an elephant; Prang long, a story of a princess who before birth was promised to a " yak " or giant in IO SlBAWAIHI— SIBERIA return for a certain fruit which her mother desired to eat. Mahasot is an account of the wars of King Mahasot. Nok Khum is one of the theories of the genesis of mankind, the Nok Khum being the sacred goose or " Hansa " from whose eggs the first human beings were supposed to have been hatched. A consider- able proportion of the romances are founded upon episodes in the final life, or in one of the innumerable former existences, of the Buddha. The Pattama Sompothiyan is the standard Siamese life of the Buddha. Many of the stories have their scene laid in Himaphan, the Siamese fairyland, probably origin- ally the Himalaya. A great many works on astrology and the casting of horoscopes, on the ways to secure victory in war, success in love, in business or in gambling, are known, as also works on other branches of magic, to which subject the Siamese have always been partial. On the practice of medicine, which is in close alliance with magic, there are several well-known works. The Niti literature forms a class apart. The word Niti is from the Bali, and means " old saying," " tradition," " good counsel." The best known of such works are Rules for the Conduct of Kings, translated from the Bali, and The Maxims of Phra Ruang, the national hero-king, on whose wonderful sayings and doings the imagination of Siamese youth is fed. In works on history the literature of Siam is unfortunately rather poor. There can be little doubt that, as in the case of all the other kingdoms of Further India, complete and detailed chronicles were compiled from reign to reign by Order of her kings, but of the more ancient of these, the wars and disturbances which continued with such frequency down to quite recent times have left no trace. The A nnals of the North, the A nnals of Krung Kao (Ayuthia) and the Book of the Lives of the Four Kings (of the present dynasty) together form the only more or less connected history of the country from remote times down to the beginning of the present reign, and these, at least so far as the earlier parts are concerned, contain much that is inaccurate and a good deal which is altogether untrue. Foreign histories include a work on Pegu, a few tales of Cambodian kings and recently published class-books on European history compiled by the educational department. The number of works on law is considerable. The Laksana Phra Thamasat, the Phra Tamra, Phra Tamnon, Phra Racha Kamnot and Inthapat are ancient works setting forth the laws of the country in their oldest form, adapted from the Dharmacastra and the Classifi- cation of the Law of Manu. These, and also many of the edicts passed by kings of the Ayuthia period which have been preserved, are now of value more as curiosities of literature and history than anything else, since, for all practical purposes, they have long been superseded by laws more in accordance with modern ideas. The laws of the sovereigns who have reigned at Bangkok form the most notable part of this branch of Siamese literature. They include a great number of revenue regulations, laws on civil matters such as mortgage, bankruptcy, rights of way, companies, &c, and laws governing the procedure of courts, all of which adhere to Western principles in the main. The latest addition is the Penal Code, a large and comprehensive work based upon the Indian, Japanese and French codes and issued in 1908. Poetry is a very ancient art in Siam and has always been held in high honour, some of the best-known poets being, indeed, members of the royal family. There are several quite distinct forms of metre, of which those most commonly used are the Klong, the Kap and the Klon. The Klong is rhythmic, the play being on the inflection of the voice in speaking the words, which inflection is arranged according to fixed schemes; the rhyme, if it can so be called, being sought not in the similarity of syllables but of intonation. The Kap is rhythmical and also has rhyming syllables. The lines contain an equal number of syllables, and are arranged in stanzas of four lines each. The last syllable of the first line rhymes with the third syllable of the second line, the last of the second with the last of the third and also with the first of the fourth line, and the last syllable of the fourth line rhymes with the last of the second line of the next succeeding stanza. The number of poems in one or other of these two metres is very great, and includes verses on almost every theme. In the Nirat poetry, a favourite form of verse, both are often used, a stanza in Klong serving as a sort of argument at the head of a set of verses in Kap. This Nirat poetry takes the form of narrative addressed by a traveller to his lady-love, of a journey in which every object and circumstance serves but to remind the wanderer of some virtue or beauty of his correspondent. In most of such works the journey is of course imaginary, but in some cases it is a true record of travelling or campaigning, and has been found to contain in- formation of value concerning the condition at certain times of out- lying parts of the kingdom. Of the little love songs in Klon metre, called Klon pet ton, there are many hundreds. These follow a prescribed form, and consist of eight lines divided into two stanzas of four lines each, every line containing eight syllables. The last syllable of the first line rhymes with the third syllable of the second, and the final of the second line with the final of the third. The songs treat of all the aspects of love. A fourth poetical metre is Chan, which, however, is not so much used as the others. The introduction of printing in the Siamese character has re- volutionized the literature of the country. Reading has become a general accomplishment, a demand for reading matter has arisen, and bookshops stocked with books have appeared to satisfy it. The historical works above referred to have been issued in many editions, and selections from the ancient fables and romances are continually being edited and reissued in narrative form or as plays. The educational department has done good work in compiling volumes of prose and verse which have found much favour with the public. All the laws, edicts and regulations at present in force are to be had in print at popular prices. Printing, in fact, has supplied a great incentive to the development of literature, the output has increased enormously, and will doubtless continue to do so for a long time to come. (W. A. G.) SlBAWAIHI [Abu Bishr, or Abu-1 Hasan' Amr ibn'Uthman ibn Qanbar, known as Sibawaihi or Sibuya] {c. 753-793), Arabian grammarian, was by origin a Persian and a freedman. Of his early years nothing is known. At the age of thirty-two he went to Basra, where he was a pupil of the celebrated grammarian Khalil. Later he went to Bagdad, but soon left, owing to a dispute with the Kufan grammarian Kisa'i, and returned to Persia, where he died at the age of about forty. His great grammar of Arabic, known simply as The Book, is not only the earliest systematic presentation of Arabic grammar, but is recognized among Arabs as the most perfect. It is not always clear, but is very full and valuable for its many illustrations from the Koran and the poets. The Book was published by H. Derenbourg (2 vols., Paris, 1881- 1889), and a German translation, with extracts from the commentary of SirafI (d. 978) and others, was published by G. Jahn (Berlin, 1895- 1900). (G. W. T.) SIBBALD, SIR ROBERT (1641-1722), Scottish physician and antiquary, was born in Edinburgh on the 15th of April 1641. Educated at Edinburgh, Leiden and Paris, he took his doctor's degree at Angers in 1662, and soon afterwards settled as a physician in Edinburgh. In 1667 with Sir Andrew Balfour he started the botanical garden in Edinburgh, and he took a leading part in establishing the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, of which he was elected president in 1684. In 1685 he was appointed the first professor of medicine in the university. He was also appointed geographer-royal in 1682, and his numerous and miscellaneous writings deal effectively with historical and antiquarian as well as botanical and medical subjects. He died in August 1722. Amongst Sibbald's historical and antiquarian works may be mentioned A History Ancient and Modern of the Sheriffdoms of Fife and Kinross (Edinburgh, 1710, and Cupar, 1803), An Account of the Scottish Atlas (folio, Edinburgh, 1683), Scotia Ulustrata (Edinburgh, 1684) and Description of the Isles of Orkney and Shetland (iolio, Edinburgh', 171 1 and 1845). The Remains of Sir Robert Sibbald, containing his autobiography, memoirs of the Royal College of Physicians, portion of his literary correspondence and account of his manuscripts, was published at Edinburgh in 1833. SIBERIA. This name (Russ. Sibir) in the 16th century indicated the chief settlement of the Tatar khan Ku chum — Isker on the Irtysh. Subsequently the name was extended to include the whole of the Russian dominions in Asia. Geographically, Siberia is now limited by the Ural Mountains on the W., by the Arctic and North Pacific Oceans on the N. and E. respectively, and on the S. by a line running from the sources of the river Ural to the Tarbagatai range (thus separating the steppes of the Irtysh basin from those of the Aral and Balkash basins), thence along the Chinese frontier as far as the S.E. corner of Transbaikalia, and then along the rivers Argun, Amur and Usuri to the frontier of Korea. This wide area is naturally subdivided into West Siberia (basins of the Ob and the Irtysh) and East Siberia (the remainder of the region). The inhabited districts are well laid down on the best maps; but the immense areas between and beyond them are mapped only along a few routes hundreds of miles apart. The inter- Q roerapn y mediate spaces are filled in according to information _ ^' derived from various hunters. With regard to a great many rivers we know only the position of their mouths and their approximate lengths estimated by natives in terms of a day's march. Even the Name and extent. SIBERIA ii hydrographical network is very imperfectly known, especially in the uninhabited hilly tracts. 1 Like other plateaus, the great plateau of the centre of Asia, stretching from the Himalayas to Bering Strait, 2 has on its surface a number of gentle eminences (angehaufte Gebirge of K. Ritter), which, although reaching great absolute altitudes, are relatively low. 3 These heights for the most part follow a north-easterly direc- tion in Siberia. On the margins of the plateau there are several gaps or indentations, which can best be likened to gigantic trenches, like railway cuttings, as with an insensible gradient they climb to a higher level. These trenches have for successive geological periods been the drainage valleys of immense lakes (probably also of glaciers) which formerly extended over the plateau or fiords of the seas which surrounded it. And it is along these trenches that the principal commercial routes have been made for reaching the higher levels of the plateau itself. In the plateau there are in reality two terraces — a higher and a lower, both very well defined in Transbaikalia and in Mongolia. The Yablonoi range and its south-western continuation the Kentei are border-ridges of the upper terrace. Both rise very gently above it, but have steep slopes towards the lower terrace, which is occupied by the Nerchinsk steppes in Transbaikalia and by the great desert of Gobi in Mongolia (2000 to 2500 ft. above the sea). They rise 5000 to 7000 ft. above the sea; the peak of Sokhondo in Transbaikalia (111° E.) reaches nearly 8050 ft. Several low chains of mountains have their base on the lower terrace and run from south-west to north-east; they are known as the Nerchinsk Moun- tains in Transbaikalia, and their continuations reach the northern parts of the Gobi. 4 The great plateau is fringed on the north-west by a series of lofty border-ranges, which have their southern base on the plateau and their northern at a much lower level. They may be traced from the Tian-shan to the Arctic Circle, and have an east-north-easterly direction in lower latitudes and a north-easterly direction farther north. The Alai range of the Pamir, continued by the Kokshaltau range and the Khan-tengri group of the Tian-shan, and the Sailughem range of the Altai, which is continued in the unnamed border-range of West Sayan (between the Bei-kem and the Us), belong to this category. There are, however, among these border-ranges several breaches of continuity — broad depressions or trenches leading from Lake Balkash and Lake Zaisan to the upper parts of the plateau. On the other hand, there are on the western outskirts of the plateau a few mountain chains which take a direction at right angles to the above (that is, from north-west to south-east), and parallel to the great line of upheavals in south-west Asia. The Tarbagatai Moun- tains, on the borders of Siberia, as well as several chains in Turkestan, are instances. The border-ridges of the Alai Mountains, the Khan- tengri group, the Sailughem range and the West Sayan contain the highest peaks of their respective regions. Beyond 102 ° E. the configuration is complicated by the great lateral indentation of Lake Baikal. But around and north-east of this lake the same well- marked ranges fringe the plateau and turn their steep north-western slope towards the valleys of the Irkut, the Barguzin, the Muya and the Chara, while their southern base lies on the plateaus of the Selenga (nearly 4000 ft. high) and the Vitim. The peaks of the Sailughem range reach 9000 to 11,000 ft. above the sea, those of West Sayan about 10,000. In East Sayan is Munku-Sardyk, a peak 11,450 ft. high, together with many others from 8000 to 9000 ft. Farther east, on the southern shore of Lake Baikal, Khamar-daban rises to 6900 ft., and the bald dome-shaped summits of the Barguzin and southern Muya Mountains attain elevations of 6000 to 7000 ft. above sea-level. The orography of the Aldan region is little known ; but travellers who journey from the Aldan (tributary of the Lena) to the Amur or to the Sea of Okhotsk have to cross the same plateau and its border-range. The. former becomes narrower and barely attains an average altitude of 3200 ft. A typical feature of the north-eastern border of the high plateau is a succession of broad longitudinal 6 valleys along its outer base, 'The wide area between the middle Lena and the Amur, as well as the hilly tracts west of Lake Baikal, and the Yeniseisk mining region are in this condition. 2 The great plateau of North America, also turning its narrower point towards Bering Strait, naturally suggests the idea that there was a period in the history of our planet when the continents turned their narrow extremities towards the northern pole, as now they turn them towards the southern. 3 See " General Sketch of the Orography of Siberia ; " with map and " Sketch of the Orography of Minusinsk, &c," by Prince P. A. Kropotkin, in Mem. Russ. Geogr. Sot., General Geography (vol. v., 1875)- 4 The lower terrace is obviously continued in the Tarim basin of East Turkestan; but in the present state of our knowledge we cannot determine whether the further continuations of the border- ridge of the higher terrace (Yablonoi, Kentei) must be looked for in the Great Altai or in some other range situated farther south. There may be also a breach of continuity in some depression towards Barkul. 5 The word "longitudinal" is here used in an orographical, not a geological sense. These valleys are not synclinal foldings of rocks; they seem to be erosion- valleys. Alpine region. shut in on the outer side by rugged mountains having a very steep slope towards them. Formerly filled with alpine lakes, these valleys are now sheeted with flat alluvial soil and occupied by human settlements, and are drained by rivers which flow along them before they make their way to the north through narrow gorges pierced in the mountain-walls. This conformation is seen in the valley of the Us in West Sayan, in that of the upper Oka and Irkut in East Sayan, in the valley of the Barguzin, the upper Tsipa, the Muya and the Chara, at the foot of the Vitim plateau, as also, probably, in the Aldan. 6 The chains of mountains which border these valleys on the north-west contain the wildest parts of Siberia. They are named the Usinsk Mountains in West Sayan and the Tunka Alps in East Sayan; the latter, pierced by the Angara at Irkutsk, are in all probability continued north-east in the Baikal Mountains, which stretch from Irkutsk to Olkhon Island and the Svyatoi Nos peninsula of Lake Baikal, thus dividing the lake into two parts. 7 An alpine region, 100 to 150 m. in breadth, fringes the plateau on the N. W., outside of the ranges just mentioned. This constitutes what is called - in East Siberia the taiga: it consists of separate chains of mountains whose peaks rise 4800 to 6500 ft. above the sea, beyond the upper limits of forest vegetation; while the narrow valleys afford difficult means of communication, their floors being thickly strewn with boulders, or else swampy. The whole is clothed with impenetrable forest. The orography of this alpine region is very imperfectly known; but the chains have a predominant direction from south-west to north-east. They are described under different names in Siberia — the Altai Mountains in West Siberia, the Kuznetskiy Ala-tau and the Us and Oya Mountains in West Sayan, the Nizhne-Udinsk taiga or gold-mine district, several chains pierced by the Oka river, the Kitoi Alps in East Sayan, the mountains of the upper Lena and Kirenga, the Olekminsk gold-mine district, and the unnamed mountains which project north-east between the Lena and the Aldan. Outside of these alpine regions comes a broad belt of elevated plains, ranging between 1200 and 1700 ft. above the sea. These plains, which are entered by the great Siberian highway Elevated about Tomsk and extend south-west to the Altai Moun- D iai a s tains, are for the most part fertile, though sometimes dry, and are rapidly being covered with the villages of the Russian immigrants. About Kansk in East Siberia they penetrate in the form of a broad gulf south-eastwards as far as Irkutsk. Those oh the upper Lena, having a somewhat greater altitude and being situated in higher latitudes, are almost wholly unfitted for agriculture. The north-western border of these elevated plains cannot be deter- mined with exactitude. In the region between Viluisk (ontheVilui) and Yeniseisk a broad belt of alpine tracts, reaching their greatest elevation in the northern Yeniseisk taiga (between the Upper Tunguzka and the Podkamennaya Tunguzka) and continued to the south-west in lower upheavals, separates the elevated plains from the lowlands which extend towards the Arctic Ocean. In West Siberia these high plains seem to form a narrower belt towards Barnaul and Semipalatinsk, and are bordered by the Aral-Caspian depression. Farther to the north-west, beyond these high plains, comes a broad belt of lowlands. This vast tract, which is only a few dozen feet above the sea, and most probably was covered by the sea during the Post-Pliocene period, stretches from the Aral-Caspian depression to the lowlands of the Tobol, Irtysh and Ob, and thence towards the lower parts of the Yenisei and the Lena. Only a few detached mountain ranges, like the Byrranga on the Taymyr peninsula, the Syverma Mountains, the Verkhoyansk and the Kharaulakh (E. of the Lena) ranges, diversify these monotonous lowlands, which are covered with a thick sheet of black earth in the south and assume the character of barren tundras in the north. The south-eastern slope of the great plateau of Asia cannot properly be reckoned to Siberia, although parts of the province of Amur and the Maritime Province are situated on it ; South- they have quite a different character, climate and vege- eastern tation, and ought properly to be reckoned to the Man- slope ot churian region. To the east of the Yablonoi border- range plateau lies the lower terrace of the high plateau, reaching 2000 p to 2500 ft. in Transbaikalia and extending farther south-west through the Gobi to East Turkestan. The south-eastern edge of this lower terrace is fringed by a massive border-range — the Khingan — which runs in a north-easterly direction from the Great Wall of China to the sources of the Nonni-ula. A narrow alpine region (40 to 50 m.), consisting of a series of short secondary chains parallel to the border-range, fringes this latter on its eastern face. Two such folds maybe distinguished, correspond- ing on a smaller scale to the belt of alpine tracts which fringe the plateau on the north-west. The resemblance is further sustained by a broad belt of elevated plains, ranging from 1200 to 1700 ft., which 8 The upper Bukhtarma valley in the Sailughem range of the Altai system appears to belong to the same type. 'The deep fissure occupied by Lake Baikal would thus appear to consist of two longitudinal valleys connected together by the passage between Olkhon and Svyatoi Nos. Northern lowlands. 12 SIBERIA accompany the eastern edge of the plateau. The eastern Gobi, the occasionally fertile and occasionally sandy plains between the Nonni and the Sungari, and the rich plains of the Bureya and Silinji in the Amur province belong to this belt, 400 m. in breadth, the surface of which is diversified by the low hills of Ilkhuri-alin, Khulun and Turana. These high plains are bordered on the south-east by a picturesque chain — the Bureya Mountains, which are to be identified with the Little Khingan. It extends, with unaltered character, from Mukden and Kirin to Ulban Bay in the Sea of Okhotsk (close by the Shantar Islands), its peaks clothed from top to bottom with luxuriant forest vegetation, ascending 4500 to 6000 ft. A lowland belt about 200 m. broad runs in the same direction along the outer margin of the above chain. The lower Amur occupies the northern part of this broad valley. These lowlands, dotted ovef with numberless marshes and lakes, seem to have emerged from the sea at a quite recent geological period; the rivers that meander across them are still excavating their valleys. Volcanic formations, so far as is known, occur chiefly along the north-western border-range of the great plateau. Ejections of basaltic lava have been observed on the southern slope volcanoes. Q j t jjj s range, extending over wide areas on the plateau itself, over a stretch of more than 600 m. — namely, in East Sayan about Lake Kosso-gol and in the valley of the Tunka (river Irkut), in the vicinity of Selenginsk, and widely distributed on the Vitim plateau (rivers Vitim and Tsipa). Deposits of trap stretch for more than 1200 m. along the Tunguzka; they appear also in the Noril Mountains on the Yenisei, whence they extend towards the Arctic Ocean. Basaltic lavas are reported to have been found in the Aldan region. On the Pacific slope extinct volcanoes (mentioned in Chinese annals) have been reported in the Ilkhuri-alin mountains in northern Manchuria. The mineral wealth of Siberia is considerable. Gold-dust is found in almost all the alpine regions fringing the great plateau. The „ . principal gold-mining regions in these tracts are the Minerals. c^ ta ^ t jj e U p per ( or Nizhne-Udinsk) and the lower (or Yeniseisk) taigas, and the Olekma region. Gold is found on the high plateau in the basin of the upper Vitim, on the lower plateau in the Nerchinsk district, and on the upper tributaries of the Amur (especially the Oldoi) and the Zeya, in the north-east continuation of the Nerchinsk Mountains. It has been discovered also in the Bureya range, and in its north-east continuation in the Amgufi region. Auriferous sands, but not very rich, have been discovered in the feeders of Lake Hanka and the Suifong river, as also on the smaller islands of the Gulf of Peter the Great. Mining is the next most important industry after agriculture. In East Siberia gold is obtained almost exclusively from gravel-washings, quartz mining being confined to three localities, one near Vladivostok and two in Transbaikalia. In West Siberia, however, quartz-mining is steadily increasing in importance: whereas in 1900 the output of gold from this source was less than 10,000 oz., in 1904 it amounted to close upon 50,00c oz. On the other hand gravel-washing gives a declining yield in West Siberia, for while in 1900 the output from this source was approximately 172,000 oz., in 1904 it was only 81,000 oz. The districts of Mariinsk and Achinsk are the most successful quartz-mining localities. Altogether West Siberia yields annually 130,000 oz. of gold. The gold-bearing gravels of East Siberia, especially those of the Lena and the Amur, are relatively more prolific than those of West Siberia. The total yield annually amounts to some 700,000 oz., the largest quantity coming from the Olekminsk district in the province of Yakutsk, and this district is followed by the Amur region, the Maritime province, and Nerchinsk and Trans- baikalia. Silver and lead ores exist in the Altai and the Nerchinsk Mountains, as well as copper, cinnabar and tin. Iron-ores are known at several places on the outskirts of the alpine tracts (as about Irkutsk), as well as in the Selenginsk region and in the Altai. The more important iron-works of the Urals are situated on the Siberian slope of the range. Coal occurs in many Jurassic fresh-water basins, namely, on the outskirts of the Altai, in south Yeniseisk, about Irkutsk, in the Nerchinsk district, at many places in the Maritime province, and on the island of Sakhalin. Beds of excellent graphite have been found in the Kitoi Alps (Mount Alibert) and in the Turukhansk district in Yenisei. Rock-salt occurs at several places on the Lena and in Transbaikalia, and salt-springs are numerous — those of Ust-kutsk on the Lena and of Usolie near Irkutsk being the most noteworthy. A large number of lakes, especially in Transbaikalia and in Tomsk, yield salt. Lastly, from the Altai region, as well as from the Nerchinsk Mountains, precious stones, such as jasper, malachite, beryl, dark quartz, and the like, are exported. The Ekaterinburg stone-polishing works in the Urals and those of Kolyvafi in the Altai are well known. The orography sketched above explains the great development of the river-systems of Siberia and the uniformity of their course. _. The three principal rivers — the Ob, the Yenisei, and the Hirers. Lena — take their rise on the high plateau or in the alpine regions fringing it, and, after descending from the plateau and piercing the alpine regions, flow for many hundreds of miles across the high plains and lowlands before they reach the Arctic Ocean. The three rivers of north-eastern Siberia — the Yana, Indigirka and Kolyma — have the same general character, their courses being, however, much shorter, as in these latitudes the plateau approaches nearer to the Arctic Ocean. The Amur, the upper tributaries of which rise on the eastern border-range of the high plateau, is similar. The Shilka and the Argun, which form it, flow first towards the north-east along the windings of the lower terrace of the great plateau; from this the Amur descends, cutting through the Great Khingan and flowing down the terraces of the eastern versant towards the Pacific. A noteworthy feature of the principal Siberian rivers is that each is formed by the confluence of a pair of rivers. Examples are the Ob and the Irtysh, the Yenisei and the Angara (itself a double river formed by the Angara and the Lower Tunguzka), the Lena and the Vitim, the Argun and the Shilka, while the Amur in its turn receives a tributary as large as itself — the Sungari. Owing to this twinning and the general direction of their courses, the rivers of Siberia offer immense advantages for inland navigation, not only from north to south but also from west to east. It is this circumstance that facilitated the rapid invasion of Siberia ^„^f„, by the Russian Cossacks and hunters; they followed the """"""" communi- cation. courses of the twin rivers in their advance towards the east, and discovered short portages which permitted them to transfer their boats from the system of the Ob to that of the Yenisei, and from the latter to that of the Lena, a tributary of which — the Aldan — brought them close to the Sea of Okhotsk. At the present day steamers ply from Tyumen, at the foot of the Urals, to Semipalatinsk on the border of the Kirghiz steppe and to Tomsk in the very heart of West Siberia. Uninterrupted water communication could readily be established from Tyumen to Yakutsk, Aldansk, and the gold- mines of the Vitim. Owing to the fact that the great plateau separates the Lena from the Amur, no easy water communication can be established between the latter and the other Siberian rivers. The tributaries of the Amur (the Shilka with its affluent the Ingoda) become navigable only on the lower terrace of the plateau. But the trench of the Uda, to the east of Lake Baikal, offers easy access for the Great Siberian railway up to and across the high plateau. Unfortunately all the rivers are frozen for many months every year. Even in lower latitudes (52 to 55° N.) they are ice-bound from the beginning of November to the beginning of May; 1 while in 65 ° N. they are open only for 90 to 120 days, and only for 100 days (the Yenisei) or even 70 days (the Lena) in 70 ° N. During the winter the smaller tributaries freeze to the bottom, and about 1st January Lake Baikal becomes covered with a solid crust of ice capable of bearing files of loaded sledges. Numberless lakes occur in both East and West Siberia. There are wide areas on the plains of West Siberia and on the high plateau of East Siberia, which, virtually, are still passing through . . the Lacustrine period; but the total area now under Lane • water bears but a trifling proportion to the vast surface which the lakes covered even at a very recent period, when Neolithic man inhabited Siberia. All the valleys and depressions bear traces of immense post-Pliocene lakes. Even within historical times and during the 19th century the desiccation of the lakes has gone on at a very rapid rate. 2 The principal lake is Lake Baikal, more than 400 m. long, and 20 to 50 broad. Another great lake, Lake Kosso- gol, on the Mongolian frontier, is 120 m. long and 50 broad. Vast numbers of small lakes stud the Vitim and upper Selenga plateaus; the lower valley of the latter river contains the Goose Lake (Gusinoye). In the basin of the Amur are Lake Hanka (1700 sq. m.), connected with the Usuri; Lakes Kada and Kidzi, by which the lower Amur once flowed to the Pacific ; and very many smaller ones on the left side of the lower Amur. Numerous lakes and extensive marshes diversify the low plains of West Siberia ; the Baraba steppe is dotted with lakes and ponds — Lake Chany (1400 sq. m.) and the innumer- able smaller lakes which surround it being but relatively insignificant remains of the former lacustrine basins; while at the confluence of the Irtysh and the Ob impassable marshes stretch over many thousands of square miles. Several alpine lakes, of which the picturesque Teletskoye may be specially mentioned, occupy the deeper parts of the valleys of the Altai. The coast-line of Siberia is very extensive both on the Arctic Ocean and on the Pacific. The former ocean is ice-bound for at least ten months out of twelve; and, though Nordensk- jold and Captain Wiggins demonstrated (1874-1900) the Coasts possibility of navigation along its shores, it is exceedingly Mands doubtful whether it can ever become a commercial route of any importance. The coast-line has few indentations, the chief being the double gulf of the Ob and the Taz, separated from the Sea of Kara by an elongated peninsula (Samoyede), and from the bay of the Yenisei by another. The immense peninsula of Taymyr — a barren tundra intersected by the wild Byrranga Hills-projects in Cape Chelyuskin as far north as 77° 46' N. The bay of the Yana, east of the delta of the Lena, is a wide indentation sheltered on the north by the islands of New Siberia. The bays of the Kolyma, the Chaun and Kolyuchin are of little importance. The New Siberia islands are occasionally visited by hunters, as is also the small group of the Bear Islands opposite the mouth of the Kolyma. Wrangel or Kellett Island is still quite unknown. Bering Strait, at 1 The Lena at Verkholensk is navigable for 170 days, at Yakutsk for 153 days: the Yenisei at Krasnoyarsk for 196 days. s See Yadrintsev, in Izvestia of the Russian Geogr. Soc, (1886, No. 1, with maps). SIBERIA 13 the north-east extremity of Siberia, and Bering Sea between the land of the Chukchis and Alaska, with the Gulf of Anadyr, are often visited by seal-hunters, and the Commander Islands off Kamchatka are valuable stations for this pursuit. The Sea of Okhotsk, separated from the Pacific by the Kurile Archipelago and from the Sea of Japan by the islands of Sakhalin and Yezo, is notorious as one of the worst seas of the world, owing to its dense fogs and its masses of floating ice. The Shantar Islands in the bay of the Uda possess geological interest. The double bay of Gizhiga and Penzhina, as well as that of Taui, would be useful as harbours were they not frozen seven or eight months in the year and persistently shrouded in dense fogs in summer. The northern part of the Sea of Japan, which washes the Usuri region, has, besides the smaller bays of Olga and Vladimir, the beautiful Gulf of Peter the Great, on which stands Vladivostok, the Russian naval station on the Pacific. Okhotsk and Ayan on the Sea of Okhotsk, Petropav- lovsk on the east shore of Kamchatka, Nikolayevsk, and Vladivo- stok on the Sea of Japan, and Dui on Sakhalin are the only ports of Siberia. Climate. — The climate is extremely severe, even in the southern parts. This arises chiefly from the orographical structure; the vast plateau of Central Asia prevents the moderating influence of the sea from being felt. The extensive lowlands which stretch over more than one half of the area, as well as the elevated plains, lie open to the Arctic Ocean. Although attaining altitudes of 6000 to 10,000 ft., the mountain peaks of East Siberia do not reach the snow-line, which is found only en the Munku-Sardyk in East Sayan, above 10,000 ft. Patches of perpetual snow occur in East Siberia only on the mountains of the far north. On the Altai Mountains the snow-line runs at about 7000 ft. The air, after being chilled on the plateaus during the winter, drifts, owing to its greater density, down upon the lowlands; hence in the region of the lower Lena there obtains an exceedingly low temperature throughout the winter, and Verkhoyansk, in 67°N., is the pole of cold of the eastern hemi- sphere. The average temperature of winter (December to February) at Yakutsk is -40-2° F., at Verkhoyansk -53-1°. At the polar meteorological station of Sagastyr, in the delta of the Lena (73° 23' N.), the following average temperatures have been observed: January -34-3° F. (February -43-6 ), July 40-8°, year 2-1°. The lowest average temperature of a day is -61 -6° F. Nevertheless owing to the dryness of the climate, the unclouded sun fully warms the earth during the long summer days in those high latitudes, and gives a short period of warm and even hot weather in the immediate neighbourhood of the pole of cold. Frosts of -13° to -18 F. are not uncommon at Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk and Nerchinsk; even in the warmer southern regions of West Siberia and of the Amur the average winter temperature is 2-4° F. and -10-2° respectively; while at Yakutsk and Verkhoyansk the thermometer occasionally falls as low as -75 and -85 F. The minimum temperatures recorded at these two stations are -84 F. and -90° respectively; the minimum at Krasnoyarsk is -67 F., at Irkutsk -51 °, at Omsk -56 , and at Tobolsk -58 F. The soil freezes many feet deep over immense areas even in southern Siberia. More dreaded than the frosts are the terrible burans or snowstorms, which occur in eariy spring and destroy thousands of horses and cattle that have been grazing on the steppes throughout the winter. Although very heavy falls of snow take place in the alpine tracts — especially about Lake Baikal — on the other side, in the steppe regions of the Altai and Transbaikalia and in the neighbourhood of Krasnoyarsk, the amount of snow is so small that travellers use wheeled vehicles, and cattle are able to find food in the steppe. Spring sets in with remarkable rapidity and charm at the end of April; but in the second half of May come the " icy saints' days," so blighting that it is impossible to cultivate the apple or pear. After this short period of frost and snow summer comes in its full beauty; the days are very hot, and, although they are always followed by cold nights, vegetation advances at an astonishing rate. Corn sown about Yakutsk in the end of May is ripe in the end of August. Still, at many places night frosts set in as early as the second half of July. They become quite common in August and September. Nevertheless September is much warmer than May,- and October than April, even in the most continental parts of Siberia. The isotherms are exceedingly interesting. That of 32 F. crosses the middle parts of West Siberia and the southern parts of East Siberia. The summer isotherm of 68° F., which in Europe passes through Cracow and Kaluga, traverses Omsk, Krasnoyarsk and Irkutsk, whence it turns north to Yakutsk, and then south again to Vladivo- stok. Even the mouths of the Ob, Yenisei, Lena and Kolyma in 70 N. have in July an average temperature of 40 to 50°. Quite contrary is the course of the January isotherms. That of 14 F., which passes in Europe through Uleaborg in Finland only touches the southern part of West Siberia in the Altai Mountains. That of -4 F., which crosses Novaya Zemlya in Europe, passes through Tobolsk, Tomsk, Krasnoyarsk and Irkutsk, and touches 45 N. at Urga in Mongolia, turning north in the Amur region and reaching the Pacific at Nikolayevsk. The isotherm of -22° F., which touches the north point of Novaya Zemlya, passes in Siberia through Turuk- hansk (at the confluence of the Lena and the Lower Tunguzka) and descends as low as 55° N. in Transbaikalia, whence it turns north to the Arctic Ocean. Most rain falls in summer, especially in July and August. During the summer an average of 8 in. falls on a zone that stretches from Moscow and St Petersburg through Perm to Tobolsk and, after a dry belt as far as Tomsk, continues in a narrower strip as far as the S. end of Lake Baikal, then it broadens out so as to include the whole of the Amur basin, the total summer precipitation there being about 12 in. North of this zone the rainfall decreases towards the Arctic. Flora. — The flora of Siberia presents very great local varieties, not only on account of the diversity of physical characteristics, but also in consequence of the intrusion of new species from the neighbouring regions, as widely different as the arctic littoral, the arid steppes of Central Asia, and the wet monsoon regions of the Pacific littoral. Siberia is situated for the most part in what Grisebach describes as the " forest region of the Eastern continent." 1 The northern limit of this region, must, however, be drawn nearer to the Arctic Ocean. A strip 60 to 200 m. wide is totally devoid of tree vegetation. The last trees which struggle for existence on the verge of the tundras are crippled dwarfs and almost without branches, and trees a hundred years old are only a few feet high and a few inches through and thickly encrusted with lichens. 2 The following species, none of which are found in European Russia, are characteristic of the tundras — arbutus (Arctostaphilus alpina), heaths or andomedas (Cassiope tetragona and C. hypnoides), Phyllodoce taxifolia, Loiseleuria pro- cumbejis, a species of Latifolium, a Polar azalea (Osmotkamnus fragrans) and a Polar willow (Salix ardica). In Yakutsk the tundra vegetation consists principally of mosses of the genera Polytrichum, Bryum and Hypnum. Some two hundred species of flowering plants struggle for a precarious existence in the tundra region, the frozen ground and the want of humus militating against them more than the want of warmth. 3 From this northern limit to the Aral-Caspian and Mongolian steppes stretches all over Siberia the forest region; the forests are, however, very unequally distributed, covering from 50 to 99% of the area in different districts. In the hill tracts and the marshy depression of the Ob they are unbroken, except by the bald summits of the loftier mountains (goltsy) ; they have the aspect of agreeable bosquets in the Baraba steppe, and they are thinly scattered through south-eastern Transbaikalia, where the dryness of the Gobi steppe makes its influence appreciably felt. Immense marshy plains covered with the dwarf birch take their place in the north as the tundras are approached. Over this immense area the trees are for the most part the same as we are familiar with in Europe. The larch becomes predominant chiefly in two new species (Larix sibirica and L. dahurica). The fir appears in the Siberian varieties Picea obovata and P. ayanensis. The silver fir (Abies sibirica, Pinus pectinata) and the stone-pine (P. Cembra) are quite common; they reach the higher summits, where the last-named is represented by a recumbent species (Cembra pumila). The birch in the loftier alpine tracts and plateaus becomes a shrub (Betula nana, B. fruticosa), and in Transbaikalia assumes a new and very elegant aspect with a dark bark (B. da-urica). In the deeper valleys and on the lowlands of West Siberia the larches, pines and silver firs, inter- mingled with birches and aspens, attain a great size, and the streams are fringed with thickets of poplar and willow. The alpine rose (Rhododendron dauricum) clusters in masses on the higher mountains; juniper, spiraea, sorbus, the pseudo-acacia (Caragana sibirica and C. arborescens, C. jubata in some of the higher tracts), various Rosaceae — Potentilla fruticosa and Cotoneaster uniflora — the wild cherry (Prunus Padus), and many other shrubs occupy the spaces between the trees. Berry-yielding plants are found everywhere, even on the goltsy, at the upper limit of tree vegetation ; on the lower grounds they are an article of diet. The red whortleberry or cow- berry (Vaccinium Vitis idaea), the bog whortleberry (V. uliginosum, the bilberry (V. myrtillus) and the arctic bramble (Rubus arcticus) extend very far northward; raspberries and red and black currants form a luxuriant undergrowth in the forests, together with Ribes dikusha in East Siberia. The oak, elm, hazel, ash, apple, lime and maple disappear to the east of the Urals, but reappear in new varieties on the eastern slope of the border-ridge of the great plateau. 4 There we encounter the oak (Q. mongolica) , maple (Acerginala, Max.), ash (Fraxinus manchurica), elm (Ulmus montana), hazel (Corylus hetero- phylla) and several other European acquaintances. Farther east, in the Amur region, a great number of new species of European 1 According to A. Engler's Versuch einer Entwickelungsgeschichte der Pflanzenwelt (Leipzig, 1879-1882), we should have in Siberia (a) the arctic region; (b) the sub-arctic or coniferous region — north Siberian province; (c) the Central -Asian domain — Altai and Daurian mountainous regions; and (d) the east Chinese, intruding into the basin of the Amur. 2 See Middendorff 's observations on vegetable and animal life in the tundras, attractively told in vol. iv. of his Sibirische Reise. 3 Kjellmann, Vega Expeditionens Vetenskapliga Iahttagelser (Stockr holm, 1 872-1 887) reckons their number at 182; 124 species were found by Middendorff on the Taymyr peninsula, 219 along the borders of the forest region of Olenek, and 344 species within the forest region of the same; 470 species were collected by Maack in the Vilui region. 4 Nowhere, perhaps, is the change better seen than on crossing the Great Khingan. H SIBERIA trees, and even new genera, such as the cork-tree (Phellodendron amurense, walnut (Juglans manchurica) , acacia (Maackia amurensis) , the graceful climber Maximowiczia amurensis, the Japanese Trocho- stigma and many others — all unknown to Siberia proper — are met with. On the high plateau the larch predominates over all other species of conifers or deciduous trees; the wide, open valleys are thickly planted with Betula nana and B. fruticosa in the north and with thick grasses (poor in species) in the southern and drier parts. The Siberian larch predominates also in the alpine tracts fringing the plateau on the north, intermingled with the fir, stone-pine, aspen and birch. In the drier parts the Scotch fir {Pinus sylvestris) makes its appearance. In the alpine tracts of the north the narrowness^ of the valleys and the steep stony slopes strewn with debris, on which only lichens and mosses are able to grow, make every plot of green grass (even if it be only of Carex) valuable. For days consecutively the horse of the explorer can get no other food than the dwarf birch. But even in these districts the botanist and the geographer can easily distinguish between the chern or thick forest of the Altai and the taiga of East Siberia. The lower plateau exhibits, of course, new characteristics. Its open spaces are lovely prairies, on which the Daurian flora flourishes in full beauty. In spring the traveller crosses a sea of grass above which the flowers of the paeony, aconite, Orobus, Carallia, Saussurea and the like wave 4 or 5 ft. high. As the Gobi desert is approached the forests disappear, the ground becomes covered chiefly with dry Gramineae, and Salsolaceae make their appearance. The high plains of the west slope of the plateau are also rich prairies diversified with woods. Nearly all the species of plants which grow on these prairies are common to Europe (paeonies, Hemerocallis, asters, pinks, gentians, violets, Cypripedium, Aquilegia, Delphinium, aconites, irises and so on) ; but here the plants attain a much greater size; a man standing erect is often hidden by the grasses. The flora of Minusinsk — the Italy of Siberia — is well known ; the prairies on the Ishim and of the Baraba steppe are adorned with the same rich vegetation, so graphically described by Middendorff and O. Finsch. Farther north we come to the urmans of West Siberia, dense thickets of trees often rising from a treacherous carpet of thickly interlaced grasses, which conceals deep marshes, where even the bear has learnt to tread circumspectly. Fauna. — The fauna of Siberia is closely akin to that of central Europe; and the Ural Mountains, although the habitat of a few species which warrant the naturalist in regarding the southern Urals as a separate region, are not so important a boundary zoologically as they are botanically. As in European Russia, so in Siberia, three principal zones — the arctic, the boreal and the middle — may be distinguished, and these may be subdivided into several sub-regions. The Amur region shares the characteristics of the north Chinese fauna. On the whole, we may say that the arctic and boreal faunas of Europe extend over Siberia, with a few additional species in the Ural and Baraba region — a number of new species also appearing in East Siberia, some spreading along the high plateau and others along the lower plateau from the steppes of the Gobi. The arctic fauna is very poor. According to Nordenskjold 1 it numbers only twenty-nine species of mammals, of which seven are marine and seventeen or eighteen may be safely considered as living beyond the forest limit. Of these, again, four are characteristic of the land of the Chukchis. The reindeer, arctic fox {Canis lagopus), hare, wolf, lemming (Myodes obensis), collar lemming {Cuniculus torquatus) and two species of voles (Arvicolae) are the most common on land. The avifauna is very rich in migratory water and marsh fowl (Grallatores and Natatores), which come to breed in the coast region; but only five land birds — the ptarmigan (Lagopus alpinus), snow-bunting, Iceland falcon, snow-owl and raven — are permanent inhabitants of the region. The boreal fauna is, of course, much more abundant; but here also the great bulk of the species, both mammals and birds, are common to Europe and Asia. The bear, badger, wolverine, pole- cat, ermine, common weasel, otter, wolf, fox, lynx, mole, hedgehog, common shrew, water-shrew and lesser shrew (Sorex vulgaris, S. fodiens and 5. pygmaeus), two bats (the long-eared and the boreal), three species of Vespertilio (V. daubentoni, V. nattereri and V. mysta- cinus), the flying and the common squirrel (Tamias striatus), the brown, common, field and harvest mouse (Mus decumanus, M. musculus, M. sylvaticus, M. agrarius and M. minutus), four voles (Arvicola amphibius, A. rufocanus, A. rutilus and A. schistocolor), the beaver, variable hare, wild boar, roebuck, stag, reindeer, elk and Phoca annelata of Lake Baikal— all these are common alike to Europe and to Siberia; while the bear, musk-deer (Moschus moschi- ferus), ermine, sable, pouched marmot or souslik (Spermophilus eversmani), Arvicola obscurus and Lagomys hyperboraeus, distributed over Siberia, may be considered as belonging to the arctic fauna. In addition to the above -we find in East Siberia Mustela alpina, Canis alpinus, the sable antelope (Aegocerus sibiricus), several species of mouse (Mus gregatus, M. oeconomus and M. saxatilus), two voles (Arvicola russatus and A. macrotus), Syphneus aspalax and the alpine Lagomys from the Central Asian plateaus; while the tiger makes incursions not only into the Amur region but occasionally as far as Lake Baikal. On the lower terrace of the great plateau we find an admixture of Mongolian species, such as Canis corsae, Felis manul, Spermophilus dauricus, the jerboa (Dipus jaculus), two hamsters (Cricetus songarus and C. furunculus), three new voles (Arvicolae), the Tolai hare, Ogotona hare (Lagomys ogotona), Aegocerus argali, Antilope gutturosa and Equus hemionus (jighitai). Of birds no less than 285 species have been observed in Siberia, but of these forty-five only are absent from Europe. In south-east Siberia there are forty- three new species belonging to the north Manchurian or Amur fauna ; and in south-east Transbaikalia, on the borders of the Gobi steppe, only 103 species were found by G. F. R. Radde, among which the most numerous are migratory birds and the birds of prey which pursue them. The rivers and lakes of Siberia abound in hsh; but little is known of their relations with the species of neighbouring regions. 2 The insect fauna is very similar to that of Russia; but a few genera, as the Tentyria, do not penetrate into the steppe region of West Siberia, while the tropical Colasposoma, Popilia and Languria are found only in south-eastern Transbaikalia, or are confined to the southern Amur. On the other hand, several American genera (Cephalaon, Ophryasles) extend into the north-eastern parts of Siberia. 3 As in all uncultivated countries, the forests and prairies of Siberia become almost uninhabitable in summer because of the mosquitoes. East Siberia suffers less from this plague than the marshy Baraba steppe ; but on the Amur and the Sungari large gnats are an intolerable plague. The dredgings of the " Vega " expedition in the Arctic Ocean disclosed an unexpected wealth of marine fauna, and those of L. Schrenck in the north of the Japanese Sea led to the discovery of no fewer than 256 species (Gasteropods, Brachiopods and Conchifers). Even in Lake Baikal Dybowski and Godlewski discovered no fewer than ninety-three species of Gammarides and twenty-five of Gasteropods. 4 The Sea of Okhotsk is very interesting, owing to its local species and the general composition of its fauna (70 species of Molluscs and 21 of Gasteropods). The land Molluscs, notwithstanding the unfavourable conditions of climate, number about seventy species — Siberia in this respect being not far behind north Europe. The increase of many animals in size (becoming twice as large as in Europe) ; the appearance of white varieties among both mammals and birds, and their great prevalence among domesticated animals (Yakut horses) ; the migrations of birds and mammals over immense regions, from the Central Asian steppes to the arctic coast, not only in the usual rotation of the seasons but also as a result of occasional climacteric conditions are not yet fully understood (e.g. the migration of thousands and thousands of roe- buck from Manchuria across the Amur to the left bank of the river, or the migration of reindeer related by Baron F von Wrangel) ; the various coloration of many animals according to the composition of the forests they inhabit (the sable and the squirrel are well-known instances) ; the intermingling northern and southern faunas in the Amur region and the remarkable consequences of that intermixture in the struggle for existence ;— all these render the study of the Siberian fauna most interesting. Finally, the laws of distribution of animals over Siberia cannot be made out until the changes under- gone by its surface during the Glacial and Lacustrine periods are well established and the Post-Tertiary fauna is better known. The remarkable finds of Quaternary mammals about Omsk and their importance for the history of the Equidae are merely a slight indi- cation of what may be expected in this field. Population. — In 1906 the estimated population was 6,740,600. In 1897 the distribution was as follows. Geographically, though not administratively, the steppe provinces of Akmolinsk and Semipalatinsk belong to Siberia. They are described under Steppes. 1 In Vega Exped. Vetensk. lakttagelser., vol. ii. Area in Population Density Governments and Provinces. in. per sq. m. 1897. sq. m. Tobolsk 535.739 1,444,470 2-7 Tomsk . 327-173 1,947,021 5-1 Irkutsk f Yeniseisk . 981,607 572,847 0-6 (general- -! Irkutsk 280,429 515,132 1-8 government) (. Yakutsk 1,530,253 271,830 0-2 f Transbaikalia 229,520 676,407 3-o Far East j Amur . 172,826 119,909 o-6 (viceroyalty) 1 Maritime . 712,585 209,516 0-7 L Sakhalin 14,700 27,250 1-9 4.784.832 5,784.382 Av. 1-2 2 Czekanowski (Izveslia Sib. Geog. Soc, 1877) has described fifty species from the basin of the Amur ; he considers that these constitute only two-thirds of the species inhabiting that basin. 3 See L. Schrenck, Reisen und Forschungen im Amurlande (1858- 1891). 4 See Mem. de I'academie des sciences de St-Petersbourg, vol. xxii. (1876). SIBERIA 15 Of the total in 1897, 81-4% were Russians, 8-3% Turko-Tatars, 5% Mongols and 0-6% " indigenous " races, i.e. Chukchis, Koryaks, _ Ghilyaks, Kamchadales and others. Only 8 % of the Kuss aas. tota j are c l asse( j as urban. The great bulk of the popula- tion are Russians, whose number increased with great rapidity during the 19th century; although not exceeding 150,000 in 1709 and 500,000 a century later, they numbered nearly 6,500,000 in 1904. Between 1870 and 1890 over half a million free immigrants entered Siberia from Russia, and of these 80 % settled in the govern- ment of Tobolsk; and between 1890 and 1905 it is estimated that something like a million and a half free immigrants entered the country. These people came for the most part from the northern parts of the black earth zone of middle Russia, and to a smaller extent from the Lithuanian governments and the Ural governments of Perm and Vyatka. The Russians, issuing from the middle Urals, have travelled as a broad stream through south Siberia, sending branches to the Altai, to the Hi river in Turkestan and to Minusinsk, as well as down the chief rivers which flow to the Arctic Ocean, the banks of which are studded with villages 15 to 20 m. apart. As Lake Baikal is approached the stream of Russian immigration becomes narrower, being confined mostly to the valley of the Angara, with a string of villages up the Irkut; but it widens out again in Transbaikalia, and sends branches up the Selenga and its tributaries. It follows the course of the Amur, again in a succession of villages some 20 m. apart, and can be traced up the Usuri to Lake Khangka and Vladivostok, with a string of villages on the plains between the Zeya and the Silinji. Small Russian settlements are planted on a few bays of the North Pacific and the Sea of Okhotsk, as well as on Sakhalin. Colonization. — Siberia has been colonized in two different ways. On the one hand, the government sent parties (1) of Cossacks to settle on the frontiers, (2) of peasants who were bound to settle at appointed places and maintain communication along the routes, (3) of stryeltsy (i.e. Moscow imperial guards) to garrison forts, (4) of yamshiks — a special organization of Old Russia entrusted with the maintenance of horses for postal communication, and finally (5) of convicts. A good deal of the Amur region was peopled in this way. Serfs in the imperial mines were liberated and organized in Cossack regiments (the Transbaikal Cossacks) ; some of these were settled on the Amur, forming the Amur and Usuri Cossacks. Other parts of the river were colonized by peasants who emigrated with govern- ment aid, and were bound to settle in villages, along the Amur, at spots designated by officials. As a rule, this kind of colonization has not produced the results that were expected. On the other hand, free colonization has been more successful and has been undertaken on a much larger scale. Soon after the first appearance (1580) of the Cossacks of Yermak in Siberia thousands of hunters, attracted by the furs, immigrated from north Russia, explored the country, traced the first footpaths and erected the first houses in the wilder- ness. Later on serfdom, religious persecutions and conscription were the chief causes which led the peasants to make their escape to Siberia and build their villages in the most inaccessible forests, on the prairies and even on Chinese territory. But the severe measures adopted by the government against such " runaways " were power- less to prevent their immigration into Siberia. While governmental colonization studded Siberia with forts, free colonization filled up the intermediate spaces. Since the emancipation of the serfs in 1861, it has been steadily increasing, the Russian peasants of a village often emigrating en bloc. 1 Siberia was for many years a penal colony. Exile to Siberia began in the first years of its discovery, and as early as 1658 we read of the Exiles Nonconformist priest Awakum' following in chains the ex- ploring party of Pashkov on the Amur. Raskolniks or Non- conformists in the second half of the 17th century, rebel stryeltsy under Peter the Great, courtiers of rank during the reigns of the empresses, Polish confederates under Catherine II., the " Decembrists " under Nicholas I., nearly 50,000 Poles after the insurrection of 1863, and later on whole generations of socialists were sent to Siberia; while the number of common-law convicts and exiles transported thither increased steadily from the end of the 1 8th century. No exact statistics of Siberian exile were kept before 1823. But it is known that in the first years of the 19th century nearly 2000 persons were transported every year to Siberia. This figure reached an average of 18,250 in 1873-1877, and from about 1880 until the discontinuance of the system in 1900 an average of 20,000 persons were annually exiled to Siberia. After liberation the hard-labour convicts are settled in villages; but nearly all are in a wretched condition, and more than one-third have disappeared without being accounted for. Nearly 20,000 men (40,000 according to other estimates) are living in Siberia the life of brodyagi (runaways or outlaws), trying to make their way through the forests to their native provinces in Russia. Asiatic Races. — The Ural-Altaians consist principally of Turko- Tatars, Mongols, Tunguses, Finnish tribes and Samoyedes. The Samoyedes, who are confined to the province of Tobolsk, Tomsk 1 See Yadrintsev, Siberia as a Colony (in Russian, 2nd ed., St Petersburg, 1892). 1 The autobiography of the protopope Awakum is one of the most popular books with Russian Nonconformists. and Yeniseisk, do not exceed 12,000 in all. The Finns consist principally of Mordvinians (18,500), Ostiaks (20,000) and Voguls (5000). Survivals of Turkish blood, once much more numerous, are scattered all over south Siberia as far as Lake Baikal. Their territories are being rapidly occupied by Russians, and their settle- ments are cut in two by the Russian stream — the Baraba Tatars and the Yakuts being to the north of it, and the others having been driven back to the hilly tracts of the Altai and Sayan Mountains. In all they number nearly a quarter of a million. The Turkish stock of the Yakuts in the basin of the Lena numbers 227,400. Most of these Turkish tribes live by pastoral pursuits and some by agriculture, and are a most laborious and honest population. The Mongols (less than 300,000) extend into West Siberia from the high plateau — nearly 20,000 Kalmucks living in the eastern Altai. In East Siberia the Buriats occupy the Selenga and the Uda, Earts of Nerchinsk, and the steppes between Irkutsk and the upper ena, as also the Baikal Mountains and the island of Orkhon; they support themselves chiefly by live-stock breeding, but some, especially in Irkutsk, are agriculturists. On the left of the Amur there are some 60,000 Chinese and Manchurians about the mouth of the Zeya, and 26,000 Koreans on the Pacific coast. The Tunguses (nearly 70,000) occupy as their hunting-grounds an immense region on the high plateau and its slopes to the Amur, but their limits are yearly becoming more and more circumscribed both by Russian gold-diggers and by Yakut settlers. In the Maritime Province, before the Boxer uprising of 1900, 26% of the population in the N. Usuri district and 36 % in the S. Usuri district were Koreans and Chinese, and in the Amur province there were nearly 15,000 Manchus and Koreans. Jews number 32,650 and some 5000 gipsies wander about Siberia. At first the indigenous populations were pitilessly deprived of their hunting and grazing grounds and compelled to resort to agriculture — a modification exceedingly hard for them, not only on account of their poverty but also because they were compelled to settle in the less favourable regions. European civilization made them familiar with all its worst sides and with none of its best. Taxed with a tribute in furs from the earliest years of the Russian conquest, they often revolted in the 17th century, but were cruelly reduced to obedience. In 1824 the settled indigenes had to pay the very heavy rate of 11 roubles (about £1) per head, and the arrears, which soon became equal to the sums levied, were rigorously exacted. On the other hand the severe measures taken by the government prevented the growth of anything like legalized slavery on Siberian soil; but the people, ruined as they were both by the intrusion of agricultural colonists and by the exactions of government officials, fell into what was practically a kind of slavery to the merchants. Even the best-intentioned government measures, such as the importation of corn, the prohibition of the sale of spirits, and so on, became new sources of oppression. The action of mission- aries, who cared only about nominal Christianizing, had no better effect. Social Features. — In West Siberia there exist compact masses of Russians who have lost little of their primitive ethnographical features: but the case is otherwise on the outskirts. M. A. Castren characterized Obdorsk (mouth of the Ob) as a true Samoyedic town, although peopled with " Russians." The Cossacks of West Siberia have the features and customs and many of the manners of life of the Kalmucks and Kirghiz. Yakutsk is thoroughly Yakutic; marriages of Russians with Yakut wives are common, and in the middle of the 19th century the Yakut language was predominant among the Russian merchants and officials. At Irkutsk and in the valley of the Irkut the admixture of Tungus and Buriat blood is obvious, and still more in the Nerchinsk district and among the Transbaikal Cossacks settled on the Argun. They speak the Buriat language as often as Russian, and in a Buriat dress can hardly be distinguished from the Buriats. In different parts of Siberia, on the borders of the hilly tracts, intermarriage of Russians with Tatars was quite common. Of course it is now rapidly growing less, and the settlers who entered Siberia in the 19th century married Russian wives and remained thoroughly Russian. There are accordingly parts of Siberia, especially among the Raskolniks or Nonconformists, where the north Russian, the Great Russian and the Ukrainian (or southern) types have maintained themselves in their full purity, and only some differences in domestic architecture, in the disposition of their villages and in the language and character of the population remind the traveller that he is in Siberia. The special features of the language and partly also of the national character are due to the earliest settlers, who came mostly from northern Russia. The natural rate of increase of population is very slow as a rule, and does not exceed 7 or 8 per 1000 annually. The great mortality, especially among the children, is one of the causes of this, the birth- rate being also lower than in Russia. The climate of Siberia, how- ever, cannot be called unhealthy, except in certain localities where goitre is common, as it is on the Lena, in several valleys of Nerchinsk and in the Altai Mountains. The rapid growth of the actual popula- tion is chiefly due to immigration. Towns. — Only 8-1 % of the population live in towns (6-4% only in the governments of Tobolsk and Tomsk). There are seventeen towns with a population of 10,000 or more, namely, Tomsk (63,533 i6 SIBERIA in 1900) and Irkutsk (49,106)— the capitals of West and East Siberia respectively; Blagovyeshchensk (37,368), Vladivostok (38,000). Tyumen (29,651) in West Siberia, head of Siberian navigation; Barnaul (29,850), capital of the Altai region; Krasnoyarsk (33,337) and Tobolsk (21,401), both mere administrative centres; Biysk (17,206), centre of the Altai trade; Khabarovsk (15,082), adminis- trative centre of the Amur region; Chita (11,480), the capital of Transbaikalia; Nikolsk (22,000); Irbit (20,064); Kolyvan (11,703). the centre of the trade of southern Tomsk; Yeniseisk (11,539), the centre of the gold-mining region of the same name; Kurgan ( IO ,579), a growing town in Tobolsk; and Minusinsk (10,255), m the southern part of the Yeniseisk province, trading with north-west Mongolia. Education. — Education stands at a very low level. The chief town of every province is provided with* a classical gymnasium for boys and a gymnasium or progymnasium for girls; but the education there received is not of a high grade, and the desire of the local population for " real schools " is not satisfied. Primary education is in a very unsatisfactory state, and primary schools very scarce. The petitions for a university at Irkutsk, the money required for which has been freely offered to the government, have been refused, and the imperative demands of the local tradesmen for technical instruction have likewise met with little response. The Tomsk University remains incomplete, and has only 560 students. There are nevertheless eighteen scientific societies in Siberia, which issue publications of great value. Twelve natural history and ethnological museums have been established by the exiles — the Minusinsk museum being the best. There are also twenty public libraries. Agriculture. — Agriculture is the chief occupation both of the settled Russians and of the native population. South Siberia has a very fertile soil and yields heavy crops, but immense tracts of the country are utterly unfit for tillage. Altogether it is estimated that not more than 500,000 sq. m. are suitable for cultivation. The aggregate is thus distributed— 192,000 sq. m. in West Siberia, 20,000 in Akmolinsk and Semipalatinsk, 100,000 in East Siberia, 85,000 in Transbaikalia, 40,000 in Amur, and 63,000 in Usuri. In the low- lands of West Siberia cultivation is carried on up to 61 ° N. 1 On the high plains fringing the alpine tracts on the north-west it can be carried on only in the south, farther north only in the valleys, reaching 62 ° N. in that of the Lena, and in the alpine tracts in only a few valleys, as that of the Irkut. On the high plateau all attempts to grow cereals have failed, the wide trenches alone (Uda, Selenga, Jida) offering encouragement to the agriculturist. On the lower plateau, in Transbaikalia, grain is successfully raised in the Ner- chinsk region, with serious risks, however, from early frosts in the valleys. South-east Transbaikalia suffers from want of water, and the Buriats have to irrigate their fields. Although agriculture is carried on on the upper Amur, where land has been cleared from virgin forests, it really prospers only below Kumara and on the fertile plains of the Zeya and Silinji. In the depression between the Bureya range and the coast ranges it suffers greatly from the heavy July and August rains, and from inundations, while on the lower Amur the agriculturists barely maintain themselves by growing cereals in clearances on the slopes of the hills, so that the settlements on the lower Amur and Usuri continually require help from govern- ment to save them from famine. The chief grain-producing regions of Siberia an; — the Tobol and Ishim region, the Baraba, the region about Tomsk and the outskirts of the Altai. The Minusinsk district, one of the richest in Siberia (45,000 inhabitants, of whom 24,000 are nomadic), has more than 45,000 acres under crops. Mining, the second industry in point of importance, is dealt with above. Land Tenure. — Out of the total area of over 3,000,000,000 acres of land in Siberia, close upon 96 % belong to the state, while the cabinet of the reigning emperor owns 114,700,000 acres (112,300,000 in the Altai and 2,400,000 in Nerchinsk) or nearly 4%. Private property is insignificant in extent — purchase of land being permitted only in the Amur region. (In West Siberia it was only temporarily per- mitted in 1860-1868.) Siberia thus offers an example of the nationali- zation of land unparalleled throughout the world. Any purchase of land within a zone 67 m. wide on each side of the trans-Siberian railway was absolutely prohibited in 1895, and the extent of crown lands sold to a single person or group of persons never exceeds 1080 acres unless an especially useful industrial enterprise is projected, and in that case the maximum is fixed at 2700 acres. The land is held by the Russian village communities in virtue of the right of occupation. Industrial surveys, having for their object the granting of land to the peasants to the extent of 40 acres per each male head, with 8 additional acres of wood and 8 acres as a reserve, were started many years ago, and after being stopped in 1887 were commenced again in 1898. At the present time the land allotments per male head vary greatly, even in the relatively populous region of southern Siberia. In the case of the peasants the allotments vary on an average from 32 to 102 acres (in some cases from 21-6 to 240 acres); the Transbaikal Cossacks have about 111 acres per male head, and the indigenous population 108 to 154 acres. 1 The northern limits of agriculture are 60° N. on the Urals, 62° at Yakutsk, 61 ° at Aldansk, 54° 30' at Udskoi, and 53° to 54° in the interior of Kamchatka (Middendorff, Sibirische Reise, vol. iv.). The total cultivated area and the average area under crops every year have been estimated by A. Kauf mann as follows 2 : — Province or Government. Area cultivated, Acres. Under Crops (Acres). Total. Average per House- hold. Average per 100 Inhabit- ants. Tobolsk Tomsk . Yeniseisk Irkutsk Transbaikalia . Yakutsk Amur (Russians) South Usuri (peasants only) 5,670,000 8,647,000 1,830,000 1,800,000 1,415,000 81,000 143,000 151,000 3,270,000 5,259,000 977,000 910,000 872,000 43,000 143,000 151,000 13-2 15-7 13-0 13-2 9.4 o-8 19-4 24-0 243 310 267 265 159 16 275 : 375 19,737,000 11,625,000 Bee- keeping. These figures are somewhat under-estimated, but the official figures are still lower, especially for Tomsk. Tillage is conducted on very primitive methods. After four to twelve years' cultivation the land is allowed to lie fallow for fen years or more. In the Baraba district it is the practice to sow four different grain crops in five to seven years and then to let the land rest ten to twenty-five years. The yield from the principal crops fluctuates greatly; indeed in a very good year it is almost three times that in a very bad one. The southern parts of Tobolsk, nearly all the government of Tomsk (exclusive of the Narym region), southern Yeniseisk and southern Irkutsk, have in an average year a surplus of grain varying from 35 to 40% of the total crop, but in bad years the crop falls short of the actual needs of the population. There is considerable move- ment of grain in Siberia itself, the populations of vast portions of the territory, especially of the mining regions, having to rely upon imported corn. The forest area under supervision is about 30,000,000 acres (in Tobolsk, Tomsk, Yeniseisk and Irkutsk), out of a total area of forest land of 63,000,000 acres. As an independent pursuit, live-stock breeding is carried on by the Russians in eastern Transbaikalia, by the Yakuts in the province of Yakutsk, and by the Buriats in Irkutsk and Trans- baikalia, but elsewhere it is secondary to agriculture. t^k. Both cattle-breeding and sheep-grazing are more profit- s able than dairying; but the Kirghiz herds are not well tended, being left to graze on the steppes all the year, where they perish from wild animals and the cold. The live stock includes some 180,000 camels. Bee-keeping is widelycarriedon, especially inTomsk and the Altai. Honey is exported to Russia. The seeds of the stone-pine are collected for oil in West Siberia. Hunting. — Hunting is a profitable occupation, the male population of whole villages in the hilly and woody tracts setting out in October for a month's hunting. The sable, however, which formerly con- stituted the wealth of Siberia, is now exceedingly scarce. Squirrels, bears, foxes, arctic foxes, antelopes and especially deer in spring are the principal objects of the chase. The forests on the Amur yielded a rich return of furs during the first years of the Russian occupation, and the Amur sable, although much inferior to the Yakutsk and Transbaikalian, was iargely exported. Fishing. — Fishing is a valuable source of income on the lower courses of the great rivers, especially the Ob. The fisheries on Lake Baikal supply cheap food (the omul) to the poorer classes of Irkutsk and Transbaikalia. The native populations of the Amur. — Golds and Gilyaks — support themselves chiefly by fishing, when the salmon enters the Amur and its tributaries in dense masses. Fish (e.g. the keta, salmon and sturgeon) are a staple article, of diet in the north. Manufactures. — Though Siberia has within itself all the raw produce necessary for prosperous industries, it continues to import from Russia all the manufactured articles it uses. Owing to the distances over which they are carried and the bad organization of trade, all manufactured articles are exceedingly dear, especially in the east. The manufactories of Siberia employ less than 25,000 workmen, and of these some 46% are employed in West Siberia. Nearly one-third of the total value of the output represents wine- spirit, 23% tanneries, 18% tallow-melting and a considerable sum cigarette-making. It is estimated that about one-half of the Russian agricultural population supplement their income by engaging in non-agricultural pursuits, but not more than 18 to 22% carry on domestic trades, the others finding occupation in the carrying trade— which is still important, even since the construction of the railway — in hunting (chiefly squirrel-hunting) and in work in the mines. Domestic and petty trades are therefore developed only round Tyumen, Tomsk and Irkutsk. The principal of these trades are the weaving of carpets — about Tyumen; the making of wire sieves; the painting of ikons or sacred images; the making of wooden vessels and of the necessaries for the carrying trade about Tomsk (sledges, wheels, &c); ; 2 Russian Encyclopaedic Dictionary, vol. lix. (1900). SIBERIA i7 the preparation of felt boots and sheepskins; and the manufacture of dairy utensils and machinery. Weaving is engaged in for domestic purposes. But all these trades are sporadic, and are confined to limited areas, and often only to a few separate villages. Commerce. — There are no figures from which even an approximate idea can be gained as to the value of the internal trade of Siberia, but it is certainly considerable. The great fair at Irbit retains its importance, and there are, besides, over 500 fairs in Tobolsk and over 100 in other parts of the region. The aggregate returns of all these are estimated at £2,643,000 annually. The trade with the natives continues to be mainly the sale of spirits. In the external trade the exports to Russia consist chiefly of grain, cattle, sheep, butter and other animal products, furs, game, feathers and down. The production of butter for export began only in 1894, but grew with great rapidity. In 1902 some 1800 dairies were at work, the greater number in West Siberia, and 40,000 tons of butter were exported. The total trade between Russia and China amounts to about £5,500,000 annually, of which 87 % stands for imports into Russia and 13% for exports to China. Tea makes up nearly one-half of the imports, the other commodities being silks, cottons, hides and wool; while cottons and other manufactured wares constitute considerably oyer 50% of the exports. Part of this Commerce (textiles, sugar, tobacco, steel goods) is conveyed by sea to the Pacific ports. The principal centre for the remainder (textiles and petroleum), conveyed by land, is Kiakhta on the Mongolian frontier. Prior to the building of the trans-Siberian railway a fairly active trade was carried on between China and the Amur region; but since the opening of that railway (in 1902-1905) the Amur region has seriously and rapidly declined in all that concerns trade, industry, general prosperity and civilization. There is further an import trade amounting to between two and three-quarters and three millions sterling annually with Manchuria, to over one million sterling with the United States, and to a quarter to half a million sterling with Japan. As nearly as can be estimated, the total imports into Siberia amount approximately to £5,000,000, the amount having practically doubled between 1890 and 1902; the total exports average about £9,000,000. In the Far East the chief trade centres are Vladivostok and Nikolayevsk on the Amur, with Khabarovsk and Blagovyeshchensk, both on the same river. For some years a small trade was carried on by the British Captain Wiggins with the mouth of the river Yenisei through the Kara Sea, and after his death . in 1905 the Russians themselves endeavoured to carry farther the pioneer work which he had begun. Communications. — Navigation on the Siberian rivers has developed both as regards the number of steamers plying and the number of branch rivers traversed. In 1900, one hundred and thirty private and several crown steamers plied on the Ob-Irtysh river system as far as Semipalatinsk on the Irtysh, Biysk on the Ob, and Achinsk on the Chulym. The Ob- Yenisei canal is ready for use, but its actual usefulness is impaired by the scarcity of water in the smaller streams forming part of the system. On the Yenisei steamers ply from Minusinsk to Yeniseisk, and to Ghilghila at its mouth; on its tributary, the Angara, of which some rapids have been cleared, though the Padun rapids have still to be rounded by land; and on the Selenga. On the Lena and the Vitim there are steamers, and a small railway connects the Bodoibo river port with the Olekma gold-washings. In the Amur system, the Zeya, the Bureya and the Argun are navigated. The main line of communication is the great Moscow road. It starts from Perm on the Kama, and, crossing the Urals, reaches Ekaterinburg — the centre of mining industry — and Tyumen on the Tura, whence steamers ply via Tobolsk to Tomsk. From Tyumen the road proceeds to Omsk, Tomsk, Krasnoyarsk and Irkutsk, sending off from Kolyvan a branch south to Barnaul in the Altai and to Turkestan. From Irkutsk it proceeds to Transbaikalia, Lake Baikal being crossed either by steamer or (when frozen) on sledges, in either case from Listvinichnoe to Misovaya. A route was laid out about 1868 round the south shore of Lake Baikal in order to maintain communication with Transbaikalia during the spring and autumn, and in 1905 the great Siberian railway was com- pleted round the same extremity of the lake. From Lake Baikal the road proceeds to Verkhne-udinsk, Chita and Stryetensk on the Shilka, whence steamers ply to the mouth of the Amur and up the Usuri and Sungacha to Lake Khangka. When the rivers are frozen communication is maintained by sledges on the Amur; but in spring and autumn the only continuous route down the Shilka and the Amur, to its mouth, is on horseback along a mountain path (very difficult across the Bureya range). On the lower Amur and on the Usuri the journey is also difficult even on horseback. When the water in the upper Amur is low, vessels are sometimes unable to reach the Shilka. Another route of importance before the conquest of the Amur is that which connects Yakutsk with Okhotsk or Ayan. Regular postal communication is maintained by the Russians between Kiakhta and Kalgan (close by Peking) across the desert of Gobi. The first railway to reach Siberia was built in 1878, when a line was constructed between Perm, at which point travellers for Siberia „ .. used to strike off from the Kama eastwards, and Ekaterin- Kavway*. ^urg, on t jj e eas ^ eTn s i ope f the Urals. In 1884 this line was continued as far as Tyumefi, the head of navigation on the Siberian rivers. It was supposed at that time that this line would form part of the projected trans-Siberian railway; but it was finally decided, in 1885, to give a more southerly direction to the railway and to continue the Moscow-Samara line to Ufa, Zlatoust in the Urals, and Chelyabinsk on the west Siberian prairies, at the head of one of the tributaries of the Ob. Thence the line was continued across the prairies to Kurgan and Omsk, and from there it followed the great Siberian highway to Krasnoyarsk and Irkutsk, and on round Lake Baikal to Chita and Stryetensk on the Shilka. From that place it was intended to push it down the Amur to Khabarovsk, and finally to proceed up the Usuri to Vladivostok. The building of the railway was begun at several points at once in 1892; it had, indeed, been started a year before that in the Usuri section. For reasons indicated elsewhere (see Russia : Railways) it was found inadvisable to continue the railroad along the Shilka and the Amur to Khabarovsk, and arrangements were made in 1 896 with the Chinese government for the construction of a trans- Manchurian railway. This line connects Kaidalovo, 20 m. below Chita, with Vladivostok, and sends off a branch from Kharbin, on the Sungari, to Dalny and Port Arthur. Those parts of it which run through Russian territory (in Transbaikalia 230 m.; in the neighbourhood of Vladivostok 67 m.) were opened in 1902, and also the trans-Manchurian line (1000 m.), although not quite completed. A line was constructed from Vladivostok to the Amur before it became known that the idea of following the latter part of the route originally laid down would have to be abandoned. This line, which has been in working order since 1898, is 479 m. long, and proceeds first to Grafskay^, across the fertile and populous south Usuri region, then down the Usuri to Khabarovsk at the confluence of that river with the Amur. Returning westwards, Chelyabinsk has been connected with Ekaterinburg (153 m.) ; and a branch line has been built from the main Siberian line to Tomsk (54 m.). Altogether the entire railway system, including the cost of the Usuri line, the unfinished Amur line, the circum-Baikal line and the eastern Chinese railway, is put down at a total of £87,555,760, and the total distance, all branches included, is 5413 m., of which 1070 m. are in Chinese territory. Histgry. — The shores of all the lakes which filled the depressions during the Lacustrine period abound in remains dating from the Neolithic Stone period; and numberless kurgans (tumuli), furnaces and so on bear witness to a much denser population than the present. During the great migrations in Asia from east to west many popula- tions were probably driven to the northern borders of the great plateau and thence compelled to descend into Siberia; succeeding waves of immigration forced them still farther towards the barren grounds of the north, where they melted away. According to Radlov, the earliest inhabitants of Siberia were the Yeniseians, who spoke a language different from the Ural-Altaic; some few traces of them (Yeniseians, Sayan-Ostiaks, and Kottes) exist among the Sayan Mountains. The Yeniseians were followed by the Ugro- Samoyedes, who also came originally from the high plateau and were compelled, probably during the great migration of the Huns in the 3rd century B.C., to cross the Altai and Sayan ranges and to enter Siberia. To them must be assigned the very numerous remains dating from the Bronze period which are scattered all over southern Siberia. Iron was unknown to them; but they excelled in bronze, silver and gold work. Their bronze ornaments and implements, often polished, evince considerable artistic taste ; and their irrigated fields covered wide areas in the fertile tracts. On the whole, their civilization stood much higher than that of their more recent suc- cessors. Eight centuries later the Turkish stocks of " Tukiu " (the Chinese spelling for "Turks"), Khagases and Uigurs — also com- pelled to migrate north-westwards from their former seats — subdued the Ugro-Samoyedes. These new invaders likewise left numerous traces of their sojourn,. and two different periods may be easily distinguished in their remains. They were acquainted with iron, and learned from their subjects the art of bronze-casting, which they used for decorative purposes only, and to which they gave a still higher artistic stamp. Their pottery is much more perfect and more artistic than that of the Bronze period, and their ornaments are accounted among the finest of the collections at the St Petersburg museum of the Hermitage. This Turkish empire of the Khagases must have lasted until the 13th century, when the Mongols, under Jenghiz Khan, subdued them and destroyed their civilization. A decided decline is shown by the graves which have been discovered, until the country reached the low level atwhich it was found by the Russians on their arrival towards the close of the 16th century. In the beginning of the 1 6th century Tatar fugitives from Turkestan subdued the loosely associated tribes inhabiting the lowlands to the east of the Urals. Agriculturists, tanners, merchants and mollahs (priests) were called from Turkestan, and small principalities sprang up on the Irtysh and the Ob. These were united by Khan Ediger, and conflicts with the Russians who were then colonizing the Urals brought him into collision with Moscow; his envoys came to Moscow in 1555 and consented to a yearly tribute of a thousand sables. As early as the nth centuiy the Novgorodians had occasionally pene- trated into Siberia; but the fall of the republic and the loss of it's north-eastern dependencies checked the advance of the Russians across the Urals. On the defeat of the adventurer Stenka Razin (1667-1671) many who were unwilling to submit to the iron rule of Moscow made their way to the settlements of Stroganov in Perm, J i8 SIBI— SIBSAGAR and tradition has it that, in order to get rid of his guests, Stroganov suggested to their chief, Yermak, that he should cross the Urals into Siberia, promising to help him with supplies of food and arms. Yermak entered Siberia in 1580 with a band of 1636 men, following the Tagil and Tura rivers. Next year they were on the Tobol, and 500 men successfully laid siege to Isker, the residence of Khan Kuchum, in the neighbourhood of what is now Tobolsk. Kuchum fled to the steppes, abandoning his domains to Yermak, who, accord- ing to tradition, purchased by the present of Siberia to Ivan IV. his own restoration to favour. Yermak was drowned in the Irtysh in 1584 and the Cossacks abandoned Siberia. But new bands of hunters and adventurers poured every year into the country, and were supported by Moscow. To avoid conflicts with the denser populations of the south, they preferred to advance eastwards along higher latitudes; meanwhile Moscow erected forts and settled labourers around them to supply the garrisons with food. Within eighty years the Russians had reached the Amur and the Pacific. This rapid conquest is accounted for by the circumstance that neither Tatars nor Turks were able to offer any serious resistance. In 1607- 1610 the Tunguses fought strenuously for their independence, but were subdued about 1623. I n 1628 the Russians reached the Lena, founded the fort of Yakutsk in 1637, and two years later reached the Sea of Okhotsk at the mouth of the Ulya river. The Buriats offered some opposition, but between 1631 and 1641 the Cossacks erected several palisaded forts in their territory, and in 1648 the fort on the upper Uda beyond Lake Baikal. In 1643 Poyarkov's boats descended the Amur, returning to Yakutsk by the Sea of Okhotsk and the Aldan, and in 1 649-1 650 Khabarov occupied the banks of the Amur. The resistance of the Chinese, however, obliged the Cossacks to quit their forts, and by the treaty of Nerchinsk (1689) Russia abandoned her advance into the basin of the river. In 1852a Russian military expedition under Muraviev explored the Amur, and by 1857 a chain of Russian Cossacks and peasants were settled along the whole course of the river. The accomplished fact was recognized by China in 1857 an d i860 by a treaty. In the same year in which Khabarov explored the Amur (1648) the Cossack Dejnev, starting from the Kolyma, sailed round the north-eastern extremity of Asia through the strait which was rediscovered and described eighty years later by Bering (1728). Cook in 1778, and after him La Perouse, settled definitively the broad features of the northern Pacific coast. Although the Arctic Ocean had been reached as early as the first half of the 17th century, the exploration of its coasts by a series of expeditions under Ovtsyn, Minin, Pronchishev, Lasinius and Laptev — whose labours constitute a brilliant page in the annals of geographical discovery — was begun only in the 18th century (l735~ I 739)- The scientific exploration of Siberia, begun in the period 1733 to 1742 by Messerschmidt, Gmelin, and De Lisle de la Croyere, was followed up by Miiller, Fischer and Georgi. Pallas, with several Russian students, laid the first foundation of a thorough exploration of the topography, fauna, flora and inhabitants of the country. The journeys of Hansteen and Erman (1828-1830) were a most important step in the exploration of the territory. Humboldt, Ehrenberg and Gustav Rose also paid in the course of these years short visits to Siberia, and gave a new impulse to the accumulation of scientific knowledge; while Ritter elaborated in his Asien (1832- 1859) the foundations of a sound knowledge of the structure of Siberia. Middendorff's journey (1844-1845) to north-eastern Siberia — contemporaneous with Castren's journeys for the special study of the Ural-Altaian languages — directed attention to the far north and awakened interest in the Amur, the basin of which soon became the scene of the expeditions of Akhte and Schwarz (1852), and later on (1854-1857) of the Siberian expedition to which we owe so marked an advance in our knowledge of East Siberia. The Siberian branch of the Russian Geographical Society was founded at the same time at Irkutsk, and afterwards became a permanent centre for the ex- ploration of Siberia; while the opening of the Amur and Sakhalin attracted Maack, Schmidt, Glehn, Radde and Schrenck, whose works on the flora, fauna and inhabitants of Siberia have become widely known. Bibliography. — A. T. von Middendorff, Sibirische Reise (St Petersburg, 1848-1875); L. Schrenck, Reisen und Forschungen im Amurgebiet (St Petersburg, 1858-1891); Trudy of the Siberian expedition — mathematical part (also geographical) by Schwarz, and physical part by Schmidt, Glehn and Brylkin (1874, seq.) ; G. Kennan, Tent Life in Siberia (1870); Paplov, Siberian Rivers (1878); A. E. Nordenskjoid, Voyage of the Vega (1881) and Vega Exped. Vetensk. Iaktlagelser (5 vols., Stockholm, 1872-1887); P. P. Semenov, Geogr. and Stat. Dictionary of the Russian Empire (in Russian, 5 vols., St Petersburg, 1863-1884) — a most valuable source of information, with full bibliographical details under each article; Picturesque Russia (in Russian), ed. by P. Semenov, vol. xi. (West Siberia) and xii. (East Siberia) ; Scheglov, Chronology of Sib. Hist, from 1032 to 1882; Yadrintsev, Siberia (St Petersburg, 2nd ed., 1892, in Russian); Vagin, " Historical Documents on Siberia," in the collection Sibir, vol. i. ; Yadrintsev, Siberia as a Colony (new ed., 1892); F. M. Dostoievsky's novel, Buried Alive (1881); Baron A. von Rosen, Memoiren eines russischen Dekabristen (Leipzig, 1870). Consult further Materials for the Study of the Economic Conditions of West Siberia (22 vols., St Petersburg, 1 889-1 898), condensed in Peasant Land-Tenure and Husbandry in Tobolsk and Tomsk (St Petersburg, 1894), both in Russian. Similar Materials for the Altai region, published at St Petersburg by the Cabinet of the emperor, and for irkutsk and Yeniseisk (12 fasc, Irkutsk, 1889- 1893); Materials for Transbaikalia (16 vols., St Petersburg, 1898), summed up in Transbaikalia, by N. Razumov (St Petersburg, 1899). Other works deserving special mention are: Ermolov, Siberia as a Colony (3rd ed., 1894); Jarilow, Ein Beitrag zur Landwirtschaft in Sibirien (Leipzig, 1896). Among books of more recent publication must be mentioned G. Krahmer, Russland in Asien (3 vols., Leipzig, 1898-1900) and Sibirien und die grosse sibirische Eisenbahn (2nd ed., 1900); Wirt Gerrare, Greater Russia (London 1903); J. F. Fraser, The Real Siberia (London, 1902) ; P. Kropotkin, Orographic de la Siberie (Brussels, 1904); P. Leroy-Beaulieu, La Renovation de V Asie centrale (Paris, 1900); J. Stadling, Through Siberia (London, I 901); S. Turner, Siberia (London, 1906); G. F. Wright, Asiatic Russia (2 vols., London, 1903); L. Deutsch, Sixteen Years in Siberia (Eng. trans., London, 1905) ; V. Dolgorukov, Guide through Siberia (3rd ed., Tomsk, 1898, in Russian, with summaries in French); A. N. de Koulomzine, Le Trans-siberien (Paris, 1904) ; Bishop of Norwich, My Life in Mongolia and Siberia (London, 1903); S. Patkanov, Essai d'une statistique et d'une geographie des peuples paleoasiatiques de la Siberie (St Petersburg, 1903) ; M. P. de Semenov, La Russie extra-europeenne et polaire (Paris, 1900) ; T. W. Bookwalter, Siberia and Central Asia (Springfield, Ohio, 1899) ; Siberia and the Great Siberian Railway, by Ministry of Finance (Eng. trans., ed. by J. M. Crawford, St Petersburg, 1893, vol. v. for flora). Climatological Atlas of the Russian Empire, by the Physical Observatory (St Petersburg, 1900), gives data and observations covering the period 1 849-1 899. A full bibliography will be found in the Russian Ency- clopaedic Dictionary, as also in Mezhov, Siberian Bibliography (3 vols., St Petersburg, 1891-1892), and in A. Pypin's History of Russian Ethnography, vol. iv. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) SIBI, a town and district of Baluchistan. The town is now an important junction on the Sind-Peshin railway, where the Harnai line and the Quetta loop line meet, near the entrance of the Bolan pass, 88 m. S.E. of Quetta. Pop. (1901) 4551. The district, which was constituted in 1903, has an area of 4152 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 74,555. The greater part became British territory by the treaty of Gandamak in 1879; the rest is ad- ministered under a perpetual lease from the khan of Kalat. Political control is also exercised over the Marri-Bugti country, with an additional area of 7129 sq. m.: pop. (1901) 38,919. Besides the town of Sibi, the district contains the sanatorium of Ziarat, the summer residence of the government. See Sibi District Gazetteer (Bombay, 1907). SIBONGA, a town of the province of Cebu, island of Cebu, Philippine Islands, on the E. coast, 30 m. S.W. of Cebu, the capital. Pop. (1903) 25,848. Sibonga is an agricultural town with a port for coasting vessels, and is served by a railway. The principal products are Indian corn and tobacco. The climate is hot, but healthy. The language is Cebu-Visayan. SIBPUR, a town of British India, in the Hugli district of Bengal, on the right bank of the river Hugli, opposite Calcutta. It is a suburb of Howrah. It contains jute-mills, a flour-mill, rope-works, brick-works and other industrial establishments; the royal botanical garden; and the engineering college with electrical and mining departments and a boarding-house. The college, of gothic architecture, was originally built for a missionary institution, as the Bishop's College, in 1824. It has recently been decided to remove it to Ranchi, in Chota Nagpur. SIBSAGAR, a town and district of British India, in eastern Bengal and Assam. The town is situated on the Dikhu river, about 9 m. from the left bank of the Brahmaputra, being pictur- esquely built round a magnificent tank, covering an area of 114 acres. Pop. (1901) 5712. In 1907 the transfer of the district headquarters to Jorhak (pop. 2899), on the Disai river, was sanctioned. The District or Sibsagar has an area of 4996 sq. m. It consists of a level plain, much overgrown with grass and jungle, and intersected by numerous tributaries of the Brahmaputra. It is divided by the little river Disai into two tracts, which differ in soil and general appearance. The surface of the eastern portion is very flat, the general level being broken only by the long lines of embankments raised by the Ahom kings to serve both as roadways and as a protection against floods. The soil consists of a heavy loam of a whitish colour, which is well adapted for rice cultivation. West of the Disai, though the surface soil is of the same character, the general aspect is diversified SIBTHORP— SIBYLS 19 by the protrusion of the subsoil, which consists of a stiff clay abounding in iron nodules, and is furrowed by frequent ravines and water-courses, which divide the cultivable fields into innumerable small sunken patches or kolas. The chief river is the Brahmaputra, which is navigable throughout the year by steamers. The tributaries of the Brahmaputra comprise the Dhaneswari, the Dihing, the Disang and the Dikhu, all flowing in a northerly direction from the Naga Hills. Included within the district is the island of Maguli, formed by the silt brought down by the Subansiri river from the Himalayas and deposited in the wide channel of the Brahmaputra. Coal, iron, petroleum and salt are found. The climate, like that of the rest of the Assam valley, is comparatively mild and temperate, and the annual rainfall averages about 94 in. In 10,01 the population was 597,969, showing an increase of 24 % in the decade. Sibsagar is the chief centre of tea cultivation in the Brahmaputra valley, which was introduced by the Assam Company in 1852. It contains a large number of well-managed tea-gardens, which bring both men and money into the province. There are also several timber mills. The Assam-Bengal railway serves the southern part of the district, and a light railway connects this line with Kalikamukh on the Brahmaputra, itself an important highway of communication. On the decline of the Ahom dynasty Sibsagar, with the rest of the Assam valley, fell into the hands of the Burmese. As a result of the first Burmese war (1824-1826) the valley was annexed to British India, and the country now forming Sibsagar district, together with the southern portion of Lakhimpur, was placed under the rule of Raja Purandhar Singh, on his agreeing to pay a tribute of £5000. Owing to the raja's misrule, Sibsagar was reduced to a state of great poverty, and, as he was unable to pay the tribute, the territories were resumed by the government of India, and in 1838 were placed under the direct management of a British officer. See Sibsagar District Gazetteer (Allahabad, 1906). SIBTHORP, JOHN (1758-1796), English botanist, was born at Oxford on the 28th of October 1758, and was the youngest son of Dr Humphrey Sibthorp (1713-1797), who from 1747 to 1784 was Sherardian professor of botany at Oxford. He graduated at Oxford in 1777, and then studied- medicine at Edinburgh and Montpellier. In 1784 he succeeded his father in the Sherardian chair. Leaving his professional duties to a deputy he left England for Gottingen and Vienna, in preparation for a botanical tour in Greece (1786). Returning to England at the end of the following year he took part in the foundation of the Linnaean Society in 1788, and set to work on a flora of Oxfordshire, which was published in 1794 as Flora Oxoniensis. He made a second journey to Greece, but developed consumption on the way home and died at Bath on the 8th of February 1796. By his will he bequeathed his books on natural history and agriculture to Oxford university, where also he founded the Sibthorpian professorship of rural economy, attaching it to the chair of botany. He directed that the endowment should first be applied to the publication of his Flora Graeca and Florae Graecae Frodromus, for which, however, he had done little beyond collecting some three thousand species and providing the plates. The task of preparing the works was undertaken by Sir J. E. Smith, who issued the two volumes of the Prodromus in 1806 and 1813, and six volumes of the Flora Graeca between 1806 and 1828. The seventh appeared in 1830, after Smith's death, and the remaining three were produced by John Lindley between 1833 and 1840. Another member of the family, Ralph Waldo Sibthorp (1792-1879), a grandson of Dr Humphrey Sibthorp, was a well-known English divine. He was educated at Oxford and took Anglican orders in 181 5. He became known as a prominent " evangelical " in London, but in 1841 was received into the Roman Church. Two years later he returned to the Anglican Church, though he was not readmitted to the ministry till 1857. Finally he re-entered the Roman communion in 1865, but on his death in 1879 he was, by his own request, buried according to the service of the English Church. His elder brother, Colonel Charles de Laet Waldo Sibthorp (1783-1855), represented Lincoln in parliament from 1826 until his death, except for a short period in 1833-1834, and was notorious for the vigour with which he expressed his opinions and for his opposition to the Catholic Emancipation Bill and the Reform Bill. The eldest son of Colonel Sibthorp, Gervaise Tottenham' Waldo Sib- thorp (1815-1861), was also M.P. for Lincoln. SIBYLLINE ORACLES, a collection of Apocalyptic writings, composed in imitation of the heathen Sibylline books (see Sibyls) by the Jews and, later, by the Christians in their efforts to win the heathen world to their faith. The fact that they copied the form in which the heathen revelations were conveyed (Greek hexameter verses) and the Homeric language is evidence of a degree of external Hellenization, which is an important fact in the history of post-exilic Judaism. Such was the activity of these Jewish and Christian missionaries that their imitations have swamped the originals. Even Virgil in his fourth Eclogue seems to have used Jewish rather than purely heathen oracles. The extant fragments and conglomerations of the Sibylline oracles, heathen, Jewish and Christian, were collected, examined, translated and explained by C. Alexandre in a monumental edition full of exemplary learning and acumen. On the basis of his results, as they have been scrutinized by scholars like Schiirer and Geffcken, it is possible to disentangle some of the different strata with a certain degree of confidence. 1. Book III. contains Jewish oracles relative to the Golden Age established by Roman supremacy in the East about the middle of the 2nd century B.C. (especially 1 75-181: cf. 1 Mace, viii. 1-16). The evacuation of Egypt by Antiochus Epiphanes at the bidding of the Roman ambassadors suits the warning addressed to " Greece " (732-740) against overweening ambition and any attempt upon the Holy City, which is somewhat strangely enforced by the famous Greek oracle, " Let Camarina be, 'tis best unstirred." Older than these are the Babylonian oracle (97-154) and the Persian (381-387). A later Jewish oracle (46-62) refers to the wars of the second Triumvirate of Rome, and the whole compilation seems to come from a Christian redactor. 2. Book IV. is a definite .attack upon the heathen Sibyl — the Jews and Christians did not attempt to pass off their " forgeries " as genuine — as the mouthpiece of Apollo by a Jew who speaks for the Great God and yet uses a Greek review (49- 114) of ancient history from the Assyrian empire. There are references to the legendary escape of Nero to Parthia (119-124) and the destruction of Jerusalem in a.d. 70 (130-136). 3. Book V. contains a more developed form of the myth of Nero redivivus in which a panegyric on him (137-141) has been brought up to date by some Jew or Christian, and eulogies of Hadrian and his successors (48-51) side by side with the legend of the miserable death of Titus in quittance of his destruction of Jerusalem (411-413) which probably represents the hope of the zealots who survived it. 4. The remaining books appear to be Christian (some heretical) and to belong to the 2nd and 3rd centuries. Editions. — C. Alexandre (Paris, 1841, 2 vols.; 1869, 1 vol.); Rzach (Prague, 1891; text and appendix of sources); Geffcken (Leipzig, 1902; text with full apparatus of variants, sources and parallel passages) ; see also his Komposition und Entstehungszeit des Oracula Sibyllina (Leipzig, 1902). An annotated Eng. trans, was undertaken in 1910 by H. C. O. Lanchester. For references to modern literature see Schiirer, Geschichte des jildischen Volkes, iii. ( 4 th ed.), 555-592. (J. H. A.H.) SIBYLS 1 (Sibyllae), the name given by the Greeks and Romans to certain women who prophesied under the inspiration of a deity. The inspiration manifested itself outwardly in distorted features, foaming mouth and frantic gestures. Homer does not refer to a Sibyl, nor does Herodotus. The first Greek writer, so far as we know, who does so is Heraclitus (c. 500 B.C.). As to the number and native countries of the Sibyls much diversity of opinion prevailed. Plato only speaks of one, but in course of time the number increased to ten according to Lactantius 1 The word is usually derived from Sw-/3o\Xa, the Doric form oit 0«>D (3ouXi} ( = will of God). 20 SICANI— SICILY (quoting from Varro) : the Babylonian or Persian, the Libyan, the Cimmerian, the Delphian, the Erythraean, the Samian, the Cumaean, the Hellespontine, the Phrygian and the Tiburtine. The Sibyl of whom we hear most is the Erythraean, generally identified with the Cumaean, whom Aeneas consulted before his descent to the lower world (Aeneid, vi. 10); it was she who sold to Tarquin the Proud the Sibylline books. She first offered him nine; when he refused them, she burned three and offered him the remaining six at the same price; when he again refused them, she burned three more and offered him the remaining three still at the same price. Tarquin then bought them (Dion. Halic. iv. 62). He entrusted them to the care of two patricians; after 367 B.C. ten custodians were appointed, five patricians and five plebeians; subsequently (probably in the time of Sulla) their number was increased to fifteen. These officials, at the command of the senate, consulted the Sibylline books in order to discover, not exact predictions of definite future events, but the religious observances necessary to avert extraordinary calamities (pestilence, earthquake) and to expiate prodigies in cases where the national deities were unable, or unwilling, to help. Only the interpretation of the oracle which was con- sidered suitable to the emergency was made known to the public, not the oracle itself. An important effect of these books was the grecizing of Roman religion by the introduction of foreign deities and rites (worshipped and practised in the Troad) and the amalgamation of national Italian deities with the correspond- ing Greek ones (fully discussed in J. Marquardt, Staatsver- waltung, iii., 1885, pp. 42, 350, 382). They were written in hexa- meter verse and in Greek; hence the college of curators was always assisted by two Greek interpreters. The books were kept in the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol and shared the destruction of the temple by fire in 83. After the restoration of the temple the senate sent ambassadors in 76 to Erythrae to collect the oracles afresh and they brought back about 1000 verses; others were collected in Ilium, Samos, Sicily, Italy and Africa. In the year 12 B.C. Augustus sought out and burned a great many spurious oracles and subjected the Sibylline books to a critical revision; they were then placed by him in the temple of Apollo Patroiis on the Palatine, where we hear of them still existing in a.d. 363. They seem to have been burned by Stilicho shortly after 400. According to the researches of R. H. Klausen (Aeneas und die Penaten, 1839), the oldest collection of Sibylline oracles appears to have been made about the time of Solon and Cyrus at Gergis on Mount Ida in the Troad; it was attributed to the Hellespontine Sibyl and was preserved in the temple of Apollo at Gergis. Thence it passed to Erythrae, where it became famous. It was this very collection, it would appear, which found its way to Cumae and from Cumae to Rome. Some genuine Sibylline verses are preserved in the Book of Marvels (Utpl Bavnaaluv) of Phlegon of Tralles (2nd century a.d.). See H. Diels, Sibyllinische Blatter (1890). On the subject generally see J. Marquardt as above; A, Bouchfi-Leclerq, La Divination dans VantiquM (1879-1882); E. Maass, De Sibyllarum indicibus (1879); C. Schultess, Die sibyllinischen Biicher in Rom (1895; with references to authorities in notes). SICANI, in ancient geography, generally regarded (together with the Elymi) as the oldest inhabitants of Sicily. Sicania (the country of the Sicani) and the Siculi (q.v.) or Siceli are mentioned in Homer (Odyssey, xx. 383, xxiv. 307), the latter apparently being known to the Greeks as slave-dealers. There existed considerable difference of opinion among the ancients as to the origin of the Sicani. From the similarity of name, it would be natural to identify them with the Siculi, but ancient authorities expressly state that they were two distinct peoples (see Sicily: History, ad init.). At first the Sicani occupied nearly the whole of the island, but were gradually driven by the Siceli into the interior and the N. and N.W. They lived chiefly in small towns and supported themselves by agriculture. These towns were not subject to a single king, but each had its own ruler and constitution. The most important of the towns to which a Sicanian origin can be with certainty assigned and whose site can be determined, are: Hyccara (Muro di Carini), taken and plundered by the Athenians during the Sicilian expedition (415 B.C.) ; Omphake, between Agrigentum (Girgenti) and Gela (Terranova) ; and Camicus (site unknown), the residence of the mythical Sicanian king Cocalus, constructed for him by Daedalus (q.v.), to whom he had given shelter when pursued by Minos, king of Crete. SICARD, ROCH-AMBROISE CUCURRON (1742-1822), French abbe and instructor of deaf-mutes, was born at Le Fousseret, Haute-Garonne, on the 20th of September 1742. Educated as a priest, he was made principal of a school of deaf-mutes at Bordeaux in 1786, and in 1789, on the death of the Abb6 de l'Epee (see £pee), succeeded him at Paris. His chief work was his Cows d 'instruction d'un sourd-muet de naissance (1800). See Deaf and Dumb. The Abb6 Sicard managed to escape any serious harm in the political troubles of 1792, and became a member of the Institute in 179S, but the value of his educational work was hardly recognized till shortly before his death at Paris ontheiothof May 1822. SICILY (Ital. Sicilia), an island of the Mediterranean Sea belonging to the kingdom of Italy, and separated from the nearest point of the mainland of Italy only by the Straits of Messina, which at their narrowest part are about 2 m. in width. It is nearly bisected by the meridian of 14 E., and by far the greater part lies to the south of 38 N. Its southernmost point, however, in 36 38' N. is 40' to the north of Point Tarifa, the southernmost point of Spain and of the continent of Europe. In shape it is roughly triangular, 1 whence the ancient poetical name of Trinacria, referring to its three promontories of Pelorum (now Faro) in the north-east, Pachynum (now Passero) in the south-east, and Lilybaeum (now Boeo) in the west. Its area> exclusive of the adjacent small islands belonging to the comparti- mento, is, according to the calculations of the Military Geographi- cal Institute of Italy, 9860 sq. m.; while the area of the whole compartimento is 9936 sq. m. The island occupies that part of the Mediterranean in which the shallowing of the waters divides that sea into two basins, and in which there are numerous indications of frequent changes in a recent geological period. The channel between Cape Bon in Tunis and the south-west of Sicily (a distance of 80 m.) is, on the whole, shallower than the Straits of Messina, being for the most part under 100 fathoms in depth, and exceeding 200 fathoms only for a very short interval, while the Straits of Messina, have almost every where a depth exceeding 150 fathoms. The geological structure in the neighbourhood of this strait shows that the island must originally have been formed by a rupture between it and the mainland, but that this rupture must have taken place at a period long antecedent to the advent of man, so that the name Rhegium cannot be based even on the tradition of any such catastrophe. The mountain range that runs out towards the north-east of Sicily is composed of crystal- line rocks precisely similar to those forming the parallel range of Aspromonte in Calabria, but both of these are girt about by sedimentary strata belonging in part to an early Tertiary epoch. That a subsequent land connexion took place, however, by the elevation of the sea-bed there is abundant evidence to show; and the occurrence of the remains of African Quaternary mammals, such as Elephas meridionalis, E. antiquus, Hippo- potamus pentlandi, as well as of those of still living African forms, such as Elephas africanus and Hyaena crocuta, makes it probable that there was a direct post-Tertiary connexion also with the African continent. The north coast is generally steep and cliff-bound, and abundantly provided with good harbours, of which that of Palermo is the finest. In the west and south, and in the south part of the east side, the hills are much lower and recede farther from the sea. The coast is for the most part flat, more regular in outline and less favourable to shipping, while in the east. 1 The name Tpivcuipla was no doubt suggested by the Qpwaichi of Homer (which need no*, however, be Sicily), and the geography was then fitted to the apparent meaning given to the name by the change. But of these three so-called promontories the last is not a true promontory, and it is more accurate to treat Sicily as having a fourth side on the west. SICILY where the sea-bottom sinks rapidly down towards the eastern basin of the Mediterranean, steep rocky coasts prevail except opposite the plain of Catania. In the northern half of this coast the lava streams of Mount Etna stand out for a distance of about 20 m. in a line of bold cliffs and promontories. At various points on the east, north and west coasts there are evidences of a rise of the land having taken place within historical times, at Trapani on the west coast even within the 19th century. As in the rest of the Mediterranean, tides are scarcely observable; but at several points on the west and south coasts a curious oscillation in the level of the waters, known to the natives as the marrobbio (or marobia), is sometimes noticed, and is said to be always preceded by certain atmospheric signs. This consists in a sudden rise of the sea-level, occasionally to the height of 3 ft., sometimes occurring only once, sometimes repeated at intervals of a minute for two hours, or even, at Mazzara, where it is most frequently observed, for twenty-four hours together. The surface of Sicily lies for the most part more than 500 ft above the level of the sea. Caltanissetta, which occupies the middle point in elevation as well as in respect of geographical situation, stands 1900 ft. above sea-level. Considerable mount- ains occur only in the north, where the lower slopes of all the heights form one continuous series of olive-yards and orangeries. Of the rest of the island the greater part forms a plateau varying in elevation and mostly covered with wheat-fields. The only plain of any great extent is that of Catania, watered by the Simeto, in the east; to the north of this plain the active volcano of Etna rises with an exceedingly gentle slope to the height of 10,868 ft. from a base 400 sq. m. in extent. This is the highest elevation of the island. The steep and narrow crystalline ridge which trends north-eastwards, and is known to geographers by the name of the Peloritan Mountains, does not reach 4000 ft. The Nebrodian Mountains, a limestone range connected with the Peloritan range and having an east and west trend, rise to a somewhat greater height, and farther west, about the middle of the north coast, the Madonie (the only one of the groups mentioned which has a native name) culminate at the height of nearly 6500 ft. From the western end of the Nebrodian Mountains a lower range (in some places under 1500 [ft. in height) winds on the whole south-eastwards in the direction of Cape Passaro. With the exception of the Simeto, the principal perennial streams— the Salso, the Platani and the Belice— enter the sea on the soutli coast. Geology*— In general, the older beds occur along the northern coast, and progressively newer and newer beds are found towards the south Folding, however, has brought some of the older beds to the surface in the hills which lie to the north and north-east of sciacca. I he Monti Pelontani at the north-eastern extremity of the island consists of gneiss and crystalline schists; but with this ex- ception the whole of Sicily is formed of Mesozoic and later deposits the Tertiary beds covering by far the greater part. Triassic rocks lorm a discontinuous band along the northern coast, and are especially well developed in the neighbourhood of Palermo. They rise again to the surface in the southern part of the island, in the hills which , lie to the north of Sciacca and Bivona. In both areas thev are accompanied by Jurassic, and occasionally by Cretaceous, beds- but of the latter there are only a few small patches. In the south- eastern part of the island there are also a few very small outcrops of Mesozoic beds. The Eocene and Oligocene form a broad belt along the northern coast, very much more continuous than the Mesozoic band and from this belt a branch extends southwards to bciacca Another patch of considerable size lies to the east of r-iazza-Armenna. Miocene and Pliocene deposits cover nearly the whole of the country south of a line drawn from Etna to Marsala- and there is also a considerable Miocene area in the north about £1!^ f" 1 j£ amC u' avas , ?- nd a , shes of a recent geological period IM? no L onIy th u e wh °leof Etna but also a large part of the Monti vn it e ?°c ut - h - Sraa " P atch es occur also at Pachino and in the hills north of Sciacca. Climate .— The climate of Sicily resembles that of the other lands m the extreme south of Europe. As regards temperature, it has the warm and equable character which belongs to most of the Mediter- ranean region. At Palermo (where continuous observations have been made since 1791) the range of temperature between the mean of 21 the coldest and that of the hottest month is little greater than at Greenwich. The mean temperature of January (5if°F ) is neariv ^'^Vl^f of o 0ctober « the south of England that of j" v (77 F.) about 13° warmer than the corresponding month at Green wich. In only seven of the thirty years, l8 7 i-l|oo, was the tier mometer observed to sink below the freezing-point; frost thus occurs in the island even on the low grounds, though never for more than a few hours. On the coast snow is seldom seen, buITt or ratner three, marked periods. We must always Phoenician remember that Carthage — the new city — was one of Mettle- the latest of Phoenician foundations, and that the days meats. Q £ t k e Carthaginian dominion show us only the latest form of Phoenician fife. Phoenician settlement in Sicily began before Carthage became great, perhaps before Carthage came into being. A crowd of small settlements from the old Phoenicia, settlements for trade rather than for dominion, factories rather than colonies, grew up on promontories and small islands all round the coast (Thuc. vi. 2). These were unable to withstand the Greek settlers, and the Phoenicians of Sicily withdrew step by step to form three considerable towns in the north-west corner of the island near to the Elymi, on whose alliance they relied, and at the shortest distance by sea from Carthage — Motya, Solous or Soluntum, and Panormus (see Palermo). Our earlier notices of Sicily, of Sicels and Sicans, in the Homeric poems and elsewhere, are vague and legendary. Both races appear as given to the buying and selling of slaves OraeA (q^ x^ 2g^ j xxiv. 21). The intimate connexion be- tfOJI< " tween old Hellas and Sicily begins with the foundation of the Sicilian Naxos by Chalcidians of Euboea under Theocles, which is assigned to 735 B.C. (Thuc. v. 3-5). The site, a low promontory on the east coast, immediately below the height of Tauromenium, marks an age which had advanced beyond the hill-fortress and which thoroughly valued the sea. The next year Corinth began her system of settlement in the west: Corcyra, the path to Sicily, and Syracuse on the Sicilian coast were planted as parts of one enterprise. From this time, for about 150 years, Greek settlement in the island, with some intervals, goes steadily on. Both Ionian and Dorian colonies were planted, both from the older Greek lands and from the older Sicilian settlements. The east coast, nearest to Greece and richest in good harbours, was occupied first. Here, between Naxos and Syracuse, arose the Ionian cities of Leontini and Catana (728 B.C.), and the Dorian Megara Hyblaea (726 B.C.). Settlement on the south-western coast began about 688 B.C. with the joint Cretan and Rhodian settlement of Gela, and went on in the foundation of Selinus (the most distant Greek city on this' side), of Camarina, and in 582 B.C. of the Geloan settlement of Acragas (Agrigentum, Girgenti), planted on a high hill, a little way from the sea, which became the second city of Hellenic Sicily. On the north coast the Ionian Himera (founded in 648 B.C.) was the only Greek city in Sicily itself, but the Cnidians founded Lipara in the Aeolian Islands. At the north-east corner, opposite to Italy, and commanding the strait, arose Zancle, a city of uncertain date (first quarter of the 7th century B.C.) and mixed origin, better known as Messana (Messene, Messina). Thus nearly all the east coast of Sicily, a great part of the south coast, and a much smaller part of the north, passed into the hands of Greek settlers — Siceliots (2twXt«roi), as dis- tinguished from the native Sicels. This was one of the greatest advances ever made by the Greek people. The Greek element began to be predominant in the island. Among the earlier inhabitants the Sicels were already becoming adopted Greeks. Many of them gradually sank into a not wholly unwilling subjec- tion as cultivators of the soil under Greek masters. But there were also independent Sicel towns in the interior, and there was a strong religious intercommunion between the two races. Sicel Henna (Enna, Castrogiovanni) is the special seat of the worship of Demeter and her daughter. The Phoenicians, now shut up in one corner of the island, with Selinus on one side and Himera on the other founded right in their teeth, are bitter enemies; but the time of their renewed greatness under the headship of Carthage Prosperous has not yet come. The 7th century B.C. and the perioA early part of the 6th were a time in which the Greek cities of Sicily had their full share in the general prosperity of the Greek colonies everywhere. For a while they outstripped the cities of old Greece. Their political constitutions were aristocratic; that is, the franchise was confined to the descend- ants of the original settlers, round whom an excluded body (Srjfios or plebs) was often growing up. The ancient kingship was perhaps kept on or renewed in some of the Siceliot and Italiot towns; but it is more certain that civil dissensions led very early to the rise of tyrants. The most famous if not the first 1 is Phalaris (q.v.) of Acragas (Agrigentum), whose exact date is uncertain, whose letters are now cast aside, and whose brazen bull has been called in question, but who clearly rose to power very soon after the foundation of Acragas. Under his rule the city at once sprang to the first place in Sicily, and he was the first Siceliot ruler who held dominion over two Greek cities, Acragas and Himera. This time of prosperity was also a time of intellectual progress. To say nothing of lawgivers like Charondas, the line of Siceliot poets began early, and the circumstances of the island, the adoption of many of its local traditions and beliefs — perhaps a certain intermingling of native blood — gave the intellectual life of Sicily a character in some things distinct from that of old Hellas. Stesichorus of Himera (c. 632-556 B.C.) holds a great place among the lyric poets of Greece, and some place in the political history of Sicily as the opponent of Phalaris. The architecture and sculpture of this age have also left some of their most remarkable monu- ments among the Greek cities of Sicily. The remains of the old temples of Selinus, with their archaic metopes, attributed to the 6th century B.C., show us the Doric style in its earlier state. In this period, too, begins the fine series of Sicilian coins (see Numismatics: Sicily). This first period of Sicilian history lasts as long as Sicily remains untouched from any non-Hellenic quarter outside, and as long as the Greek cities in Sicily remain as a rule independent of one another. A change begins in the 6th century ,.™aii/es. and is accomplished early in the 5th. The Phoe- nician settlements in Sicily become dependent on Carthage, whose growing power begins to be dangerous to the Greeks of Sicily. Meanwhile the growth of tyrannies in the Greek cities was beginning to group several towns together under a single master, and thus to increase the greatness of particular cities at the expense of their freedom. Thus Thero of Acragas (488-472), who bears a good character there, acquired also, like Phalaris, the rule of Himera. One such power held dominion both in Italy and Sicily. Anaxilaus of Rhegium, by a long and strange tale of treachery, occupied Zancle and changed its name to Messana. But the greatest of the Siceliot powers, that of the Deinomenid dynasty, began at Gela in 505, and was in 485 translated by Gelo (q.v.) to Syracuse. That city now became the centre of a greater dominion over both Greeks and Sicels than the island had ever before seen. But Gelo, like several later tyrants of Syracuse, takes his place — - and it is the redeeming point in the position of all of them — as 1 Panaetius of Leontini (608 B.C.) is said to have been the earliest tyrant in Sicily. Ge/o. 26 SICILY the champion of Hellas against the barbarian. The great double invasion of 480 B.C. was planned in concert by the barbarians of the East and the West (Diod. xi. 1; schol. on Pind., Pyth. i. 146; Grote v. 294). While the Persians threatened old Greece, Carthage threatened the Greeks of Sicily. There were Siceliots who played the part of the Medizers in Greece: Selinus was on the side of Carthage, and the coming of Hamilcar was immediately brought about by a tyrant of Himera driven out by Thero. But the united power of Gelo and Thero, whose daughter Damarete Gelo had married, crushed the invaders in the great battle of Himera, won, men said, on the same day as Salamis, and the victors of both were coupled as the joint deliverers of Hellas (Herod, vii. 165-167; Diod. xx. 20-25; Pind. Pyth. i. 147-156; Simonides, fr. 42; Polyaenus i. 27). But, while the victory of Salamis was followed by a long war with Persia, the peace which was now granted to Carthage stayed in force for seventy years. Gelo was followed by his brother Hiero (478-467), the special subject of the songs of Pindar. Acragas meanwhile flourished under Thero; but a war between him and Hiero led to slaughter and new settlement at Himera. These transplantings from city to city began under Gelo and went on under Hiero (q.v.). They made speakers in old Greece (Thuc. vi. 17) contrast the permanence of habitation there with the constant changes in Sicily. None of these tyrannies was long-lived. The power of Thero fell to pieces under his son Thrasydaeus. When the power of Hiero passed in 467 B.C. to his brother Thrasybulus'the freedom of Syracuse was won by a combined movement of Greeks and Sicels, and the Greek cities gradually settled down as they had been before the tyrannies, only with a change to democracy in their constitutions. The mercenaries who had received citizenship from the tyrants were settled at Messana. About fifty years of great prosperity followed. Art, science, poetry had all been encouraged by the tyrants. To these was added the special growth of freedom — the art of public speaking, in which the Sicilian Greeks became especially proficient, Corax being the founder of the rhetorical school of Sicily. Epicharmus (540-450), carried as a babe to Sicily, is a link between native Siceliots and the strangers invited by Hiero; as the founder of the local Sicilian comedy, he ranks among Siceliots. After him Sophron of Syracuse gave the Sicilian mimes a place among the forms of Greek poetry. But the intellect of free Sicily struck out higher paths. Empedocles of Acragas is best known from the legends of his miracles and of his death in the fires of Aetna; but he was not the less philosopher, poet and physician, besides his political career. Gorgias {q.v.) of Leontini had a still more direct influence on Greek culture, as father of the technical schools of rhetoric throughout Greece. Architecture too ad- vanced, and the Doric style gradually lost somewhat of its ancient massiveness. The temple at Syracuse, which is now the metro- politan church, belongs to the earlier days of this time. It is followed by the later temples at Selinus, among them the temple of Apollo, which is said to have been the greatest in Sicily, and by the wonderful series at Acragas (see Agrigentum) . During this time of prosperity there was no dread of Carthaginian inroads. Diodorus's account of a war between Segesta and Lilybaeum is open to considerable suspicion. We have, on the other hand, Pausanias's evidence for the exist- ence in his day at Olympia of statues offered by Acragas out of spoil won from Motya, assigned to Calamis, an artist of this period (Freeman ii. 552), and the evidence of contemporary Condition inscriptions (1) for a Selinuntine victory over some un- of sicels knownenemy (possibly over Motya also), (2)for dealings aad between Athens and Segesta with reference to Halicyae, a Sican town. The latter is important as being the first appearance of Athens in Sicily. As early as 480 (Freeman iii. 8) indeed Themistocles seems to have been looking westward. Far more important are our notices of the earlier inhabitants. For now comes the great Sicel movement under Ducetius, who, between force and persuasion, came nearer towards uniting his people into one body than had ever been done before. From his native hill-top of Menae, rising above the lake dedicated to the Palici, the native deities whom Sicels and Greeks alike honoured, he brought down his people to the new city of Palicae in the plain. His power grew, and Acragas could withstand him only by the help of Syracuse. Alternately victorious and defeated, spared by the Syracusans on whose mercy he cast himself as a suppliant (451), sent to be safe at Corinth, he came back to Sicily only to form greater plans than before. War between Acragas and Syracuse, which arose on account of his return, enabled him to carry out his schemes, and, with the help of another Sicel prince of Herbita, who bore the Greek name of Archonides, he founded Kale Akte on the northern coast. But his work was cut short by his death in 440; the hope of the Sicel people now lay in assimilation to their Hellenic neigh- bours. Ducetius's own foundation of Kale Akte lived on, and we presently hear of Sicel towns under kings and tyrants, all marking an approach to Greek life. Roughly speaking, while the Sicels of the plain country on the east coast became subject to Syracuse, most of those in other parts of the island remained independent. Of the Sicans we hear less; but Hyccara in the north-west was an independent Sican town on bad terms with Segesta. On the whole, setting aside the impassable barrier between Greek and Phoenician, other distinctions of race within the island were breaking down through the spread of the Hellenic element, but among the Greek cities themselves the distinction between the Dorian and the Ionian or Chalcidian settlements was still keenly felt. Up to this time the Italiot and Siceliot Greeks have formed part of the general Greek world, while within that world they have formed a world of their own, and Sicily has again formed a world of its own within that. Wars and 1 ' ,tel> Terence ot conquests between Greeks and Greeks, especially on the A tneas , part of Syracuse, though not wanting, have been on the whole less constant than in old Greece. It is even possible to appeal to a local Sicilian patriotism (Thuc. vi. 64, 74). Presently this state of Sicilian isolation was broken in upon by the great Peloponnesian War. The Siceliot cities were drawn into alliance with one side or the other, till the main interest of Greek history gathers for a while round the Athenian attack on Syracuse. At the very beginning of the war the Lacedaemonians looked for help from the Dorian Siceliots. But the first active inter- vention came from the other side. Conquest in Sicily was a favourite dream at Athens (see Peloponnesian War). But it was only in 427 an opportunity for Athenian interference was found in a quarrel between Syracuse and Leontini and their allies. Leontini craved help from Athens on the ground of Ionian kindred. Her envoy was Gorgias; his peculiar style of rhetoric was now first heard in old Greece (Diod. xii. 53, 54), and his pleadings were successful. For several years from this time (427-422) Athens plays a part, chiefly unsuccessful, in Sicilian affairs. But the particular events are of little import- ance, except as leading the way to the greater events that follow. The far more memorable interference of Athens in Sicilian affairs in the year 415 was partly in answer to the cry. of the exiles of Leontini, partly to a quite distinct appeal from the Elymian Segesta. That city, an ally of Athens, asked for Athenian help against its Greek neighbour Selinus. In a dispute, partly about boundaries, partly about the right of intermarriage between the Hellenic and the Hellenizing city, Segesta was hard pressed. She vainly asked for help at Acragas — some say at Syracuse (Diod. xii. 82) — and even at Carthage. The last appeal was to Athens. The details of the great Athenian expedition (415-413) belong partly to the political history of Athens (q.v.), partly to that of Syracuse (q.v.). But its results make it a marked epoch in Sicilian history, and the Athenian plans, if ex p" d ^° oa successful, would have changed the whole face of the West. If the later stages of the struggle were remarkable for the vast number of Greek cities engaged on both sides, and for the strange inversion of relations among them on which Thucydides (vii. 57, 58) comments, the whole war was yet more remarkable for the large entrance of the barbarian element into the Athenian reckonings. The war was undertaken on behalf of Segesta; SICILY 27 the Steels gave Athens valuable help; the greater barbarian powers out of Sicily also came into play. Some help actually came from Etruria. But Carthage was more far-sighted. If Syracuse was an object of jealousy, Athens, succeeding to her dominion, creating a power too nearly alike to her own, would have provoked far greater jealousy. So Athens found no active support save at Naxos and Catana, though Acragas, if she would not help the invaders, at least gave no help to her own rival. But after the Spartan Gylippus came, almost all the other Greek cities of Sicily were on the side of Syracuse. The war is instruc- tive in many ways. It reminds us of the general conditions of Greek seamanship when we find that Corcyra was the meeting- place for the allied fleet, and that Syracuse was reached only by a coasting voyage along the shores of Greek Italy. We are struck also by the low military level of the Sicilian Greeks. The Syracusan heavy-armed are as far below those of Athens as those of Athens are below those of Sparta. The quasi-continental character of Sicily causes Syracuse, with its havens and its island, to be looked on, in comparison with Athens, as a land power (JitrtLpSiTox, Thuc. vii. 21). That is to say, the Siceliot level represents the general Greek level as it stood before the wars in which Athens won and defended her dominion. The Greeks of Sicily had had no such military practice as the Greeks of old Greece; but an able commander could teach both Siceliot soldiers and Siceliot seamen to out-manceuvre Athenians. The main result of the expedition, as regards Sicily, was to bring the island more thoroughly into the thick of Greek affairs. Syracuse, threatened with destruction by Athens, was saved by the zeal of her metropolis Corinth in stirring up the Peloponnesian rivals of Athens to help her, and by the advice of Alcibiades after his withdrawal to Sparta. All chance of Athenian dominion in Sicily or elsewhere in the west came to an end. Syracuse repaid the debt by good service to the Peloponnesian cause, and from that time the mutual influence of Sicily and old Greece is far stronger than in earlier times. But before the war in old Greece was over, seventy years after the great victory of Gelo (410), the Greeks of Sicily had to undergo barbarian invasion on a vaster scale than Phoenician ever. The disputes between Segesta and Selinus invasion called in these enemies also. Carthage, after a long under period of abstention from intervention in Sicilian affairs, and the observance of a wise neutrality during the war between Athens and Syracuse, stepped in as the ally of Segesta, the enemy of her old ally Selinus. Her leader was Hannibal, grandson and avenger of the Hamilcar who had died at Himera. In 409, at the head of a vast mercenary host, he sailed to Sicily, attacked Selinus (q.v.), and stormed the town after a murderous assault of nine days. Thence he went to Himera, with the object of avenging his grandfather. By this time the other Greek cities were stirred to help, while Sicels and Sicans joined Hannibal. At last Himera was stormed, and 3000 of its citizens were solemnly slaughtered on the spot where Hamilcar had died. Hannibal then returned to Carthage after an absence of three months only. The Phoenician possessions in Sicily now stretched across the island from Himera to Selinus. The next victim was Acragas, against which another expedition sailed in 406 under Hannibal and Himilco; the town was sacked and the walls destroyed. Meanwhile the revolutions of Syracuse affected the history of Sicily and of the whole Greek world. Dionysius (q.v.) the tyrant began his reign of thirty-eight years in the first 1 y months of 405. Almost at the same moment, the new Carthaginian commander, Himilco, attacked Gela and Camarina. Dionysius, coming to the help of Gela, was defeated, and was charged (no doubt with good ground) with treachery. He now made the mass of the people of both towns find shelter at Syracuse. But now a peace, no doubt arranged at Gela, was formally concluded (Freeman iii. 587). Carthage was confirmed in her possession of Selinus, Himera and Acragas, with some Sican districts which had opposed her. The people of Gela and Camarina were allowed to occupy their unwalled towns as tributaries of Carthage. Leontini, latterly a Syracusan fort, as well as Messana and all the Sicels, were declared independent, while Dionysius was acknowledged as master of Syracuse (Diodorus xiii. ir4). No war was ever more grievous to freedom and civilization. More than half Sicily was now under barbarian dominion; several of its noblest cities had perished, and a tyrant was established in the greatest. The 5th century b. c, after its central years of freedom and prosperity, ended in far deeper darkness than it had begun. The minuter account of Dionysius belongs to Syracusan history; but his position, one unlike anything that had been before seen in Sicily or elsewhere in Hellas, forms an epoch in the history of Europe. His only bright side is his championship of Hellas against the Phoenician, and this is balanced by his settlements of barbarian mercenaries in several Greek cities. Towards the native races his policy varied according to momentary interests; but on the whole his reign tended to bring the Sicels more and more within the Greek pale. His dominion is Italian as well as Sicilian; his influence, as an ally of Sparta, is important in old Greece; while, as a hirer of mercenaries everywhere, he had wider relations than any earlier Greek with the nations of western Europe. He further opened new fields for Greek settlement on both sides of the Adriatic. In short, under him Sicily became for the first time the seat of a great European power, while Syracuse, as its head, became the greatest of European cities. His reign was unusually long for a Greek tyrant, and his career furnished a model for other rulers and invaders of Sicily. With him in truth begins that wider range of Greek warfare, policy and dominion which the Macedonian kingdoms carry on. The reign of Dionysius (405-367) is divided into marked periods by four wars with Carthage, in 398-397, 392, 383-378 and 368. Before the first war his home power was all but overthrown; he was besieged in Syracuse itself u h war in 403; but he lived through the storm, and extended Carthage. his dominion over Naxos, Catana and Leontini. All three perished as Greek cities. Catana was the first Siceliot city to receive a settlement of Campanian mercenaries, while others settled in non-Hellenic Entella. Naxos was settled by Sicels; Leontini was again merged in Syracuse. Now begin the dealings of Dionysius with Italy, where the Rhegines, kinsmen of Naxos and Catana, planned a fruitless attack on him in common with Messana. He then sought a wife at Rhegium, but was refused with scorn, while Locri gladly gave him Doris. The two cities afterwards fared accordingly. In the first war with Carthage the Greek cities under Carthaginian dominion or dependence helped him; so did Sicans and Sicels, which last had among them some stirring leaders; Elymian Segesta clave to Carthage. Dionysius took the Phoenician stronghold of Motye; but Himilco recovered it, destroyed Messana, founded the hill-town of Tauromenium above Naxos for Sicels who had joined him, defeated the fleet of Dionysiusoff Catana and besieged Syracuse. Between invasion and home discontent, the tyrant was all but lost; but the Spartan Pharacidas stood his friend; the Carthaginians again suffered from pestilence in the marshes of Lysimelia; and after a masterly combined attack by land and sea by Dionysius Himilco went away utterly defeated, taking with him his Carthaginian troops and forsaking his allies. Gela, Camarina, Himera, Selinus, Acragas itself, became subject allies of Dionysius. The Carthaginian dominion was cut down to what it had been before Hannibal's invasion. Dionysius then planted mercenaries at Leontini, conquered some Sicel towns, Henna among them, and made alliances with others. He restored Messana, peopling it with motley settlers, among whom were some of the old Messenians from Peloponnesus. But the Spartan masters of the old Messenian land grudged this possible beginning of a new Messenian power. Dionysius therefore moved his Messenians to a point on the north coast, where they founded Tyndaris. He clearly had a special eye to that region. He took the Sicel Cephaloedium (Cefalii), and even the old Phoenician border-fortress of Solous was betrayed to him. He beat back a Rhegine expedition; but his advance was checked by a failure to take the new Sicel settlement of Tauro- menium. His enemies of all races now declared themselves. 28 SICILY Many of the Sicels forsook him; Acragas declared herself independent; Carthage herself again took the field. The Carthaginian war of 392-391 was not very memorable. Both sides failed in their chief enterprises, and the main interest of the story comes from the glimpses which we get of the Sicel states. Most of them joined the Carthaginian leader Mago; but he was successfully withstood at Agyrium by Agyris, the ally of Dionysius, who is described as a tyrant second in power to Dionysius himself. This way of speaking would imply that Agyrium had so far advanced in Greek ways as to run the usual course of a Greek commonwealth. The two tyrants drove Carthage to a peace by which she abandoned all her Sicel allies to Dionysius. This time he took Tauromenium and settled it with his mercenaries. For new colonists of this kind the established communities of all races were making way. Former transportations had been movements of Greeks from one Greek site to another. Now all races are confounded. Dionysius, now free from Phoenician warfare, gave his mind to enterprises which raised his power to its greatest height. In the years 390-387 he warred against the Italiot cities in alliance with their Lucanian enemies. Rhegium, Croton, the whole toe of the boot, were conquered. Their lands were given to Locri; their citizens were taken to Syracuse, sometimes as slaves, sometimes as citizens. The master of the barbarians fell below the lowest Hellenic level when he put the brave Rhegine general Phyton to a lingering death, and in other cases imitated the Carthaginian cruelty of crucifixion. Conqueror of southern Italy, he turned his thoughts yet further, and became the first ruler of Sicily to stretch forth his hands towards the eastern peninsula. In the Adriatic he helped Hellenic extension, desiring no doubt to secure the important trade route into central Europe. He planted directly and indirectly some settlements in Apulia, while Syracusan exiles founded the more famous Ancona. He helped the Parians in their settlements of Issa and Pharos; he took into his pay Illyrian warriors with Greek arms, and helped the Molossian Alcetas to win back part of his kingdom. He was even charged with plotting with his Epirot ally to plunder Delphi. This even Sparta would not endure; Dionysius had to content himself with sending a fleet along the west coast of Italy, to carry off the wealth of the great temple of Caere. In old Greece men now said that the Greek folk was hemmed in between the barbarian Artaxerxes on the one side and Dionysius, master and planter of barbarians, on the other. These feelings found expression when Dionysius sent his embassy to the Olympic games of 384, and when Lysias bade Greece rise against both its oppressors. Dionysius vented his wrath on those who were nearest to him, banishing many, among them his brother Leptines and his earliest friend Philistus, and putting many to death. He was also once more stirred up to play the part of a Hellenic champion in yet another Punic war. In this war (383-378) Dionysius seems for once to have had his head turned by a first success. His demand that Carthage should altogether withdraw from Sicily was met by a crushing defeat. Then came a treaty by which Carthage kept Selinus and part of the land of Acragas. The Halycus became the boundary. Dionysius had also to pay 1000 talents, which caused him to be spoken of as becoming tributary to the bar- barians. In the last years of his reign we hear dimly of both Syracusan and Carthaginian operations in southern Italy. He also gave help to Sparta against Thebes, sending Gaulish' and Iberian mercenaries to take part in Greek warfare. His last war with Carthage, which began with an invasion of western Sicily, and which was going on at his death in 367 B.C., was ended by a peace by which the Halycus remained the boundary. The tyranny of Dionysius fell, as usual, in the second genera- tion; but it was kept up for ten years after his death by the energy of Philistus, now minister of his son Dionysius Dionyaia tne Younger. It fell with the coming back of the o)^ exile Dion in 357. The tyranny had lasted so long that it was less easy than at the overthrow of the elder tyrants to fall back on an earlier state of things. It had been a time of frightful changes throughout Sicily, full of breaking up of old landmarks, of confusion of races, and of movements of inhabitants. But it also saw the foundation of new cities. Besides Tyndaris and Tauromenium, BC "f the foundation of Halaca marks another step in Sicel progress towards Hellenism, while the Carthaginians founded their strong town and fortress of Lilybaeum in place of Motya. Among these changes the most marked is the settle- ment of Campanian mercenaries in Greek and Sicel towns. Yet they too could be brought under Greek influences; they were distant kinsfolk of the Sicels, and the forerunners of Rome. They mark one stage of migration from Italy into Sicily. The reign of Dionysius was less brilliant in the way of art and literature than that of Hiero. Yet Dionysius himself sought fame as a poet, and his success at Athens shows that his compositions did not deserve the full scorn of his enemies. The dithyrambic poet Philoxenus, by birth of Cythera, won his fame in Sicily, and other authors of lost poems are mentioned in various Siceliot cities. One of the greatest losses in all Greek history is that'of the writings of Philistus (436-356), the Syracusan who had seen the Athenian siege and who died in the warfare between Dion and the younger Dionysius. Through the time of both tyrants, he was, next to the actual rulers, the first man in Sicily; but of his record of his own times we have only what filters through- the recasting of Diodorus. But the most remark- able intellectual movement in Sicily at this time was the influence of the» soon began again. The Carthaginians played off one city and party against another, and Agathocles, 1 following the same policy, became in 317, by treachery and massacre, undis- puted tyrant of Syracuse, and spread his dominion over many other cities. Acragas, strengthened by Syracusan exiles, now stands out again as the rival of Syracuse. The Carthaginian Hamilcar won many Greek cities to the Punic alliance. Agathocles, however, with Syracuse blockaded by a Carthaginian fleet, formed the bold idea of carrying the war into Africa. For more than three years (310-307) each side carried on warfare in the land of the other. Carthage was hard pressed by Agathocles, while Syracuse was no less hard pressed by Hamilcar. The force with which Agathocles invaded Africa was far from being wholly Greek; but it was representatively European. Gauls, Samnites, Tyrrhenians, fought for him, while mercenary Greeks and Syracusan exiles fought for Carthage. He won many battles and towns; he quelled mutinies of his own 1 See Tillyard, Agathocles (1908). SICILY 29 troops; by inviting and murdering Ophelias, lord of Cyrene, he doubled his army and brought Carthage near to despair. Meanwhile Syracuse, all but lost, had driven back Hamilcar, and had taken him prisoner in an unsuccessful attack on Euryelus, and slain him when he came again with the help of the Syracusan exile Deinocrates. Meanwhile Acragas, deeming Agathocles and the barbarians alike weakened, proclaimed freedom for the Sicilian cities under her own headship. Many towns, both Greek and Sicel, joined the confederacy. It has now become impossible to distinguish the two races; Henna and Herbessus are now the fellows of Camarina and Leontini. But the hopes of Acragas perished when Agathocles came back from Africa, landed at Selinus, and marched to Syracuse, taking one town after another. A new scheme of Sicilian union was taken up by Deinocrates, which cut short his dominion. But he now relieved Syracuse from the Carthaginian blockade; his mer- cenaries gained a victory over Acragas; and he sailed again for Africa, where fortune had turned against his son Archagathus, as it now did against himself. He left his sons and his army to death, bondage or Carthaginian service, and came back to Sicily almost alone. Yet he could still gather a force which enabled him to seize Segesta, to slay or enslave the whole population, and to settle the city with new inhabitants. This change amounts to the extinction of one of the elements in the old population of Sicily. We hear no more of Elymi; indeed Segesta has been practically Greek long before this. Deinocrates and Agathocles came to a kind of partnership in 304, and a peace with Carthage, with the old boundary, secured Agathocles in the possession of Syracuse and eastern Sicily (301). At some stage of his African campaigns Agathocles had taken the title of king. Earlier tyrants were well pleased to be spoken of as kings; but no earlier rulers of Sicily put either their heads or their names on the coin. Agathocles now put his name, first without, and then with, the kingly title, though never his own likeness — Hiero II. was the first to do this. This was in imitation of the Macedonian leaders who divided the dominion of Alexander. The relations between the eastern and western Greek worlds are drawing closer. Agathocles in his old age took a wife of the house of Ptolemy; he gave his daughter Lanassa to Pyrrhus, and established his power east of Hadria, as the first Sicilian ruler of Corcyra. Alike more daring and more cruel than any ruler before him, he made the island the seat of a greater power than any of them. On the death of Agathocles tyrants sprang up in various cities. Acragas, under its king Phintias, won back for the Period moment somewhat of its old greatness. By a new after depopulation of Gela, he founded the youngest of Agatho- Siceliot cities, Phintias, by the mouth of the southern Himera. And Hellas was cut short by the seizure of Messana by the disbanded Campanian mercenaries of Agathocles (c. 282), who proclaimed themselves a new people in a new city by the name of Mamertines, children of Mamers or Mars. Messana became an Italian town — " Mamertina civitas." The Campanian occupation of Messana is the first of the chain of events which led to the Roman dominion in Sicily. As Pyrrhus ^ et ^ ome nas hardly been mentioned in Sicilian story. The Mamertine settlement, the war with Pyrrhus, bring us on quickly. Pyrrhus (q.v.) came as the champion of the western Greeks against all barbarians, whether Romans in Italy or Carthaginians in Sicily. His Sicilian war (278-276) 1 was a mere interlude between the two acts of his war with Rome. As son-in-law of Agathocles, he claimed to be specially king of Sicily, and he held the Sicilian conquest of Corcyra as the dowry of Lanassa. With such a deliverer, deliverance meant submission. Pyrrhus is said to have dreamed of kingdoms of Sicily and of Italy for his two sons, the grandsons of Agathocles, and he himself reigned for two years in Sicily as a king who came to be no less hated than the tyrants. Still as Hellenic champion in Sicily he has no peer. The Greek king, on his way back to fight for Tarentum against Rome, had to cut his way through Carthaginians and Mamertines 1 For the ensuing years cf. Rome: History, II. "The Republic." in Roman alliance. His saying that he left Sicily as a wrestling- ground for Romans and Carthaginians was the very truth of the matter. Very soon came the first war between Rome and Carthage (the " First Punic War "). It mattered much, now that Sicily was to have a barbarian master, whether that master should be the kindred barbarian of Europe or the bar- barian of Asia transplanted to the shore of Africa. Sicily in truth never had a more hopeful champion than Hiero II. of Syracuse. The established rule of Carthage in western Sicily was now something that could well be „. .. endured alongside of the robber commonwealth at Messana. The dominion of the freebooters was spreading. Besides the whole north-eastern corner of the island, it reached inland to Agyrium and Centoripa. The Mamertines leagued with other Campanian freebooters who had forsaken the service of Rome to establish themselves at Rhegium. But a new Syracusan power was growing up to meet them. Hiero, claiming descent from Gelo, pressed the Mamertines hard. He all but drove them to the surrender of Messana; he even helped Rome to chastise her own rebels at Rhegium. The wrestling-ground was thus opened for the two barbarian commonwealths. Car- thaginian troops held the Messanian citadel against Hiero, while another party in Messana craved the help of the head of Italy. Rome, chastiser of the freebooters of Rhegium, saw Italian brethren in the freebooters of Messana. The exploits of Hiero had already won him the kingly title (270) at Syracuse, and he was the representative of Hellenic life and independence throughout the island. Partly in this char- acter, partly as direct sovereign, he was virtual ruler of a large part of eastern Sicily. But he could not aspire to the dominion of earlier Syracusan rulers. The advance of Rome after the retreat of Pyrrhus kept the new king from all hope of their Italian position. And presently the new kingdom exchanged independence for safety. When Rome entered Sicily as the ally of the Mamertines, Hiero became the ally of Carthage. But in the second year of the war (263) he found it needful to change sides. His alliance with Rome marks a great epoch in the history of the Greek nation. The kingdom of Hiero was the first-fruits out of Italy of the system by which alliance with Rome grew into subjection to Rome. He was the first of Rome's kingly vassals. His only burthen was to give help to the Roman side in war; within his kingdom he was free, and his dominions flourished as no part of Sicily had flourished since the days of Timoleon. During the twenty-three years of the First Punic War (264- 241) the rest of the island suffered greatly. The war for Sicily was fought in and round Sicily, and the Sicilian cities were taken and retaken by the contending powers PmUs (see Punic Wars). The highest calling of the Greek w ar . had now, in the western lands, passed to the Roman. By the treaty which ended the war in 241 Carthage ceded to Rome all her possessions in Sicily. As that part of the island which kept a national Greek government became the first kingdom dependent on Rome, so the share of BC " Carthage became the first Roman province. Messana alone remained an Italian ally of Rome on Sicilian soil. We have no picture of Sicily in the first period of Roman rule. One hundred and seventy years later, several towns within the original province enjoyed various degrees of freedom, which they had doubtless kept from the beginning. Panormus, Segesta, with Centoripa, Halesa and Halikye, once Sicel but now Hellenized, kept the position of free cities (liberae et immunes, Cic. Verr. iii. 6). The rest paid tithe to the Roman people as landlord. The province was ruled by a praetor sent yearly from Rome. It formed, as it had even from the Carthaginian period, a closed customs district. Within the Roman province the new state of things called forth much discontent; but Hiero remained the faithful ally of Rome through a long life. On his death (216) and the accession of his grandson Hieronymus, his dynasty was swept away by the last revolution of Greek Syracuse. The result was revolt against Rome, the great sie on the mainland at Nocera, when they became his most trusty soldiers. His necessary absences from Sicily led to revolts. He came back in 1233 from his crusade to suppress a revolt of the eastern cities, which seem to have been aiming at republican indepen- dence. A Saracen revolt in 1243 is said to have been followed by a removal of the whole remnant to Nocera. Some, however, certainly stayed or came back; but their day was over. Under Frederick the Italian or Lombard element finally prevailed in Sicily. Of all his kingdoms Sicily was the best-beloved. He spoke all its tongues; he protected, as far as circumstances would allow, all its races. The heretic alone was persecuted; he was the domestic rebel Of the church; Saracen and Jew were entitled to the rights of foreigners. Yet Frederick, patron of Arabic learning, sus- pected even of Moslem belief, failed to check the decline of the Saracen element in Sicily. The Greek element had no such forces brought against it. It was still a chief tongue of the island, in which Frederick's laws were put forth as well as in Latin. But it was clearly a declining element. Greek and Saracen were both becoming survivals in an island which was but one of the many kingdoms of its king. The Italian element advanced at the cost of all others. Frederick chose it as the court speech of Sicily, and he made it the speech of a new-born literature. Sicily, strangely enough, became the cradle of Italian song. Two emperors had now held the Sicilian crown. On Frederick's death in 1250 the crown passed to his son Conrad, not emperor indeed, but king of the Romans. He was nominally succeeded by his son Conradin. The real ruler under both was Frederick's natural son Manfred. In 1258, on a false rumour of the death of Conradin, Manfred was himself crowned king of Palermo. He had to found the kingdom afresh. Pope Innocent IV. had crossed into Sicily, to take advantage of the general discontent. The cities, whose growing liberties had been checked by Frederick's legislation, strove for practical, if not formal, independence, sometimes for dominion over their fellows. The 5th century B.C. seemed to have come back. Messina laid waste the lands of Taormina, because Taormina would not obey the bidding of Messina. Yet, among these and other elements of confusion, Manfred succeeded in setting up again the kingly power, first for his kinsmen and then for himself. His reign continued that of his father, so far as a mere king could continue the reign of such an emperor. The king of Sicily SICILY 35 was the first potentate of Italy, and came nearer than any prince since Louis II. to the union of Italy under Italian rule. He sought dominion too beyond the Adriatic: Corfu, Durazzo, and a strip of the Albanian coast became Sicilian possessions as the dowry of Manfred's Greek wife. But papal enmity was too much for him. His overlord claimed to dispose of his crown, and hawked it about among the princes of the West. Edmund of England bore the Sicilian title for a moment. More came of the grant of Urban IV. (1264) to Charles, count of Anjou, and through his wife sovereign count of Provence. Charles, Aniou* ° crowned by the pope in 1266, marched to take posses- sion of his lord's grant. Manfred was defeated and slain at Benevento. The whole Sicilian kingdom became the spoil of a stranger who was no deliverer to any class of its people. The island sank yet lower. Naples, not Palermo, was the head of the new power; Sicily was again a province. But a province Sicily had no mind to be. In the continental lands Charles founded a dynasty; the island he lost after sixteen years. His rule was not merely the rule of a stranger king surrounded by stranger followers; the degradation of the island was aggravated by gross oppression, grosser than in the continental lands. The continental lands submitted, with a few slight efforts at resist- ance. The final result of the Angevin conquest of Sicily was its separation from the mainland. Sicilian feeling was first shown in the support given to the luckless expedition of Conradin in 1268. Frightful executions in the island followed his fall. The rights of the Swabian house were now held to pass to Peter (Pedro), king of Aragon, husband of Manfred's daughter Constance. The connexion with Spain, which has so deeply affected the whole later history of Sicily, now begins. Charles held the Greek possessions of Manfred | and had designs both on Epeiros and on Constantinople. The emperor Michael Palaeologus and Peter of Aragon became allies against Charles; the famous John of Procida acted as an agent between them; the costs of Charles's eastern warfare caused great discontent, especially in an island where some might still look to the Greek emperor as a natural deliverer. Peter and Michael were doubtless watching the turn of things in Sicily; but the tale of a long-hidden conspiracy between them and the whole Sicilian people has been set aside by Amari. The actual outbreak of 1282, the famous Sicilian Vespers, was stirred up by the wrongs of the moment. A gross case of insult offered by a Frenchman to a Sicilian woman led to the massacre at Palermo, and the like scenes followed elsewhere. The strangers were cut off; Sicily was left to its own people. The towns and districts left without a ruler by no means designed to throw off the authority of the overlord; they sought the good will of Pope Martin. But papal interests were on the side of Charles; and he went forth with the blessing of the church to win back his lost kingdom. Angevin oppression had brought together all Sicily in a common cause. There was at last a Sicilian nation, a nation for a while capable of great deeds. Sicily now stands out as a main centre of European politics. But the land has lost its character; it is becoming the plaything of powers, instead of the meeting-place of nations. The tale, true or false, that Frenchmen and Provengals were known from the natives by being unable to frame the Italian sound of c shows how thoroughly the Lombard tongue had overcome the other tongues of the island. In Palermo, once city of threefold speech, a Greek, a Saracen, a Norman who spoke his own tongue must have died with the strangers. Charles was now besieging Messina; Sicily seems to have put on some approach to the form of a federal commonwealth. Meanwhile Peter of Aragon was watching and pre- Aragoa. paring. He now declared himself. To all, except the citizens of the great cities, a king would be accept- able; Peter was chosen with little opposition in a parliament at Palermo, and a struggle of twenty-one years began, of which Charles and Peter saw only the first stage. In fact, after Peter had helped the Sicilians to relieve Messina, he was very little in Sicily; he had to defend his kingdom of Aragon, which Pope Frederick. Martin had granted to another French Charles. He was repre- sented by Queen Constance, and his great admiral Roger de Loria kept the war away from Sicily, waging it wholly in Italy, and making Charles, the son of King Charles, prisoner. In 1285 both the rival kings died. Charles had before his death been driven to make large legislative concessions to his subjects to stop the tendency shown, especially in Naples, to join the revolted Sicilians. By Peter's death Aragon and Sicily were separated; his eldest son Alphonso took Aragon, and his second son James took Sicily, which was to pass to the third j ames son Frederick, if James died childless. James was crowned, and held his reforming parliament also. With the popes no terms could be made. Charles, released in 1288 under a deceptive negotiation, was crowned king of Sicily by Honorius IV.; but he had much ado to defend his continental dominions against James and Roger. In 1291 James succeeded Alphonso in the kingdom of Aragon, and left Frederick not king, according to the entail, but only his lieutenant in Sicily. Frederick was the real restorer of Sicilian independence. He had come to the island so young that he felt as a native. He defended the land stoutly, even against his brother. For James presently played Sicily false. In 1295 he was reconciled to the church and released from all French claims on Aragon, and he bound himself to restore Sicily to Charles. But the Sicilians, with Frederick at their head, dis- owned the agreement, and in 1296 Frederick was crowned king. He had to defend Sicily against his brother and Roger de Loria, who forsook the cause, as did John of Procida. Hitherto the war had been waged on the mainland; now it was transferred to Sicily. King James besieged Syracuse as admiral of the Roman Church; Charles sent his son Robert in 1299 as his lieutenant in Sicily, where he gained some successes. But in the same year the one great land battle of the war, that of Falconaria, was won for Sicily. The war, chiefly marked by another great siege of Messina, went on till 1302, when both sides were thoroughly weakened and eager for peace. By a treaty, con- firmed by Pope Boniface VIII. the next year, Frederick was acknowledged as king of Trinacria for life. He was to marry the daughter of the king of Sicily, to whom the island kingdom was to revert at his death. The terms were never meant to be carried out. Frederick again took up the title of king of Sicily, and at his death in 1337 he was succeeded by his son Peter. There were thus two Sicilian kingdoms and two kings of Sicily. The king of the mainland is often spoken of for convenience as king of Naples, but that description was never borne as a formal title save in the 16th century by Philip, king of England and Naples, and in the 19th by Joseph Buona- parte and Joachim Murat. The strict distinction was between Sicily on this side the Pharos (of Messina) and Sicily beyond it. Thus the great island of the Mediterranean again became an independent power. And, as far as legislation could make it, Sicily became one of the freest countries in Europe. By the laws of Frederick parliaments were to be regularly held, and without their consent the king could not make war, peace or alliance. The treaty of 1302 was not confirmed by parliament, and in 1337 parliament called Peter to the crown. But Sicily never rose to the greatness of its Greek or its Norman days, and its old character had passed away. Of Greeks and Saracens we now hear only as a degraded remnant, to be won over, if it may be, to the Western Church. The kingdom had no foreign possessions; yet faint survivals of the days of Agathocles and Roger lingered on. The isle of Gerba off the African coast was held for a short time, and traces of the connexion with Greece went on in various shapes. If the kings of Sicily on this side the Pharos kept Corfu down to 1386, those beyond the Pharos became in 13 n overlords of Athens, when that duchy was seized by Catalan adventurers, disbanded after the wars of Sicily. In 1530 the Sicilian island of Malta became the shelter of the Knights of Saint John driven by the Turk from Rhodes, and Sicily has received several colonies of Christian Albanians, who have replaced Greek and Arabic by yet another tongue. (See Naples, Kingdom of.) (E. A. F.; T. As.) Peter. 36 SICKINGEN— SICULI SICKINGEN, FRANZ VON (1481-1523), German knight, one of the most notable figures of the first period of the Reformation, was born at Ebernburg near Worms. Having fought for the emperor Maximilian I. against Venice in 1508, he inherited large estates on the Rhine, and increased his wealth and reputation by numerous private feuds, in which he usually posed as the friend of the oppressed. In 15 13 he took up the quarrel of Balthasar Schlor, a citizen who had been driven out of Worms, and attacked this city with 7000 men. In spite of the imperial ban, he devas- tated its lands, intercepted its commerce, and only desisted when his demands were granted. He made war upon Antony, duke of Lorraine, and compelled Philip, landgrave of Hesse, to pay him 35,000 gulden. In 1518 he interfered in a civil conflict in Metz, ostensibly siding with the citizens against the governing oligarchy. He led an army of 20,000 men against the city, compelled the magistrates to give him 20,000 gold gulden and a month's pay for his troops. In 1518 Maximilian released him from the ban, and he took part in the war carried on by the Swabian League against Ulrich I., duke of Wurttemberg. In the contest for the imperial throne upon the death of Maximilian in 1519, Sickingen accepted bribes from Francis I., king of France, but when the election took place he led his troops to Frankfort, where their presence assisted to secure the -election of Charles V. For this service he was made imperial chamberlain and councillor, and in 15 21 he led an expedition into France, which ravaged Picardy, but was beaten back from Mezieres and forced to retreat. About 151 7 Sickingen became intimate with Ulrich von Hutten, and gave his support to Hutten's schemes. In 1 519 a threat from him freed John Reuchlin from his enemies, the Dominicans, and his castles became in Hutten's words a refuge for righteousness. Here many of the reformers found shelter, and a retreat was offered to Martin Luther. After the failure of the French expedition, Sickingen, aided by Hutten, formed, or revived, a large scheme to overthrow the spiritual princes and to elevate the order of knighthood. He hoped to secure this by the help of the towns and peasants, and to make a great position for himself. A large army was soon collected, many nobles from the upper Rhineland joined the standard, and at Landau, in August 1522, Sickingen was formally named commander. He declared war against his old enemy, Richard of Greiffenklau, archbishop of Trier, and marched against that city. Trier was loyal to the archbishop, and the landgrave of Hesse and Louis V., count palatine of the Rhine, hastened to his assistance. Sickingen, who had not obtained the help he wished for, was compelled to fall back on his castle of Landstuhl, near Kaiserslautern, collecting much booty on the way. On the 22nd of October 1522 the council of regency placed him under the ban, to which he replied, in the spring of 1523, by plundering Kaiserslautern. The rulers of Trier, Hesse and the Palatinate decided to press the campaign against him, and having obtained help from the Swabian League, marched on Landstuhl. Sickingen refused to treat, and during the siege was seriously wounded. This attack is notable as one of the first occasions on which artillery was used, and by its aid breaches were soon made in an otherwise impregnable fortress. On the 6th of May 1523 he was forced to capitulate, and on the following day he died. He was buried at Landstuhl, and in 1889 a splendid monument was raised at Ebernburg to his memory and to that of Hutten. His son Franz Conrad was made a baron of the empire {Reichs- freiherr) by Maximilian II., and a descendant was raised in 1773 to the rank of count (Reichsgraf). A branch of the family still exists in Austria and Silesia. See H. Ulmann, Franz von Sickingen (Leipzig, 1872); F. P. Bremer, Sickingens Fehde gegen Trier (Strassburg, 1885); H. Prutz, " Franz von Sickingen " in Der neue Plutarch (Leipzig, 1880), and the " Flersheimer Chronik " in Hutten's Deutsche Schriften, edited by O. Waltz und Szaraatolati (Strassburg, 1891). SICKLES, DANIEL EDGAR (1825- ), American soldier and diplomatist, was born in New York City on the 20th of October 1825. He learned the printer's trade, studied in the university of the City of New York (now New York University) , was admitted to the bar in 1846, and was a member of the state Assembly in 1847. In 1853 he became corporation counsel of New York City, but resigned soon afterward to become secretary of the U.S. legation in London, under James Buchanan. He returned to America in 1855, was a member of the state Senate in 1856-1857, and from 1857 to 1861 was a Democratic repre- sentative in Congress. In 1859 he was tried on a charge of murder, having shot Philip Barton Key, U.S. attorney for the District of Columbia, whom Sickles had discovered to have a liaison with his wife; but was acquitted after a dramatic trial lasting twenty days. At the outbreak of the Civil War Sickles was active in raising United States volunteers in New York, and was appointed colonel of a regiment. He became a brigadier- general of volunteers in September 1 86,1 , led a brigade of the Army of the Potomac with credit up to the battle of Antietam, and then succeeded to a divisional command. He took part with dis- tinction in the battle of Fredericksburg, and in 1863 as a major- general commanded the III. army corps. His energy and ability were conspicuous in the disastrous battle of Chancellors- ville Iq.v.); and at Gettysburg (q.v.) the part played by the III. corps in the desperate fighting around the Peach Orchard was one of the most noteworthy incidents in the battle. Sickles himself lost a leg and his active military career came to an end. He was, however, employed to the end of the war, and in 1867 received the brevets of brigadier-general U.S.A. and major-general U.S.A. for his services at Fredericksburg and Gettysburg respectively. General Sickles was one of the few successful volunteer generals who served on either side. Soon after the close of the Civil War he was sent on a confidential mission to Colombia to secure its compliance with a treaty agreement (of 1846) permitting the United States to convey troops across the Isthmus of Panama. In 1 866- 1 86 7 he commanded the department of the Carolinas. In 1866 he was appointed colonel of the 42nd infantry (Veteran Reserve Corps), and in 1869 he was retired with the rank of major-general. He was minister to Spain from 1869 to 1873, and took part in the negotiations growing out of the " Virginius Affair " (see Santiago, Cuba). General Sickles was president of the New York State Board of Civil Service Commissioners in 1888-1889, was sheriff of New York in 1890, and was again a representative in Congress in 1893- 189 5. SICULI, an ancient Sicilian tribe, which in historical times occupied the eastern half of the island to which they gave their name. It plays a large though rather shadowy part in the early traditions of pre-Roman Italy. There is abundant evidence that the Siculi once lived in Central Italy east and even north of Rome {e.g. Servius ad Aen. vii. 795; Dion. Hal. i. 9. 22;Thucy- dides vi. 2). Thence they were dislodged by the Umbro-Safine tribes, and finally crossed to Sicily. Archaeologists are not yet agreed as to the particular stratum of remains in Italy to which the name of the Siculi should be attached (see for instance B. Modestov, Introduction a Vhistoire romaine, Paris, 1907, pp. 135 sqq.). They were distinct from the Sicani {q.v.; Virg. Aen. viii. 328) who inhabited the western half of the island, and who according to Thucydides came from Spain, but whom Virgil seems to recognize in Italy. Both traditions may be true (cf. W. Ridgeway, Who were the Romans? London, 1908, p. 23). Of the language of the Siculi we know a very little from glosses preserved to us by ancient writers, most of which were collected by E. A. Freeman {Sicily, vol. i. App. note iv.), and from an inscription upon what is presumably an ornamental earthen- ware wine vessel, which has very much the shape of a tea-pot, preserved and transcribed by R. S. Conway in the Collection of the Grand Duke of Baden at Karlsruhe (Winnefeld, Grossherzogl. vereinigte Sammlungen, 1887, 120), which has been discussed by R. Thurneysen (Kuhn's Zeitschrift, xxxv. 214). The inscription was found at Centuripa, and the alphabet is Greek of the 5th or 6th century B.C. We have not enough evidence to make a translation possible, despite Thurneysen's valiant effort, but the recurrence of the phrase hemiton esti durom in a varied order {durom hemiton esti) — presumably a drinking song or proverb, " half a cup is sorry cheer,''' though it is possible that the sign read as m may really denote some kind of 5 — makes the division of these three words quite certain, and renders it highly probable that we have to do with an Indo-European language. None of SICYON— SIDDONS 37 the groups of sounds occurring in the rest of the inscription, nor any of the endings of words so far as they may be guessed, present any reason for doubting this hypothesis; and the glosses already mentioned can one and all be easily connected with Greek or Latin words (e.g. poirov, mutuum) ; in fact it would be difficult to rebut the contention that they should all be regarded as mere borrowings. (R. S. C.) The towns of the Siculi, like those of the Sicani, formed no political union, but were under independent rulers. They played an important part in the history of the island after the arrival of the Greeks (see Sicily). Their agricultural pursuits and the volcanic nature of the island made them worshippers of the gods of the nether world, and they have enriched mythology with some distinctly national figures. The most important of these were the Palici, protectors of agriculture and sailors, who had a lake and temple in the neighbourhood of the river Symaethus, the chief seat of the Siceli; Adranus, father of the Palici, a god akin to Hephaestus, in whose temple a fire was always kept burning; Hybla (or Hyblaea), after whom three towns were named, whose sanctuary was at Hybla Gereatis. The connexion of Demeter and Kore with Henna (the rape of Proserpine) and of Arethusa with Syracuse is due to Greek influence. The chief Sicel towns were: Agyrium (San Filippo d' Argird); Centuripa (or Centuripae; Centorbi); Henna (Castrogiovanni, a corruption of Castrum Hennae through the Arabic Casr-janni) ; Hybla, three in number, (a) Hybla Major, called Geleatis or Gereatis, on the river Symaethus, probably the Hybla famous for its honey, although according to others this was (b) Hybla Minor, on the E. coast N. of Syracuse, afterwards the site of the Dorian colony of Megara, (c) Hybla Heraea in the S. of the island. For authorities see Sicily. SICYON, or Secyon (the latter being the older form used by the natives), an ancient Greek city situated in northern Pelopon- nesus between Corinthia and Achaea. It was built on a low triangular plateau about 2 m. from the Corinthian Gulf, at the confluence of the Asopus and the Helisson, whose sunken beds protected it on E. and W. Between the city and its port lay a fertile plain with olive-groves and orchards. Sicyon's primitive name Aegialeia indicates that its original population was Ionian ; in the Iliad it appears as a dependency of Agamemnon, and its early connexion with Argos is further proved by the myth and surviving cult of Adrastus. After the Dorian invasion the com- munity was divided anew into the ordinary three Dorian tribes and an equally privileged tribe of Ionians, besides which a class of Kopvvij(j>6poL or Ka.Twva.Ko4>6poi lived on the land as serfs. For some centuries Sicyon remained subject to Argos, whence its Dorian conquerors had come; as late as 500 B.C. it acknowledged a certain suzerainty. But its virtual independence was estab- lished in the 7th century, when a line of tyrants arose and initiated an anti-Dorian policy. This dynasty, known after its founder Orthagoras as the Orthagoridae, exercised a mild rule, and there- fore lasted longer than any other succession of Greek tyrants (about 665-565 B.C.). Chief of these rulers was the founder's grandson Cleisthenes — the uncle of the Athenian legislator of that name (see Cleisthenes, 2). Besides reforming the city's con- stitution to the advantage of the Ionians and replacing Dorian cults by the worship of Dionysus, Cleisthenes gained renown as the chief instigator and general of the First Sacred War (590) in the interests of the Delphians. From Herodotus' famous account of the wooing of Agariste it may be inferred that he held intercourse with many commercial centres of Greece and south Italy. About this time Sicyon developed the various industries for which it was noted in antiquity. As the abode of the sculptors Dipoenus and Scyllis it gained pre-eminence in wood- carving and bronze work such as is still to be seen in the archaic metal facings found at Olympia. Its pottery, which resembled the Corinthian ware, was exported with the latter as far as Etruria. In Sicyon also the art of painting was supposed to have been " invented." After the fall of the tyrants their institutions survived till the end of the 6th century, when the Dorian supre- macy was re-established, perhaps by the agency of Sparta, and the city was enrolled in the Peloponnesian League. Henceforth its policy was usually determined either by Sparta or by its powerful neighbour Corinth. During the Persian wars Sicyon could place 3000 heavy-armed men in the field; its school of bronze sculptors still flourished, and produced in Canachus (?.».) a master of the late archaic style. In the 5th century it suffered like Corinth from the commercial rivalry of Athens in the western seas, and was repeatedly harassed by flying squadrons of Athenian ships. In the Peloponnesian war Sicyon followed the lead of Sparta and Corinth. When these two powers quarrelled after the peace of Nicias it remained loyal to the Spartans; but the latter thought it prudent to stiffen the oligarchic government against a nascent democratic movement. Again in the Corinthian war Sicyon sided with Sparta and became its base of operations against the allied troops round Corinth. In 369 it was captured and garrisoned by the Thebans in their successful attack on the Peloponnesian League. On this occasion a powerful citizen named Euphron effected a democratic revolution and established himself tyrant by popular support. His deposition by the Thebans and subsequent murder freed Sicyon for a season, but new tyrants arose with the help of Philip II. of Macedon. Never- theless during this period Sicyon reached its zenith as a centre of art: its school of painting gained fame under Eupompus and attracted the great masters Pamphilus and Apelles as students; its sculpture was raised to a level hardly surpassed in Greece by Lysippus and his pupils. After participating in the Lamian war and the campaigns of the Macedonian pretenders the city was captured (303) by Demetrius Poliorcetes, who trans- planted all the inhabitants to the Acropolis and renamed the site Demetrias. In the 3rd century it again passed from tyrant to tyrant, until in 251 it was finally liberated and enrolled in the Achaean League by Aratus (g.v.). The destruction of Corinth (146.) brought Sicyon an acquisition of territory and the presidency over the Isthmian games; yet in Cicero's time it had fallen deep into debt. Under the empire it was quite obscured by the re- stored cities of Corinth and Patrae; in Pausanias' age (a.d. 150) it was almost desolate. In Byzantine times it became a bishop's seat, and to judge by its later name" Hellas " it served as a refuge for the Greeks from the Slavonic immigrants of the 8th century. The village of Vasiliko which now occupies the site is quite insignificant. On the plateau parts of the ancient fortifications are still visible, including the wall between town and Acropolis near the southern apex. A little north of this wall are remains of a theatre and stadium, traces of aqueducts and foundations of buildings. The theatre, which was excavated by the American School of Archaeology in 1886-1887, 1891 and 1898, was built in the slope towards the Acropolis, probably in the first half of the 4th century, and measured 400 ft. in diameter; the stage was rebuilt in Roman times. The side entrances to the auditorium were covered in with vaults of Greek construction; a curious feature is a tunnel from below the stage into the middle of the auditorium. Authorities. — Strabo, pp. 382, 389; Herodotus v. 67-68, vi. 92, ix. 28; Thucydides i. 108, in; iv. 70, 101; v. 52, 82; Xenophon, Hellenica, iv., vi., vii. ; Diodorus xviii. n, xx. 102; Pausanias ii. 5-1 1 ; W. M. Leake, Travels in the Morea (London, 1830), iii. PP- 351-381; E. Curtius, Peloponnesos (Gotha, 1851), ii. pp. 482-505; American Journal of Archaeology, v. (1889) pp. 267-303, viii. (1893) pp. 288-400, xx. (1905) pp. 263-276; L. Dyer in the Journal of Hellenic Studies (1906), pp. 76-83; for coins, B. V. Head, Historia numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 345-346; also Numis- matics, section Greek, § " Patrae, Sicyon." (M. O. B. C.) SIDDONS, SARAH (1755-1831), English actress, the eldest of twelve children of Roger Kemble, was born in the " Shoulder of Mutton " public-house, Brecon, Wales, on the 5th of July 1755. Through the special care of her mother in sending her to the schools in the towns where the company played, Sarah Kemble received a remarkably good education, although she was accustomed to make her appearance on the stage while still a child. She became attached to William Siddons, an actor of the company; but this was discountenanced by her parents, who wished her to accept the offer of a squire. Siddons was dismissed from the company, and she was sent to a situation as lady's maid to Mrs Greathead at Guy's Cliff in Warwickshire. Here she recited Shakespeare, Milton and Rowe in the servants' 38 SIDE— SIDEBOARD hall, and occasionally before aristocratic company, and here also she began to develop a capacity for sculpture which was sub- sequently developed (between 1789 and 1790), and of which she provided samples in busts of herself and of her son. The necessary consent to her union with Siddons was at last obtained, and the marriage took place at Trinity Church, Coventry, on the 26th of November 1773. It was while playing at Cheltenham in the following year that Mrs Siddons met with the earliest decided recognition of her powers as an actress, when by her representation of Belvidera in Otway's Venice Preserved she moved to tears a party of " people of quality " who had come to scoff. Her merits were made known by them to Garrick, who sent his deputy to Cheltenham to see her as Calista in Rowe's Fair Penitent, the result being that she was engaged to appear at Drury Lane at a salary of £5 a week. Owing to inex- perience as well as other circumstances, her first appearances as Portia and in other parts were unfortunate, and when, after playing with success in Birmingham, she was about to return to town she received a note from the manager of Drury Lane stating that her services would not be required. Thus, in her own words, " banished from Drury Lane as a worthless candidate for fame and fortune," she again in the beginning of 1777 went on " the circuit " in the provinces. After a very successful engagement at Bath, beginning in 1778 and lasting five years, she again accepted an offer from Drury Lane, when her appearance as Isabella in Garrick's version of Southerne's Fatal Marriage, on the 10th of October 1782, was a triumph, only equalled in the history of the English stage by that of Garrick's first night at Drury Lane in 1 741 and that of Edmund Kean's in 1814. In her earlier years it was in scenes of a tender and melting character that she exercised the strongest sway over an audience; but in the performance of Lady Macbeth, in which she appeared on the 2nd of February 1785 for the first time in London, it was the grandeur of her exhibition of the more terrible passions as related to one awful purpose that held them spellbound. In Lady Macbeth she found the highest and best scope for her gifts. It fitted her as no other character did, and as perhaps it will never fit another actress. Her extraordinary and peculiar physical endowments — tall and striking figure, brilliant beauty, power- fully expressive eyes, and solemn dignity of demeanour — en- abled her to confer a weird majesty on the character which in- expressibly heightened the tragic awe surrounding her fate. After Lady Macbeth she played Desdemona, Rosalind and Ophelia, all with great success; but it was in Queen Catherine — which she first played on the occasion of her brother John Kemble's spectacular revival of Henry VIII. in 1788 — that she discovered a part almost as well adapted to her peculiar powers as that of Lady Macbeth. As Volumnia in Kemble's version of Coriolanus she also secured a triumph. In her early life she had attempted comedy, but her gifts in this respect were very limited. It was of course inevitable that comparisons should be made between her and her only peer, Rachel, who undoubtedly excelled her in intensity and the portrayal of fierce passion, but was a less finished artist and lacked Mrs Siddons' dignity and pathos. Though Mrs Siddons' minute and systematic study perhaps gave a certain amount of stiffness to her representations, it conferred on them a symmetry and proportion to which Rachel never attained. Mrs Siddons formally retired from the stage in 181 2, but occasionally appeared on special occasions even when advanced in years. Her last appearance was on the 9th of June 1819 as Lady Randolph in Home's Douglas, for the benefit of Mr and Mrs Charles Kemble. Her most striking impersona- tions, besides the roles already mentioned, were those of Zara in Congreve's Mourning Bride, Constance in King John, Mrs Haller in The Stranger, and Elvira in Pizarro. In private life Mrs Siddons enjoyed the friendship and respect of many of the most eminent" persons of her time. Horace Walpole at first refused to join the fashionable chorus of her praise, but he was ultimately won over. Dr Johnson wrote his name on the hem of her garment in the famous picture of the actress as the Tragic Muse by Reynolds (now in the Dulwich Gallery). " I would not lose," he said, " the honour this opportunity afforded to me for my name going down to posterity on the hem of your garment." Mrs Siddons died in London on the 8th of June 1831, and was buried in Paddington churchyard. On the 14th of June 1897 Sir Henry Irving unveiled at Pad- dington Green a marble statue of her by Chavalliaud, after the portrait by Reynolds. There is also a large statue by Chantrey in Westminster Abbey. Portraits by Lawrence and Gains- borough are in the National Gallery, and a portrait ascribed to Gainsborough is in the Garrick Club, London, which also possesses two pictures of the actress as Lady Macbeth by George Henry Harlow. See Thomas Campbell, Life of Mrs Siddons (2 vols., 1834); Fitz- gerald, The Kembles ( 3 vols., 1871); Frances Ann Kemble, Records of a Girlhood (3 vols., 1878). SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia), an ancient city on the Pamphylian coast about 12 m. E. of the mouth of the Eurymedon. Possessing a good harbour in the days of small craft, it was the most im- portant place in Pamphylia. Alexander visited and occupied it, • and there the Rhodian fleet defeated that of Antiochus the Great, and in the succeeding century the Cilician pirates established their chief seat. An inscription found on the site shows it to have had a considerable Jewish population in early Byzantine times. The great ruins, among the most notable in Asia Minor, have been re-occupied by some 200 families of Cretan Moslems. They cover a large promontory, fenced from the mainland by a ditch and wall which has been repaired in medieval times and is singularly perfect. Within this is a maze of structures out of which rises the colossal ruin of the theatre, built up on arches like a Roman amphitheatre for lack of a convenient hill-side to be hollowed out in the usual Greek fashion. The auditorium is little less perfect than that of Aspendus and very nearly as large; but the scena wall has collapsed over stage and proscenium in a cataract of loose blocks. The arches now afford shelter and stabling for the Cretans. Besides the theatres, three temples, an aqueduct and a nymphaeum are noticeable. See C. Lanckorouski, Les Villes de la Pamphylie et de la Pisidie, i. (1890). - (D. G. H.) SIDEBOARD, a high oblong table fitted with drawers, cup- boards or pedestals, and used for the exposition or storage of articles required in the dining-room. Originally it was what its name implies — a side-table, to which the modern dinner- wagon very closely approximates. Then two- or three-tiered sideboards were in use in the Tudor period, and were perhaps the ancestors, or collaterals, of the court-cupboard, which in skeleton they much resembled. Early in the 18th century they began to be replaced by side-tables properly so called. They were one of the many revolutions in furniture produced by the introduction of mahogany, and those who could not afford the new and costly wood used a cheap substitute stained to resemble it In the beginning these tables were entirely of wood and comparatively slight, but before long it became the fashion to use a marble slab instead of a wooden top, which necessitated a somewhat more robust construction; here again there was a field for imitation, and marble was sometimes replaced by scagliola. Many of the sideboard tables of this period were exceedingly handsome, with cabriole legs, claw or claw and bill feet, friezes of acanthus, much gadrooning and mask pendants. Many such tables came from Chippendale's workshops, but although that great genius beautified the type he found, he had no influence upon the evolution of the sideboard. That evolution was brought about by the growth of domestic needs. Save upon its surface, the side- board-table offered no accommodation; it usually lacked even a drawer. Even, however, in the period of Chippendale's zenith separate " bottle cisterns " and " lavatories " for the convenience of the butler in washing the silver as the meals proceeded were, sparsely no doubt, in use. By degrees it became customary to place a pedestal, which was really a cellarette or a plate- warmer, at each end of the sideboard-table. One of them would contain ice and accommodation for bottles, the other would be a cistern. Sometimes a single pedestal would be surmounted by a wooden vase lined with metal and filled with water, and fitted with a I tap. To whom is due the brilliant inspiration of attaching the SIDGWICK— SIDI-BEL-ABBES 39 pedestals to the table and creating a single piece of furniture out of three components there is nothing to show with certainty. It is most probable that the credit is due to Shearer, who unques- tionably did much for the improvement of the sideboard; Hepplewhite and the brothers Adam distinguished themselves in the same field. The pedestals, when incorporated as an integral part of the piece, became cupboards and the vases knife-boxes, and, with the drawers, which had been occasionally used much earlier, the sideboard, in what appears to be its final form, was completed. Pieces exist in which the ends have been cut away to receive the pedestals. If Shearer and Hepplewhite laid its foundations, it was brought to its full floraison by Sheraton. By the use of fine exotic woods, the deft employment of satin wood and other inlays, and by the addition of gracefully orna- mented brass- work at the back, sometimes surmounted by candles to light up the silver, Sheraton produced effects of great elegance. But for sheer artistic excellence in the components of what presently became the sideboard, the Adams stand unrivalled, some of their inlay and brass mounts being almost equal to the first work of the great French school. By replacing the straight outline with a bombe front, Hepplewhite added still further to the grace of the late 18th-century sideboard. No art remains long at its apogee, and in less than a quarter of a century the sideboard lost its grace, and, influenced by the heavy feeling of the Empire manner, grew massive and dull. Since the end of the 1 8th century there has indeed been no advance, artistically speaking, in this piece of furniture. SIDGWICK, HENRY (1838-1900), English philosopher, was born at Skipton in Yorkshire, where his father, the Rev. W. Sidgwick (d. 1841), was headmaster of the grammar-school, on the 31st of May 1838. He was educated at Rugby (where his cousin, subsequently his brother-in-law, E. W. Benson— after- wards archbishop) — was a master), and at Trinity, Cambridge, where his career was a brilliant one. In 1859 he was senior classic, 33rd wrangler, chancellor's medallist and Craven scholar. In the same year he was elected to a fellowship at Trinity, and soon afterwards appointed to a classical lectureship there. This post he held for ten years, but in 1869 exchanged his lectureship for one in moral philosophy, a subject to which he had been turn- ing his attention more and more. In the same year, finding that he could no longer declare himself a member of the Church of England, he resigned his fellowship. He retained his lectureship, and in 1881 was elected an honorary fellow. In 1874 he published his Method of Ethics (6th ed. 1901, containing emendations written just before his death), which first won him a reputation outside his university. In 1875 he was appointed praelector on moral and political philosophy at Trinity, in 1883 he was elected Knight- bridge professor of moral philosophy, and in 1885, the religious test having been removed, his college once more elected him to a fellowship on the foundation. Besides his lecturing and literary labours, Sidgwick took an active part in the business of the university, and in many forms of social and philanthropic work. He was a member of the General Board of Studies from its foundation in 1882 till 1899; he was also a member of the Council of the Senate of the Indian Civil Service Board and the Local Examinations and Lectures Syndicate, and chairman of the Special Board for Moral Science. He was one of the founders and first president of the Society for Psychical Research, and was a member of the Metaphysical Society. None of his work is more closely identified with his name than the part he took in pro- moting the higher education of women. He helped to start the higher local examinations for women, and the lectures held at Cambridge in preparation for these. It was at his suggestion and with his help that Miss Clough opened a house of residence for students; and when this had developed into Newnham College, and in 1880 the North Hall was added, Mr Sidgwick, who had in 1876 married Eleanor Mildred Balfour (sister of A. J. Balfour), went with his wife to live there for two years. After Miss Clough's death in 1892 Mrs Sidgwick became principal of the college, and she and her husband resided there for the rest of his life. During this whole period Sidgwick took the deepest interest in the welfare of the college. In politics he was a Liberal, and became a Liberal Unionist in 1886. Early in 1900 he was forced by ill-health to resign his professorship, and he died on the 28th of August of the same year. Though in many ways an excellent teacher he was primarily a student, and treated his pupils as fellow-learners. He was deeply interested in psychical phenomena, but his energies were primarily devoted to the study of religion and philosophy. Brought up in the Church of England, he gradually drifted from orthodox Christianity, and as early as 1862 he described himself as a theist. For the rest of his life, though he regarded Chris- tianity as " indispensable and irreplaceable— looking at it from a sociological point of view," he found himself unable to return to it as a religion. In political economy he was a Utilitarian on the lines of Mill and Bentham; his work was the careful investiga- tion of first principles and the investigation of ambiguities rather than constructive. In philosophy he devoted himself to ethics, and especially to the examination of the ultimate . intuitive principles of conduct and the problem of free will. He gave up the psychological hedonism of Mill, and adopted instead a position which may be described as ethical hedonism, according to which the criterion of goodness in any given action is that it produces the greatest possible amount of pleasure. This hedonism, however, is not confined to the self (egoistic), but involves a due regard to the pleasure of others, and is, therefore, distinguished further as universalistic. Lastly, Sidg- wick returns to the principle that no man should act so as to destroy his own happiness, and leaves us with a somewhat unsatisfactory dualism. His chief works are Principles of Political Economy (1883, 3rd ed. 1901); Scope and Method of Economic Science (1885); Outlines of the History of Ethics (1886, 5th ed. 1902), enlarged from his article Ethics in the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Elements of Politics (1891, 2nd ed. 1897), an attempt to supply an adequate treatise on the subject starting from the old lines of Bentham and Mill. The following were published posthumously: Philosophy; its Scope and Relations (1902) ; Lectures on the Ethics of T. H. Green, Mr Herbert Spencer and J. Martineau (1902); The Development of European Polity (1903) ; Miscellaneous Essays and Addresses (1904) ; Lectures on the Philosophy of Kant (1905). His younger brother, Arthur Sidgwick, had a brilliant school and university career, being second classic at Cambridge in 1863 and becoming fellow of Trinity; but he devoted himself thence- forth mainly to work as a teacher. After being for many years a master at Rugby, he became in 1882 fellow and tutor of Corpus, Oxford; and from 1894 to 1906 was Reader in Greek in the uni- versity. He published a number of admirable classical school- books, including Greek Prose (1876) and Greek Verse (1882), and texts {Virgil, 1890; Aeschylus, 1880-1903), and was weU known as a consummate classical scholar, remarkable for literary taste and general culture. In the college life of Corpus he took the deepest interest and had the most stimulating influence; and he also played an active part in social and political move- ments from an advanced Liberal point of view. A Memoir of Henry Sidgwick, written by his brother with the collaboration of his widow, was published in 1906. SIDI-BEL-ABBES, chief town of an arrondissement in the department of Oran, Algeria, 48 m. by rail S. of Oran, 1552 ft above the sea, on the right bank of the Mekerra. Pop. (1906) ot the town, 24,494 (of whom three-fourths are French or Spaniards) ; of the commune, 29,088; of the arrondissement, which includes 17 communes, 98,309. The town, which occupies an important strategic position in the plain dominated by the escarpments of Mount Tessala, has barrack accommodation for 6000 troops, and is the headquarters of the i er regiment etranger, one of the two regiments known as the Foreign Legion. It is encircled by a crenellated and bastioned wall with a fosse, and has four gates, named after Oran, Daia, Mascara and Tlemcen respectively. Starting from the gates, two broad streets, shaded by plane trees, traverse the town east to west and north to south, the latter dividing the civil from the military quarters. There are numerous fountains fed by the Mekerra. Sidi-bel-Abbes is also an im- portant agricultural centre, wheat, tobacco and alfa being the chief articles of trade. There are numerous vineyards and olive- 4-o SIDMOUTH, ist VISCOUNT— SIDNEY, A. groves in the vicinity. The town, founded by the French, derives its name from the kubba (tomb) of a marabout named Sidi-bel- Abbes, near which a redoubt was constructed by General Bedeau in 1843. The site of the town, formerly a swamp, has been thoroughly drained. The surrounding country is healthy, fertile and populous. SIDMOUTH, HENRY ADDINGTON, ist Viscount (1757- 1844), English statesman, son of Dr Anthony Addingtori, was born on the 30th of May 1757. Educated at Winchester College and Brasenose College, Oxford, he graduated in 1778, and took the chancellor's prize for an English essay in 1779. Owing to his friendship with William Pitt he turned his attention to politics, and after his election as member of parliament for Devizes in 1784 gave a silent but steady support to the ministry of his friend. By close attention to his parliamentary duties, he obtained a wide knowledge of the rules and procedure of the House of Commons, and this fact together with his intimacy with Pitt, and his general popularity, secured his election as Speaker in June 1789. Like his predecessors, Addington con- tinued to be a partisan after his acceptance of this office, took part at times in debate when the house was in committee; and on one occasion his partiality allowed Pitt to disregard the authority of the chair. He enjoyed the confidence of George III., and in the royal interest tried to induce Pitt to withdraw his proposal for a further instalment of relief to Roman Catholics. Rather than give way on this question Pitt resigned office early in 1801, when both he and the king urged Addington to form a government. Addington consented, and after some delay caused by the king's illness, and by the reluctance of several of. Pitt's followers to serve under him, became first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer in March 1801. The new prime minister, who was specially acceptable to George, was loyally supported by Pitt; and his first important work, the conclusion of the treaty of Amiens in March 1802, made him popular in the country. Signs, however, were not wanting that the peace would soon be broken, and Pitt, dissatisfied with the ministry for ignoring the threatening attitude of Napoleon, and making no preparations for a renewal of the war, withdrew his support. Addington then took steps to strengthen the forces of the crown, and suggested to Pitt that he should join the cabinet and that both should serve under a new prime minister. This offer was declined, and a similar fate befell Addington's subsequent proposal to serve under Pitt. When the struggle with France was renewed in May 1803, it became evident that as a war minister Addington was not a success; and when Pitt became openly hostile, the continued confidence of the king and of a majority in the House of Commons was not a sufficient counter- poise to the ministry's waning prestige. Although careful and industrious, Addington had no brilliant qualities, and his medi- ocrity afforded opportunity for attack by his enemies. Owing to his father's profession he was called in derision " the doctor," and George Canning, who wrote satirical verses at his expense, referred to him on one occasion as " happy Britain's guardian gander." Without waiting for defeat in the House he resigned office in April 1804, and became the leader of the party known as the " king's friends." Pitt, who now returned to office, was soon reconciled with his old friend; in January 1805 Addington was created Viscount Sidmouth, and became lord president of the council. He felt aggrieved, however, because his friends were not given a larger share of power, and when Pitt complained because some of them voted against the ministry, Sidmouth left the cabinet in July 1805. In February 1806 he became lord privy seal in the ministry of Fox and Grenville, but resigned early in 1807 when the government proposed to throw open commissions in the army and navy to Roman Catholics and Protestant dissenters; in 1812 he joined the cabinet of Spencer Perceval as lord president of the council, becoming home secretary when the ministry was reconstructed by the earl of Liverpool in the follow- ing June. The ten years during which he held this office coincided with much misery and unrest among the labouring classes, and the government policy, for which he was mainly responsible, was one of severe repression. In 181 7 the Habeas Corpus Act was suspended, and Sidmouth issued a circular to the lords- lieutenant declaring that magistrates might apprehend and hold to bail persons accused on oath of seditious libels. For this step he was severely attacked in parliament, and was accused of fomenting rebellion by means of his spies. Although shaken by the acquittal of William Hone en a charge of libel the govern- ment was supported by parliament; and after the " Manchester massacre " in August 1819 the home secretary thanked the magistrates and soldiers for their share in quelling the riot. He was mainly responsible for the policy embodied in the " Six Acts " of 1819. In December 1821 Sidmouth resigned his office, but remained a member of the cabinet without official duties until 1824, when he resigned owing to his disapproval of the recognition of the independence of Buenos Aires. Subsequently he took very little part in public affairs; but true to his earlier principles he spoke against Catholic emancipation in April 1829, and voted against the Reform Bill in 1832. He died at his residence in Rich- mond Park on the 15th of February 1844, and was buried at Mortlake. In 1781 he married Ursula Mary, daughter of Leonard Hammond of Cheam, Surrey, who died in 181 1, leaving a son, William Leonard, who succeeded his father as Viscount Sidmouth, and four daughters. In 1823 he married secondly Marianne, daughter of William Scott, Baron Stowell (d. 1836), and widow of Thomas Townsend of Honington, Warwickshire. Sidmouth suffers by comparison with the great men of his age, but he was honest and courageous in his opinions, loyal to his friends, and devoted to church and state. The 2nd Viscount Sidmouth (1 794-1 864) was a clergyman of the Church of England; he was succeeded as 3rd Viscount by his son, William Wells Addington (b. 1824). See Hon. G. Pellew, Life of Sidmouth (London, 1847); Lord John Russell, Life and Times of C. J. Fox (London, 1859-1866); Earl Stanhope, Life of Pitt (London, 1861-1862); Sir G. C. Lewis, Essays on the Administrations of Great Britain (London, 1864); Spencer Walpole, History of England (London, 1878-1886). (A. W. H.*) SIDMOUTH, a market town and watering-place in the Honiton parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, on the river Sid and the English Channel, 167! m. W. by S. of London, by the London & South- Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 4201. Lying in a hollow, the town is shut in by hills which ter- minate in the forelands of Salcombe and High Peak, two sheer cliffs of a deep red colour. The shore line curves away, beyond these, westward to the Start and eastward to Portland — both visible from Sidmouth beach. The restored church of St Nicholas, dating from the 13th century, though much altered in the 15th, contains a window given by Queen Victoria in 1866 in memory of her father, the duke of Kent, who lived at Woolbrook Glen, close by, and died there in 1820. An esplanade is built along the sea-wall, and the town possesses golf links and other recreation grounds. The bathing is good, the climate warm. Formerly of some importance, the harbour can no longer be entered by large vessels, and goods are transhipped into flat-bottomed lighters for conveyance ashore. Fishing is extensively carried on and cattle fairs are held. In the 13th century Sidmouth was a borough governed by a port-reeve. Tradition tells of an older town buried under the sea; and Roman coins and other remains have been washed up on the beach. Traces of an ancient camp exist on High Peak. SIDNEY (or Sydney), ALGERNON (1622-1683), English politician, second son of Robert, 2nd earl of Leicester, and of Dorothy Percy, daughter of Henry, 9th earl of Northumberland, was born at Penshurst, Kent, in 1622. As a boy he showed much talent, which was carefully trained under his father's eye In 1632 with his elder brother Philip he accompanied his father on his mission as ambassador extraordinary to Christian IV. of Denmark, whom he saw at Rendsburg. In May 1636 Sidney went with his father to Paris, where he became a general favourite, and from there to Rome- In October 1641 he was given a troop in his father's regiment in Ireland, of which his brother, known as Lord Lisle, was in command. In August 1643 the brothers returned to England. At Chester their horses were taken by the Royalists, whereupon they again put out to sea and landed at Liverpool. Here they were detained by the Parliamentary SIDNEY, A. 4-i commissioners, and by them sent up to London for safe custody. Whether this was intended by Sidney or no, it is certain that from this time he ardently attached himself to the Parliamentary cause. On the ioth of May 1644 he was made captain of horse in Manchester's army, under the Eastern Association. He was shortly afterwards made lieutenant-colonel, and charged at the head of his regiment at Marston Moor (and July), where he was wounded and rescued with difficulty. On the 2nd of April 1645 he was given the command of a cavalry regiment in Cromwell's division of Fairfax's army, was appointed governor of Chichester on ioth May, and in December was returned to parliament for Cardiff. In July 1646 he went to Ireland, where his brother was lord-lieutenant, and was made lieutenant-general of horse in that kingdom and governor of Dublin. Leaving London on 1st of February 1647, Sidney arrived at Cork on the 22nd. He was soon (8th April), however, recalled by a resolution of the House passed through the interest of Lord Inchiquin. On the 7th of May he received the thanks of the House of Commons. On the 13th of October 1648 he was made lieutenant of Dover castle, of which he had previously been appointed governor. He was at this time identified with the Independents as opposed to the Presbyterian party. He was nominated one of the com- missioners to try Charles I., but took no part in the trial, retiring to Penshurst until sentence was pronounced. That Sidney approved of the trial, though not of the sentence, there can, however, be little doubt, for in Copenhagen he publicly and vigorously expressed his concurrence. On the 15th of May 1649 he was a member of the committee for settling the succession and for regulating the election of future parliaments. Sidney lost the governorship of Dover, however, in March 1651, in conse- quence, apparently, of a quarrel with his officers. He then went to the Hague, where he quarrelled with Lord Oxford at play, and a duel was only prevented by their friends. He returned to England in the autumn, and henceforward took an active share in parliamentary work. On the 25th of November Sidney was elected on the council of state and was evidently greatly con- sidered. In the usurpation of Cromwell, however, he utterly re- fused all concurrence, nor would he leave his place in parliament except by force when Cromwell dispersed it on the 20th of April 1653. He immediately retired to Penshurst, where he was con- cerned chiefly with family affairs. In 1654 he again went to the Hague, and there became closely acquainted with De Witt. On his return he kept entirely aloof from public affairs, and it is to this period that the Essay on Love is ascribed. Upon the restoration of the Long Parliament, in May 1659, Sidney again took his seat, and was placed on the council of state. He showed himself in this office especially anxious that the military power should be duly subordinated to the civil. In June he was appointed one of three commissioners to mediate for a peace between Denmark, supported by Holland, and Sweden. He was probably intended to watch the conduct of his colleague, Admiral Montagu (afterwards 1st earl of Sandwich), who was in command of the Baltic squadron. Of his character we have an interesting notice from Whitelocke, who refused to accompany him on the ground of his " overruling temper and height." Upon the conclusion of the treaty he went to Stockholm as plenipotentiary ; and in both capacities he behaved with resolution and address. When the restoration of Charles II. took place Sidney left Sweden, on the 28th of June 1660, bringing with him from the king of Sweden a rich present in testimony of the estimation in which he was held. Sidney went first to Copenhagen, and then, being doubtful of his reception by the English court, settled at Hamburg. From there he wrote a celebrated letter vindicating his conduct, which will be found in the Somers Tracts. He shortly afterwards left Hamburg, and passed through Germany by way of Venice to Rome. His stay there, however, was embittered by misunderstandings with his father and consequent straits for money. Five shillings a day, he says, served him and two men very well for meat, drink and firing. He devoted himself to the study of books, birds and trees, and speaks of his natural delight in solitude being largely in- creased. In 1663 he left Italy, passed through Switzerland, where he visited Ludlow, and came to Brussels in September, where his portrait was painted by van Egmondt; it is now at Penshurst. He had thoughts of joining the imperial service, and offered to transport from England a body of the old Common- wealth men; but this was refused by the English court. It is stated that the enmity against him was so great that now, as on other occasions, attempts were made to assassinate him. On the breaking out of the Dutch war, Sidney, who was at the Hague, urged an invasion of England, and shortly afterwards went to Paris, where he offered to raise a rebellion in England on receipt of 100,000 crowns. Unable, however, to come to terms with the French government, he once more went into retirement in 1666, — this time to the south of France. In August 1670 he was again in Paris, and Arlington proposed that he should receive a pension from Louis; Charles II. agreed, but insisted that Sidney should return to Languedoc. In illustration of his austere principles it is related that, Louis having taken a fancy to a horse belonging to him and insisting on possessing it, Sidney shot the animal, which, he said, " was born a free creature, had served a free man, and should not be mastered by a king of slaves." His father was now very ill, and after much difficulty Sidney obtained leave to come to England in the autumn of 1677. Lord Leicester died in November; and legal business connected with other portions of the succession detained Sidney from returning to France as he had intended. He soon became involved in political intrigue, joining, in general, the country party, and holding close com- munication with Barillon, the French ambassador. In the beginning of 1679 he stood for Guildford, and was warmly supported by William Penn, with whom he had long been in- timate, and to whom he is said (as is now thought, erroneously) to have afforded assistance in drawing up the constitution of Pennsylvania. He was defeated by court influence, and his petition to the House, complaining of an undue return, never came to a decision. His Letters to Henry Savile, written at this period, are of great interest. He was in Paris, apparently only for a short while, in November 1679. Into the prosecution of the Popish Plot Sidney threw himself warmly, and was among those who looked to Monmouth, rather than to Orange, to take the place of James in the succession, though he afterwards dis- claimed all interest in such a question. He now stood for Bramber (Sussex), again with Penn's support, and a double return was made. He is reported on the ioth of August 1679 as being elected for Amersham (Buckingham) with Sir Roger Hill. When parliament met, however, in October 1680, his election was declared void. But now, under the idea that an alliance between Charles and Orange would be more hostile to English liberty than would the progress of the French arms, he acted with Barillon in influencing members of parliament in this sense, and is twice mentioned as receiving the sum of 500 guineas from the ambassador. Of this there is no actual proof, and it is quite possible that Barillon entered sums in his accounts with Louis which he never paid away. In any case it is to be remembered that Sidney is not charged with receiving money for advocating opinions which he did not enthusiastically hold. Upon the dissolution of the last of Charles's parliaments the king issued a justificatory declaration. This was at once answered by a paper entitled A Just and Modest Vindication, 6*c, the first sketch of which is imputed to Sidney. It was then, too, that his most celebrated production, the Discourses con- cerning Government, was concluded, in which he upholds the doctrine of the mutual compact and traverses the High Tory positions from end to end. In especial he vindicates the pro- priety of resistance to kingly oppression or misrule, upholds the existence of an hereditary nobility interested in their country's good as the firmest barrier against such oppression, and main- tains the authority- of parliaments. In each point the English constitution, which he ardently admires, is, he says, suffering: the prerogatives of the crown are disproportionately great; the peerage has been degraded by new creations; and parlia- ments are slighted. For a long while Sidney kept himself aloof from the duke of Monmouth, to whom he was introduced by Lord Howard. After 4 2 SIDNEY, SIR HENRY the death of Shaftesbury, however, in November 1682, he entered into the conferences held between Monmouth, Russell, Essex, Hampden and others. That treasonable talk went on seems certain, but it is probable that matters went no further. The watchfulness of the court was, however, aroused, and on the discovery of the Rye House Plot, Sidney, who had always been regarded in a vague way as dangerous, was arrested while at dinner on the 26th of June 1683. His papers were carried off, and he was sent at once to the Tower on a charge of high treason. For a considerable while no evidence could be found on which to establish a charge. Jeffreys, however, was made lord chief- justice in September; a jury was packed; and, after consulta- tions between the judge and the crown lawyers, Sidney was brought to listen to the indictment on the 7th of November. The trial began on the 21st of November: Sidney was refused a copy of the indictment, in direct violation of law, and he was refused the assistance of counsel. Hearsay evidence and the testimony of the perjured informer Lord Howard, whom Sidney had been instrumental in introducing to his friends, were first produced. This being insufficient, partial extracts from papers found in Sidney's study, and supposed only to be in his hand- writing, in which the lawfulness of resistance to oppression was upheld, were next relied on. He was indicted for " conspiring and compassing the death of the king.'' Sidney conducted his case throughout with great skill; he pointed especially to the fact that Lord Howard, whose character he easily tore to shreds, was the only witness against him as to treason, whereas the law required two, that the treason was not accurately defined, that no proof had been given that the papers produced were his, and that, even if that were proved, these papers were in no way connected with the charge. Against the determination to secure a conviction, however, his courage, eloquence, coolness and skill were of no avail, and the verdict of " guilty " was given. On the 25th of November Sidney presented a petition to the king, praying for an audience, which, however, under the influence of James and Jeffreys, Charles refused. On the 26th he was brought up for judgment, and again insisted on the illegality of his con- viction. Upon hearing his sentence he gave vent to his feelings in a few noble and beautiful words. Jeffreys having suggested that his mind was disordered, he held out his hand and bade the chief-justice feel how calm and steady his pulse was. By the advice of his friends he presented a second petition, offering, if released, to leave the kingdom at once and for ever. The supposed necessity, however, of checking the hopes of Mon- mouth's partisans caused the king to be inexorable. The last days of Sidney's life were spent in drawing up his Apology and in discourse with Independent ministers. He was beheaded on the morning of the 7th of December 1683. His remains were buried at Penshurst. (O. A.) SIDNEY, SIR HENRY (1520-1586), lord deputy of Ireland, was the eldest son of Sir William Sidney, a prominent politician and courtier in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI., from both of whom he received extensive grants of land, in- cluding the manor of Penshurst in Kent, which became the principal residence of the family. Henry was brought up at court as the companion of Prince Edward, afterwards King Edward VI.; and he continued to enjoy the favour of the sovereign throughout the reigns of Edward and Mary. In 1556 he went to Ireland with the lord deputy, the earl of Sussex, who in the previous year had married his sister Frances Sidney; and from the first he had a large share in the administration of the country, especially in the military measures taken by his brother-in-law for bringing the native Irish chieftains into submission to the English Crown. In the course of the lord deputy's Ulster expedition in 1557 Sidney devastated the island of Rathlin; and during the absence of Sussex in England in the following year Sidney was charged with the sole responsibility for the govern- ment of Ireland, which he conducted with marked ability and success. A second absence of the lord deputy from Ireland, occasioned by the accession of Queen Elizabeth, threw the chief control into Sidney's hands at the outbreak of trouble with Shane O'Neill, and he displayed great skill in temporizing with that redoubtable chieftain till Sussex reluctantly returned to his duties in August 1559. About the same time Sidney resigned his office of vice-treasurer of Ireland on being appointed president of the Welsh Marches, and for the next few years he resided chiefly at Ludlow Castle, with frequent visits to the court in London. In 1565 Sidney was appointed lord deputy of Ireland in place of Sir Nicholas Arnold, who had succeeded the earl of Sussex in the previous year. He found the country in a more impoverished and more turbulent condition than when he left it, the chief disturbing factor being Shane O'Neill in Ulster. With difficulty he persuaded Elizabeth to sanction vigorous measures against O'Neill; and although the latter successfully avoided a decisive encounter, Sidney restored O'Neill's rival Calvagh O'Donnell to his rights, and established an English garrison at Derry which did something to maintain order. In 1567 Shane was murdered by the MacDonnells of Antrim (see O'Neill), and Sidney was then free to turn his attention to the south, where with vigour and determination he arranged the quarrel between the earls of Desmond and Ormonde, and laid his hand heavily on other dis- turbers of the peace; then, returning to Ulster, he compelled Turlough Luineach O'Neill, Shane's successor in the clan chief- tainship, to make submission, and placed garrisons at Belfast and Carrickfergus to overawe Tyrone and the Glynns. In the autumn of 1567 Sidney went to England, and was absent from Ireland for the next ten months. On his return he urged upon Cecil the necessity for measures to improve the economic con- dition of Ireland, to open up the country by the construction of roads and bridges, to replace the Ulster tribal institutions by a system of freehold land tenure, and to repress the ceaseless disorder prevalent in every part of the island. In pursuance of this policy Sidney dealt severely with the unruly Butlers in Munster. At Kilkenny large numbers of Sir Edmund Butler's followers were hanged, and three of Ormonde's brothers were attainted by an act of the Irish parliament in 1570. Enlightened steps were taken for the education of the people, and encourage- ment was given to Protestant refugees from the Netherlands to settle in Ireland. Sidney left Ireland in 1 571, aggrieved by the slight appreciation of his statesmanship shown by the queen; but he returned thither in September 1575 with increased powers and renewed tokens of royal approval, to find matters in a worse state than before, especially in Antrim, where the MacQuillins of the Route and Sorley Boy MacDonnell (q.v.) were the chief fomenters of disorder. Having to some extent pacified this northern territory, Sidney repaired to the south, where he was equally successful in making his authority respected. He left his mark on the administrative areas of the island by making shire divisions on the English model. At an earlier period he had already in the north combined the districts of the Ardes and Clandeboye to form the county of Carrickfergus, and had converted the country of the O'Farrells into the county of Longford; he now carried out a similar policy in Connaught, where the ancient Irish district of Thomond became the county Clare, and the counties of Galway, Mayo, Sligo and Roscommon were also delimited. He suppressed a rebellion headed by the earl of Clanricarde and his sons in 1576, and hunted Rory O'More to his death two years later. Meantime Sidney's methods of taxation had caused discontent among the gentry of the Pale, who carried their grievances to Queen Elizabeth. Greatly to Sidney's chagrin the queen censured his extravagance, and notwithstanding his distinguished services to the crown he was recalled in September 1578, and was coldly received by Elizabeth. He lived chiefly at Ludlow Castle for the remainder of his life, performing his duties as president of the Welsh Marches, and died there on the 5th of May 1586. Sir Henry Sidney was the ablest statesman charged with the government of Ireland in the 16th century; and the meagre recognition which his unrewarded services received was a con- spicuous example of the ingratitude of Elizabeth. Sidney married in 1551 Mary, eldest daughter of John Dudley, duke of Northumberland, by whom he had three sons and four daughters. His eldest son was Sir Philip Sidney (q.v.), and his second was SIDNEY, SIR PHILIP 43 Robert Sidney, ist earl of Leicester (q.v.); his daughter Mary married Henry Herbert, 2nd earl of Pembroke, and by reason of her association with her brother Philip was one of the most celebrated women of her time (see Pembroke, Earls of). See Calendar of State Papers relating to Ireland, Henry VIII.- Elizabeth; Calendar of the Carew MSS.; J. O'Donovan's edition of The Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters (7 vols., Dublin, 1851)- Holinshed's Chronicles, vol. iii. (6 vols., London, 1807); Richard Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors (3 vols., London, 1885) ; Calendar of Ancient Records of Dublin, edited by Sir J. T. Gilbert, vois. i. and ii. (Dublin, 1889); Sir J. T. Gilbert, History of the Viceroys of Ireland (Dublin, 1865); J. A. Froude, History of England (12 vols., London, 1856-1870). (R. J. M.) SIDNEY, SIR PHILIP (1554-1586), English poet, statesman and soldier, eldest son of Sir Henry Sidney and his wife Mary Dudley, was born at Penshurst on the 30th of November 1554. His father, Sir Henry Sidney (1 529-1 586), was three times lord deputy of Ireland, and in 1560 became lord president of Wales. Philip Sidney's childhood was spent at Penshurst; and before he had completed his tenth year he was nominated by his father lay rector of Whitford, Flintshire. A deputy was appointed, and Philip enjoyed the revenue of the benefice for the rest of his life. On the 1 7th of October 1 564 he was entered at Shrewsbury school, not far from his father's official residence at Ludlow Castle, on the same day with his life-long friend and first biographer, Fulke Greville. An affectionate letter of advice from his father and mother, written about 1565, was preserved and printed in 1591 (A Very Godly Letter . . . ). In 1568 Sidney was sent to Christ Church, Oxford, where he formed lasting friendships with Richard Hakluyt and William Camden. But his chief companion was Fulke Greville, who had gone to Broadgates Hall (Pembroke College). Sir Henry Sidney was already anxious to arrange an advantageous marriage for his son, who was at that time heir to his uncle, the earl of Leicester; and Sir William Cecil agreed to a betrothal with his daughter Anne. But in 1571 the match was broken off, and Anne Cecil married Edward Vere, 17th earl of Oxford. In that year Philip left Oxford, and, after some months spent chiefly at court, received the queen's leave in 1572 to travel abroad " for his attaining the knowledge of foreign languages." He was attached to the suite of the earl of Lincoln, who was sent to Paris in that year to negotiate a marriage between Queen Elizabeth and the due d'Alencon. He was in the house of Sir Francis Walsingham in Paris during the massacre of Saint Bartholomew, and the events he witnessed no doubt intensified his always militant Protestantism. In charge of Dr Watson, dean, and afterwards bishop, of Winchester, he left Paris for Lorraine, and in March of the next year had arrived in Frankfort on the Main. He lodged there in the house of the learned printer Andrew Wechel, among whose guests was also Hubert Languet. Fulke Greville describes Philip Sidney when a schoolboy as characterized by " such staidness of mind, lovely and familiar gravity, which carried grace and reverence far above greater years." " Though I lived with him, and knew him from a child," he says, " yet I never knew him other than a man." These qualities attracted to him the friendship of grave students of affairs, and in France he formed close connexions with the Huguenot leaders. Languet, who was an ardent supporter of the Protestant cause, conceived a great affection for the younger man, and travelled in his company to Vienna. In October Sidney left for Italy, having first of all entered into a compact with his friend to write every week. This arrangement was not strictly observed, but the extant letters, more numerous on Languet's side than on Sidney's, afford a considerable insight into Sidney's moral and political development. Languet's letters abound with sensible and affectionate advice on his studies and his affairs generally. Sidney settled for some time in Venice, and in February 1574 he sat to Paolo Veronese for a portrait, destined for Languet. His friends seem to have feared that his zeal for Protestantism might be corrupted by his stay in Italy, and Languet exacted from him a promise that he would not go to Rome. In July he was seriously ill, and immediately on his recovery started for Vienna. From there he accompanied Languet to Poland, where he is said to have been asked to become a candidate for the vacant crown. On his return to Vienna he fulfilled vague diplomatic duties at the imperial court, perfecting himself meanwhile, in company with Edward Wotton, in the art of horsemanship under John Pietro Pugliano, whose skill and wit he celebrates in the opening paragraph of the Defence of Poesie. He addressed a letter from Vienna on the state of affairs to Lord Burghley, in December 1574. In the spring of 1575 he followed the court to Prague, where he received a summons to return home, appar- ently because Sir Francis Walsingham, who was now secretary of state, feared that Sidney had leanings to Catholicism. His sister, Mary Sidney, was now at court, and he had an influential patron in his uncle, the earl of Leicester. He accom- panied the queen on one of her royal progresses to Kenilworth, and afterwards to Chartley Castle, the seat of Walter Devereux, earl of Essex. There he met Penelope Devereux, the " Stella " of the sonnets, then a child of twelve. Essex went to Ireland in 1576 to fill his' office as earl marshal, and in September occurred his mysterious death. Philip Sidney was in Ireland with his father at the time. Essex on his deathbed had desired a match between. Sidney and his daughter Penelope. Sidney was often harassed with debt, and seems to have given no serious thought to the question for some time, but Edward Waterhouse, an agent of Sir Henry Sidney, writing in November 1576, mentions "the treaty between Mr Philip and my Lady Penelope " (Sidney Papers, i. p. 147). In the spring of 1577 Sidney was sent to con- gratulate Louis, the new elector Palatine, and Rudolf II., who had become emperor of Germany. He received also general in- structions to discuss with various princes the advancement of the Protestant cause. ' ' After meeting Don John of Austria at Lou vain, March 1577, he proceeded to Heidelberg and Prague. He persuaded the elector's brother, John Casimir, to consider proposals for a league of Protestant princes, and also for a conference among the Protestant churches. At Prague he ventured on a harangue to the emperor, advocating a general league against Spain and Rome. This address naturally produced no effect, but does not seem to have been resented as much as might have been expected. On the return journey he visited William of Orange, who formed a high opinion of Sidney. In April 1577 Mary Sidney married Henry Herbert, 2nd earl of Pembroke, and in the summer Philip paid the first of many visits to her at her new home at Wilton. But later in the year he was at court defending his father's interests, particularly against the earl of Ormonde, who was doing all he could to prejudice Elizabeth against the lord deputy. Sidney drew up a detailed defence of his father's Irish govern- ment, to be presented to the queen. A rough draft of four of the seven sections of this treatise is preserved in the British Museum (Cotton MS., Titus B, xii. pp. 557-559), and even in its frag- mentary condition it justifies the high estimate formed of it by Edward Waterhouse (Sidney Papers, p. 228). Sidney watched with interest the development of affairs in the Netherlands, but was fully occupied in defending his father's interests at court. He came also in close contact with many men of letters. In 1578 he met Edmund Spenser, who in the next year dedicated to him his Shepherdes Calendar. With Sir Edward Dyer he was a member of the Areopagus, a society which sought to introduce classical metres into English verse, and many strange experi- ments were the result. In 1578 the earl of Leicester entertained EHzabeth at Wanstead, Essex, with a masque, The Lady of the May, written for the occasion by Philip Sidney. But though Sidney enjoyed a high measure of the queen's favour, he was not permitted to gratify his desire for active employment. He was already more or less involved in the disgrace of his uncle Leicester, following on that nobleman's marriage with Lettice, countess of Essex, when, in 1579, he had a quarrel on the tennis- court at Whitehall with the earl of Oxford. Sidney proposed a duel, which was forbidden by Elizabeth. There was more in the quarrel than appeared on the surface. Oxford was one of the chief supporters of the queen's proposed marriage with Alencon, 44 SIDNEY, SIR PHILIP now due d'Anjou, and Sidney, in giving the lie to Oxford, affronted the leader of the French party. In January 1580 he went further in his opposition to the match, addressing to Eliza- beth a long letter in which the arguments against the alliance were elaborately set forth. This letter (Sidney Papers, pp. 287- 292), in spite of some judicious compliments, was regarded, not unnaturally, by the queen as an intrusion. Sidney was compelled to retire from court, and some of his friends feared for his personal safety. A letter from Languet shows that he had written to Elizabeth at the instigation of " those whom he was bound to obey," probably Leicester and Walsingham. Sidney retired to Wilton, or the neighbouring village of Ivychurch, where he joined his sister in writing a paraphrase of the Psalms. Here too he began his Arcadia, for his sister's amusement and pleasure. In October 1 580 he addressed a long letter of advice, not without affectionate and colloquial inter- ruptions, to his brother Robert, then about to start on his con- tinental tour. This letter (Sidney Papers, p. 283) was printed in Profitable Instructions for Travellers (1633). It seems that a promise was exacted from him not to repeat his indiscretions in the matter of the French marriage, and he returned to court. In view of the silence of contemporary authority, it is hardly possible to assign definite dates to the sonnets of Astrophel and Stella. Penelope Devereux was married against her will to Robert, Lord Rich, in 1581, probably very soon after the letter from Penelope's guardian, the earl of Huntingdon, desiring the queen's consent. The earlier sonnets are not indicative of over- whelming passion, and it is a reasonable assumption that Sidney's liking for Penelope only developed into passion when he found that she was passing beyond his grasp. Mr A. W. Pollard assigns the magnificent sequence beginning with No. 33 — " I- might! unhappy word — O me, I might, And then would not, or could not, see my blisse," — to- the period following on Stella's reappearance at court as Lady Rich. It has been argued that the whole tenor of Philip's life and character was opposed to an overmastering passion, and that there is no ground for attaching biographical value to these sonnets, which were merely Petrarchan exercises. That Sidney was, like his contemporaries, a careful and imitative student of French and Italian sonnets is patent. He himself confesses in the first of the series that he " sought fit words to paint the blackest face of woe," by " oft turning others' leaves " before he obeyed the command of his muse to " look in his heart and write." The account of his passion is, however, too circumstantial to be lightly regarded as fiction. Mr Pollard sees in the sonnets a description of a spiritual struggle between his sense of a high political mission and a disturbing passion calculated to lessen his efforts in a larger sphere. It seems certain, at any rate, that he was not solely preoccupied with scruples against his love for Stella because she was already married. He had probably been writing sonnets to Stella for a year or more before her marriage, and he seems to have continued to address her after his own marriage. Thomas Nash defined the general argument epigram- matically as " cruel chastity — the prologue Hope, the epilogue Despair." But after Stella's final refusal Sidney recovered his earlier serenity, and the sonnet placed by Mr Pollard at the end of the series — " Leave me, O Love, which readiest but to dust " — expresses the triumph of the spirit. Meanwhile he prosecuted his duties as a courtier and as member for Kent in parliament. On the 15th and 16th of May 1581 he was one of the four challengers in a tournament arranged in honour of the visit of the duke of Anjou. In 1579 Stephen Gosson had dedicated to Sidney his School of Abuse, an attack on the stage, and incidentally on poetry. Sidney was probably moved by this treatise to write his own Apologie for Poetrie, dating from about 1581. In 1583 he was knighted in order that he might act as proxy for Prince John Casimir, who was to be installed as Knight of the Garter, and in the autumn of that year he married Frances, daughter of his friend and patron Sir Francis Walsingham, a girl of fourteen or fifteen years of age. In 1584 he met Giordano Bruno at the house of his friend Fulke Greville, and two of the philosopher's books are dedicated to him. Sidney was employed about this time in the translation from the French of his friend Du Plessis Mornay's treatise on the Christian religion. He still desired active service and took an eager interest in the enterprises of Martin Frobisher, Richard Hakluyt and Walter Raleigh. In 1 584 he Was sent to France to condole with Henry III. on the death of his brother, the duke of Anjou, but the king was at Lyons, and unable to receive the embassy. Sidney's interest in the struggle of the Protestant princes against Spain never relaxed. He recommended that Elizabeth should attack Philip II. in Spain itself. So keen an interest did he take in this policy that he was at Plymouth about to sail with Francis Drake's fleet in its expedition against the Spanish coast (1585) when he was recalled by the queen's orders. He was, however, given a command in the Netherlands, where he was made governor of Flushing. Arrived at his post, he con- stantly urged resolute action on his commander, the earl of Leicester, but with small result. In July 1 586 he made a success- ful raid on Axel, near Flushing, and in September he joined the force of Sir John Norris, who was operating against Zutphen. On the 22nd of the month he joined a small force sent out to intercept a convoy of provisions. During the fight that ensued he was struck in the thigh by a bullet. He succeeded in riding back to the camp. The often-told story that he refused a cup of water in favour of a dying soldier, with the words, " Thy need is greater than mine," is in keeping with his character. He owed his death to a quixotic impulse. Sir William Pelham happening to set out for the fight without greaves, Sidney also cast off his leg-armour, which would have defended him from the fatal wound. He died twenty-five days later at Arnheim, on the 17th of October 1586. The Dutch desired to have the honour of his funeral, but the body was taken to England, and, after some delay due to the demands of Sidney's creditors, received a public funeral in St Paul's Cathedral on the 16th of February 1587. Sidney's death was a personal grief to people of all classes. Some two hundred elegies were produced in his honour. Of all these tributes the most famous is Astrophel, A Pastoral Elegie, added to Edmund Spenser's Colin Clout's Come Home Again (1595). Spenser wrote the opening poem; other contributors are Sidney's sister, the countess of Pembroke, Lodowick Bryskett and Matthew Roydon. In the bare enumeration of Sidney's achievements there seems little to justify the passionate admira- tion he excited. So calm an observer as William of Orange desired Fulke Greville to give Elizabeth " his knowledge and opinion of a fellow-servant of his, that (as he heard) lived unemployed under her. ... If he could judge, her Majesty had one of the ripest and greatest counsellors of estate in Sir Philip Sidney, that this day lived in Europe " (Fulke Greville, Life of Sidney, ed. 1816, p. 21). His fame was due first of all to his strong, radiant and lovable character. Shelley placed him in Adonais among the " inheritors of unfulfilled renown," as " sublimely mild, a spirit without spot." Sidney left a daughter Frances (b. 1584), who married Roger Manners, earl of Rutland. His widow, who, in spite of the strictures of some writers, was evidently sincerely attached to him, married in 1590 Robert Devereux, second earl of Essex, and, after his death in 1601, Richard de Burgh, earl of Clanricarde. Sidney's writings were not published during his lifetime. A Worke concerning the trewnesse of the Christian Religion, trans- lated from the French of Du Plessis Mornay, was completed and published by Arthur Golding in 1587. The Countesse of Pembroke's Arcadia written by Philippe Sidnei (1590), in quarto, is the earliest edition of Sidney's famous romance. 1 A folio edition, issued in 1503, is stated to have been revised and rearranged by the countess of Pembroke, for whose delectation the romance was written. She was charged to destroy the work sheet by sheet as it was sent to her. The circumstances of its composition partly explain the difference between its intricate sentences, full of far-fetched conceits, repetition and antithesis, and the simple and dignified phrase of the Apologie for Poetrie. The style is a concession to the fashionable taste in 1 For a bibliography of this and subsequent editions see the fac- simile reprint (1891) of this quarto, edited by Dr Oskar Somraer. SIDNEY— SIDON 45 literature which the countess may reasonably be supposed to have shared; but Sidney himself, although he was no friend to euphuism, was evidently indulging his own mood in this highly decorative prose. The main thread of the story relates how the princes Musidorus and Pyrocles, the latter disguised as a woman, Zelmane, woo the princesses Pamela and Philoclea, daughters of Basilius and Gynaecia, king and queen of Arcady. The shepherds and shepherdesses occupy a humble place in the story. Sidney used a pastoral setting for a romance of chivalry complicated by the elaborate intrigue of Spanish writers. Nor are these intrigues of a purely innocent and pastoral nature. Sidney described the passion of love under many aspects, and the guilty queen Gynaecia is a genuine tragic heroine. The loose frame- work of the romance admits of descriptions of tournaments, Elizabethan palaces and gardens and numerous fine speeches. It also contains some lyrics of much beauty. Charles I. recited and copied out shortly before his death Pamela's prayer, which is printed in the Eikon Basilike. Milton reproached him in the Eikonoklastes with having " borrowed to a Christian use prayers offered to a heathen god . . . and that in no serious book, but in the vain amatorious poem of Sir Philip Sidney's Arcadia." Professor Courthope {Hist, of English Poetry, i. 215) points out that the tragedy of Sidney's life, the divorce between his ideals of a nobly active life and the enforced idleness of a courtier's existence, is intimately connected with his position as a pioneer in fiction, in which the life represented is tacitly recognized as being contrary to the order of existence. Sidney's wide acquaint- ance with European literature is reflected in this book, but he was especially indebted to the Arcadia of Jacopo Sannazaro, and still more to George Montemayor's imitation of Sannazaro, the Diana Enamorada. The artistic defects of the Arcadia in no way detracted from its popularity. Both Shakespeare and Spenser were evidently acquainted with it. John Day's He of Guls, and the plots of Beaumont and Fletcher's Cupid's Revenge, and of James Shirley's Arcadia, were derived from it. The book had more than one supplement. Gervase Markham, Sir William Alexander (earl of Stirling) and Richard Beling wrote con- tinuations. The series of sonnets to Stella were printed in 1 591 as Sir P.S.: His Astrophel and Stella, by Thomas Newman, with an intro- ductory epistle by T. Nash, and some sonnets by other writers. In the same year Newman issued another edition with many changes in the text and without Nash's preface. His first edition was (probably later) reprinted by Matthew Lownes. In 1598 the sonnets were reprinted in the folio edition of Sidney's works, entitled from its most considerable item The Couniesse of Pembroke's Arcadia, edited by Lady Pembroke, with con- siderable additions. The songs are placed in their proper position among the sonnets, instead of being grouped at the end, and two of the most personal poems (possibly suppressed out of con- sideration for Lady Rich in the first instance), which afford the best key to the interpretation of the series, appear for the first time. Sidney's sonnets adhere more closely to French than to Italian models. The octave is generally fairly regular on two rhymes, but the sestet usually terminates with a couplet. The Apologie for Poetrie was one of the " additions " to the countess of Pembroke's Arcadia (1598), where it is entitled " The Defence of Poesie." It first appeared separately in 1594 (unique copy in the Rowfant Library, reprint 1904, Camb. Univ. Press). Sidney takes the word " poetry " in the wide sense of any imagina- tive woik, and deals with its various divisions. Apart from the subject matter, which is interesting enough, the book has a great value for the simple, direct and musical prose in which it is written. The Psalmes of David, the paraphrase in which he collaborated with his sister, remained in MS. until 1823, when it was edited by S. W. Singer. A translation of part of the Divine Sepmaine of G. Salluste du Bartas is lost. There are two pastorals by Sidney in Davison's Poetical Rhapsody (1602). Letters and Memorials of State . . . (1746) is the title of an in- valuable collection of letters and documents relating to the Sidney family, transcribed from originals at Penshurst and elsewhere by Arthur Collins. Fulke Greville's Life of the Renowned Sir Philip Sidney is a panegyric dealing chiefly with his public policy. The Correspondence of Sir Philip Sidney and Hubert Languet was trans- lated from the Latin and published with a memoir by Steuart A. Pears (1845). The best biography of Sidney is A Memoir of Sir Philip Sidney by H. R. Fox Bourne (1862). A revised life by the same author is included in the " Heroes of the Nations " series (1891). Critical appreciation is available in J. A. Symonds's Sir Philip Sidney (1886), in the " English Men of Letters " series; in J. J. A. Jusserand's English Novel in the Time of Shakespeare (1890) ; and in modern editions of Sidney's works, among which may be mentioned Mr A. W. Pollard's edition (1888) of Astrophel and Stella, Professor Arber's reprint (1868) of An Apologie for Poetrie, and Mr Sidney Lee's Elizabethan Sonnets (1904) in the re-issue of Professor Arber's English Garner, where the sources of Sidney's sonnets are fully discussed. See also a collection of Sidneiana printed for the Roxburghe Club in 1837, a notice by Mrs Humphry Ward in Ward's English Poets, L 341 seq., and a dissertation by Dr K. Brunhuber, Sir Philip Sidney's Arcadia und ihre Nachldufer (Nurnberg, 1903). A com- plete text of Sidney's prose and poetry, edited by Albert Feuillerat, is to be included in the Cambridge English Classics. SIDNEY, a city and the county-seat of Shelby county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Miami river, about 33 m. S. by W. of Lima. Pop. (1890) 4850; (1900) 5688, including 282 foreign-born and 108 negroes; (1910) 6607. Sidney is served by the Cleveland,/ Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, and the Western Ohio (electric) railways. The city is situated on an elevated tableland, in an agricultural region. Sidney has a public library, and a monumental building, a memorial, erected in 1875, to the soldiers in the American Civil War, and now devoted to various public uses. The river here provides some water-power, and the city has various manu- factures. Sidney was laid out as the county-seat in 1819, was incorporated as a village in 1831 and first chartered as a city in 1897. SIDON (Phoen. px, Hebrew p'x, Assyr. Sidunnu, Egypt. Diduna), formerly the principal city of Phoenicia, now a small town of about 15,000 inhabitants, situated on the Syrian coast between Beirut and Sur (Tyre). The name, which the Arabs now pronounce Saida, has been explained as meaning " fish- town " (cf. Hebr. to " to hunt," in Phoen. perhaps " to fish "); more likely it is connected with the god Sid, who is known only as an element in proper names (see Cooke, North-Sem. Insert. p. 91); possibly both town and people were named after him. The ancient city extended some 800 yds. inland from the shore over ground which is now covered by fruit-gardens. From a series of inscriptions, all giving the same text, discovered at Bostan esh-Shekh, a little way to the N. of Saida, we learn that the ancient city was divided into three divisions at least, one of which was called " Sidon by the sea," and another " Sidon on the plain " (?) (see N.-Sem. Inscrr. App. i.). In front of the flat promontory to which the modern Sidon is confined there stretches northwards and southwards a rocky peninsula; at the northern extremity of this begins a series of small rocks enclosing the harbour, which is a very bad one. The port was formerly pro- tected on the north by the Qal'at el-Bahr (" Sea Castle ";, a building of the 13th century, situated on an island still connected with the mainland by a bridge. On the S. side of the town lay the so-called Egyptian harbour, which was filled up in the 17th century in order to keep out the Turks. The wall by which Sidon is at present surrounded is pierced by two gates; at the southern angle, upon a heap of rubbish, stand the remains of the citadel. The streets are very narrow, and the buildings of any interest few; most prominent are some large caravanserais belonging to the period of Sidon's modern prosperity, and the large mosque, formerly a church of the knights of St John. The inhabitants support themselves mainly on the produce of their luxuriant gardens; but the increasing trade of Beirut has withdrawn the bulk of the commerce from Sidon. In earlier days Phoenicia produced excellent wine, that of Sidon being specially esteemed; it is mentioned in an Aramaic papyrus from Egypt (4th century B.C., N.S.I, p. 213). One of the chief in- dustries of Sidon used to be the manufacture of glass from the fine sand of the river Belus. To the S.E. of the town lies the Phoenician necropolis, which has been to a great extent investi- gated. The principal finds are sarcophagi, and next to these I sculptures and paintings. It was here that the superb Greek +6 SIEBENGEBIRGE— SIEDLCE sarcophagi, which are now in the Imperial Museum at Constanti- nople, were found, and the sarcophagi of the two Sidonian kings Eshmunazar (Louvre) and Tabnith (Imperial Museum, Con- stantinople) , both of them with important Phoenician inscriptions. The ancient history of Sidon is discussed in the article Phoenicia. In a.d. 325 a bishop of Sidon attended the Council of Nicaea. In 637-638 the town was taken by the Arabs. During the Crusades it was alternately in the possession of the Franks and the Mahommedans, but finally fell into the hands of the latter in 129 1. As the residence of the Druse Amir Fakhr ud-Din, it rose to some prosperity about the beginning of the 1 7 th century, but towards the close of the 18th its commerce again passed away and has never returned. The biblical references to Sidon are Gen. x. 15 (the people), xlix. 13; Is. xxiii. 1-14; Ezek. xxvii. 8 ; Acts xxvii. 3. Sidon is nearly always mentioned along with Tyre — Jer. xxvii. 3, xlvii. 4; Ezra iii. 7; Joel iii. 4; Mark iii. 8 and Luke vi. 17; Mark vii. 24, 31, and Matt. xv. 21; Matt. xi. 21 and Luke x. 13 f.; Acts xii. 20. In the Old Testa- ment, as frequently in Greek literature, " Sidonians " is used not in a local but in an ethnic sense, and means " Phoenicians," hence the name of Sidon was familiar to the Greeks earlier than that of Tyre, though the latter was the more important city (ed. Meyer, Encycl. Bibl. col. 4505). See Robinson, Bibl. Res. ii. 478 ff . ; Prutz, Aus Phonicien (1876), 98 ff. ; Pietschmann, Gesch. d. Phohi'zier (1889), 53-58; Hamdy Bey and T. Reinach, Necropole royale a Sidon (1892-1896) ; A. Socin in Baedeker, Pal. u. Syrien. (G. A. C.*) SIEBENGEBIRGE (" The Seven Hills "), a cluster of hills in Germany, on the Rhine, 6 m. above Bonn. They are of volcanic origin, and form the north-western spurs of the Westerwald. In no part of the Rhine valley is the scenery more attractive ; crag and forest, deep dells and gentle vine-clad slopes, ruined castles and extensive views over the broad Rhine and the plain beyond combine to render the Siebengebirge the most favourite tourist resort on the whole Rhine. The hills are as follows: the steep Drachenfels (1067 ft.), abutting on the Rhine and surmounted by the ruins of an old castle; immediately behind it, and connected by a narrow ridge, the Wolkenburg (ro76 ft.); lying apart, and to the N. of these, the Petersberg (1096 ft.), with a pilgrimage chapel of St Peter; then, to the S. of these three, a chain of four — viz. the Olberg (1522 ft.), the highest of the range; the Lowenburg (1506 ft.); the Lohrberg (1444 ft.), and, farthest away, the Nonnenstromberg (1107 ft.). At the foot of the Drachenfels, on the north side, lies the little town of Konigswinter, whence a mountain railway ascends to the summit, and a similar railway runs up the Petersberg. The ruins which crown almost every hill are those of strongholds of the archbishops of Cologne and mostly date from the 12th century. See von Dechen, Geognostischer Fiihrer in das Siebengebirge (Bonn, 1861); von Sttlrtz, Fiihrer durch das Siebengebirge (Bonn, 1893); Laspeyres, Das Siebengebirge am Rhein (Bonn, 1901). SIEBOLD, CARL THEODOR ERNST VON (1804-1885), German physiologist and zoologist, the son of a physician and a descendant of what Lorenz Oken called the " Asclepiad family of Siebolds," was born at Wurzburg on the 16th of February 1804. Educated in medicine and science chiefly at the university of Berlin, he became successively professor of zoology, physiology and comparative anatomy in Konigsberg, Erlangen, Freiburg, Breslau and Munich. In conjunction with F. H. Stannius he published (1845-1848) a Manual of Comparative Anatomy, and along with R. A. Kolliker he founded in 1848 a journal which soon took a leading place in biological literature, Zeitschrift filr wissenschaflliche Zoologie. He was also a laborious and successful helminthologist and entomologist, in both capacities contributing many valuable papers to his journal, which he continued to edit until his death at Munich on the 7th of April 1885. In these ways, without being a man of marked genius, but rather an industrious and critical observer, he came to fill a peculiarly distinguished position in science, and was long reckoned, what his biographer justly calls him, the Nestor of German zoology. See Ehlers, Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. (1885). SIEBOLD, PHILIPP FRANZ VON (1796-1866), scientific explorer of Japan, elder brother of the physiologist, was born at Wurzburg, Germany, on the 17th of February r7o6. He studied medicine and natural science at Wurzburg, and obtained his doctor's diploma in 1820. In 1822 he entered the service of the king of the Netherlands as medical officer to the East Indian Army. On his arrival at Batavia he was attached to a new mission to Japan, sent by the Dutch with a view to improve their trading relations with that country. Siebold was well equipped with scientific apparatus, and he remained in Japan for six years, with headquarters at the Dutch settlement on the little island of Deshima. His medical qualifications enabled him to find favour with the Japanese, and he gathered a vast amount of information concerning a country then very little known, especially concerning its natural history and ethnography. He had comparatively free access to the interior, and his reputation spreading far and wide brought him visitors from all parts of the country. His valuable stores of information were enriched by trained natives whom he sent to collect for him in the interior. In 1824 he published De historiae naturalis in Japonia statu and in 1832 his splendid Fauna Japonica. His knowledge of the language enabled him also in 1826 to issue from Batavia his Epitome linguae Japonicae. In Deshima he also laid the founda- tion of his Catalogus librorum Japonicorum and Isagoge in hibliothecam Japonicam, published after his return to Europe, as was his Bibliotheca Japonica, which, with the co-operation of J. Hoffmann, appeared at Leiden in 1833. During the visit which he was permitted to make to Yedo (Tokio), Siebold made the best of the rare opportunity; his zeal, indeed, outran his discretion, since, for obtaining a native map of the country, he was thrown into prison and compelled to quit Japan on the 1st of January 1830. On his return to Holland he was raised to the rank of major, and in 1842 to that of colonel. After his arrival in Europe he began to give to the world the fruits of his researches and observations in Japan. His Nippon; Archiv zur Beschrei- bung von Japan und dessen Neben- und Schutz-Liindern was issued in five quarto volumes of text, with six folio volumes of atlas and engravings. He also issued many fragmentary papers on various aspects of Japan. In 1854 he published at Leiden Urkundliche Darstellung der Bestrebungen Niederlands und Russlands zur Eroffnung Japans. In 1859 Siebold undertook a -second journey to Japan, and was invited by the emperor to his court. In 1861 he obtained permission from the Dutch government to enter the Japanese service as negotiator between Japan and the powers of Europe, and in the same year his eldest son was made interpreter to the English embassy at Yedo. Siebold was, however, soon obliged by various intrigues to retire from his post, and ultimately from Japan. Returning by Java to Europe in 1862, he set up his ethnographical collections, which were ultimately secured by the government of Bavaria and removed to Munich. He con- tinued to publish papers on various Japanese subjects, and received honours from many of the learned societies of Europe. He died at Munich on the 18th of October 1866. See biography by Moritz Wagner, in Allgemeine Zeitung, 13th to 1 6th of November 1866. SIEDLCE (Russian Syedlets), a government of Russian Poland, between the Vistula and the Bug, having the governments of Warsaw on the W., Lomza on the N., Grodno and Volhynia on the E., Lublin on the S., and Radom on the S.W. Its area is 5533 sq. m. The surface is mostly flat, only a few hilly tracts appearing in the middle, around Biala, and in the east on the banks of the Bug. Extensive marshes occur in the north and in the south-east. Cretaceous, Jurassic and Tertiary strata cover the surface, and are overlain by widely spread Glacial deposits. The valley of the Vistula is mostly wide, with several terraces covered with sand-dunes or peat-bogs. Siedlce is drained by the Vistula, which borders it for 50 m. on the west; by the Bug, which is navigable from Opalin in Volhynia and flows for 170 m. on the east and north-east borders; by the Wieprz, a tributary of the Vistula, which is also navigable, and flows for 25 m. along the southern boundary; and by the Liwiec, a tributary of the Bug, which is navigable for some 30 m. below Wegrow. Of the total area only 5-2% is unproductive; 48-1% is under crops and 17-2 under meadows and pasture land. The estimated SIEDLCE— SIEMENS 47 population in 1906 was 907,700. The inhabitants consist of Little Russians (40%), Poles (43%), Jews (155%) and Germans (i|%). The government is divided into nine districts, the chief towns of which are the capital Siedlce, Biala, Konstantinow, Garwolin, Lukow, Radzyn, Sokolow, Wegrow, Wlodawa, The main occupation is agriculture, the principal crops being rye, wheat, oats, barley and potatoes. The area under forests amounts to 19-6% of the total. Live-stock breeding is second in importance to agriculture. Manufactures and trade are in- significant. SIEDLCE, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, 56 m. E.S.E. of the city of Warsaw, on the Brest- Litovsk railway. It is a Roman Catholic episcopal see. The Oginskis, to whom it belonged, have embellished it with a palace and gardens; but it is nothing more than a large village. Pop. 23,714 (1897), two-thirds Jews. SIEGBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, on the river Sieg, 16 m. by rail S.E. of Cologne by the railway to Giessen. Pop. (1905) 14,878. It has a royal shell factory, calico-printing mills, lignite mines, stone quarries and pottery and tobacco factories. The parish church, dating from the 13th century, possesses several richly decorated reliquaries of the 1 2th to 15th centuries. The buildings of the Benedictine abbey, founded in 1066, are now used as a prison. The town, which was founded in the nth century, attained the height of its prosperity in the isth and 16th centuries owing to its pottery wares. Siegburg pitchers (Siegburger Kriige) were widely famed. Their shape was often fantastic and they are now eagerly sought by collectors. See R. Heinekamp, Siegburgs Vergangenheit und Gegenwart (Siegburg, 1897) ; and Renard, Die Kunsldenkmaler des Siegkreises (Diisseldorf, 1907). SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siige, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege), the " sitting down " of an army or military force before a fortified place for the purpose of taking it, either by direct military operations or by starving it into submission (see Fortification and Siegecraft). A special form of coin is known as a " siege-piece." These are coins that were struck during a siege of a town when the ordinary mints were closed or their issues were not available. Such coins were commonly of special shape to distinguish them from the normal coinage, and were naturally of rough workmanship. A common shape for the siege pieces which were issued during the Great Rebellion was the lozenge. A noteworthy example is a shilling siege-piece struck at Newark in 1645 ( see Token Money). SIEGEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, situated 63 m. E. of Cologne by rail, on the Sieg, a tributary entering the Rhine opposite Bonn. Pop. (1905) 25,201. The town contains two palaces of the former princes of Nassau-Siegen, a technical and a mining school. The sur- rounding district, to which it gives its name, abounds in iron- mines, and iron founding and smelting are the most important branches of industry in and near the town. Large tanneries and leather works, and factories for cloth, paper and machinery, are among the other industrial establishments. Siegen was the capital of an early principality belonging to the house of Nassau; and from 1606 onwards it gave name to the junior branch of Nassau-Siegen. Napoleon incorporated Siegen in the grand-duchy of Berg in 1806; and in 181 5 the congress of Vienna assigned it to Prussia, under whose rule it has nearly quintupled its population. Rubens is said to have been born here in 1577. See Cuno, Geschichte der Stadt Siegen (Dillenburg, 1873). SIEMENS, ERNST WERNER VON (1816-1892), German electrician, was born on the 13th of December 1816 at Lenthe in Hanover. After attending the gymnasium at Liibeck, he entered the Prussian army as a volunteer, and for three years was a pupil in the Military Academy at Berlin. In 1838 he received a commission as lieutenant in the artillery, and six years later he was appointed to the responsible post of superintendent of the artillery workshops. In 1848 he had the task of protecting the port of Kiel against the Danish fleet, and as commandant of Friedrichsort built the fortifications for the defence of Eckern- forde harbour. In the same year he was entrusted with the laying of the first telegraph line in Germany, that between Berlin and Frankfort-on-Main, and with that work his military career came to an end. Thenceforward he devoted his energies to furthering the interests of the newly founded firm of Siemens and Halske, which under his guidance became one of the most important electrical undertakings in the world, with branches in different countries that gave it an international influence; in the London house he was associated with Sir William Siemens, one of his younger brothers. Although he had a decided pre- dilection for pure research, his scientific work was naturally determined to a large extent by the demands of his business, and, as he said when he was admitted to the Berlin Academy of Sciences in 1874, the filling up of scientific voids presented itself to him as a technical necessity. Considering that his entrance into commercial life was almost synchronous with the introduc- tion of electric telegraphy into Germany, it is not surprising that many of his inventions and discoveries relate to telegraphic apparatus. In 1847, when he was a member of the committee appointed to consider the adoption of the electric telegraph by the government, he suggested the use of gutta-percha as a material for insulating metallic conductors. Then he in- vestigated the electrostatic charges of telegraph conductors and their laws, and established methods for testing underground and submarine cables and for locating faults in their insula- tion; further, he carried out observations and experiments on electrostatic induction and the retardation it produced in the speed of the current. He also devised apparatus for duplex and diplex telegraphy, and automatic recorders. In a somewhat less specialized sphere, he was an early advocate of the desirability of establishing some easily reproducible basis for the measurement of electrical resistance, and suggested that the unit should be taken as the resistance of a column of pure mercury one metre high and one square millimetre in cross-section, at a temperature of o° C. Another task to which he devoted much time was the construction of a selenium photometer, depending on the property possessed by that substance of changing its electrical resistance according to the intensity of the light falling upon it. He also claimed to have been, in 1866, the discoverer of the principle of self -excitation in dynamo-electric machines, in which the residual magnetism of the iron of the electro-magnets is utilized for excitation, without the aid of permanent steel magnets or of a separate exciting current. In another branch of science he wrote several papers on meteorological subjects, discussing among other things the causation of the winds and the forces which produce, maintain and retard the motions of the air. In 1886 he devoted half a million marks to the foundation of the Physikalisch- Technische Reichsanstalt at Charlottenburg, and in 1888 he was ennobled. He died at Berlin on the 6th of December 1892. His scientific memoirs and addresses were collected »and pub- lished in an English translation in 1892, and three years later a second volume appeared, containing his technical papers. SIEMENS, SIR WILLIAM [Karl Wilhelm] (1823-1883), British inventor, engineer and natural philosopher, was born at Lenthe in Hanover on the 4th of April 1823. After being educated in the polytechnic school of Magdeburg and the uni- versity of Gottingen, he visited England at the age of nineteen, in the hope of introducing a process in electroplating invented by himself and his brother Werner. The invention was adopted by Messrs Elkington, and Siemens returned to Germany to enter as a pupil the engineering works of Count Stolberg at Magdeburg. In 1844 he was again in England with another invention, the " chronometric " or differential governor for steam engines. Finding that British patent laws afforded the inventor a pro- tection which was then wanting in Germany, he thenceforth made England his home; but it was not till 1859 that he formally became a naturalized British subject. After some years spent in active invention and experiment at mechanical works near Birmingham, he went into practice as an engineer in 1851. He laboured mainly in two distinct fields, the applications of heat and the applications of electricity, and was characterized 48 SIENA.. in a very rare degree by a combination of scientific comprehension with practical instinct. In both fields he played a part which would have been great in either alone; and, in addition to this, he produced from time to time miscellaneous inventions and scientific papers sufficient in themselves to have established a reputation. His position was recognized by his election in 1862 to the Royal Society, and later to the presidency of the Institu- tion of Mechanical Engineers, the Society of Telegraph Engineers, the Iron and Steel Institute, and the British Association; by honorary degrees from the universities of Oxford, Glasgow, Dublin and Wtirzburg; and by knighthood (in 1883). He died in London on the 19th of November 1883. In the application of heat Siemens's work began just after J. P. Joule's experiments had placed the doctrine of the conservation of energy on a sure basis. Wnile Rankine, Clausius and Lord Kelvin were developing the dynamical theory of heat as a matter of physical and engineering theory, Siemens, in the light of the new ideas, made a bold attempt to improve the efficiency of the steam engine as a converter of heat into mechanical work. Taking up the regenerator — a device invented by Robert Stirling twenty years before, the im- portance of which had meanwhile been ignored — he applied it to the steam engine in the form of a regenerative condenser with some success in 1847, and in 1855 engines constructed on Siemens's plan were worked at the Paris exhibition. Later he also attempted to apply the regenerator to internal combustion or gas engines. In 1856 he introduced the regenerative furnace, the idea of his brother Friedrich (1826- 1904), with whom he associated himself in directing its applications. In an ordinary furnace a very large part of the heat of combustion is lost by being carried off in the hot gases which pass up the chimney. In the regenerative furnace the hot gases pass through a regenerator, or chamber stacked with loose bricks, which absorb the heat. When the bricks are well heated the hot gases are diverted so to pass through another similar chamber, while the air necessary for combustion, before it enters the furnace, is made to traverse the heated chamber, taking up as it goes the heat which has been stored in the bricks. After a suitable interval the air currents are again reversed. The process is repeated periodically, with the result that the products of combustion escape only after being cooled , the heat which they take from the furnace being in great part carried back in the heated air. But another invention was required before the regenerative furnace could be thoroughly successful. This was the use of gaseous fuel, produced by the crude distillation and incomplete combustion of coal in a distinct furnace or gas-pro- ducer. From this the gaseous fuel passes by a flue to the regenerative furnace, and it, as well as the entering air, is heated by the regenerative method, four brick-stacked chambers being used instead of two. The complete invention was applied at Chance's glass-works in Birmingham in 1861, and furnished the subject of Faraday's farewell lecture to the Royal Institution. It was soon applied to many industrial processes, but it found its greatest development a few years later at the hands of Siemens himself in the manufacture of steel. To produce steel directly from the ore, or by melting together wrought-iron scrap with cast-iron upon the open hearth, had been in his mind from the first, but it was not till 1867, after two years of experiment in " sample steel works " erected by himself for the purpose, that he achieved success. The product is a mild steel of exceptionally trustworthy quality, the use of which for boiler-plates has done much to make possible the high steam-pressures that are now common, and has consequently contributed, indirectly, to that improvement in the thermodynamic efficiency of heat engines which Siemens had so much at heart. Just before his death he was again at work upon the same subject, his plan being to use gaseous fuel from a Siemens producer in place of solid fuel beneath the boiler, and to apply the regenerative principle to boiler furnaces. His faith in gaseous fuel led him to anticipate that it would in time supersede solid coal for domestic and industrial purposes, cheap gas being supplied either from special works or direct from the pit; and among his last inventions was a house grate to burn gas along with coke, which he regarded as a possible cure for city smoke. In electricity Siemens's name is closely associated with the growth of land and submarine telegraphs, the invention and development of the dynamo, and the application of electricity to lighting and to locomotion. In i860, with his brother Werner, he invented the earliest form of what is now known as the Siemens armature; and in 1867 he communicated a paper to the Royal Society " On the Con- version of Dynamical into Electrical Force without the aid of Per- manent Magnetism," in which he announced the invention by Werner Siemens of the dynamo-electric machine, an invention which was also reached independently and almost simultaneously by Sir Charles Wheatstone and by S. A. Varley. The Siemens-Alteneck or multiple-coil armature followed in 1873. While engaged in con- structing a trans-Atlantic cable for the Direct United States Tele- graph Company, Siemens designed the very original and successful ship " Faraday," by which that and other cables were laid. One of the last of his works was the Portrush and Bushmills electric tram- way, in the north of Ireland, opened in 1883, where the water-power of the river Bush drives a Siemens dynamo, from which the electric energy is conducted to another dynajno serving as a motor on the car. In the Siemens electric furnace the' intensely hot atmosphere of the electric arc between carbon points 'is ! 'employed to melt re- fractory metals. Another of the uses to whiCh-he turned electricity was to employ light from arc lamps as a substitute for sunlight in hastening the growth and fructification of plants. Among his miscellaneous inventions were the differential governor already alluded to, and a highly scientific modification of it, described to the Royal Society in 1866; a water-meter which acts on the principle of counting the number of turns made by a small reaction turbine through which the supply of water flows; an electric thermometer and pyrometer, in which temperature is determined by its effect on the electrical conductivity of metals; an attraction meter for de- termining very slight variations in the intensity of a gravity; and the bathometer, by which he applied this idea to the problem of finding the depth of the sea without a sounding line. In a paper read before the Royal Society in 1882, " On the Conservation of Solar Energy," he suggested a bold but unsatisfactory theory of the sun's heat, in which he sought to trace on a cosmic scale an action similar to that of the regenerative furnace. His fame, however, does not rest on his contributions to pure science, valuable as some of these were. His strength lay in his grasp of scientific principles, in his skill to perceive where and how they could be applied to practical affairs, in his zealous and instant pursuit of thought with action, and in the indomitable persistence with which he clung to any basis of effort that seemed to him theoretically sound. Siemens's writings consist for the most part of lectures and papers scattered through the scientific journals and the publications of the Royal Society, the Institution of Civil Engineers, the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, the Iron and Steel Institute, the British Association, &c. A biography by Dr William Pole was published in 1888. (J.. A. E.) SIENA, a city and archiepiscopal see of Tuscany, Italy, capital of the province of Siena, 59 m. by rail S. of Florence and 31 m. direct. Pop. (1901) 25,539 (town); 40,423 (commune). The area of the city within the walls is about 2\ sq. m., and the height above sea-level 1115 ft. The plan, spreading from the centre over three hills, closely resembles that of Perugia. The city possesses a university, founded in 1203 and limited to the faculties of law and medicine. Among the other public institu- tions the following are the more important: the town library, first opened to students in the 17th century; the Archivio, a record office, instituted in 1858, containing a valuable and splendidly arranged collection of documents; the Fine Arts Institution, founded in 1816; and the natural history museum of the Royal Academy of the Physiocritics, inaugurated in the same year. There are also many flourishing charities, including an excellent hospital and a school for the deaf and dumb. The chief industries are weaving and agriculture. The public festivals of Siena known as the " Palio delle Con- trade " have a European celebrity. They are held in the public square, the curious and historic Piazza del Campo (now Piazza di Vittorio Emanuele) in shape resembling an ancient theatre, on the 2nd of July and the 16th of August of each year; they date from the middle ages and were instituted in commemoration of victories and in honour of the Virgin Mary (the old title of Siena, as shown by seals and medals, having been " Sena vet us civitas Virginis"). In the 15th and 16th centuries the celebrations consisted of bull-fights. At the close of the 16th century these were replaced by races with mounted buffaloes, and since 1650 by (ridden) horses. Siena is divided into seventeen contrade (wards), each with a distinct appellation and a chapel and flag of its own; and every year ten of these contrade, chosen by lot, send each one horse to compete for the prize palio or banner. The aspect of Siena during these meetings is very characteristic, and the whole festivity bears a medieval stamp in harmony with the architecture and history of the town. Among the noblest fruits of Sienese art are the public buildings adorning the city. The cathedral, one of the finest examples of Italian Gothic architecture, obviously influenced in plan by the abbey of S. Galgano (infra), built in black and white marble, was begun in the early years of the 13th century, but interrupted by the plague of 1248 and wars at home and abroad, and in 1317 its walls were extended to the baptistery of San Giovanni; a further enlargement was begun in 1339 but never carried out, and a few ruined walls and arches alone remain to show the SIENA 49 magnificence of the uncompleted design, which would have produced one of the largest churches in the world. The splendid west front, of tricuspidal form, enriched with a multitude of columns, statues and inlaid marbles, is said to have been begun by Giovanni Pisano, but really dates from after 1370; it was finished in 1380, and closely resembles that of Orvieto, which is earlier in date (begun in 1310). Both fagades have been recently restored, and the effect of them not altogether improved by modern mosaics. The fine Romanesque campanile belongs to the first half of the 14th century. Conspicuous among the art treasures of the interior is the well-known octagonal pulpit by Niccola Pisano, dating from 1 266-1 268. It rests on columns supported by lions, and is finely sculptured. Numerous statues and bas-reliefs by Renaissance artists adorn the various altars and chapels. The cathedral pave- ment is almost unique. It is inlaid with designs in colour and black and white, representing Biblical and legendary subjects, and is supposed to have been begun by Duccio della Buoninsegna. _ But the finest portions beneath the domes, with scenes from the history of Abraham, Moses and Elijah, are by Domenico Beccafumi and are executed with marvellous boldness and effect. The choir stalls also deserve mention: the older ones (remains of the original choir) are in tarsia work; the others, dating from the 16th century, are carved from Riccio's designs. The Piccolomini Library, adjoining the duomo, was founded by Cardinal Francesco Piccolomini (afterwards Pius III.) in honour of his uncle, Pius II. Here are Pinturicchio's famous frescoes of scenes from the life of the latter pontiff, and the collection of choir books (supported on sculptured desks) with splendid illuminations by Sienese and other artists. The church of San. Giovanni, the ancient baptistery, beneath the cathedral is ap- proached by an outer flight of marble steps built in 1451. It has a beautiful but incomplete fagade designed by Giovanni di Mino del Pellicciaio in 1382, and a marvellous font with bas-reliefs by Dona- tello, Ghiberti. Jacopo della Quercia and other 15th-century sculptors. The Opera del Duomo contains Duccio's famous Madonna, painted for the cathedral in 1 308-131 1, and other works of art. Among the other churches are S. Maria di Provenzano, a vast baroque building of some elegance, designed by Schifardini (1594); Sant' Agostino, rebuilt by Vanvitelli in 1755, containing a Cruci- fixion and Saints by Perugino, a Massacre of the Innocents by Matteo di Giovanni, the Coming of the Magi by Sodoma, and a St Anthony by Spagnoletto (?) ; the beautiful church of the Servites 05th century), which contains another Massacre of the Innocents by Matteo di Giovanni and other good examples of the Sienese school; San Francesco, designed by Agostino and Agnolo about 1326, and now restored, which once possessed many fine paintings by Duccio Buoninsegna, Lorenzetti, Sodoma and Beccafumi, some of which perished in the great fire of 1655 ; San Domenico, a fine 13th-century building with a single nave and transept, containing Sodoma's splendid fresco the Swoon of St Catherine, the Madonna of Guido da Siena, 1 28 1 , and a crucifix by Sano di Pietro. This church crowns the Fontebranda hill above the famous fountain of that name im- mortalized by Dante, and in a steep lane below stands the house of St_ Catherine, now converted into a church and oratory, and main- tained at the expense of the inhabitants of the Contrada dell' Oca. It contains some good pictures by Pacchia and other works of art, but is chiefly visited for its historic interest and as a striking memorial of the characteristic piety of the Sienese. The Accademia di Belle Arti contains a good collection of pictures of the Sienese school, illustrating its development. The communal palace in the Piazza del Campo was begun in 1288 and finished in 1309. It is built of brick, is a fine specimen of Pointed Gothic, and was designed by Agostino and Agnolo. The light and elegant tower (Torre del Mangla) soaring from one side of the palace was begun in 1338 and finished after 1348, and the chapel standing at its foot, raised at the expense of the Opera del Duomo as a public thank-offering after the plague of 1348, begun in 1352 and com- pleted in 1376. This grand old palace has other attractions besides the beauty of its architecture, for its interior is lined with works of art. The atrium has a fresco by Bartolo di Fredi and the two ground-floor halls contain a Coronation of the Virgin by Sano di Pietro and a splendid Resurrection by Sodoma. In the Sala dei Nove or della Pace above are the noble allegorical frescoes of Ambrogio Lorenzetti representing the effects of just and unjust government; the Sala delle Balestre or del Mappamondo is painted by Simone di Martino (Memmi) and others, the Cappella della Signoria by Taddeo di Bartolo, and the Sala del Consiatorio by Beccafumi. Another hall, the Sala di Balia, has frescoes by Spinello Aretino (1408) with scenes from the life of Pope Alexander III., while yet another has been painted by local artists with episodes in recent Italian history. An interesting exhibition of Sienese art, including many objects from neighbouring towns and villages, was held here in 1904. The former hall of the grand council, built in 1327, was converted into the chief theatre of Siena by Riccio in 1560, and, after being twice burnt, was rebuilt m I7 53 from Bibbiena'i designs. Another Sienese theatre that of the Rozzi, in Piazza Sfvi Pellegrino, designed by A. Doveri and erected in 1816, although modern, has an historic interest as the work of an academy dating nom the 16th century, called the Congrega de Rozzi, that played an important part in the history of the Italian coouc stage. The city is adorned by many other noble edifices both public and private, among which the following palaces may be mentioned — Tolomei (1205); Buonsignori, formerly Tegliacci, an elegant 14th- century construction, restored in 1848; Grottanelli, formerly Pecci and anciently the residence of the captain of war, recently restored in its original style; Sansedoni; Marsilii; Piccolomini, now be- longing to the Government and containing the state archives ; ' Piccolomini delle Papesse, like the other Piccolomini mansion, designed by Bernardo Rossellino, and now the Banca d' Italia; the enormous block of the Monte de' Paschi, a bank of considerable wealth and antiquity, enlarged and partly rebuilt in the original style between 1877 and 1881, the old Dogana and Salimbeni palaces; the Palazzo Spannochi, a fine early Renaissance building by Giuliano da Maiano (now the post office) ; the Loggia di Mercanzia (15th century), now a club, imitating the Loggia dei Lanzi at Florence, with sculp- tures of the 15th century; the Loggia del Papa, erected by Pius II.; and other fine buildings. We may also mention the two celebrated fountains, Fonte Gaia and Fontebranda; the former, in the Piazza del Campo, by Jacopo della Quercia (1409-1419), but freely restored in 1868, the much-damaged original reliefs being now in the Opera del Duomo; the Fonte Nuova, near Porta Ovile, by Camaino di Crescentino also deserves notice (1298). Thanks to all these archi- tectural treasures, the narrow Sienese streets with their many wind- ings and steep ascents are full of picturesque charm, and, together with the collections of excellent paintings, foster the local pride of the inhabitants and preserve their taste and feeling for art. The medieval walls and gates are still in the main preserved. The ruined Cistercian abbey of S. Galgano, founded in 1201, with its fine church (1240- 1268) is interesting and imposing. It lies some 20 m. south-west of Siena. History. — Siena was probably founded by the Etruscans (a few tombs of that period have been found outside Porta Camollia), and then, falling under the Roman rule, became a colony in the reign of Augustus, or a little earlier, and was distinguished by the name of Saena Julia. It has the same arms as Rome — the she-wolf and twins. But its real importance dates from the middle ages. Few memorials of the Roman era 2 or of the first centuries of Christianity have been preserved (except the legend of St Ansanus), and none at all of the interval pre- ceding the Lombard period. We have documentary evidence that in the 7th century in the reign* of Rotaris (or Rotari), there was a bishop of Siena named Mauro. Attempts to trace earlier bishops as far back as the 5th century have yielded only vague and contradictory results. Under the Lombards the civil government was in the hands of a gaslaldo, under the Carolingians of a count, whose authority, by slow degrees and a course of events similar to what took place in other Italian communes, gave way to that of the bishop, whose power in turn gradually diminished and was superseded by that of the consuls and the commonwealth. We have written evidence of the consular government of Siena from 1125 to 1212; the number of consuls varied from three to twelve. This government, formed of gentiluomini or nobles, did not remain unchanged throughout the whole period, but was gradually forced to accept the participation of the popolani or lower classes, whose efforts to rise to power were continuous and determined. Thus in n 37 they obtained a third part of the government by the reconstitution of the general council with 100 nobles and 50 popolani. In 1199 the institution of a foreign podesta (a form of government which became per- manent in 1 212) gave a severe blow to the consular magistracy, which was soon extinguished; and in 1233 the people again rose against the nobles in the hope of ousting them entirely from office. The strife was largely economic, the people desiring to deprive the nobles of the immunity of taxation which they had enjoyed. The attempt was not completely successful; but the government was now equally divided between the two estates by the creation of a supreme magistracy of twenty-four citizens — twelve nobles and twelve popolani. During the rule of the nobles and the mixed rule of nobles and popolani the commune of Siena was enlarged by fortunate acquisitions of neighbouring lands and by the submission of feudal lords, such as the Scialenghi, Aldobrandeschi, Pannocchie'schi, Visconti di Campiglia, &c. 1 In these are especially interesting the painted covers of the books of the bicchiema and gabella, or revenue and tax offices. 2 There are, however, remains of baths some 2 J m. to the east; see P. Piccolomini in Bullettino Senese de storia patria, vi. (1899). 5 o SIENA Before long the reciprocal need of fresh territory and frontier disputes, especially concerning Poggibonsi and Montepulciano, led to an outbreak of hostilities between Florence and Siena. Thereupon, to spite the rival republic, the Sienese took the Ghibelline side, and the German emperors, beginning with Frederick Barbarossa, rewarded their fidelity by the grant of various privileges. During the 12th and 13th centuries there were continued disturbances, petty wars, and hasty reconciliations between Florence and Siena, until in 1 254-1 255 a more binding peace and alliance was concluded. But this treaty, in spite of its apparent stability, led in a few years to a fiercer struggle; for in 1258 the Florentines complained that Siena had infringed its terms by giv- ing refuge to the Ghibellines they had expelled, and on the refusal of the Sienese to yield to these just remonstrances both states made extensive preparations for war. Siena applied to Manfred, obtained from him a strong body of German horse, under the command of Count Giordano, and likewise sought the aid of its Ghibelline allies. Florence equipped a powerful citizen army, of which the original registers are still preserved in the volume entitled // Libro di Montaperti in the Florence archives. This army, led by the podesta. of Florence and twelve burgher captains, set forth gaily on its march towards the enemy's territories in the middle of April 1260, and during its first campaign, ending on the 1 8th of May, won an insignificant victory at Santa Petronilla, outside the walls of Siena. But in a second and more important campaign, in which the militia of the other Guelf towns of Tuscany took part, the Florentines were signally defeated at Montaperti on the 4th of September 1260. This defeat crushed the power of Florence for many years, reduced the city to desola- tion, and apparently annihilated the Florentine Guelfs. But the battle of Benevento (1266) and the establishment of the dynasty of Charles of Anjou on the Neapolitan throne put an end to the Ghibelline predominance in Tuscany. Ghibelline Siena soon felt the effects of the change in the defeat of its army at Colle di Valdelsa (1269) by the united forces of the Guelf exiles, Florentines and French, and the death in that battle of her powerful citizen Provenzano Salvani (mentioned by Dante), who had been the leading spirit of the government at the time of the victory of Montaperti. For some time Siena remained faithful to the Ghibelline cause; nevertheless Guelf and demo- cratic sentiments began to make head. The Ghibellines were on several occasions expelled from the city, and, even when a temporary reconciliation of the two parties allowed them to return, they failed to regain their former influence. Meanwhile the popular party acquired increasing power in the state. Exasperated by the tyranny of the Salimbeni and other patrician families allied to the Ghibellines, it decreed in 1277 the exclusion of all nobles from the supreme magistracy (consisting since 1270 of thirty-six instead of twenty- four members) , and insisted that this council should be formed solely of Guelf traders and men of the middle class. This constitution was confirmed in 1280 by the reduction of the supreme magistracy to fifteen members, all of the humbler classes, and was definitively sanctioned in 1285 (and 1287) by the institution of the magistracy of nine. This council of nine, composed only of burghers, carried on the government for about seventy years, and its rule was sagacious and peaceful. The territories of the state were enlarged; a friendly alliance was maintained with Florence; trade flourished; in 1321 the university was founded, or rather revived, by the introduction of Bolognese scholars; the principal buildings now adorning the town were begun; and the charitable institutions, which are the pride of modern Siena, increased and prospered. But meanwhile the exclusiveness of the single class of citizens from whose ranks the chief magistrates were drawn had converted the government into a close oligarchy and excited the hatred of every other class. Nobles, judges, notaries and populace rose in frequent revolt, while the nine defended their state (1 295-1309) by a strong body of citizen militia divided into terzieri (sections) and contrade (wards), and violently repressed these attempts. But in 1355 the arrival of Charles IV. in Siena gave fresh courage to the malcontents, who, backed by the imperial authority, overthrew the government of the nine and substituted a magistracy of twelve drawn from the lowest class. These new rulers were to some extent under the influence of the nobles who had fomented the rebellion, but the latter were again soon excluded from all share in the govern- ment. This was the beginning of a determined struggle for supre- macy, carried on for many years, between the different classes of citizens, locally termed ordini or monti — the lower classes striving to grasp the reins of government, the higher classes already in office striving to keep all power in their own hands, or to divide it in proportion to the relative strength of each monte. As this struggle is of too complex a nature to be described in detail, we must limit ourselves to a summary of its leading episodes. The twelve who replaced the council of nine (as these had previously replaced the council of the nobles) consisted — both as individuals and as a party — of ignorant, incapable, turbulent men, who could neither rule the state with firmness nor confer prosperity on the republic. They speedily broke with the nobles, for whose manoeuvres they had at first been useful tools, and then split into two factions, one siding with the Tolomei, the other, the more restless and violent, with the Salimbeni and the noveschi (partisans of the nine), who, having still some influence in the city, probably fomented these dissensions, and, as we shall see later on, skilfully availed themselves of every chance likely to restore them to power. In 1368 the adversaries of the twelve succeeded in driving them by force from the public palace, and substituting a government of thirteen — ten nobles and three noveschi. This government lasted only twenty-two days, from the 2nd to the 24th September, and was easily overturned by the dominant faction of the dodicini (partisans of the twelve), aided by the Salimbeni and the populace, and favoured by the emperor Charles IV. The nobles were worsted, being driven from the city as well as from power; but the absolute rule of the twelve was brought to an end, and right of participation in the govern- ment was extended to another class of citizens. For, on the expulsion of the thirteen from the palace, a council of 124 plebeians created a new magistracy of twelve difensori (defenders), no longer drawn exclusively from the order of the twelve, but composed of five of the popolo minuto, or lowest populace (now first admitted to the government), four of the twelve, and three of the nine. But it was of short duration, for the dodicini were ill satisfied with their share, and in December of the same year (1368) joined with the popolo minuto in an attempt to expel the three noveschi from the palace. But the new popular order, which had already asserted its predominance in the council of the riformatori, now drove out the dodicini, and for five days (nth to 1 6th December) kept the government in its own hands. Then, however, moved by fear of the emperor, who had passed through Siena two months before on his way to Rome, and who was about to halt there on his return, it tried to conciliate its foes by creating a fresh council of 150 riformatori, who replaced the twelve defenders by a new supreme magistracy of fifteen, consisting of eight popolani, four dodicini, and three noveschi, entitled respectively " people of the greater number," " people of the middle number," and " people of the less number. " From this renewal dates the formation of the new order or monte dei riformatori, the title henceforth bestowed on all citizens, of both the less and the greater people, who had reformed the government and begun to participate in it in 1368. The turbulent action of the twelve and the Salimbeni, being dissatisfied with these changes, speedily rose against the new government. This time they were actively aided by Charles IV., who, having returned from Rome, sent his militia, commanded by the imperial vicar Malatesta da Rimini, to attack the public palace. But the Sienese people, being called to arms by the council of fifteen, made a most determined resistance, routed the imperial troops, captured the standard, and confined the emperor in the Salimbeni palace. Thereupon Charles came to terms with the government, granted it an imperial patent, and left the city, consoled for his humiliation by the gift of a large sum of money. SIENA 5* In spite of its wide basis and great energy, the monte dei riformatori, the heart of the new government, could-not satisfac- torily cope with the attacks of adverse factions and treacherous allies. So, the better to repress them, it created in 1369 a chief of the police, with the title of esecutore, and a numerous associa- tion of popolani — the company or casata grande of the people — as bulwarks against the nobles, who had been recalled from banishment, and who, though fettered by strict regulations, were now eligible for offices of the state. But the appetite for power of the " less people " and the dregs of the populace was whetted rather than satisfied by the installation of the riformatori in the principal posts of authority. Among the wool-carders — men of the lowest class, dwelling in the precipitous lanes about the Porta Ovile — there was an association styling itself the "company of the worm." During the famine of 1371 this company rose in revolt, sacked the houses of the rich, invaded the public palace, drove from the council of fifteen the four members of the twelve and the three of the nine, and replaced them by seven tatter- demalions. Then, having withdrawn to its own quarter, it was suddenly attacked by the infuriated citizens (noveschi and dodicini), who broke into houses and workshops and put numbers of the inhabitants to the sword without regard for age or sex. Thereupon the popular rulers avenged these misdeeds by many summary executions in the piazza. These disorders were only checked by fresh changes in the council of fifteen. It was now formed of twelve of the greater people and three noveschi, to the total exclusion of the dodicini, who, on account of their grow- ing turbulence, were likewise banished from the city. Meanwhile the government had also to contend with difficulties outside the walls. The neighbouring lords attacked and ravaged the municipal territories; grave injuries were inflicted by the mercenary bands, especially by the Bretons and Gascons. The rival claims to the Neapolitan kingdom of Carlo di Durazzo and Louis of Anjou caused fresh disturbances in Tuscany. The Sienese government conceived hopes of gaining possession of the city of Arezzo, which was first occupied by Durazzo's men, and then by Enguerrand de Coucy for Louis of Anjou; but while the Sienese were nourishing dreams of conquest the French general unexpectedly sold the city to the Florentines, whose negotiations had been conducted with marvellous ability and despatch (1384). The gathering exasperation of the Sienese, and notably of the middle class, against their rulers was brought to a climax by this cruel disappointment. Their discontent had been gradually swelled by various acts of home and foreign policy during the sixteen years' rule of the riformatori, nor had the concessions granted to the partisans of the twelve and the latter 's recall and renewed eligibility to office availed to conciliate them. At last the revolt broke out and gained the upper hand, in March 1385. The riformatori were ousted from power and expelled the city, and the trade of Siena suffered no little injury by the exile of so many artisan families. The fifteen were replaced by a new supreme magistracy of ten priors, chosen in the following proportions — four of the twelve, four of the nine, and two of the people proper, or people of the greater number, but to the exclusion of all who had shared in the government or sat in council under the riformatori. Thus began a new order or monte del popolo, composed of families of the same class as the riformatori, but having had no part in the government during the latter's rule. But, though now admitted to power through the burgher reaction, as a concession to democratic ideas, and to cause a split among the greater people, they enjoyed very limited privileges. 1 In 1387 fresh quarrels with Florence on the subject of Monte- pulciano led fo an open war, that was further aggravated by the interference in Tuscan affairs of the ambitious duke of Milan, Gian Galeazzo Visconti. With him the Sienese concluded an alliance in 1389 and ten years later accepted his suzerainty and resigned the liberties of their state. But in 1402 the death of 1 The following are the ordini or monti that held power in Siena for any considerable time — gentiluomini, from the origin of the re- public; nove, from about 1285; dodici, f rom 1 355 ; riformatori, from 1368; popolo, from 1385. Gian Galeazzo lightened their yoke. In that year the first plot against the Viscontian rule, hatched by the twelve and the Salimbeni and fomented by the Florentines, was violently re- pressed, and caused the twelve to be again driven from office; but in the following year a special balia, created in consequence of that riot, annulled the ducal suzerainty and restored the liberties of Siena. During the interval the supreme magistracy had assumed a more popular form. By the partial readmission of the riformatori and exclusion of the twelve, the permanent balia was now composed of nine priors (three of the nine, three of the people, and three of iheriformatori) and of a captain of the people to be chosen from each of the three monti in turn. On nth April peace was made with the Florentines and Siena en- joyed several years of tranquil prosperity. But the great Western schism then agitating the Christian world again brought disturbance to Siena. In consequence of the decisions of the council of Pisa, Florence and Siena had declared against Gregory XII. (1409); Ladislaus of Naples, therefore, as a supporter of the pope, seized the opportunity to make incursions on Sienese territory, laying it waste and threatening the city. The Sienese maintained a vigorous resistance till the death of this monarch in 1414 freed them from his attacks. In 143 1 a fresh war with Florence broke out, caused by the latter's attempt upon Lucca, and continued in consequence of the Florentines' alliance with Venice and Pope Eugenius IV., and that of the Sienese with the duke of Milan and Sigismund, king of the Romans. This monarch halted at Siena on his way to Rome to be crowned, and received a most princely welcome. In 1433 the opposing leagues signed a treaty of peace, and, although it was disadvantageous to the Sienese and temptations to break it were frequently urged upon them, they faithfully adhered to its terms. During this period of comparative tranquillity Siena was honoured by the visit of Pope Eugenius IV. (1443) and by that of the emperor Frederick III., who came there to receive his bride, Eleanor of Portugal, from the hands of Bishop Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, his secretary and historian (1452). This meeting is recorded by the memorial column still to be seen outside the Camollia gate. In 1453 hostilities against Florence were again resumed, on account of the invasions and ravages of Sienese territory committed by Florentine troops in their conflicts with Alphonso of Naples, who since 1447 had made Tuscany his battle- ground. Peace was once more patched up with Florence in 1454. Siena was next at war for several years with Aldobrandino Orsini, count of Pitigliano, and with Jacopo Piccinini, and suffered many disasters from the treachery of its generals. About the same time the republic was exposed to still graver danger by the conspiracy of some of its leading citizens to seize the reins of power and place the city under the suzerainty of Alphonso, as it had once been under that of the duke of Milan. But the plot came to light; its chief ringleaders were beheaded, and many others sent into exile (1456); and the death of Alphonso at last ended all danger from that source. During those critical times the government of the state was strengthened by a new executive magistracy called the balia, which from 1455 began to act independently of the priors or consistory. Until then it had been merely a provisional committee annexed to the latter. But henceforward the balia had supreme jurisdiction in all affairs of the state, although always, down to the fall of the republic, nominally preserving the character of a magistracy extraordinary. The election of Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini to the papal chair in 1458 caused the utmost joy to the Sienese; and in compliment to their illustrious fellow-citizen they granted the request of the nobles and readmitted them to a share in the government. But this concession, grudgingly made, only remained in force for a few years, and on the death of the pope (1464) was revoked altogether, save in the case of members of the Piccolomini house, who were decreed to be popolani and were allowed to retain all their privileges. Meanwhile fresh discords were brewing among the plebeians at the head of affairs. The conspiracy of the Pazzi in 1478 led to a war in which Florence and Milan were opposed to the pope and the king of Naples, and which was put an end to by the peace of 13th 52 SIENA March 1480. Thereupon Alphonso, duke of Calabria, who was fighting in Tuscany on the side of his father Ferdinand, came to an agreement with Siena and, in the same way as his grandfather Alphonso, tried to obtain the lordship of the city and the recall of the exiled rebels in 14 56. The noveschi (to whose order most of the rebels belonged) favoured his pretensions, but the riformatori were against him. Many of the people sided with the noveschi, rose in revolt on 22nd June 1480 and, aided by the duke's soldiery, reorganized the government to their own advant- age. Dividing the power between their two orders of the nine and the people, they excluded the riformatori and replaced them by a new and heterogeneous order styled the aggregati, composed of nobles, exiles of 1456 and citizens of other orders who had never before been in office. But this violent and perilous upset of the internal liberties of the republic did not last long. A decree issued by the Neapolitan king (1482) depriving the Sienese of certain territories in favour of Florence entirely alienated their affections from that monarch. Meanwhile the monte oi the nine, the chief promoters of the revolution of 1480, were exposed to the growing hatred and envy of their former allies, the monte del popolo, who, conscious of their superior strength and numbers, now sought to crush the noveschi and rise to power in their stead. This change cf affairs was accomplished by a series of riots between 7th June 1482 and 20th February 1483. The monte del popolo seized the lion's share of the government; the riformatori were recalled, the aggregati abolished and the noveschi condemned to perpetual banishment from the govern- ment and the city. But " in perpetuo " was an empty form of words in those turbulent Italian republics. The noveschi, being " fat burghers " with powerful connexions, abilities and tradi- tions, gained increased strength and influence in exile; and five years later, on 22nd July 1487, they returned triumphantly to Siena, dispersed the few adherents of the popolo who offered resistance, murdered the captain of the people, reorganized the state, and placed it under the protection of the Virgin Mary. And, their own predominance being assured by their numerical strength and influence, they accorded equal shares of power to the other monti. Among the returned exiles was Pandolfo Petrucci, chief of the noveschi and soon to be at the head of the government. During the domination of this man (who, like Lorenzo de' Medici, was surnamed " the M a g n ifi cen t ") Siena enjoyed many years of splendour and prosperity. We use the term " domination " rather than " signory " inasmuch as, strictly speaking, Petrucci was never lord of the state, and left its established form of govern- ment intact; but he exercised despotic authority in virtue of his strength of character and the continued increase of his personal power. He based his foreign policy on alliance with Florence and France, and directed the internal affairs of the state by means of the council {collegia) of the balia, which, although occasionally reorganized for the purpose of conciliating rival factions, was always subject to his will. He likewise added to his power by assuming the captainship of the city guard (1495) , and later by the purchase from the impoverished commune of several outlying castles (1507). Nor did he shrink from' deeds of bloodshed and revenge; the assassination of his father-in-law, Niccolo Borghesi (1500), is an indelible blot upon his name. He successfully withstood all opposition within the state, until he was at last worsted in his struggle with Cesare Borgia, who caused his ex- pulsion from Siena in 1502. But through the friendly mediation of the Florentines and the French king he was recalled from banishment on 29th March 1503. He maintained his power until his death at the age of sixty on 21st May 1512, and was interred with princely ceremonials at the public expense. The predominance of his family in Siena did not last long after his decease. Pandolfo had not the qualities required to found a dynasty such as that of the Medici. He lacked the lofty intellect of a Cosimo or a Lorenzo, and the atmosphere of liberty- loving Siena with its ever-changing factions was in no way suited to his purpose. His eldest son, Borghese Petrucci , was incapable, haughty and exceedingly corrupt; he only remained three years at the head of affairs and fled ignominiously in 1515. Through the favour of Leo X., he was succeeded by his cousin Raffaello Petrucci, previously governor of St Angelo and afterwards a- cardinal. This Petrucci was a bitter enemy to Pandolfo's children. He caused Borghese and a younger son named Fabio to be proclaimed as rebels, while a third son, Cardinal Alphonso, was strangled by order of Leo X. in 1518. He was a tyrannical ruler, and died suddenly in 1522. In the following year Clement VII. insisted on the recall of Fabio Petrucci; but two years later a fresh popular outbreak drove him from Siena for ever. The city then placed itself under the protection of the emperor Charles V., created a magistracy of " ten conservators of the liberties of the state" (December 1524), united the different monti in one named the " monte of the reigning nobles," and, rejoicing to be rid of the last of the Petrucci, dated their public books, ab instaurata libertate year I., II., and so on. The so-called free government subject to the empire lasted for twenty-seven years; and the desired protection of Spain weighed more and more heavily until it became a tyranny. The imperial legates and the captains of the Spanish guard in Siena crushed both government and people by continual ex- tortions and by undue interference with the functions of the balia. Charles V. passed through Siena in 1535, and, as in all the other cities of enslaved Italy, was received with the greatest pomp; but he left neither peace nor liberty behind him. From 1527 to 1545 the city was torn by faction fights and violent revolts against the noveschi, and was the scene of frequent bloodshed, while the quarrelsomeness and bad government of the Sienese gave great dissatisfaction in Tuscany. The balia was recon- stituted several times by the imperial agents — in 1530 by Don Lopez di Soria and Alphonso Piccolomini, duke of Amalfi, in 1 540 by Granvella (or Granvelle) and in 1 548 by Don Diego di Mendoza; but government was carried on as badly as before, and there was increased hatred of the Spanish rule. When in 154.0 Don Diego announced the emperor's purpose of erecting a fortress in Siena to keep the citizens in order, the general hatred found vent in indignant remonstrance. The historian Orlando Malavolti and other special envoys were sent to the emperor in 1550 with a petition signed by more than a thousand citizens praying him to spare them so terrible a danger; but their mission failed: they returned unheard. Meanwhile Don Diego had laid _ the foundation of the citadel and was carrying on the work with activity. Thereupon certain Sienese citizens in Rome, headed by Aeneas Piccolomini (a kinsman of Pius II.), entered into negotiations with the agents of the French king and, having with their help collected men and money, marched on Siena and forced their way in by the new gate (now Porta Romana) on 26th July 1552. The townspeople, encouraged and reinforced by this aid from without, at once rose in revolt, and, attacking the Spanish troops, disarmed them and drove them to take refuge in the citadel (28th July). And finally by an agreement with Cosimo de' Medici, duke of Florence, the Spaniards were sent away on the 5th August 1552 and the Sienese took possession of their fortress. The government was now reconstituted under the protection of the French agents; the balia was abolished, its very name having been rendered odious by the tyranny of Spain, and was replaced by a similar magistracy styled capitani del popolo e reggimento. Siena exulted in her recovered freedom; but her sunshine was soon clouded. First, the emperor's wrath was stirred by the influence of France in the counsels of the republic; then Cosimo, who was no less jealous of the French, conceived the design of annexing Siena to his own dominions. The first hostilities of the imperial forces in Val di Chiana (1552-1553) did little damage; but when Cosimo took the field with an army commanded by the marquis of Marignano the ruin of Siena was at hand. On 26th January Marignano captured the forts of Porta Camollia (which the whole population of Siena, including the women, had helped to construct) and invested the city. On the 2nd of August of the same year, at Marciano in Val di Chiana, he won a complete victory over the Sienese and French troops under Piero Strozzi, the Florentine exile and SIENA 53 marshal of France. Meanwhile Siena was vigorously besieged, and its inhabitants, sacrificing everything for their beloved city, maintained a most heroic defence. A glorious record of their sufferings is to be found in the Diary of Sozzini, the Sienese historian, and in the Commentaries of Blaise de Monluc, the French representative in Siena. But in April 1555 the town was reduced to extremity and was forced to capitulate to the emperor and the duke. On 21st April the Spanish troops entered the gates; thereupon many patriots abandoned the city and, taking refuge at Montalcino, maintained there a shadowy form of republic until 1559. Cosimo I. de' Medici being granted the investiture of the Sienese state by the patent of Philip II. of Spain, dated 3rd July 1557, took formal possession of the city on the 19th of the same month. A lieutenant-general was appointed as repre- sentative of his authority; the council of the balia was recon- stituted with twenty members chosen by the duke; the con- sistory and the general council were left in existence but deprived of their political autonomy. Thus Siena was annexed to the Florentine state under the same ruler and became an integral part of the grand-duchy of Tuscany. Nevertheless it retained a separate administration for more than two centuries, until the general reforms of the grand-duke Pietro Leopoldo, the French domination, and finally the restoration swept away all differences between the Sienese and Florentine systems of government. In 1859. Siena was the first Tuscan city that voted for annexation to Piedmont and the monarchy of Victor Emmanuel II., this decision (voted 26th June) being the initial step towards the unity of Italy. Literary History. — The literary history of Siena, while recording no gifts to the world equal to those bequeathed by Florence, and without the power and originality by which the latter became the centre of Italian culture, can nevertheless boast of some illustrious names. Of these a brief summary, beginning with the department of general literature and passing on to history and science, is sub- joined. Many of them are also dealt with in separate articles, to which the reader is referred. As early as the 13th century the vulgar tongue was already well established at Siena, being used in public documents, commercial records and private correspondence. The poets flourishing at that period were Folcacchiero, Cecco Angiolieri — a humorist of a very high order — and Bindo Bonichi, who belonged also to the following century. The chief glory of the 14th century was St Catherine Benincasa. The year of her death (1380) was that of the birth of St Bernardino Albizzeschi (S Bernardino of Siena), a popular preacher whose sermons in the vulgar tongue are models of style and diction. To the 15th century belongs Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini (Pius II.), humanist, historian and political writer. In the 16th century we find another Piccolomini (Alexander), bishop of Patras, author of a curious dialogue, Delia bella creanza delle donne; another bishop, ClaudioTolomei, diplomatist, poet and philologist, who revived the use of ancient Latin metres ; and Luca Contile, a writer of narratives, plays and poems. Prose fiction had two representatives in this century — Scipione Bargagli, a writer of some merit, and Pietro Fortini, whose productions were trivia! and indecent. In the 17th century we find Ludovico Sergardi (Quinto Settano), a Latinist and satirical writer of much talent and culture; but the most original and brilliant figure in Sienese literature is that of Girolamo Gigli (1660-1722), author of the Gazzettino, La Sorellina di Don Pilone, II Vocabolario cateriniano and the Diario ecclesiastico. As humorist, scholar and philologist, Gigli would take a high place in the literature of any land. His resolute opposition to all hypocrisy — whether religious or literary — exposed him to merciless persecution from the Jesuits and the Delia Cruscan Academy. In the domain of history we have first the old Sienese chronicles, which down to the 14th century are so confused that it is almost impossible to disentangle truth from fiction or even to decide the personality of the various authors. Three 14th-century chronicles, attributed to Andrea Dei, AgnolodiTura, called II Grasso, and Neri diDonati, are published in Muratori (vol.xv.). To the 15th century belongs the chronicle of Allegretto Allegretti, also in Muratori (vol. xxiii.) ; and during the same period flourished Sigismondo Tizio (a priest of Siena, though born at Castiglione Aretino), whose volumin- ous history written in Latin and never printed (now among the MSS. of the Chig^i Library in Rome), though devoid of literary merit, con- tains much valuable material. The best Sienese historians belong to the 1 6th century . They are Orlando Malavolti (151 5-1 596) , a man of noble birth, the most trustworthy of all; Antonio Bellarmati; Alessandro Sozzini di Girolamo, the sympathetic author of the Diario dell' ultima guerra senese; and Giugurta Tommasi, of whose tedious history ten books, down to 1354, have been published, the rest being still in manuscript. Together with these historians we must mention the learned scholars Celso Cittadini (d. 1627), Ulberto Benvoglienti (d. 1733), one of Muratori's correspondents, and Gio. Antonio Picci (d. 1768), author of histories o'f Pandolfo Petrucci and the bishopric of Siena. In the same category may be classed the librarian C. F. Carpellini (d. 1872), author of several monographs on the origin of Siena and the constitution of the republic, and Scipione Borghesi (d. 1877), who has left a precious store of historical, biographical and bibliographical studies and documents. In theology and philosophy the most distinguished names are: Bernardino Ochino and Lelio and Fausto Soccini (16th century) ; in jurisprudence, three Soccini: Mariano senior, Bartolommeo and Marianojunior (15th and 16th centuries) ; and in political economy, Sallustio Bandini (1677-1760), author of the Discorso sulla Ma- remma. In physical science the names most worthy of mention are those of the botanist Pier Antonio Mattioli (1501-1572), of Pirro Maria Gabrielli (1643-1705), founder of the academy of the Physio- critics, and of the anatomist Paolo Mascagni (d. 1825). Art. — Lanzi happily designates Sienese painting as " Lieta scuola fra lieto popolo " (" the blithe school of a blithe people"). The special characteristics of its masters are freshness of colour, vivacity of expression and distinct originality. The Sienese school of painting owes its origin to the influence of Byzantine art ; but it improved that art, impressed it with a special stamp and was for long inde- pendent of all other influences. Consequently Sienese art seemed almost stationary amid the general progress and development of the other Italian schools, and preserved its medieval character down to the end of the 15th century, when the influence of the Um- brian and— to a slighter degree— of the Florentine schools began to penetrate into Siena, followed a little later by that of the Lombard. In the 13th century we find Guido (da Siena), painter of the well- known Madonna in the church of S Domenico in Siena. The 14th century gives us Ugolino, Duccio di Buoninsegna, Simone di Martino (or Memmi) , Lippo Memmi, Pietro and Ambrogio Lorenzetti, Andrea di Vanni (painter and statesman), Bartolo di Fredi and Taddeo di Bartolo. In the 15th century we have Domenico di Bartolo, Sano di Pietro, Giovanni di Paolo, Stefano di Giovanni (II Sassetta) and Matteo and Benvenuto di Giovanni Bartoli, who fell, however, behind their contemporaries elsewhere, and made indeed but little progress. The 1 6th century boasts the names of Bernardino Fungai, Guidoccio Cossarelli, Giacomo Pacchiarotto, Girolamo del Pacchia and especi- ally Baldassare Peruzzi (1481-1537), who while especially celebrated for his frescoes and studies in perspective and chiaroscuro was also an architect of considerable attainments (see Rome) ; Giovanni Antonio Bazzi, otherwise known as II Sodoma (1477-1549), who, born at Vercelli in Piedmont, and trained at Milan in the school of Leonardo da Vinci, came to Siena in 1504 and there produced some of his finest works, while his influence on the art of the place was con- siderable; Domenico Beccafumi, otherwise known as Micharino (1486-1550), noted for the Michelangelesque daring of his designs; and Francesco Vanni. There may also be mentioned many sculptors and architects, such as Lorenzo Maitani, architect of Orvieto cathedral (end of 13th century) ; Camaino di Crescentino ; Tino di Camaino, sculptor of the monument to Henry VII. in the Campo Santo of Pisa; Agostino and Agnolo, who in 1330 carved the fine tomb of Bishop Guido Tarlati in the cathedral of Arezzo; Lando di Pietro (14th century), architect, entrusted by the Sienese commune with the proposed en- largement of the cathedral (1339), and perhaps author of the famous Gothic reliquary containing the head of S Galgano in the Chiesa del Santuccio, which, however, is more usually attributed to Ugolino di Vieri, author of the tabernacle in the cathedral at Orvieto; Giacopo (or Jacopo) della Querela, whose lovely fountain, the Fonte Gaia, in the Piazza del Campo has been recently restored ; Lorenzo di Pietro (II Vecchietta), a pupil of Della Quercia and an excellent artist in marble and bronze; Francesco d'Antonio, a skilful goldsmith of the 16th century; Francesco di Giorgio Martini (1439-1502), painter, sculptor, military engineer and writer on art; Giacomo Cozzarelli (15th century); and Lorenzo Mariano, surnamed II Marrina (16th century). Wood-carving also flourished here in the 15th and 16th centuries, and so also did the ceramic art, though few of its products are preserved. According to the well-known law, however, the Renaissance, made for the people of the plains, never fully took root in Siena, as in other parts of Tuscany, and the loss of its independ- ence and power in 1555 led to a suspension of building activity, which to the taste of the present day is most fortunate, inasmuch as the baroque of the 17th and the false classicism of the 18th centdries have had hardly any effect here ; and few towns of Italy are so un- spoilt by restoration or the addition of incongruous modern buildings, or preserve so many characteristics and so much of the real spirit (manifested to-day in the grave and pleasing courtesy of the inhabi- tants) of the middle ages, which its narrow and picturesque streets seem to retain. Siena is indeed unsurpassed for its examples of 13th and 14th century Italian Gothic, whether in stone or in brick. See VV. Heywood, Our Lady of August and the Palio (Siena, 1899) and other works ; R. H. Hobart Cust, The Pavement Masters of Siena (London, 1901) ; Langton Douglas, History of Siena (London, 1902); E. G. Gardner, The Story of Siena (London, 1902) ; St Catherine of Siena (London, 1908) ; W. Heywood and L. Olcott, Guide to Siena (Siena, 1603) ; A. Jahn Rusconi, Siena (Bergamo, 1904). (C. Pa. ; T. As.) 54 SIENETJO— SIERRA LEONE SIENETJO, one of the Shangalla tribes living in south-west Abyssinia near the Sudan frontier, who claim to be a remnant of the primitive population. They are apparently a Hamitic people, and their skin is of a yellowish tint. Their women never intermarry with the Negroes or Arabs. Sienet jo villages are usually built on hilltops. They are an industrious people, skilful jewellers, weavers and smiths. SIENKIEWICZ, HENRYK (1846- ), Polish novelist, was born in 1846 at Wola Okrzeska near Lukow, in the province of Siedlce, Russian Poland. He studied philosophy at Warsaw University. His first work, a humorous novel entitled A Prophet in his own Country, appeared in 1872. In 1876 Sienkiewicz visited America, and under the pseudonym of " Litwos, " con- tributed an account of his travels to the Gazeta Polska, a Warsaw newspaper. Thenceforward his talent as a writer of historical novels won rapid recognition, and his best-known romance, Quo Vadis? a study of Roman society under Nero, has been translated into more than thirty languages. Originally pub- lished in 1895, Quo Vadis? was first translated into English in 1S96, and dramatized versions of it have been produced in England, the United States, France and Germany. Remarkable powers of realistic description, and a strong religious feeling which at times borders upon mysticism, characterize the best work of Sienkiewicz. Hardly inferior to Quo Vadis? in popu- larity, and superior in literary merit, is the trilogy of novels describing 17th-century society in Poland during the wars with the Cossacks, Turks and Swedes. This trilogy comprises Ogniem i mieczcm (" With Fire and Sword, " London, 1890, 1892 and 1895), Potop (" The Deluge, " Boston, Mass., 1891) and Pan Woxodjowski (" Pan Michael," London, 1893). Among other very successful novels and collections of tales which have been translated into English are Bez Dogmatu (" Without Dogma, " London, 1893; Toronto, i&gg),Janko muzykant: nowele (" Yanko the Musician and other Stories," Boston, Mass., 1893), Krzyzacy (" The Knight of the Cross, " numerous British and American versions), Hania (" Hania, " London, 1897) and Ta Trzecia (" The Third Woman, " New York, 1898). Sienkiewicz lived much in Cracow and Warsaw, and for a time edited the Warsaw newspaper Slowo; he also travelled in England, France, Italy, Spain, Greece, Africa and the East, and published a description of his journeys in Africa. In 1905 he received the Nobel prize for literature. A German edition of his collected works was published at Graz (1906, &c), and his biography was written in Polish by P. Chmiel- owski (Lemberg, 1901) and J. Nowinski (Warsaw, 1901). SIERADZ, a town of Russian Poland, in the government of Kalisz, situated on theWarta, no m. S.W. of the city of Warsaw. Pop. (1897) 7019. It is one of the oldest towns of Poland, founded prior to the introduction of Christianity, and was formerly known as Syra orSyraz. The annals mention it in n 39. Several seims, or diets, of Poland were held there during the 13th to 15th centuries, andit was a wealthy town until nearly destroyed by a fire in 1447. The old castle, which suffered much in the Swedish war of 1702-1711, was destroyed by the Germans in 1800. There are two churches, dating from the 12th and 14th centuries respectively. SIERO, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo, on the river Nora, and on the Oviedo-Trifiesto railway. Pop. (1900) 22,503. Siero is in the centre of a fertile agricultural district, in which live-stock is extensively reared. There are coal mines in the neighbourhood, and the local industries include tanning and manufactures of soap, coarse linen and cloths. SIERRA LEONE, a British colony and protectorate on the west coast of Africa. It is bounded W. by the Atlantic, N. and E. by French Guinea and S. by Liberia. The coast-line, following the indentations, is about 400 m. in length, extending from 9° 2' N. to 6° 55' N. It includes the peninsula of Sierra Leone — 23 m. long with an average breadth of 14 m. — Sherbro Island, Bance, Banana, Turtle, Plantain and other minor islands, also Turner's Peninsula, a narrow strip of land southward of Sherbro Island, extending in a S.E. direction about 60 m. Except in the Sierra Leone peninsula, Sherbro Island and Turner's Peninsula, the colony proper does not extend inland to a greater depth than half a mile. The protectorate, which adjoins the colony to the north and east, extends from 7 N. to io° N. and from io c 40' W. to 13 W., and has an area of rather more than 30,000 sq. m., being about the size of Ireland. (For map, see French West Africa.) The population of the colony proper at the 1901 census was 76,655. The popula- tion of the protectorate is estimated at from 1,000,000 to 1,500,000. Physical Features. — Sierra Leone is a well-watered, well-wooded and generally hilly country. The coast-line is deeply indented in its northern portion. Here the sea has greatly eroded the normal regular, harbourless line of the west coast of Africa, forming bold capes and numerous inlets or estuaries. The Sierra Leone peninsula is the most striking result of this marine action. North of it are the Sierra Leone and Scarcies estuaries; to the south is Yawry Bay. Then in 7° 30' N. Sherbro Island is reached. This is succeeded by Turner's Peninsula (in reality an island). The seaward faces of these islands are perfectly regular and indicate the original continental coast-line. They have been detached from the mainland partly by a marine inlet, partly by the lagoon-like creeks formed by the rivers. In the Sierra Leone peninsula the hills come down to the sea, else- where a low coast plain extends inland 30 to 50 m. The plateau which forms the greater part of the protectorate has an altitude varying from 800 to 3000 ft. On the north-east border by the Niger sources are mountains exceeding 5000 ft. The most fertile parts of the protectorate are Sherbro and Mendiland in the south-west. In the north-west the district between the Great Scarcies and the Rokell rivers is flat and is named Bullom (low land). In the south-east bordering Liberia is a belt of densely forested hilly country extending 50 m. S. to N. and very sparsely inhabited. The hydrography of the country is comparatively simple. Six large rivers — 300 to 500 m. long — rise in the Futa Jallon highlands in or beyond the northern frontier of the protectorate and in whole or in part traverse the country with a general S.W. course; the Great and Little Scarcies in the north, the Rokell and Jong in the centre and the Great Bum and Sulima in the south. These rivers are navi- gable for short distances, but in general rapids or cataracts mark their middle courses. The Great Scarcies, the Rio dos Carceres of the Portuguese, rises not far from the sources of the Senegal. Between 9 go' and 9 15' N. it forms the boundary between the protectorate and French Guinea ; below that point it is wholly in British territory. The Little Scarcies enters Sierra Leone near Yomaia, in the most northerly part of the protectorate. Known in its upper course as the Kabba, it flows through wild rocky country, its banks in places being 900 ft. high. After piercing the hills it runs parallel with the Great Scarcies. In their lower reaches the two rivers — both large streams — traverse a level plain, separated by no obstacles. The mouth of the Little Scarcies is 20 m. S. of that of the Great Scarcies. South of the estuary of the Scarcies the deep inlet known as the Sierra Leone river forms a perfectly safe and commodious harbour accessible to the largest vessels. At its entrance on the southern shore lies Freetown. Into the estuary flows, besides smaller streams, the Rokell, known in its upper course as the Seli. The broad estuary which separates Sherbro Island from the mainland, and is popularly called the Sherbro river, receives the Bagru from the N.W. and the Jong river, whose headstream, known as the Taia, Pampana and Sanden, flows for a considerable distance east of and parallel to the Rokell. The sources of the Taia, and those of the Great Bum, are near to those of the Niger, the watershed between the coast streams and the Niger basin here forming the frontier. The main upper branch of the Great Bum (or Sewa) river is called the Bague or Bagbe (white river). It flows east of and more directly south than the Taia. In its lower course the Bum passes through the Mendi country and enters the network of lagoons and creeks separated from the ocean by the long low tract of Turner's Peninsula. The main lagoon waterway goes by the name of the Bum-Kittam river, and to the north opens into the Sherbro estuary. Southward it widens out and forms Lake Kasse (20 m. long), before reaching the ocean just north of the estuary of the Sulima. The Wanje or upper Kittam joins this creek, and is also connected with Lake Mabessi, a sheet of water adjacent to Lake Kasse. The Sulima or Moa is a magnificent stream and flows through a very fertile country. One of its headstreams, the Meli, rises in French Guinea in 10 30' W. 9° 17' N. and flows for some distance parallel to the infant Niger, but in the opposite direction. It joins the Moa within Sierra Leone. The main upper stream of the Moa separates French Guinea and Liberia and enters British territory in 10° 40' W. 8° 20' N. Only the lower course is known as the Sulima. Between 7 40' and 7 20' are lacustrine reaches. Six miles S. of the mouth of the Sulima the Mano or Bewa river enters the sea. It rises in Liberia, and below 7° 30' N. forms the frontier between that republic and the protectorate. The Sierra Leone peninsula, the site of the oldest British settle- ment, lies between the estuary of the same name and Yawry Bay to the south. It is traversed on its seaward face by hills attaining a height of 1700 ft. in the Sugar Loaf, and nearly as much in Mount Herton farther south. The hills consist of a kind of granite and of SIERRA LEONE 55 beds of red sandstone, the disintegration of which has given a dark- coloured ferruginous soil of moderate fertility. Sugar Loaf is timbered to the top, and the peninsula is verdant with abundant vegetation. Climate. —'Win coast lands are unhealthy and have earned for Sierra Leone the unenviable reputation of being " the white man's grave." The mean annual temperature is above 8o°, the rainfall, which varies a great deal, is from 150 to 180 or more inches per annum. In 1896 no fewer than 203 in. were recorded. In 1894 , a " dry " year, only 144 in. of rain fell. In no other part of West Africa is the rainfall so heavy. December, January, February and March are practically rainless; the rains, beginning in April or May, reach their maximum in July, August and September, and rapidly diminish in October and November. During the dry season, when the climate is very much like that of the West Indies, there occur terrible tornadoes and long periods of the harmattan — a north-east wind, dry and desiccating, and carrying with it from the Sahara clouds of fine dust, which sailors designate " smokes." The dangers of the climate are much less in the interior; 40 or 50 m. inland the country is tolerable for Europeans. Flora.. — The characteristic tree of the coast districts is the oil- palm. Other palm trees found are the date, bamboo, palmyra, coco and dom. The coast-line, the creeks and the lower courses of the rivers are lined with mangroves. Large areas are covered with brushwood, among which are scattered baobab, shea-butter, bread fruit, corkwood and silk-cotton trees. The forests contain valuable timber trees such as African oak or teak (Oldfieldia Africana), rose- wood, ebony, tamarind, camwood, odum — whose wood resists the attacks of termites — and the tolmgah or brimstone tree. The frankincense tree (Daniellia thtirifera) reaches from 50 to 150 ft., the negro pepper (Xylopia Aethiopica) grows to about 60 ft., the fruit being used by the natives as pepper. There are also found the black pepper plant (Piper Clusii), a climbing plant abundant in the moun- tain districts; the grains of paradise or melegueta pepper plant (Amomum Melegueta) and other Amomums whose fruits are prized. Of the Apocynaceae the rubber plants are the most important. Both Landolphia florida and Landolphia owaricnsis are found. Of several fibre-yielding plants the so-called aloes of the orders Amaryl- lidaceae and Liliaceae are common. The kola (Cola acuminata) and the bitter kola (Garcinia cola), the last having a fruit about the size of an apple, with a flavour like that of green coffee, are common. Of dye-yielding shrubs and plants camwood and indigo may be mentioned; of those whence gum is obtained the copal, acacia and African tragacanth (Slerculia tragacantha). Besides the oil-palm, oil is obtained from many trees and shrubs, such as the benni oil plant. Of fruit trees there are among others the blood-plum (Haematostaphis Barteri) with deep crimson fruit in grape-like clusters, and the Sierra Leone peach (Sarcocephalus esculentus). The coffee and cotton plants are indigenous ; of grasses there are various kinds of millet, including Paspalum exile, the so-called hungry rice or Sierra Leone millet. Ferns are abundant in the marshes. Bright coloured flowers are somewhat rare. Fauna. — The wild animals include the elephant, still found in large numbers, the leopard, panther, chimpanzee, grey monkeys, antelope of various kinds, the buffalo, wild hog, bush goat, bush pig, sloth, civet and squirrel. The hippopotamus, manatee, crocodile and beaver are found in the rivers, and both land and fresh-water tortoises are common. Serpents, especially the boa-constrictor, are numerous. Chameleons, lizards and iguanas abound, as do frogs and toads. Wild birds are not very common ; among them are the hawk, parrot, owl, woodpecker, kingfisher, green pigeon, African magpie, the honey-sucker and canary. There are also wild duck, geese and other water fowl, hawk's bill, laggerheads and partridges. Mosquitoes, termites, bees, ants, centipedes, millipedes, locusts, grasshoppers, butterflies, dragonflies, sandflies and spiders are found in immen.se numbers. Turtle are common on the southern coast-line, sand and mangrove oysters are plentiful. Fish abound; among the common kinds are the bunga (a sort of herring), skate, grey mullet and tarpon. Sharks infest the estuaries. Inhabitants. — Sierra Leone is inhabited by various negro tribes, the chief being the Timni, the Sulima, the Susu and the Mendi. From the Mendi district many curious steatite figures which had been buried have been recovered and are exhibited in the British Museum. They show considerable skill in carving. Of semi-negro races the Fula inhabit the region of the Scarries. Freetown is peopled by descendants of nearly every negro tribe, and a distinct type known as the Sierra Leoni has been evolved; their language is pidgin English. Since 1900 a considerable number of Syrians have settled in the country as traders. Most of the negroes are pagans and each tribe has its secret societies and fetishes. These are very powerful and are employed often for beneficent purposes, such as the regulation of agriculture and the palm-oil industry. There are many Christian converts (chiefly Anglicans and Wesleyans) and Mahommedans. In the protectorate are some Mahommedan tribes, as for instance the Susu. The majority of the Sierra Leonis are nominally Christian. The European population numbers about 500. Towns. — Besides Freetown (q.v.) the capital (pop., 1901, 34,463), the most important towns for European trade are Bonthe, the port of Sherbro, Port Lokko, at the head of the navigable waters of a stream emptying itself into the Sierra Leone estuary, and Songo Town, 30 m. S.E. of Freetown, with which it is con- nected by railway. In the interior are many populous centres. The most noted is Falaba, about 190 m. N.E. of Freetown on the Fala river, a tributary of the Little Scarcies. It lies about 1600 ft. above the sea. Falaba was founded towards the end of the 18th century by the Sulima who revolted from the Mahommedan Fula, and its warlike inhabitants soon attained supremacy over the neighbouring villages and country. Like many of the native towns it is surrounded by a loopholed wall, with flank defences lor the gates. The town is the meeting-place of many trade routes, including some to the middle Niger. Kambia on the Great Scarcies is a place of some importance. It can be reached by boat from the sea. On the railway running S.E. from Freetown are Rotifunk, Mano, and Bo, towns which have increased greatly in importance since the building of the railway. Agriculture and Trade. — Agriculture is in a backward condition, but is being developed. The wealth of the country consists, however, chiefly in its indigenous trees of economic value — the oil-palm, the kola-nut tree and various kinds of rubber plants, chiefly the Land- olphia owariensis. The crops cultivated are rice, of an excellent quality, cassava, maize and ginger. The cultivation of coffee and of native tobacco has been practically abandoned as unremunerative. The sugar cane is grown in small quantities. The ginger is grown mainly in the colony proper. Minor products are benni seeds, pepper and piassava. The oil-palm and kola-nut tree are especially abundant in the Sherbro district and its hinterland, the Mendi country. The palms, though never planted, are in practically unlimited numbers. The nuts are gathered twice a year. Formerly groundnuts were largely cultivated, but this industry has been superseded by exports from India. Its place has been taken to some extent by the extrac- tion of rubber. The cotton plant grows freely throughout the protectorate and the cloth manufactured is of a superior kind. Exotic varieties of cotton do not thrive. Experiments were made during 1903-1906 to intro- duce the cultivation of Egyptian and American varieties, but they did not succeed. Cattle are numerous but of a poor breed; horses do not thrive. The chief export is palm kernels, the amount of palm oil exported being comparatively slight. Next to palm products the most valuable articles exported are kola-nuts — which go largely to neighbouring French colonies — rubber and ginger. The imports are chiefly textiles, food and spirits. Nearly three-fourths of the imports come from Great Britian, which, however, takes no more than some 35% of the exports. About 10% of the exports go to other British West African colonies. Germany, which has but a small share of the import trade, takes about 45 % of the exports. The value of the trade increased in the ten years 1 896-1 905 from £943,000 to £1,265,000. In 1908 the imports were valued at £813,700, the ex- ports at £736,700. The development of commerce with the rich regions north and east of the protectorate has been hindered by the diversion of trade to the French port of Konakry, which in 19 10 was placed in railway communication with the upper Niger. Moreover, the main trade road from Konakry to the middle Niger skirts the N.E. frontier of the protectorate for some distance. Sierra Leone is thus forced to look to its economic development within the bounds of the protectorate. Communications. — Internal communication is rendered difficult by the denseness of the " bush " or forest country. The rivers, however, afford a means of bringing country produce to the seaports. A railway, state owned and the first built in British West Africa, runs S.E. from Freetown through the fertile districts of Mendiland to the Liberian frontier. Begun in 1896, the line reached Bo (136 m.) in the oil-palm district in 1903, and was completed to Baiima, 15 m. from the Liberian frontier — total length 221 m. — in 1905. The gauge throughout is 2 ft. 6 in. The line cost about £4300 per mile, a total of nearly £1,000,000. Tramways and " feeder roads " have been built to connect various places with the railway; one such road goes from railhead to Kailahun in Liberia. Telegraphic communication with Europe was established in 1886. Steamers run at regular intervals between Freetown and Liverpool, Hamburg, Havre and Marseilles. In the ten years 1899-1908 the. tonnage of shipping entered and cleared rose from 1,181,000 to 2,046,000. Administration, Revenue, &c- — The country is administered as a crown colony, the governor being assisted by an executive and a legislative council ; on the last-named a minority of nominated un- official members have seats. The law of the colony is the common law of England modified by local ordinances. There is a denomina- tional system of primary and higher education. The schools an 56 SIERRA LEONE inspected by government and receive grants in aid. In 1907 there were 75 assisted elementary schools with nearly 8000 scholars. Furah Bay College is affiliated to Durham University. There is a Wesleyan Theological College; a government school (established 1906) at Bo for the sons of chiefs, and the Thomas Agricultural Academy at Mabang (founded in 1909 by a bequest of £60,000 from S. B. Thomas, a Sierra Leonian). Since 1901 the government has provided separate schools for Mahommedans. Revenue is largely derived from customs, especially from the duties levied on spirits. In the protectorate a house tax is imposed. In 1899-1908 revenue increased from £168,000 to £321,000, and the expenditure from £145,000 to £341,000. In 1906 there was a public debt of £1,279,000. Freetown is the headquarters of the British army in West Africa, and a force of infantry, engineers and artillery is maintained there. The colony itself provides a battalion of the West African Frontier Force, a body responsible to the Colonial Office. The protectorate is divided for administrative purposes into districts, each under a European commissioner. Throughout the protectorate native law is administered by native courts, subject to certain modifications. Native courts may not deal with murder, witchcraft, cannibalism or slavery. These cases are tried by the district commissioners or referred to the supreme court at Freetown. The tribal system of government is maintained, and the authority of the chiefs has been strengthened by the British. Domestic slavery is not interfered with. History. — Sierra Leone (in the original Portuguese form Sierra Leona) was known to its native inhabitants as Romarong, or the Mountain, and received the current designation from the Portuguese discoverer Pedro deSintra (i462),eitheronaccount of the " lion-like " thunder on its hill-tops, or to a fancied resem- blance of the mountains to the form of a lion. Here, as elsewhere along the coast, the Portuguese had "factories"; and though none existed when the British took possession, some of the natives called themselves Portuguese and claimed descent from colonists of that nation. An English fort was built on Bance Island in the Sierra Leone estuary towards the close of the 17th century, but was soon afterwards abandoned, though for a long period the estuary was the haunt of slavers and pirates. English traders were established on Bance and the Banana islands as long as the slave trade was legal. The existing colony has not, however, grown out of their establishments, but owes its birth to the philanthropists who sought to alleviate the lot of those negroes who were victims of the traffic in human beings. In 1786 Dr Henry Smeathman, who had lived for four years on the west coast, proposed a scheme for founding on the peninsula a colony for negroes discharged from the army and navy at the close of the American War of Independence, as well as for numbers of run- away slaves who had found an asylum in London. In 1787 the settlement was begun with 400 negroes and 60 Europeans, the whites being mostly women of abandoned character. In the year following, 1788. Nembana, a Timni chief, sold a strip of land to Captain John Taylor, R.N., for the use of the " free community of settlers, their heirs and successors, lately arrived from England, and under the protection of the British government." Owing mainly to the utter shiftlessness of the settlers and the great mortality among them, but partly to an attack by a body of natives, this first attempt proved a complete failure. In 1791 Alexander Falconbridge (formerly a surgeon on board slave ships) collected the surviving fugitives and laid out a new settle- ment (Granville's Town) ; and the promoters of the enterprise — Granville Sharp, William Wilberforce, Sir Richard Carr Glyn, &c. — hitherto known as the St George's Bay Company, obtained a charter of incorporation as the Sierra Leone Company, with Henry Thornton as chairman. In 1792 John Clarkson, a lieu- tenant in the British navy and brother to Thomas Clarkson the slave trade abolitionist, brought to the colony 1100 negroes from Nova Scotia. In 1794 the settlement, which had been again transferred to its original site and named Freetown, was plundered by the French. The governor at the time was Zachary Macaulay, father of Thomas Babington, Lord Macaulay. In 1807, when the inhabitants of the colony numbered 187 1, the company, which had encountered many difficulties, transferred its rights to the crown. The slave trade having in the same year been declared illegal by the British parliament, slaves captured by British vessels in the neighbouring seas were brought to Freetown, and thus the population of the colony grew. Its development was hampered by the frequent changes in the governorship. Sydney Smith's jest that Sierra Leone had always two governors, one just arrived in the colony, and the other just arrived in England, is but a slight exaggeration. In. twenty-two years (1 792-1814) there were seventeen changes in the governor- ship. After that date changes, although not quite so rapid, were still frequent. Several of the governors, like Zachary Macaulay, Colonel Dixon Denham, the explorer, and Sir Samuel Rowe, were men of distinction. Colonel Denham, after administering the colony for five weeks, died at Freetown of fever on the 9th of June 1828. Sir Charles M Carthy was, however, governor for ten years (1814-1824), an unprecedented period, during which he did much for the development of the country. Sir Charles fell in battle with the Ashanti on the 21st of January 1824. Whilst the governors found great difficulty in building up an industrious and agricultural community out of the medley of Africans brought to Sierra Leone, they had also to contend with the illicit slave trade which flourished in places close to the colony. To stop the traffic in Sherbro Island General Charles Turner concluded in 1825 a treaty with its rulers putting the island, Turner's Peninsula and other places under British pro- tection. (This treaty was not ratified by the crown, but was revived by another agreement made in 1882.) At this time — 1826 — measures were taken to ensure that the liberated slaves should become self-supporting. Many colonists took to trade, and notwithstanding numerous collisions with neighbouring tribes the settlement attained a measure of prosperity. Among the leading agents in spreading civilization were the missionaries sent out from 1804 onwards by the Church Missionary Society. Despite the anxiety of the British govern- ment not to increase their responsibilities in West Africa, from time to time various small territories were purchased, and by 1884 all the land now forming the colony had been acquired. The Los Islands (q.v.) which were ceded by the natives to Great Britain in 1818 were transferred to France in 1904. In 1866 Freetown was made the capital of the new general government" set up for the British settlements on the West Coast of Africa (comprising Sierra Leone, Gambia, the Gold Coast and Lagos, each of which was to have a legislative council). In 1874 the Gold Coast and Lagos were detached from Sierra Leone, and the Gambia in 1888. British influence was gradually extended over the hinterland, chiefly with the object of suppressing intertribal wars, which greatly hindered trade. In this work the British authorities enlisted the services of Dr Edward W. Th e . Blyden (a pure-blooded negro), who in 1872 visited incident Falaba and in 1873 Timbo, both semi-Mahommedan countries, being cordially received by the ruling chiefs. Falaba — ■ which had been visited in 1869 by Winwood Reade on his journey tothe Niger — came definitely underBritish protection, but Timbo, which is in Futa Jallon, was allowed to become French territory through the supineness of the home government. The area for expansion on the north was in any case limited by the French Guinea settlements, and on the south the territory of Liberia 1 hemmed in the colony. In the east and north-east British officers also found themselves regarded as trespassers by the French. The necessity for fixing the frontier in this direction was emphasized by the Waima incident. Both French and British military expeditions had been sent against the Sofas — Moslem mercenaries who, under the chieftainship of Fulas or Mandingos like Samory, ravaged the hinterland both of Sierra Leone and French Guinea. On the 23rd of December 1893 a British force was encamped at Waima. At dawn it was attacked by a French force which mistook the British troops for Samory's Sofas (save the officers the soldiers of both parties were negroes). Before the mistake was discovered the British had lost in killed three officers — Captain E. A. W. Lendy, Lieut. R. E. Liston and Lieut. C. Wroughton — and seven men, besides eighteen wounded. The French also suffered heavily. Their leader Lieut. Maritz was brought into the British camp mortally wounded, 1 The Anglo-Liberian frontier, partly defined by treaty in 1885, was not delimitated until 1903 (see Liberia). SIERRA MORENA— SIEYES 57 and was buried by the British. Steps were taken to prevent the occurrence of any further conflicts, and an agreement defining the frontier was signed in January 1895. This agreement finally shut out Sierra Leone from its natural hinterland. In 1896 the frontier was delimitated, and in the same year (26th of August 1896) a proclamation of a British protectorate was issued. To this extension of authority no opposition was offered at the time by any of the chiefs or tribes. Travelling commissioners were appointed to explore the hinterland, and frontier police were organized. The abolition of the slave trade followed; and with the introduction of the protectorate ordinance in 1897 a house tax of 5s. each was imposed, to come into operation in three districts on the 1st of January 1898. Chief Bai Bureh, in the Timni country, broke out into open war, necessitating a military punitive expedition. After strenuous fighting, in which the British casualties, including sick, reached 600, he was captured (14th of November 1898) and deported. Meantime (in April 189S) the Mendi tribes rose, and massacred several British and American missionaries, including four ladies, at Rotifunk and Taiama, some native officials (Sierra Leonis) in the Imperri district, and a large number of police throughout the country. Speedy retribution followed, which effectually put down the revolt. Sir David P. Chalmers was appointed (July 1898) royal commissioner to inquire into the disturbances. He issued a report, July 1899, deprecating the imposition of the house tax, which was not, however, revoked. The disturbances would appear to have arisen not so much from dislike of the house tax per se as irritation at the arbitrary manner in which it was collected, and from a desire on the part of the paramount chiefs (who chafed at the suppression of slave trading and slave raiding, and who disseminated a powerful fetish "swear," called "Poro," to compel the people to join) to cast off British rule. After the suppression of the rising (January 1899) confidence in the British administration largely increased among the tribes, owing to the care taken to preserve the authority of the chiefs whilst safeguarding the elementary rights of the people. The building of the railway and the consequent development of trade and the introduction of European ideas tended largely to modify native habits. The power of fetishism seemed, however, un- affected. See H. C. Lukach, A Bibliography of Sierra Ieone (Oxford 1911); Sir C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography of the British Colonies, vol. iii. (2nd ed., Oxford, 1900) ; T. J. Alldridge, The Sherbro and its Hinterland (London, 1901), and A Transformed Colony (London, 1910) — the last with valuable notes on secret societies and fetish; Winwood Reade, The African Sketch Book, vol. ii. (London, 1873); Colonel J. K. Trotter, The Niger Sources (London, 1898) ; Major J. J. Crook, History of Sierra Leone (Dublin, 1903) — a concise account of the colony to the end of the 19th century. For fuller details of the foundation and early history of the settlement consult Sierra Leone after a Hundred Years (London, 1894) by E. G. Ingham, bishop of the diocese, and The Rise of British West Africa (London, 1904) by Claude George. Bishop Ingham's book contains long extracts from the diary of Governor Clarkson, which vividly portray the conditions of life in the infant colony. For the rising in 1898 see The Advance of our West African Empire (London, 1903) by C. B. Wallis. A Blue Book on the affairs of the colony is published yearly at Freetown and an Annual Report by the Colonial Office in London. ,Maps on the scale of 1 : 250,000 are published by the War Office. SIERRA MORENA, THE, a range of mountains in southern . Spain. The Sierra Morena constitutes the largest section of the mountain system called the Cordillera Marianica (anc. Monies mariani), which also includes a number of minor Spanish ranges, together with the mountains of southern Portugal. The mean elevation of the range is about 2500 ft., but its breadth is certainly not less than 40 m. It extends eastward as far as the steppe region of Albacete, and westward to the valley of the lower Guadiana. Its continuity is frequently interrupted, especially in the west; in the eastern and middle portions it is composed of numerous irregularly disposed ridges. Many of these bear distinctive names; thus the easternmost and loftiest is called the Sierra de Alcaraz (5900 ft.), while some of the component ridges in the extreme west are classed together as the Sierras de Aracena. The great breadth of the Sierra Morena long rendered it a formidable barrier between Andalusia and the north; as such it has played an important part in the social, economic and military history of Spain. Its configuration and hydrography are also important from a geographical point of view, partly because it separates the plateau region of Castile and Estrcmadura from the Andalusian plain and the highlands of the Sierra Nevada system, partly because it forms the water- shed between two great rivers, the upper Guadiana on the north and the Guadalquivir on the south. Parts of the Sierra Morena are rich in minerals; the central region yields silver, mercury and lead, while the Sierras de Aracena contain the celebrated copper mines of Tharsis and Rio Tinto (q.v.). SIERRA NEVADA (Span, for " snowy range "), a mountain range, about 430 m. long, in the eastern part of California, containing Mt Whitney (14,502 ft.) ; the highest ooint in the United States, excluding Alaska. (See California.) SIERRA NEVADA, THE, a mountain range of southern Spain, in the provinces of Granada and A*meria. The Sierra Nevada is a well-defined range, about 55 m. long and 25 m. broad, situated to the south of the Guadalquivir valley, and stretching from the upper valley of the river Genii or Jenil eastwards to the valley of the river Almerfa. It owes its name, meaning "the snowy range, " to the fact that several of its peaks exceed 10,000 feet in height and are thus above the limit of perpetual snow. Its culminating point, the Cerro de Mulhacen or Mulahacen (11,421 ft.) reaches an altitude unequalled in Spain, while one of the neighbouring peaks, called the Picacho de Veleta (r 1,148 ft.), is only surpassed by Aneto (11,168 ft.), the loftiest summit of the Pyrenees. The Sierra Nevada is composed chiefly of soft micaceous schists, sinking precipitously down on the north, but sloping more gradually to the south and south-east. On both sides deep transverse valleys (barrancas) follow one another in close succession, in many cases with round, basin-shaped heads like the cirques of the Pyrenees (q.v.). In many of these cirques lie alpine lakes, and in one of them, the Corral de Veleta, there is even a small glacier, the most southerly in Europe. The transverse valleys open on the south into the longitudinal valleys of the Alpujarras (q.v.). On the north, east and west there are various minor ranges, such as the Sierras of Parapanda, Harana, Gor, Baza, Lucena, Cazorla, Estancias, Filabres, &c, which are connected with the main range, and are sometimes collectively termed the Sierra Nevada system. The coast ranges, or Sierra Penibetica, are not included in this group. The Sierras de Segura form a connecting link between the Sierra Morena and the Nevada system. SIEVE (O.E. sife, older sibi, cf. Dutch zeef, Ger. Sieb; from the subst. comes O.E. siflan, to sift), an instrument or apparatus for separating finer particles from coarser. The common sieve is a net of wires or other material stretched across a frame- work with raised edges; the material to be sifted is then shaken or pressed upon the net so that the finer particles pass through the mesh and the coarser remain. The word " screen " is usually applied to such instruments with large mesh for coarse work, and " strainer " for those used in the separation of liquids or semi-liquids from solid matter. In the separation of meal from bran " bolting-clothes " are used. There was an early form of divination known as coscinomancy (Gr. koctklvov, sieve, fxavrela, divination), where a sieve was hung or attached to a pair of shears, whence the name sometimes given to it of " sieve and shears "; the turning or movement of the sieve at the naming of a person suspected of a crime or other act, coupled with the repetition of an incantation or other magic formula, decided the guilt or innocence of the person. SIEYES, EMMANUEL-JOSEPH (1748-1836), French abbe and statesman, one of the chief theorists of the revolutionary and Napoleonic era, was born at Frejus in the south of France on the 3rd of May 1748. He was educated for the church at the Sorbonne; but while there he eagerly imbibed the teachings of Locke, Condillac, and other political thinkers, in preference to theology. Nevertheless he entered the church, and owing to his learning and subtlety advanced until he became vicar- general and chancellor of the diocese of Chartres. In 1788 the excitement caused by the proposed convocation of the States 58 SIFAKA— SIGALON General of France after the interval of more than a century and a half, and the invitation of Necker to writers to state their views as to the constitution of the Estates, enabled Sieves to publish his celebrated pamphlet, "What is the Third Estate?" He thus begins his answer, — " Everything. What has it been hitherto in the political order? Nothing. What does it desire? To be something." For this mot he is said to have been indebted to Chamfort. In any case, the pamphlet had a great vogue, and its author, despite doubts felt as to his clerical vocation, was elected as the last (the twentieth) of the deputies of Paris to the States General. Despite his failure as a speaker, his influence became great; he strongly advised the constitution of the Estates in one chamber as the National Assembly, but he opposed the abolition of tithes and the confiscation of church lands. Elected to the special committee on the constitution, he opposed the right of " absolute veto " for the king, which Mirabeau unsuccessfully supported. For the most part, however, he veiled his opinions in the National Assembly, speaking very rarely and then generally with oracular brevity and ambiguity. He had a considerable influence on the framing of the depart- mental system, but after the spring of 1790 his influence was eclipsed by men of more determined character. Only once was he elected to the post of fortnightly president of the Constituent Assembly. Excluded from the Legislative Assembly by Robes- pierre's self-denying ordinance, he reappeared in the third National Assembly, known as the Convention (September 1792- September 1795); but there his self-effacement was even more remarkable; it resulted partly from disgust, partly from timidity. He even abjured his faith at the time of the installation of the goddess of reason; and afterwards he characterized his conduct during the reign of terror in the ironical phrase, J'ai v&eu. He voted for the death of Louis XVI., but not in the contemptuous terms La mart sans phrases sometimes ascribed to him. He is known to have disapproved of many of the provisions of the constitutions of the years 1791 and 1793, but did little or nothing to improve them. In 1795 he went on a diplomatic mission to the Hague, and was instrumental in drawing up a treaty between the French and Batavian republics. He dissented from the constitution of 1795 (that of the Directory) in some important particulars, but without effect, and thereupon refused to serve as a Director of the Republic. In May 1798 he went as the plenipotentiary of France to the court of Berlin in order to try to induce Prussia to make common cause with France against the Second Coalition. His conduct was skilful, but he failed in his main object. The prestige which encircled his name led to his being elected a Director of France in place of Rewbell in May 1799. Already he had begun to intrigue for the overthrow of the Directory, and is said to have thought of favouring the advent to power at Paris of persons so unlikely as the Archduke Charles and the duke of Brunswick. He now set himself to sap the base of the con- stitution of 1795. With that aim he caused the revived Jacobin Club to be closed, and made overtures to General Joubert for a coup d'etat in the future. The death of Joubert at the battle of Novi, and the return of Bonaparte from Egypt marred his schemes; but ultimately he came to an understanding with the young general (see Napoleon I.). After the coup d'etat of Brumaire, Sieyes produced the perfect constitution which he had long been planning, only to have it completely remodelled by Bonaparte. Sieyes soon retired from the post of provisional consul, which he accepted after Brumaire; he now became one of the first senators, and rumour, probably rightly, connected this retirement with the acquisition of a fine estate at Crosne. After the bomb outrage at the close of 1800 (the affair of Nivose) Sieyes in the senate defended the arbitrary and illegal proceedings whereby Bonaparte rid himself of the leading Jacobins. During the empire he rarely emerged from his retirement, but at the time of the Bourbon restorations (1814 and 181 5) he left France. After the July revolution (1830) he returned; he died at Paris on the 20th of June 1836. The thin, wire-drawn features of Sieyes were the index of his mind, which was keen- sighted but narrow, dry and essentially limited. His lack of character and wide sympathies was a misfortune for the National Assemblies which he might otherwise have guided with effect. See A. Neton, Sieyes (1 748-1 836) d'apres documents inedits (Paris, 1900) ; also the chief histories on the French Revolution and the Napoleonic empire. (J. Hl. R.) SIFAKA, apparently the name of certain large Malagasy lemurs nearly allied to the Indri (q.v.) but distinguished by their long tails, and hence referred to a genus apart — Propilhecus, of which three species, with several local races, are recognized. Sifakas are very variable in colouring, but always show a large amount of white. They associate in parties and are mainly arboreal, leaping from bough to bough with an agility that suggests flying through the air. When on the ground, to pass from one clump of trees to another, they do not run on all fours, but stand erectj The Crowned Sifaka (Propithecus diadema coronatus) . Milne-Edwards and Grandidier. From and throwing their arms above their heads, progress by a series of short jumps, producing an effect which is described by travellers as exceedingly ludicrous. They are not nocturnal, but most active in the morning and evening, remaining seated or curled up among the branches during the heat of the day. In disposition they are quiet and gentle, and do not show much intelligence; they are also less noisy than the true lemurs, only when alarmed or angered making a noise which has been compared to the clucking of a fowl. Like all their kindred they produce only one offspring at a birth (see Primates). (R. L.*) SIGALON, XAVIER (1788-1837), French painter, born at Uzes (Gard) towards the close of 1788, was one of the few leaders of the romantic movement who cared for treatment of form rather than of colour. The son of a poor rural schoolmaster, he had a terrible struggle before he was able even to reach Paris and obtain admission to Guerin's studio. But the learning offered there did not respond to his special needs, and he tried to train himself by solitary study of the Italian masters in the gallery of the Louvre. The "Young Courtesan" (Louvre), SI-GAN FU— SIGEBERT 59 which he exhibited in 1822, at once attracted attention and was bought for the Luxembourg. The painter, however, regarded it as but an essay in practice and sought to measure himself with a mightier motive; this he did in his " Locusta " (Nimes), 1824, and again in " Athaliah's Massacre " (Nantes), 1827. Both these works showed incontestable power; but the "Vision of St Jerome " (Louvre), which appeared at the salon of 1831, together with the " Crucifixion " (Issengeaux), was by far the most individual of all his achievements, and that year he received the cross of the Legion of Honour. The terrors and force of his pencil were not, however, rendered attractive by any charm of colour; his paintings remained unpurchased, and Sigalon found himself forced to get a humble living at times by painting portraits, when Thiers, then minister of the interior, recalled him to Paris and entrusted him with the task of copying the Sistine fresco of the " Last Judgment " for a hall in the Palace of the Fine Arts. On the exhibition, in the Baths of Diocletian at Rome, of Sigalon's gigantic task, in which he had been aided by his pupil Numa Boucoiran, the artist was visited in state by Gregory XVI. But Sigalon was not destined long to enjoy his tardy honours and the comparative ease procured by a small government pension; returning to Rome to copy some pendants in the Sistine, he died there of cholera on the 9th of August 1837. SI-GAN FU (officially Sian Fu), the capital of the province of Shen-si, N.W. China, in 34 17' N., 108° 38' E. Shi Hwang-ti (246-210 B.C.), the first universal emperor, established his capital at Kwan-chung, the site of the modern Si-gan Fu. Under the succeeding Han dynasty (206 b.c.-a.d. 25) this city was called Wei-nan and Nui-shi; under the eastern Han (a.d. 25-221) it was known as Yung Chow; under the T'ang (618-907) as Kwan- nui; under the Sung (960-1127) as Yung-hing; under the Yuan and Ming (1 260-1644) as Gan-si. During the Ts'in, Han and T'ang dynasties the city was usually the capital of the empire, and in size, population and wealth it is still one of the most important cities of China. It was to Si-gan Fu that the emperor and dowager empress retreated on the capture of Peking by the allied armies in August 1900; and it was once again constituted the capital of the empire until the following spring when the court returned to Peking, after the conclusion of peace. The city, which is a square, is prettily Situated on ground rising from the river Wei, and includes within its limits the two district cities of Ch'ang-gan and Hien-ning. Its walls are little inferior in height and massiveness to those of Peking, while its gates are handsomer and better defended than any at the capital. The population is said to be 1,000,000, of whom 50,000 are Mahommedans. Situated in the basin of the Wei river, along which runs the great road which connects northern China with Central Asia, at a point where the valley opens out on the plains of China, Si-gan Fu occupies a strategical position of great importance, and repeatedly in the annals of the empire has history been made around and within its walls. During the Mahommedan rebellion it was besieged by the rebels for two years (1868-70), but owing to the strength of the fortifications it defied the efforts of its assailants. It is admirably situated as a trade centre and serves as a depot for the silk from Cheh- kiang and Szech'uen, the tea from Hu-peh and Ho-nan, and the sugar from Szech'uen destined for the markets of Kan-suh, Turkestan, Kulja and Russia. Marco Polo, speaking of Kenjanf u, as the city was then also called, says that it was a place " of great trade and industry. They have great abundance of silk, from which they weave cloths of silk, and gold of divers kinds, and they also manufacture all sorts of equipments for an army. They have every necessary of man's life very cheap." Several of the temples and public buildings are very fine, and many historical monuments are found within and about the walls. Of these the most notable is the Nestorian tablet, which was accidentally discovered in 1625 in the Ch'ang-gan suburb. The stone slab which bears the inscription is 75 ft. high by 3 wide. The contents of this Nestorian inscription, which consists of 1780 characters, may be described as follows. (1) An abstract of Christian doctrine of a vague and figurative kind. (2) An account of the arrival of the missionary Olopan (probably a Chinese form of Rabban = Monk) from Tats'in in the year 635, bringing sacred books and images; of the translation of the said books; of the imperial approval of the doctrine and permission to teach it publicly. Then follows a decree of the emperor (T'ait-sung, a very famous prince), issued in 638, in favour of the new doctrine, and ordering a church to be built in the square of justice and peace (Ining fang) in the capital. The emperor's portrait was to be placed in this church. After this comes a description of Tats'in, and then some account of the fortunes of the church in China. Kaotsung (650-683, the devout patron also of the Buddhist traveller and doctor Hsiian Ts'ang), it is added, continued to favour the new faith. In the end of the century Buddhism got the upper hand, but under Yuen-tsung (7 1 3~755) the church recovered its prestige, and Kiho, a new missionary, arrived. Under Tih-tsung (780-783) the monument was erected, and this part of the inscription ends with a eulogy of I-sze, a statesman and benefactor of the church. (3) Then follows a recapitulation of the above in octosyllabic verse. The Chinese inscription, which concludes with the date of erection, viz. 781, is followed by a series of short inscriptions in Syriac and the Estrangelo character, containing the date of the erection, the name of the reigning Nestorian patriarch, Mar Hanan Ishua, that of Adam, bishop and pope of China, and those of the clerical staff of the capital. Then follow sixty-seven names of persons in Syriac characters, most of whom are characterized as priests, and sixty-one names of persons in Chinese, all priests but one. The stone — one of a row of five memorial tablets — stood within the enclosure of a dilapidated temple. It appears at one time to have been embedded in a brick niche, and about 1891 a shed was placed over it, but in 1907 it stood in the open entirely unprotected. In that year Dr Frits v. Holm, a Danish traveller, had made an exact replica of the tablet, which in 1908 was deposited in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. The tablet itself was in October 1907 removed by Chinese officials into the city proper, and placed in the Pei Lin or " forest of tablets," a museum in which are collected tablets of the Han, T'ang, Sung, Yuen and Ming dynasties, some of which bear historical legends, notably a set of stone tablets having the thirteen classics inscribed upon them, while others are symbolical or pictorial; among these last is a full-sized likeness of Confucius. Antiquities are constantly being discovered in the neighbourhood of the city, e.g. rich stores of coins and bronzes, bearing dates ranging from 200 B.C. onwards. See Yule, Marco Polo (1903 ed.) ; A. Williamson, Journeys in North China (London, 1870), S. Wells Williams, The Middle Kingdom (London, 1883); Pere Havret, La Stele de Si-ngan Fou (Shanghai, 1895-1902); F. v. Holm, The Nestorian Monument (Chicago, 1909). SIGEBERT (d. 575), king of the Franks, was one of the four sons of Clotaire I. At the death of Clotaire in 561 the Frankish kingdom was divided among his sons, Sigebert's share comprising the Rhine and Meuse lands and the suzerainty over the Germanic tribes beyond the Rhine as far as the Elbe, together with Auvergne and part of Provence. At the death of his brother Charibert in 567 Sigebert obtained the cities of Tours and Poitiers, and it was he who elevated to the see of Tours the celebrated Gregory, the historian of the Franks. Being a smoother man than his brothers (who had all taken mates of inferior rank), Sigebert married a royal princess, Brunhilda, daughter of Athanagild, the king of the Visigoths; the nuptials were celebrated with great pomp at Metz, the Italian poet Fortunatus composing the epithalamium. Shortly afterwards Sigebert's brother Chilperic I. married Brunhilda's sister, Gals- wintha; but the subsequent murder of this princess embroiled Austrasiaand Neustria, and civil war broke out in 573. Sigebert appealed to the Germans of the right bank of the Rhine, who attacked the environs of Paris and Chartres and committed frightful ravages. He was entirely victorious, and pursued Chilperic as far as Tournai. But just when the great nobles of Neustria were raising Sigebert on the shield in the villa at Vitry, near Arras, he was assassinated by two bravoes in the pay of Fredegond, Chilperic's new wife. At the beginning of his reign Sigebert had made war on the Avars, who had attacked his Germanic possessions, and he was for some time a prisoner in their hands. See Gregory of Tours, Historia Francorum, book iv. ; Aug. Thierry, Recits des temps merovingiens (Brussels, 1840), and Aug Digot, Histoire du royaume d'Austrasie (Nancy, 1863). (C. Pf.) 6o SIGEBERT OF GEMBLOUX— SIGHTS SIGEBERT OF GEMBLOUX (c. 1030-1112), medieval chron- icler, became in early life a monk in the Benedictine abbey of Gembloux. Later he was a teacher at Metz, and about 1070 he returned to Gembloux, where, occupied in teaching and writing, he lived until his death on the 5th of October 1112. As an enemy of the papal pretensions he took part in the momentous contest between Pope Gregory VII. and the emperor Henry IV., his writings on this question being very serviceable to the imperial cause; and he also wrote against Pope Paschal II. Sigebert's most important work is a Chronographia, or universal chronicle, according to Molinier the best work of its kind, although it contains many errors and but little original information. It covers the period between 381 and mi, and its author was evidently a man of much learning. The first of many editions was published in 1513 and the best is in Band vi. of the Monu- menta Germaniae historica. Scriptores, with valuable introduction by L. C. Bethmann. The chronicle was very popular during the later middle ages; it was used by many writers and found numerous continuators. Other works by Sigebert are a history of the early abbots of Gembloux to 1048 (Gesta abbatum Gem- blacensium) and a life of the Frankish king Sigebert III. {Vita Sigeberti III. regis Austrasiae). Sigebert was also a hagiographer. Among his writings in this connexion may be mentioned the Vita Deodcrici, Mettensis episcopi, which is published in Band iv. of the Monumenta, and the Vita Wicberti, in Band viii. of the same collection. Dietrich, bishop of Metz (d. 984) was the founder of the abbey of St Vincent in that city, and Wicbert or Guibert (d. 962) was the founder of the abbey of Gembloux. See S. Hirseh, De vita et scriptis Sigiberti Gemblacensis (Berlin, 1841); A. Molinier, Les Sources de Vhistoire de France, tomes ii. and v. (1902-1904); and W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichts- quellen, Band ii. (Berlin, 1894). SIGEL, FRANZ (1824-1902), German and American soldier, was born at Sinsheim, in Baden, on the 18th of November 1824. He graduated at the military school at Carlsruhe, and became an officer in the grand ducal service. He soon became known for revolutionary opinions, and in 1847, after killing an opponent in a duel, he resigned his commission. When the Baden insurrection broke out, Sigel was a leader on the revolutionary side in the brief campaign of 1848, and then took refuge in Switzerland. In the following year he returned to Baden and took a con- spicuous part in the more serious operations of the second outbreak under General Louis Mieroslawski (1814-1878.) Sigel subsequently lived in Switzerland, England and the United States, whither he emigrated in 1852, the usual life of a political exile, working in turn as journalist and schoolmaster, and both at New York and St Louis, whither he removed in 1858, he conducted military journals. When the American Civil War broke out in 1861, Sigel was active in raising and training Federal volunteer corps, and took a prominent part in the struggle for the possession of Missouri. He became in May a brigadier-general U.S.V,, and served with Nathaniel Lyon at Wilson's Creek and with J. C. Fremont in the advance on Spring- field in the autumn. In 1862 he took a conspicuous part in the desperately fought battle of Pea Ridge, which definitely secured Missouri for the Federals. He was promoted to be major-general of volunteers, was ordered to Virginia, and was soon placed in command of the I. corps of Pope's " Army of Virginia." In this capacity he took part in the second Bull Run campaign, and his corps displayed the utmost gallantry in the unsuccessful attacks on Bald Hill. Up to the beginning of 1863, when bad health obliged him to take leave of absence, Sigel remained in command of his own (now called the XL) corps and the XII., the two forming a " Grand Division." In June 1863 he was in command of large forces in Pennsylvania, to make head against Lee's second invasion of Northern territory. In 1864 he was placed in command of the corps in the Shenandoah Valley, but was defeated by General John C. Breckinridge at Newmarket (15th of May), and was superseded. Subsequently he was in command of the Harper's Ferry garrison at the time of Early's raid upon Washington and made a brilliant defence of his post (July 4-5, 1864). He resigned his commission in May 1865, and became editor of a German journal in Baltimore, Maryland. In 1867 he removed to New York City, and in 1869 was the unsuccessful Republican candidate for secretary of state of New York. He was appointed collector of internal revenue in May 187 1, and in the following October he was elected register of New York City by Republicans and " reform Democrats." From 1885 to 1889, having previously become a Democrat, he was pension agent for New York City, on the appointment of President Cleveland. General Sigel's last years were de- voted to the editorship of the New York Monthly, a German- American periodical. He died in New York City on the 21st of August 1902. A monument (by Karl Bitter) in his honour was unveiled in Riverside Drive, New York City, in October 1907. SIGER DE BRABANT [Sighier, Sigieri, Sygeritjs], French philosopher of the 13th century. About the facts of his life there has been much difference of opinion. In 1266 he was attached to the Faculty of Arts in the University of Paris at the time when there was a great conflict between the four " nations." The papal legate decided in 1266 that Siger was the ringleader, and threatened him with death. During the succeeding ten years he wrote the six works which are ascribed to him and were published under his name by P. Mandonnet in 1899. The titles of these treatises are: De anima intellectiva (1270); Quaestiones logicales; Quaestiones naturales; De aeternitate mundi; Quaestio utrum haec sif vera: Homo est animal nullo homine existente; Impossibilia. In 1271 he was once more involved in a party struggle. The minority among the " nations " chose him as rector in opposition to the elected candidate, Aubri de Rheims. For three years the strife continued, and was probably based on the opposition between the Averroists, Siger and Pierre Dubois, and the more orthodox schoolmen. The matter was settled by the Papal Legate, Simon de Brion, afterwards Pope Martin IV. Siger retired from Paris to Liege. In 1277 a general condemnation of Aristotelianism included a special clause directed against Boetius of Denmark and Siger of Brabant. Again Siger and Bernier de Nivelles were summoned to appear on a charge of heresy, especially in connexion with the Impossibilia, where the existence of God is discussed. It appears, however, that Siger and Boetius fled to Italy and, according to John Peckham, archbishop of Canterbury, perished miserably. The manner of Siger's death, which occurred at Orvieto, is not known. A Brabantine chronicle says that he was killed by an insane secretary {a clerico suo quasi dementi). Dante, in the Paradiso (x. 134-6), says that he found " death slow in coming," and some have concluded that this indicates death by suicide. A 13th- century sonnet by one Durante (xcii. 9-14) says that he was executed at Orvieto: a ghiado il fe' morire a gran dolore, Nella corte di Roma ad Orbivicto. The date of this may have been 1 283-1 284 when Martin IV. was in residence at Orvieto. In politics he held that good laws were better than good rulers, and criticised papal infallibility in temporal affairs. The importance of Siger in philosophy lies in his acceptance of Averroism in its entirety, which drew upon him the opposition of Albertus Magnus and Aquinas. In December 1270 Averroism was condemned by ecclesiastical authority, and during his whole life Siger was exposed to persecution both from the Church and from purely philosophic opponents. In view of this, it is curious that Dante should place him in Paradise at the side of Aquinas and Isidore of Seville. Probably Dante knew of him only from the chronicler as a persecuted philosopher. See P. Mandonnet, Siger de Brabant et V Averroisme latin du XIII' siecle (Fribourg, 1899); G. Paris, " Siger de Brabant " in La Poesie du moyen Age (1895) ; and an article in the Revue de Paris (Sept. 1st, 1900). SIGHTS, the name for mechanical appliances for directing the axis of the bore of a gun or other firearm on a point whose position relative to the target fired at is such that the projectile will strike the target. Gun Sights. — Until the 19th century the only means for sighting cannon was by the " line of metal " — a line scored SIGHTS 61 along the top of the gun, which, owing to the greater thickness of metal at the breech than at- the muzzle, was not parallel to the axis. " Some allowance had to be made for the inclination of the line of metal to the axis" (Lloyd and Hadcock, p. 32). The line of metal does not come under the definition of sights given above. In the year 1801 a proposal to use sights was sent to Lord Nelson for opinion, and elicited the following reply: " As to the plan for pointing a gun, truer than we do at present, if the person comes, I shall, of course, look at it, or be happy, if necessary, to use it; but I hope we shall be able, as usual, to get so close to our enemies that our shot cannot miss the object " (letter to Sir E. Berry, March 9, 1801). Three weeks later the fleet under Sir Hyde Parker and Nelson sailed through the Sound on its way to Copenhagen. In replying to the guns of Fort Elsinore no execution was done, as the long range made it impossible to lay the guns (Lloyd and Hadcock, P- 33)- The necessity for sights follows directly on investigation of the forces acting on a projectile during flight. In a vacuum, the pro- jectile acted on by the force of projection begins to fall under the action of gravity immediately it leaves the bore, and under the combined action of these two forces the path of the projectile is 9. parabola. It passes over equal spaces in equal times, but falls with an accelerating velocity according to the formula h = Jg2 2 , where h is the height fallen through, g the force of gravity, and / the time of g ■ J , From "£• J it: wi " be seen that in three seconds the projectile would have fallen 144 ft. to G ; therefore to strike T the axis must be raised to a point 144 ft. vertically above G. This law holds good r 2* 3" G T "" ~ , 1"!' *^ * 0) X 10 Fig. I — Elevation. also in air for very low velocities, but, where the velocities are high, the retardation is great, the projectile takes longer to traverse each succeeding space, and consequently the time of flight for any range is longer; the axis must therefore be directed still higher above the point to be struck. The amount, however, still depends on the time of flight, as the retardation of the air to the falling velocity may be neglected in the case of flat trajectory guns. Owing to the conical shape of the early muzzle-loading guns, if one trunnion were higher than the other, the " line of metal " would no longer be in the same vertical plane as the axis; in consequence of this, if a gun with, say, one wheel higher than the other were layed by this line, the axis would point off the target to the side of the lower wheel. Further, the in- clination of the line of metal to the axis gave the gun a fixed angle of elevation varying from i° in light guns to 2 J" in the heavier natures. To overcome this a " dispart sight " (D) was introduced (fig. 2) to bring the line of sight (A'DG') parallel to the axis (AG). Fig. 2. — Dispart and Tangent Sights. AG is the axis of the bore, ab the dispart, A'DG' is parallel to AG D is the dispart sight, S the tangent sight, A'DS the clearance angle! At greater elevations than this the muzzle notch is used ; to align on the target at lesser angles the dispart sight is so used. Guns without dispart sights cannot be layed at elevations below the clearance angle. The earliest form of a hind or breech sight was fixed, but in the early part of the 19th century Colonel Thomas Blomefield proposed a mov- able or tangent sight. It was not, however, till 1829 that a tangent sight (designed by Major-General William Millar) was introduced Gradua- tion of tangent sights. r> —3 j into the navy; this was adopted by the army in 1846. In the case I ot most guns it was used in conjunction with the dispart sight above I referred to- The tangent sight (see fig. 3) was graduated in degrees only. I here were three patterns, one of brass and two of wood. As the tangent sight was placed in the line of metal, hence directly over the cascable, very little movement could be given to it so that a second sight was required for long ranges. This was of wood ; the third sight, also of wood, was for guns without a dispart patch which consequently could not be layed at elevations below the dispart angle. Referring to fig. 1 it will be seen that in order to strike T the axis must be directed to G' at a height above T equal to TG, while the line of sight or line joining the notch of the tangent sight and apex of the dispart or foresight must be directed on T. In fig. 4 the tangent sight has been raised from O to S, the line of sight is SMT, and the axis produced is AG'. D is the dispart, M the muzzle sight, OM is parallel to AG'. Now the height to which the tangent sight has been raised in order to direct the axis on G' is evidently proportional to the tangent of the angle OMS = AXS. This angle is called the angle of elevation; OM is constant and is Fig 3 called the sighting radius. If. the dispart sight were EarlyTangent being used, the sighting radius would be OD, but, as Sight at the range in fig. 4, the line of sight through D fouls the metal of the gun, the muzzle sight M is used. The formula for length of scale is, length = sighting radius X tangent of the angle of elevation. In practice, tangent sights were graduated graphic- ally from large scale drawings. It will be seen from fig. 4 that if the gun and target are on the same horizontal plane the axis can be equally well directed by inclining it to the horizontal through the requisite number of degrees. This is called " quadrant elevation, and the proper inclination was given by means of the gunner's quadrant," a quadrant and plumb bob, one leg being made long to rest in the bore, or by bringing lines scribed on the breech of the gun in line with a pointer on the carriage; these were called quarter sights." Such were the sights in use with smooth-bore guns in the first half of the last century. Tangent sights were not much trusted at first. Captain Haultain, R.A., says in his description of test- ing sights (Occa- sio nal Papers, R.A. Institute, vol. i.): " Raise the sight, and if it keeps in line with a plumb bob, it can be as confi- dently relied upon as the line of metal, if the trunnions are horizontal. If the scale is only slightly out of the perpendicular, a few taps of the hammer will modify any trifling error." The introduction of rifling necessitated an improvement in sights and an important modification in them. It was found that projectiles fired from a rifled gun deviated laterally from the line of fire owing to the axial spin of the projectile, and that if the sl S hts f ot spin were right-handed, as in the British service, the r,/ferf deviation was to the right. This deviation or derivation 8fms ' is usually called drift (for further details see Ballistics). The amount of drift for each nature of gun at different ranges was determined by actual firing. To overcome drift the axis must be pointed to the left of the target, and the amount will increase with the range. In fig- 5 (plan) at a range HT, if the axis were directed on T, drift would carry the shot to D, therefore the axis must be directed on a point D such that D'T = DT. HFT is the line of sight without any allowance for drift, causing the projectile to fall at D. Now if the notch of the tan- gent sight be ^-^Xi carried to H' in order to lay or, T, the fore-sight, and with it the axis, will be moved to F', the line of fire H " will be HF'D', and the shot will strike T since D'T = DT. Left deflection has been put on ; this could be done by noting the amount of deflection for each range and applying it by means of a sliding leaf carrying the notch, and it is so done in howitzers; in most guns, however, it is found more convenient and sufficiently accurate to apply it automatically by inclining the socket through which the tangent scale rises to the left, so that as the scale rises, i.e., as the range increases,, the notch is carried more and more to the left, and an increasing Fig. 4. — Theory of Tangent Sight. H Fig. 5.— Drift. 62 SIGHTS amount of left deflection given — the amount can easily be determined thus : — The height of tangent scale for any degree of elevation is given with sufficient accuracy by the rough rule for circular measure _ »XK wn ere a is the angle of elevation in minutes, h the height 3X1200 B . of the tangent scale, and R the sighting radius; thus lor 1 ° < fc = 6 °X R = -~ Now supposing the sight is inclined l° to the left, which will move the notch from H to H' (see fig. 6); as before HH' = ^, but in this case R=^=^-"- HH ' = 55x60' the resultant angle of deflection is HFH', and this can be determined by the same formula a = feXl ^° X3 , but in this case fc-HH^-gj^gg . RX3600 , th t j f the si ht is ; nc ii ne d to the left l° it will RX3600 ' B give 1' deflection for every degree of elevation. By the same hLh Fig. 7. Fig. 6. — Correction for Drift. formula it can be shown that 1' deflection will alter the point of impact by I in. for every 100 yds. of range; thus the proper in- clination to give a mean correction for drift can be determined. In the early R.B.L. guns this angle was 2° 16'. With rifled guns deflection was also found necessary to allow for effect of wind, difference of level of trunnions, movement of target, and for the purpose of altering the point of impact later- Notck ally. This was arranged for by a movable leaf carrying the sighting V, worked by means of a mill-headed screw provided with a scale in degrees and fractions -to the same radius as the elevation scale, and an arrow- head for reading. Other improvements were : the gun was sighted on each side, tangent scales dropping into sockets in a sighting ring on the breech, thus enabling a long scale for all ranges to be used, and the foresights screwing into holes or dropping into sockets in the trunnions, thus obviating the fouling of the line of sight, and the damage to which a fixed muzzle sight was liable. The tangent sight was graduated in yards as well as degrees and had also a fuze scale. The degree scale was subdivided to 10' and a slow-motion screw at the head enabled differences of one minute to be given; a clamping screw and lever were provided (see fig. 7). Fore-sights varied in pattern. Some screwed in, others_ dropped into a socket and were secured by* a bayonet joint. Two main shapes were adopted for the apex — the acorn and the hogsback. Instruction in the use of sights was based on the principle of securing uniformity in laying; for this reason fine sighting was discountenanced and laying by full sight enjoined. " The centre of the line joining the two highest points of the notch of the _ o t • t. 1- 11 tangent sight, the point of the fore- FlG. 8.— Laying by h ull sight and the target must be in line " Sight. (Field Artillery Training, 1902) (see fig. 8). Since the early days of rifled guns tangent sights have been improved in details, but the principles remain the same. Except for some minor differences the tangent sights were the same for all natures of guns, and for all services, but the develop- ment of the modern sight has followed different lines according to the nature and use of the gun, and must be treated under separate heads. Sights for Mobile Artillery. With the exception of the addition of a pin-hole to the tangent sight and cross wires to the fore-sight, and of minor improvements, and of the introduction of French's crossbar sight and the reciprocating sight, of which later, no great advance was made until the introduction of Scott's telescopic sight. This sight (see Plate, fig. 9) consists of a telescope mounted in a steel frame, provided with longitudinal trunnions fitting into V's in the gun. These V's are so arranged that the axis of the sight frame is always parallel to that of the gun. By means of a cross-level the frame can be so adjusted that the cross axis on which the tele- scope is mounted is always truly horizontal. Major L. K. Scott, R.E., thus described how he was led to think of the sight : "I had read in the Daily News an account of some experimental firing carried out by H.M.S. ' Hotspur ' against the turret of H.M.S. ' Glatton,' At a Field artillery sights. range of 200 yds. on a perfectly calm day the ' Hotspur ' fired several rounds at the ' Glatton's ' turret and missed it." Major Scott attri- buted this to tilt in the sights due to want of level of mounting (R.A.I. Proceedings, vol. xiii.). Tilt of sights in field guns owing to the sinking of one wheel had long been recognized as a source of error, and allowed for by a rule-of -thumb correction, depending on the fact that the track of the wheels of British field artillery gun-carriages is 60", so that, for every inch one wheel is lower than the other, the whole system is turned through one degree — feXi200X3 60 :/tX6o = 6o' or i°, as ft is 1 inch. Referring to the calculations given above, this is equivalent to 1' deflection for every degree of elevation, which amount had to be given towards the higher wheel. This complication is eliminated in Scott's sight by simply levelling the cross axis of the telescope. Other advantages are those common to all telescopic sights. Personal error is to a great extent eliminated, power of vision extended, the sight is self-contained, there is no fore-sight, a fine pointer in the telescope being aligned on the target. It can be equally well used for direct or indirect, forward or back laying. A micrometer drum reads to 2', while the vernier reads to single minutes so that very fine adjustments can be made. Disadvantages of earlier patterns were, the telescope was inverting, the drum was not graduated in yards, and drift not allowed for. These defects were all overcome in later patterns and an important addition made, viz. means of measuring the angle of sight. In speaking of quadrant e^evation a brief reference was made to the necessity for making an allowance for difference of level of gun and target. Figs. 10 to 13 explain this more fully, and show that for indirect laying the angle of sight must be Target Scott's sight. " "Angle of eleuniion\ ' Hori zontal lin e £~~~JS ?9 ei line of sight Horizontal line * Figs. 10, 11, 12, 13. added to the angle of elevation if the target is above the gun, and subtracted if vice versa. In Scott's sight, mark iv., there is a longi- tudinal level pivoted at one end and provided with a degree scale up to 4 ; the level is moved by a spindle and micrometer screw reading to 2'. If now the telescope be directed on the target and this level be brought to the centre of its run, the angle of sight can be read — if afterwards any range ordered is put on the sight and the gun truly layed, this bubble will be found in the centre of its run — so that if thereafter the target becomes obscured the gun can be relayed by elevating till the bubble is in the centre of its run, or at a com- pletely concealed target the angle of sight can, if the range and difference of level are known or can be measured from somewhere near the gun, be put on by means of the micrometer screw, and the gun subsequently layed by putting the range in yards or degrees on the sight drum and elevating or depressing till the bubble is central. The disadvantages that still remain are that the sight has to be re- moved every time the gun is fired, and the amount of deflection is limited and has to be put on the reverse way to that on a tangent scale. Scott's sight, though no longer used with quick-firing guns, is the precursor of all modern sights. SIGHTS o h 5 O 9 CL, o u w ►J w H 8 s fa SIGHTS 63 The introduction of trunnionless guns recoiling axially through a fixed cradle enabled sights to be attached to the non-recoil parts of the mounting, so that the necessity of removing a Modern delicate telescopic sight every round disappeared, and 1 Jl. telescope sights on the rocking-bar principle (see below) s 'g s - were introduced for 4-7-in. Q.F. guns on field mountings; these sights admit of continuous laying, i.e. the eye need not be removed when the gun is fired. The increased importance of concealment for one's own guns and the certainty of being called upon to engage concealed targets, brought indirect laying into great prominence (see also Artillery). This form of laying is of two kinds: (1) that in which the gun can be layed for direction over the sight on the target itself, or on some aiming point close by, but from indistinctness or other causes quadrant elevation is pre- Inainct ferred; and (2) that used when the target is completely lay ng. hidden and an artificial line of fire laid out and the guns layed for direction on pointers, or the line transferred to a distant aiming point. The old method of giving quadrant elevation by clinometer was obviously too slow. Scott's sight (see above) was the first attempt to obtain indirect laying for elevation by means of the sight itself, and in that sight the angle of sight was taken into account ; in modern guns this is effected by what is technically called the " independent line of sight " (see Ordnance: Field Equipments). It is obtained by different means in different countries, but the principle is the same. There must be two sets of elevating gears, one which brings the axis of the gun and the sights together on to the target, thus finding the angle of sight and also pointing the axis of the gun at the target, and a second by which, independent of the sight which remains fixed, the elevation due to the range can be given to the gun and read by means of a pointer and dial marked in yards for range. This latter is shown in the Krupp equipment (Plate, fig. 14), in which the sight is attached to the cradle, but does not move with it. The hand-wheel that screws the gun and cradle down at the same time screws the sight up, and vice versa. When the target is completely concealed it is necessary to lay the gun on an aiming point more or less out of the line of fire, or to lay on a " director " with a large amount of deflection, and to align aiming posts with the sights at zero to give the direction of the target, and afterwards perhaps to transfer the line of sight to some other distant object, all of which require a far greater scope of deflection than is afforded by the deflection leaf. In the South African war improvised detachable deflection scales of wood or iron placed over the fore-sight, called gun arcs, were used, but this device was clumsy, inaccurate and insufficient, as it only gave about 30° right or left deflection, and only a sight that admitted of all-round laying could really satisfy the requirements. " The goniometric sight in its simplest form is a circular graduated base plate on which a short telescope or sighted ruler is pivoted. Besides the main graduations there is usually a separate deflection scale " (Bethell). In this form, which is found in British field artillery, the goniometric or dial sight is used for picking up the line of fire. In the pillar sight used in the French 80- and 90-mm. Q.F. guns it is used for laying for direction. The coUinmteur, or sight proper, has a lateral movement of 9 , and is actuated by the drum on the right turned by the mill- headed screw. The drum is divided into 100 graduations, each equal to 5-4'. The gonio plate below is divided into 4 quadrants, and each quadrant into 10 spaces of 9 each numbered in hundreds from o to 900. The stem is turned by pressing down on the mill- headed screw. The collimateur which is used in many sights is a rectangular box closed at one end by a darkened glass with a bright cross. Its use is graphically described in a French text-book thus: "The layer, keeping his eye about a foot from the collimateur and working the elevating wheel, makes the horizontal line dance about the landscape until it dances on to the target ; then working the traversing gear he does the same with the vertical line; then bringing his eye close, he brings the inter- section on to the target." In the Krupp arc sight (see Plate, fig. 14), the goniometric sight is placed on the top of the arc. In the French field Q.F. artillery the inter- mediate carriage (see description and dia- gram in article Ordnance: Field Equipments) carries the sight. Fig. 15 shows the reciprocating sight for the 2-5-in. gun. The sight drops through a socket in a pivoted bracket which is provided with a level and a clamp ; the level is fixed at the correct art,"/" angle for drift ; if t he si S ht < as is especially liable to be s'i 'hts* t ' le iase on stee P hillsides) is tilted away from the angle * ' it can be restored by moving the bracket till the bubble of the spirit-level is central, and then clamping it. With howitzers indirect laying is the rule, elevation being usually given by clinometer, direction by laying on banderols marking out the line of fire; then, when the direction has been established, an auxiliary mark, usually in rear, is selected and the line transferred to it. At night this mark is replaced by a lamp installed in rear SPIRIT LEVEL From Treatise on Service Ordnance. Fig. 15. and in line with the sights. The normal method of laying these is from the fore-sight over the tangent sight to a point in rear. Special sights were designed for this purpose by Colonel Sir E. H. French, called cross-bar sights, and were in the Siege year 1908 still in use with British 6-in. B.L. howitzers. art ™ e O- The principle of these sights (see fig. 16) is that the s «*' s - tangent sight has a steel horizontal bar which can slide through the head of the tangent scale for deflection, and is graduated for 3 left and 1 ° right deflection. One end of the bar is slotted to take the sliding leaf; this end of the bar is graduated from 0° to 6°, and in conjunction with the fore-sight affords a lateral scope of 6° on either side of the normal for picking up an auxiliary mark. The fore- Fig. 16. sight has a fixed horizontal bar slotted and graduated similarly to the slotted portion o( the tangent sight. The leaves are reversible, and provided with a notch at one end and a point at the other, so that they can be used for either forward or reverse laying. The leaf of the fore-sight has a pinhole, and that of the tangent sight cross-wires for fine reverse laying. Fore-sights are made right and left; tangent sights are interchangeable, the graduations are cut on the horizontal edges above and below, so that the sight can be changed from right to left or vice versa by removing and reversing the bar. Howitzer sights are vertical and do not allow for drift; they are graduated in degrees only. Goniometric sights have recently been introduced into British siege artillery. The pattern is that of a true sight, that is to say, the base plate is capable of movement about two axes, one parallel to and the other at right anglesto the axis of the gun, and has cross spirit-levels and a graduated elevating drum and independent deflection scale, so that compensa- tion for level of wheels can be given and quadrant elevation. In smooth-bore days the term mortar meant a piece of ordnance of a peculiar shape resting on a bed at a fixed angle of quadrant elevation of 45 . It was ranged by varying the charge, and layed for line by means of a line and plumb bob Laying aligned on a picket. The term mortar, though not used Mortars. in the British service, is still retained elsewhere to signify very short, large-calibre howitzers, mounted on a bed with a minimum angle of elevation of 45 , which with the full charge would give the maximum range. Range is reduced by increasing the angle of elevation (by clinometer) or by using reduced charges. In the 9-45-in. Skoda howitzer, which is really a mortar as defined above, direction is given by means of a pointer on the mounting and a graduated arc on' the bed. For a description of Goerz panoramic, " ghost " and other forms of sights, see Colonel H. A. Bethell, Modern Guns and Gunnery (Woolwich, 1907), and for sights used in the United States, Colonel O. M. Lissak, Ordnance and Gunnery (New York and London, 1907). Sights for Coast Defence Artillery {Fixed Armaments). In coast defence artillery, owing to the fact that the guns are on fixed mountings at a constant height (except for rise and fall of tide) above the horizontal plane on which their targets move, and that consequently the angle of sight and quadrant elevation for every range can be calculated, developments in sights, in a measure, gave way to improved means of giving quadrant elevation. Minor improvements in tangent sights certainly were made, notably an automatic clamp, but quadrant elevation was mainly used, and in the case of guns equipped with position-finders (see Range-finder) the guns could be layed for direction by means of a graduated arc on the emplacement and a pointer on the mounting. A straight-edge or vertical blade (see -fig. 17) was placed above the leaf of the tangent sight, and in some cases on the fore-sight as well, to facilitate laying for line. This enabled the gun to be layed from some little distance behind, so that the layer could be clear of recoil, and continuous laying was thus pos- sible. The arrangements for giving quadrant elevation con- sisted of an arc, called index plate (see fig. 18), on the gun, graduated in degrees read by a " reader " on the carriage. A yard scale of varnished paper, made out locally for quadrant eleva- tion with regard to height of site, was usually pasted over this. A correction for level of tide was in many cases necessary, and was From Treatise on Service Ordnance. Fig. 17. 64 SIGHTS entered in a table or mounted on a drum which gave several correc- tions that had to be applied to the range for various causes. One great drawback to this system was that elevation was given with reference to the plane of the racers upon which the mounting moved, and as this was not always truly horizontal grave errors were intro- duced. To overcome this Colonel H. S. Watkin, C.B., introduced a hydroclinometer fixed on the trunnion. It was provided with a yard scale calculated with reference to height - of site, and elevation was read by the intersection of the edge of the liquid with the graduation for the particular range. Special sights were introduced ! to overcome the difficulties of dis- 1 appearing guns, large guns firing through small ports, &c. Such were the Moncrieff reflecting sights, and the " chase sights " for the 10-in. gun in which the rear sight, equipped with a mirror, was placed on the chase, and the In the early days of B.L. guns very Fig. 18. — Sketch of Index Plate and Reader. Rocking- bar sight* telescope. fore-sight on the muzzle, &c little change was made in the pattern of sights. Shield sights were in troduced for disappearing mountings to admit of continuous laying for liiie, and a disk engraved for yards of range duly corrected for height, and called an " elevation indicator," replaced the index plate and reader. As in mobile artillery, the introduction of trunnionless guns brought about a revolution in laying and sights. Smokeless powder also made rapid firing a possibility and a necessity. Con- tinuous laying and telescopic sights became possible. The reduction of friction by improved mechanical arrangements, and the introduction of electric firing, enabled the layer not only to train and elevate the gun himself, but also to fire it the moment it was truly " on " the target. The rocking-bar sight, which had been for some time in use in the navy, was introduced. In this sight both hind and fore sights are fixed on a rigid bar pivoted about the centre; the rear end is raised or depressed by a rack worked by a hand- wheel ; ranges are read from the periphery of a drum ; the fore-sight and leaf of the hind-sight are provided with small electric glow lamps for night firing. In addition to these open sights the bar also carries a sighting telescope. The advantages compared with a tangent sight are that only half the movement is required to raise the sight for any particular range; the ranges on the drum are easier to read, and if necessary can be set by another man, so that the layer need not take his eye from the The pattern of telescope used in coast defence is that designed by Dr Common. It is an erecting telescope with a field of view of io° and a magnification of 3 diameters, and admits plenty of light. The diamond-shaped pointer is always in focus ; focusing for individual eyesight is effected by turning the eye-piece, which is furnished with a scale for readjustment. A higher power glass has since been introduced for long ranges. The improvements in gun mountings mentioned above led the way to the introduction of the automatic sight. The principle of combined sight and range-finder had long been known, ."''"" and was embodied in the so-called " Italian " sight, but, sights. on accoun t { the s l ow ra te of fire imposed by black powder, the rapidity of laying conferred by its use was of no great advantage, and it was unsuited to the imperfect mechanical arrange- ments of the gun mountings of the time. When cordite replaced black powder, and the gun sights and all in front of the gun were no longer obscured by hanging clouds of smoke, it became a de- sideratum, and, as the automatic sight, it was reintroduced by Sir G. S. Clarke, when he, as superintendent of the Royal Carriage Factory, had brought gun mountings to such a pitch of perfection that it could be usefully employed. An automatic sight is a sight connected in such a manner with the elevating gear of the gun, that when the sight is directed on the water-line of a target at A any range the gun will have the proper quadrant elevation for that range. Colonel H. S. Watkin, C.B., describes the theory of the sight thus (Pro- ceedings R.A.I. 1898). Conditions. — The gun Fig. 19. — Theory of the Automatic Sight, must be at a certain known height above sea-level — the greater the height the greater the accuracy. The racer path must be level. Let FB (fig. 19) represent a gun at height BD above water-level DC, elevated to such an angle that a shot would strike the water at C. Draw EB parallel to DC. It is clear that under these conditions, if a tangent sight AF be raised to a height F representing the elevation due to the range BC, the object C will be on the line of sight. Then ABF = angle of elevation; EFB = quadrant angle; BCD = angle of sight; EBF=ABF— ABE; and sinceABE = BCD,italsoequalsABF-BCD. BCDcan always be cal- culated from the formula, angle of sight in minutes = ^ " [^ X ] \ 46 R (in yards) 'h — height of gun above sea-level; R= range). An automatic sight based on the Italian sight was tried in 1 878-1 879. In this (see fig. 20) a rack I, fixed to the carriage, caused a pinion H on the gun to revolve. Fixed to the pinion were three cams, for high, low and mean tides. The tangent scale moved freely in a socket fixed to the gun ; its lower end rested on one of the cams, cut to a correct curve. It followed that when the gun was ele- vated or depressed, the rack caused the pinion to revolve, and the sight was thus raised or lowered to the proper height to fulfil the conditions given above ; but, as Colonel Watkin said, owing to want of level of platform and other causes it was not satisfactory. With the introduction of quick-firing guns it was felt that the layer should have the same control over his gun as a marksman had over his rifle, and this would be Proceedings R.A. Institute. afforded by a satisfactory p IG 20 "Italian automatic sight. The prin- ciple of the modern automatic sight is made clear in figs. 21 and 22, which show a combined rocking-bar and automatic sight. The rocking-bar consists of a carrier a fixed to the cradle, a rocking- bar d pivoted to the carrier at e, a sight bar /carrying the sights and sighting telescope. The rocking-bar is moved by a rack g into which a pinion on a cross-spindle j gears ; the cross-spindle is moved by means of a worm-wheel into which a worm on the longitudinal Sight. Enlargement of A From War Office Handbook. Fig. 21. spindle of the hand-wheel gears ; one end of the cross-spindle moves the range drum 2'. The worm and hand-wheel are thrown into and out of gear by means of the clutch t. When the hand-wheel is thrown out of gear the sights can only be moved by means of the elevating gear of the gun. The line of sight and the elevation of the gun henceforth are inseparable. The automatic sight consists of a bent lever roller cam m, also secured by the bolt e to the carrier ; the lower end of the lever carries the cam roller n, which is constrained to move in the cam p by means of the spring in the spring-box g; the rear end of the horizontal arm of the lever is formed into jaws v; the same action of the clutch t which releases the worm and hand-wheel forces a catch on a vertical stem u into the jaws of the lever, and fixes the rocking and sight bars rigidly to it. The movement of the sights can now only be effected by means of the elevating gear of the gun, acting by means of the move- ment of the vertical arm of the bent lever, and its movement is constrained to follow the cam, which is cut in such a way that for any given elevation of the gun the sight bar is depressed to the angle of sight for the range corre- sponding to the elevation; V is a lever for making allowance for state of tide, and c' is the scale on which the rise and fall in feet above and below mean sea-level are marked. In later patterns, the sight is automatic pure and simple, the lever is rigidly attached to the rocking-bar, and the range scale and gear for raising the sights dispensed with, much as shown in fig. 23. In the larger natures of From War Office Handbook. Fig. 22. SIGHTS 65 Fig. 2.v H Sight gun there is a rocking-bar sight on one side and an automatic sight on the other. The automatic sight has, however, distinct limitations ; it depends for its accuracy on height of site, and at long ranges even from a high site it cannot compare for accuracy with indepen- dent range-finding and careful laying or accur- ately applied quadrant elevation; it is also use- less when the water line of the target is obscured, as may often be the case from the splashes caused by bursting shell. Im- proved communications between range - finder and gun, range and training dials placed on the mountings where they can be read by the layers, and more accurate elevation indicators have made laying by quadrant elevation, and in certain cases giving direction by means of graduated arc and pointer, both accurate and rapid, so that once more this system of laying is coming into favour for long ranges. Naval Sights. In the navy the conditions of an unstable platform rendered quadrant elevation of little use, and necessitated a special pattern of tangent sight to facilitate •firing the moment the roll of the ship brought the sights on the target. A diagram of the Foote-Arbuthnot, or H, or naval tangent sight, is given below (fig. 24). The fore-sight was a small globe, and in the original patterns this was placed on a movable leaf on which deflection for speed of one's own ship was given, while deflection for speed of enemy's ship and wind were given on the tangent sight. The yard scales were on detachable strips, so that fresh strips could be inserted for variations in velocity. In subsequent patterns all the deflection was given on the tangent sight, which was provided with two scales, the upper one graduated in knots for speed of ship, and the lower one in degrees. Night sights were introduced by Captain McEvoy in 1884. They consist of an electric battery cable and lamp-holders and small glow lamps ; that for the hind-sight is coloured. Turret Sights. — In turrets or barbettes two sets of sights are provided, one for each gun. They are geared so as to work simultaneously and alike. Toothed gearing connected with the gun mountings actuates a rack attached to the standards carrying the sights, so that any move- ment of the gun mounting is communicated to the sights. The sights themselves fit into sockets cut at the proper angle for drift, and are raised in their sockets the requisite amount for the range by means of a small hand-wheel; they are thus non-recoiling sights. The layer has under his control the hand-wheel for setting the range on the sights, another hand-wheel for elevating the gun and the sights on to the l^foeAnt/e target, and a third for traversing the turret. [graduated The introduction of trunnionless guns was followed by that of rocking-bar sights (described above). Sighting telescopes were also intro- Fig. 24. duced. _ In the navy one of the first essentials is rapidity of fire; to attain this the duties of laying are subdivided ; one man laying for elevation, elevating and firing, a second laying for line and traversing, and a third putting on the elevation ordered or communicated by electric dial. To ensure the sights on each side reading together they are connected by rods. To facilitate the setting of the range the ranges are shown on a dial which can be read from the side of the mounting, from where also the sight can be set. (R. M. B. F. K.) . Military Rifle Sights. With smooth-bore arms of short range, the soldier needed little more, in the way of sights, than the rough equivalent of the dis- part of cannon, viz. patches at the breech and muzzle with notch and blade (fig. 25). But some form of sight was almost invariably employed with rifled firearms, even of early date, and when about 178c— 1800 the rifle came into use as a military weapon, sights were introduced with it. The sights of the Baker, Brunswick, and other rifles did not differ in principle from the now common form of elevating back-sight (fig. 29), that is, the elevation was given on an upright adjustable back sight. But this refinement was long looked upon as a mere fad, both by the soldiers who used the smooth-bore (or converted rifle) musket, and by experienced short-range snap- shooters. In this connexion Major-General John Gibbon, U.S.A., records that in the American Civil War hunters and others who XXV. 3 served in the western regiments habitually knocked off the back- sights of the rifles that were issued to them, preferring to do without them. But, as rifles improved and came into general use for all troops, sights became indispensable, and to-day as much care is Fig. 26. Fig. 25. taken over the sighting as over the " proof " of a military rifle. The modern rifle has invariably a back-sight and a fore-sight. The latter is, as a general rule, fixed and unalterable, its size, position on the barrel, &c, being practically ascertained, as accurately as possible, for the lowest elevation on the back-sight. Some fore- sights have, however, a lateral motion giving within narrow limits the deflection found to be necessary for the variation of each rifle from the average. The shape of the part seen through the notch or Fig. 29. aperture of the back-sight in aiming varies a good deal. Two of the commonest forms are shown in fig. 26, called the " barleycorn," and 27, called the " bead." The fore-sight of the Krag-Jorgensen rifle, used in the United States army until 1906, consisted of a blade with parallel sides. The shape of the part seen when aiming indicates whether the proper amount of the fore-sight is taken up into the line of vision from the back-sight to the target. A " full " sight is shown in fig. 8 above. The position of the fore-sight at or near the end of the barrel renders it peculiarly liable to injury, and in some rifles therefore it is provided with guards or ears; these, however, have the disadvantage that more or less of the light that would otherwise light up the sight is intercepted by the guards. The fore-sight of the British service " short " Lee-Enfield (1903) has guards and also a lateral adjustment of the barleycorn. Back- sights are of many different patterns, almost any two being II 66 SIGIRI— SIGISMUND unlike. Examples taken, except fig. 28, by permission from the Text Book of Small Arms (1909), are given in fig. 28 (German Mauser pattern), fig. 29 (" long " hand-loader Lee-Enfield), fig. 30 (" short " Lee-Enfield), fig. 31 (Dutch service rifle), and fig. 32 (Russian " three-line " rifle). Fine lateral adjustments are provided on the " short " Lee-Enfield, and on many other military sights of modern date. See for further details Rifle. Authorities Consulted.— Owen, Modern Artillery; Lloyd and Hadcock, Artillery, its Progress and Present Position; Lissak, Ordnance and Gunnery; Colonel H. A. Bethell, Modern Guns and Gunnery; Proceedings and Occasional Papers, R.A. Institute, and War Office publications. SlGIRI, the Lion's Rock, the ruin of a remarkable stronghold 7° 59' N., and 8i° E., 14 m. N.E. of Dambulla, and about 17 m. nearly due W. of Pulasti-pura, the now ruined ancient capital of Ceylon. There a solitary pillar of granite rock rises to a great height out of the plain, and the top actually overhangs the sides. On the summit of this pencil of rock there are five or six acres of ground; and on them, in a.d. 477, Kasyapa the Parricide built his palace, and thought to find an inaccessible refuge from his enemies. His father Dhatu Sena, a country priest, had, after many years of foreign oppression, roused his countrymen, in 459, to rebellion, led them to victory, driven out the Tamil oppressors, and entered on his reign as a national hero. He was as successful in the arts of peace as he had been in those of war; and carried to completion, among other good works, an ambitious irrigation scheme — probably the greatest feat of engineering that had then been accomplished anywhere in the world. This was the cele- brated Kala Wewa, or Black Reservoir, more than 50 m. in circumference, which gave wealth to the whole country for two days' journey north of the capital, Anuradha-pura, and provided that city also with a constant supply of water. Popular with the people, the king could not control his own family; and as the outcome of a palace intrigue in 477 his son Kasyapa had declared himself king, and taken his father prisoner. Threatened with death on his refusing to say where his treasure lay hid, the old king told them to take him to the tank. They took him there, and while bathing in the water he let some of it drop through his fingers, and said, " This is my treasure; this, and the love of my people." Then Kasyapa had his father built up alive into a wall. Meanwhile Kasyapa's brother had escaped to India and was plotting a counter revolution. It was then that the parricide prepared his defence. He utilized his father's engineers in the construction of a path or gallery winding up round the Sigiri rock. Most of it was made, by bursting the rock by means of wooden wedges, through the solid granite, and its outside parapet was supported by walls of brick resting on ledges far below. It is a marvellous piece of work. Abandoned since 495 — for Kasyapa was eventually slain during a battle fought in the plain beneath — it has, on the whole, well withstood the fury of tropical storms, and is now used again to gain access to the top. When rediscovered by Major Forbes in 1835 the portions of the gallery where it had been exposed for so many centuries to the south-west monsoon, had been carried away. These gaps have lately been repaired, or made passable with the help of iron stanchions; the remains c.f the buildings at the top and at the foot of the mountain have been excavated; and the entrance to the gallery, between the outstretched paws of a gigantic lion, has been laid bare. The fresco paintings in the galleries are perhaps the most interesting of the extant remains. They are older than any others found in India, and have been carefully copied, and, as far as possible, preserved. See Major Forbes, Eleven Years in Ceylon (London, 1841); H. C. P. Bell. Archaeological Reports (Colombo, 1892- 1906); Rhys Davids, " Sigiri. the Lion Rock," in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1875), pp. 191-220; H. W. Cave, Ruined Cities of Ceylon (London, 1906). (T. W. R. D.) SIGISMUND (1368-143 7), Roman emperor and king of Hungary and Bohemia, was a son of the emperor Charles IV. and Elizabeth, daughter of Bogislaus V., duke of Pomerania. He was born on the 15th of February 1368, and in 1374 was betrothed to Maria, the eldest daughter of Louis the Great, king of Poland and Hungary. Having become margrave of Brandenburg on his father's death in 1378, he was educated at the Hungarian court from his eleventh to his sixteenth year, becoming thoroughly magyarized and entirely devoted to his adopted country. His wife Maria, to whom he was married in 1385, was captured by the rebellious Horvathys in the following year, and only rescued by her young husband with the aid of the Venetians in June 1.387. Sigismund had been crowned king of Hungary on the 31st of March 1387, and having raised money by pledging Brandenburg to his cousin Jobst, margrave of Moravia, he was engaged for the next nine years in a ceaseless struggle for the possession of this unstable throne. The bulk of the nation headed by the great Garay family was with him; but in the southern provinces between the Save and the Drave, the Horvathys with the support of the Bosnian king Tvrtko, pro- claimed as their king Ladislaus, king of Naples, son of the murdered Hungarian king, Charles II. (see Hungary). Not until 1395 did the valiant Miklos Garay succeed in sup- pressing them. In 1396 Sigismund led the combined armies of Christendom against the Turks, who had taken advantage of the temporary helplessness of Hungary to extend their dominion to the banks of the Danube. This crusade, preached by Pope Boniface IX., was very popular in Hungary. The nobles flocked in thousands to the royal standard, and were reinforced by volunteers from nearly every part of Europe, the most important contingent being that of the French led by John, duke of Nevers, son of Philip II., duke of Burgundy. It was with a host of about 90,000 men and a flotilla of 70 galleys that Sigismund set out. After capturing Widdin, he sat down before the fortress of Nico- polis, to retain which Sultan Bajazid raised the siege of Con- stantinople and at the head of 140,000 men completely overthrew the Christian forces in a battle fought between the 25th and 28th of September 1396. Deprived of his authority in Hungary, Sigismund then turned his attention to securing the succession in Germany and Bohemia, and was recognized by his childless step-brother Wenceslaus as vicar-general of the whole empire. He remained, however, powerless when in 1400 Wenceslaus was deposed and Rupert III., elector palatine of the Rhine, was elected German king in his stead. During these years he was also involved in domestic difficulties out of which sprang a second war with Ladislaus of Naples; and on his return to Hungary in 1401 he was once imprisoned and twice deposed. This struggle in its turn led to a war with Venice, as Ladislaus before departing to his own land had sold the Dalmatian cities to the Venetians for 100,000 ducats. In 1401 Sigismund assisted a rising against Wenceslaus, during the course of which the German and Bohemian king was made a prisoner, and Sigismund ruled Bohemia for nineteen months. In 1410 the German king Rupert died, when Sigismund, ignoring his step-brother's title, was chosen German king, or king of the Romans, first by three of the electors on the 20th of September 1410, and again after the death of his rival, Jobst of Moravia, on the 21st of July 141 1; but his coronation was deferred until the 8th of November 1414, when it took place at Aix-la-Chapelle. During a visit to Italy the king had taken advantage of the difficulties of Pope John XXIII. to obtain a promise that a council should be called to Constance in 1414. He took a leading part in the deliberations of this assembly, and during the sittings made a journey into France, England and Burgundy in a vain attempt to secure the abdication of the three rival popes (see Constance, Council of). The complicity of Sigismund in the death of John Huss is a matter of controversy. He had granted him a safe-conduct and protested against his imprison- ment; and it was during his absence that the reformer was burned. An alliance with England against France, and an attempt to secure peace in Germany by a league of the towns, which failed owing to the hostility of the princes, were the main secular proceedings of these years. In 1419 the death of Wences- laus left Sigismund titular king of Bohemia, but he had to wait for seventeen years before the Czechs- would acknowledge him. But although the two dignities of king of the Romans and king of Bohemia added considerably to his importance, and indeed made him the nominal head of Christendom, they conferred no increase of power and financially embarrassed him. It was only SIGISMUND I. 67 as king of Hungary that he had succeeded in establishing his authority and in doing anything for the order and good govern- ment of the land. Entrusting the government of Bohemia to Sophia, the widow of Wenceslaus, he hastened into Hungary; but the Bohemians, who distrusted him as the betrayer of Huss, were soon in arms; and the flame was fanned when Sigismund declared his intention of prosecuting the war against heretics who were also communists. Three campaigns against the Hussites ended in disaster; the Turks were again attacking Hungary; and the king, unable to obtain support from the German princes, was powerless in Bohemia. His attempts at the diet of Nurem- berg in 1422 to raise a mercenary army were foiled by the re- sistance of the towns; and in 1424 the electors, among whom was Sigismund's former ally, Frederick I. of Hohenzollern, margrave of Brandenburg, sought to strengthen their own authority at the expense of the king. Although the scheme failed, the danger to Germany from the Hussites led to fresh proposals, the result of which was that Sigismund was virtually deprived of the leadership of the war and the headship of Germany. In 1 43 1 he went to Milan where on the 25th of November he re- ceived the Lombard crown; after which he remained for some time at Siena, negotiating for his coronation as emperor and for the recognition of the Council of Basel by Pope Eugenius IV. He was crowned emperor at Rome on the 31st of May 1433, an d after obtaining his demands from the pope returned to Bohemia, where he was recognized as king in 1436, though his power was little more than nominal. On the gth of December 1437 he died at Znaim, and was buried at Grosswardein. By his second wife, Barbara of Cilli, he left an only daughter, Elizabeth, who was married to Albert V., duke of Austria, afterwards the German king Albert II., whom he named as his successor. As he left no sons the house of Luxemburg became extinct on his death. Sigismund was brave and handsome, courtly in his bearing, eloquent in his speech, but licentious in his manners. He was an accomplished knight and is said to have known seven languages. He was also one of the most far-seeing statesmen of his day, and steadily endeavoured to bring about the ex- pulsion of the Turks from Europe by uniting Christendom against them. As king of Hungary he approved himself a born political reformer, and the military measures which he adopted in that country enabled the kingdom to hold its own against the Turks for nearly a hundred years. His sense of justice and honour was slight ; but as regards the death of Huss he had to choose between condoning the act and allowing the council to break up without result. He cannot be entirely blamed for the misfortunes of Germany during his reign, for he showed a willing- ness to attempt reform; but he was easily discouraged, and was hampered on all sides by poverty, which often compelled him to resort to the meanest expedients for raising money. Bibliography. — The more important works to be consulted are Repertorium Germanicum; Regesten aus den pdpstlichen Archiven zur Geschichte des deutschen Reichs im XIV. und X V. Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1897); E. Windecke, Denkwiirdigkeiten zur Geschichte des Zeitalters Kaisers Sigmund (Berlin, 1893), and Das Leben Konigs Siegmund (Berlin, 1886); J. Aschbach, Geschichte Kaiser Sigmunds (Hamburg, 1838-1845); YV. Berger, Johannes Hus und Kbnig Sigmund (Augs- burg, 1871); G. Schonherr, The Inheritors of the House of Anjou (Buda-Pesth, 1895) ; and J. Acsady, History of the Hungarian Realm, vol. i. (Buda-Pesth, 1903). Of the German books Aschbach is the fullest, and Windecke the most critical. Schdnherr is the best Hungarian authority. Acsady is too indulgent to the vices of Sigismund. See also A. Main, The Emperor Sigismund (1903). SIGISMUND I. (1467-1548), king of Poland, the fifth son of Casimir IV. and Elizabeth of Austria, was elected grand-duke of Lithuania on the 21st of October 1505 and king of Poland on the 8th of January 1506. Sigismund was the only one of the six sons of Casimir IV. gifted with extraordinary ability. He had served his apprenticeship in the art of government first as prince of Glogau and subsequently as governor of Silesia and margrave of Lusatia under his elder brother Wladislaus of Bohemia and Hungary. Silesia, already more than half Germanized, had for generations been the battle-ground between the Luxemburgers and the Piasts, and was split up into innumerable principalities which warred incessantly upon their neighbours and each other. Into the midst of this region of banditti Sigismund came as a sort of grand justiciar, a sworn enemy of every sort of disorder. His little principality of Glogau soon became famous as a model state, and as governor of Silesia he suppressed the robber knights with an iron hand, protected the law-abiding classes, and revived commerce. In Poland also his thrift and businesslike qualities speedily remedied the abuses caused by the wastefulness of his predecessor Alexander. His first step was to recover control of the mint, and place it in the hands of capable middle-class merchants and bankers, like Caspar Beer, Jan Thurzo, Jan Boner, the Betmans, exiles for conscience' sake from Alsace, who had sought refuge in Poland under Casimir IV., Justus Decyusz, subsequently the king's secretary and historian, and their fellows, all practical economists of high integrity who reformed the currency and opened out new ways for trade and commerce. The reorganization of the mint alone increased the royal revenue by 210,000 gulden a year and enabled Sigismund to pay the expenses of his earlier wars. In foreign affairs Sigismund was largely guided by the Laskis (Adam, Jan and Hieronymus), Jan Tarnowski and others, most of whom he selected himself. In his marriages also he was influenced by political considerations, though to both his consorts he was an affectionate husband. His first wife, whom the diet, anxious for the perpetuation of the dynasty, compelled him, already in his forty-fourth year (Feb. 1512), to marry, was Barbara Zapolya, whose family as repre- sented first by her father Stephen and subsequently by her brother John, dominated Hungarian politics in the last quarter of the 15th and the first quarter of the 16th century. Barbara brought him a dower of 100,000 gulden and the support of the Magyar magnates, but the match nearly brought about a breach with the emperor Maximilian, jealous already of the Jagiello in- fluence in Hungary. On Barbara's death three years later without male offspring, Sigismund (in April 1518) gave his hand to Bona Sforza, a kinswoman of the emperor and granddaughter of the king of Aragou, who came to him with a dowry of 200,000 ducats and the promise of an inheritance from her mother of half a million more which she never got. Bona's grace and beauty speedily fascinated Sigismund, and contemporary satirists ridi- culed him for playing the part of Jove to her Juno. She intro- duced Italian elegance and luxury into the austere court of Cracow and exercised no inconsiderable influence on affairs. But she used her great financial and economical talents almost entirely for her own benefit. She enriched herself at the expense of the state, corrupted society, degraded the clergy, and in her later years was universally detested for her mischievous meddling, inexhaustible greed, and unnatural treatment of her children. The first twenty years of Sigismund's reign were marked by exceptional vigour. His principal difficulties were due to the aggressiveness of Muscovy and the disloyalty of Prussia. With the tsars Vasily III. and Ivan IV. Sigismund was never absolutely at peace. The interminable war was interrupted, indeed, by brief truces whenever Polish valour proved superior to Muscovite persistence, as for instance after the great victory of Orsza (Sept. 1514) and again in 1522 when Moscow was threatened by the Tatars. But the Tatars themselves were a standing menace to the republic. In the open field, indeed, they were generally defeated (e.g. at Wisniowiec in 151 2 and at Kaniow in 1526), yet occasionally, as at Sokal when they wiped out a whole Polish army, they prevailed even in pitched battles. Generally, however, they confined themselves to raiding on a grand scale and, encouraged by the Porte or the Muscovite, systematically devastated whole provinces, penetrating even into the heart of Poland proper and disappearing with immense booty. It was this growing sense of border insecurity which led to the establish- ment of the Cossacks (see Poland: History). The grand-masters of the Teutonic Order, always sure of support in Germany, were also a constant source of annoyance. Their constant aim was to shake off Polish suzerainty, and in 1520-21 their menacing attitude compelled Sigismund to take up arms against them. The long quarrel was finally adjusted in 1525 when the last grand-master, after a fruitless pilgrimage I through Europe for support, professed Lutheranism and as first 68 SIGISMUND II.— SIGISMUND III. duke of Prussia did public homage to the Polish king in the market-place of Cracow. The secularization of Prussia was opposed by the more religious of Sigismund's counsellors, and the king certainly exposed himself to considerable odium in the Catholic world; but taking all the circumstances into considera- tion, it was perhaps the shortest way out of a situation bristling with difficulties. Personally a devout Catholic and opposed in principle to the spread of sectarianism in Poland, Sigismund was nevertheless too wise and just to permit the persecution of non-Catholics; and in Lithuania, where a fanatical Catholic minority of magnates dominated the senate, he resolutely upheld the rights of his Orthodox subjects. Thus he rewarded the Orthodox upstart, Prince Constantine Ortrogski, for his victory at Orsza by making him palatine of Troki, despite determined opposition from the Catholics; severely punished all disturbers of the worship of the Greek schismatics; protected the Jews in the country places, and insisted that the municipalities of the towns should be composed of an equal number of Catholics and Orthodox Greeks. By his tact, equity, and Christian charity, Sigismund endeared himself even to those who differed most from him, as witness the readiness of the Lithuanians to elect his infant son grand-duke of Lithuania in 1522, and to crown him in 1529. After his sixtieth year there was a visible decline in the energy and capacity of Sigismund. To the outward eye his gigantic strength and herculean build lent him the appearance of health and vigour, but forty years of unintermittent toil and anxiety had told upon him, and during the last two-and-twenty years of his reign, by which time all his old self-chosen counsellors had died off, he apathetically resigned himself to the course of events without making any sustained effort to stem the rising tide of Protestantism and democracy. He had no sympathy with the new men and the new ideas, and the malcontents in Poland often insulted the aged king with impunity. Thus, at his last diet, held at Piotrkow in 1547, Lupa Podlodowski, the champion of the szlachta, ocenly threatened him with rebellion. Sigismund died on the 1st of April 1548. By Bona he had five children — one son, Sigismund Augustus, who succeeded him, and four daughters, Isabella, who married John Zapolya, prince of Transylvania,. Sophia, who married the duke of Brunswick, Catherine, who as the wife of John III. of Sweden became the mother of the Polish Vasas, and Ann, who subsequently wedded King Stephen Bathory. See August Sokolowski, History of Poland (Pol.), vol. ii. (Vienna, 1904) ; Zygmunt Celichowski, Materials for the history of the reign of Sigismund the Old (Pol.) (Posen, 1900); Adolf Pawinski, The youthful years of Sigismund the Old (Pol.) (Warsaw, 1893); Adam Darowski, Bona Sforza (1904). (R. N. B.) SIGISMUND II. (1520-1572), king of Poland, the only son of Sigismund I., king of Poland, whom he succeeded in 1548, and Bona Sforza. At the very beginning of his reign he came into collision with the turbulent szlachta or gentry, who had already begun to oust the great families from power. The ostensible cause of their animosity to the king was his second marriage, secretly contracted before his accession, with the beautiful Lithuanian Calvinist, Barbara Radziwill, daughter of the famous Black Radziwill. But the Austrian court and Sigismund's own mother, Queen Bona, seem to have been behind the movement, and so violent was the agitation at Sigismund's first diet (31st of October 1548) that the deputies threatened to renounce their allegiance unless the king instantly repudiated Barbara. This he refused to do, and his moral courage united with no small political dexterity enabled him to win the day. By 1550, when he summoned his second diet, a reaction in his favour began, and the lingering petulance of the gentry was sternly rebuked by Kmita, the marshal of the diet, who openly accused them of attempting to diminish unduly the legislative prerogative' of the crown. The death of Barbara, five days after her coronation (7th of December 1550), under very distressing circumstances which led to an unproven suspicion that she had been poisoned by Queen Bona,- compelled Sigismund to contract a third purely political union with the Austrian archduchess Catherine, the lister of Sigismund's first wife Elizabeth, who had died within a twelvemonth of her marriage with him, while he was still only crown prince. The third bride was sickly and unsympathetic, and from her Sigismund soon lost all hope of progeny, to his despair, for being the last male of the Jagiellos in the direct line, the dynasty was threatened with extinction. He sought to remedy the evil by liaisons with two of the most beautiful of his countrywomen, Barbara Gizanka and Anna Zajanczkowska, the diet undertaking to legitimatize and acknowledge as his successor any heir male who might be born to him; but their complacency was in vain, for the king died childless. This matter of the king's marriage was of great political importance, the Protestants and the Catholics being equally interested in the issue. Had he not been so good a Catholic Sigismund might well have imitated the example of Henry VIII. by pleading that his detested third wife was the sister of his first and consequently the union was un- canonical. The Polish Protestants hoped that he would take this course and thus bring about a breach with Rome at the very crisis of the confessional struggle in Poland, while the Habsburgs, who coveted the Polish throne, raised every obstacle to the childless king's remarriage. Not till Queen Catherine's death on the 28th of February 1572 were Sigismund's hands free, but he followed her to the grave less than six months afterwards. Sigismund's reign was a period of internal turmoil and external expansion. He saw the invasion of Poland by the Reformation, and the democratic upheaval which placed all political power in the hands of the szlachta; he saw the collapse of the ancient order of the Knights of the Sword in the north (which led to the acquisition of Livonia by the republic) and the consolidation of the Turkish power in the south. Throughout this perilous transitional period Sigismund's was the hand which successfully steered the ship of state amidst all the whirlpools that constantly threatened to engulf it. A far less imposing figure than his father, the elegant and refined Sigismund II. was nevertheless an even greater statesman than the stern and majestic Sigismund I. Tenacity and patience, the characteristics of all the Jagiellos, he possessed in a high degree, and he added to them a supple dexterity and a diplomatic finesse which he may have inherited from his Italian mother. Certainly no other Polish king so thoroughly understood the nature of the ingredients of that witch's caldron, the Polish diet, as he did. Both the Austrian ambassadors and the papal legates testify to the care with which he controlled " this nation so difficult to lead." Every- thing went as he wished, they said, because he seemed to know everything beforehand. He managed to get more money than his father could ever get, and at one of his diets won the hearts of the whole assembly by unexpectedly appearing before them in the simple grey coat of a Masovian squire. Like his father, a pro-Austrian by conviction, he contrived even in this respect to carry the Polish nation, always so distrustful of the Germans, entirely along with him, thereby avoiding all serious complica- tions with the ever dangerous Turk. Only a statesman of genius could have mediated for twenty years, as he did, between the church and the schismatics without alienating the sympathies of either. But the most striking memorial of his greatness was the union of Lublin, which finally made of Poland and Lithuania one body politic, and put an end to the jealousies and discords of centuries (see Poland, History). The merit of this crowning achievement belongs to Sigismund alone; but for him it would have been impossible. Sigismund II. died at his beloved Kny- szyne on the 6th of July 1572, in his fifty-second year. See Ludwik Finkel, Characteristics of Sigismund Augustus (Pol.) (Lemberg, 1888); Letters to Nicholas Radziwill (Pol.) (Wilna, 1842); Geheime Brief e an Hozyus, Gesandten am Hofe des Kaisers Karl V. (Wadowice, 1850); Adam Darowski, Bona Sforza (Pol.) (Rome, 1904). (R. N. B.) SIGISMUND HI. (1566-163 2), king of Poland and Sweden, son of John III., king of Sweden, and Catherine Jagiellonika, sister of Sigismund II., king of Poland, thus uniting in his person the royal lines of Vasa and Jagiello. Educated as a Catholic by his mother, he was on the death of Stephen Bathory elected king of Poland (August 19, 1587) chiefly through the efforts of the Polish chancellor, Jan Zamoyski, and of his own aunt, Anne, queen-dowager of Poland, who lent the chancellor 100,000 gulden SIGMARINGEN 69 to raise troops in defence of her nephew's cause. On his election, Sigismund promised to maintain a fleet in the Baltic, to fortify the eastern frontier against the Tatars, and not to visit Sweden without the consent of the Polish diet. Sixteen days later were signed the articles of Kalmar regulating the future relations between Poland and Sweden, when in process of time. Sigismund should succeed his father as king of Sweden. The two kingdoms were to be perpetually allied, but each of them was to retain its own laws and customs. Sweden was also to enjoy her religion subject to such changes as a general council might make. During Sigismund's absence from Sweden that realm was to be ruled by seven Swedes, six to be elected by the king and one by Duke Charles, his Protestant uncle. Sweden, moreover, was not to be administered from Poland. A week after subscribing these articles the young prince departed to take possession of the Polish throne. He was expressly commanded by his father to return to Sweden, if the Polish deputation awaiting him at Danzig should insist on the cession of Esthonia to Poland as a condition precedent to the act of homage. The Poles proved even more difficult to satisfy than was anticipated; but finally a com- promise was come to whereby the territorial settlement was postponed till after the death of John III. ; and Sigismund was duly crowned at Cracow on the 27th of December 1587. Sigismund's position as king of Poland was extraordinarily difficult. As a foreigner he was from the first out of sympathy with the majority of his subjects. As a man of education and refinement, fond of music, the fine arts, and polite literature, he was unintelligible to the szlachta, who regarded all artists and poets as either mechanics or adventurers. His very virtues were strange and therefore offensive to them. His prudent reserve and imperturbable calmness were branded as stiffness and haughtiness. Even Zamoyski who had placed him on the throne complained that the king was possessed by a dumb devil. He lacked, moreover, the tact and bonhomie of the Jagiellos; but in fairness it should be added that the Jagiellos were natives of the soil, that they had practically made the monarchy, and that they could always play Lithuania off against Poland. Sigismund's difficulties were also increased by his political views which he brought with him from Sweden cut and dried, and which were diametrically opposed to those of the omnipotent chancellor. Yet, impracticable as it may have been, Sigismund's system of foreign policy as compared with Zamoyski's was, at any rate, clear and definite. It aimed at a close alliance with the house of Austria, with the double object of drawing Sweden within its orbit and overawing the Porte by the conjunction of the two great Catholic powers of central Europe. A corollary to this system was the much needed reform of the Polish constitution, without which nothing beneficial was to be expected from any political combination. Thus Sigismund's views were those of a statesman who clearly recognizes present evils and would remedy them. But all his efforts foundered on the jealousy and suspicion of the magnates headed by the chancellor. The first three-and- twenty years of Sigismund's reign is the record of an almost constant struggle between Zamoyski and the king, in which the two opponents were so evenly matched that they did little more than counterpoise each other. At the diet of 1590 Zamoyski successfully thwarted all the efforts of the Austrian party; whereupon the king, taking advantage of sudden vacancies among the chief offices of state, brought into power the Radzi- wills and other great Lithuanian dignitaries, thereby for a time considerably curtailing the authority of the chancellor. In 1592 Sigismund married the Austrian archduchess Anne, and the same year a reconciliation was patched up between the king and the chancellor to enable the former to secure possession of his Swedish throne vacant by the death of his father John III. He arrived at Stockholm on the 30th of September 1593 and was crowned at Upsala on the 19th of February IS94, but only after he had consented to the maintenance of the " pure evangelical religion " in Sweden. On the 14th of July 1594 he departed for Poland leaving Duke Charles and the senate to rule Sweden during his absence. Four years later (July 1598) Sigismund was forced to fight for his native crown by the usurpation of his uncle, aided by the Protestant party in Sweden. He landed at Kalmar with 5000 men, mostly Hungarian mercenaries; the fortress opened its gates to him at once and the capital and the country people welcomed him. The Catholic world watched his progress with the most sanguine expectations. Sigismund's success in Sweden was regarded as only the beginning of greater triumphs. But it was not to be. After fruitless negotiations with his uncle, Sigismund advanced with his army from Kalmar, but was defeated by the duke at Stangebro on the 25th of September. Three days later, by the compact of Linkoping, Sigismund agreed to submit all the points in dispute between himself and his uncle to a riksdag at Stockholm; but immediately afterwards took ship for Danzig, after secretly protesting to the two papal prothonotaries who accompanied him that the Linko- ping agreement had been extorted from him, and was therefore invalid. Sigismund never saw Sweden again, but he persistently refused to abandon his claims or recognise the new Swedish government; and this unfortunate obstinacy was to involve Poland in a whole series of unprofitable wars with Sweden. In 1602 Sigismund wedded Constantia, the sister of his deceased first wife, an event which strengthened the hands of the Austrian party at court and still further depressed the chancellor. At the diet of 1605 Sigismund and his partisans endeavoured so far to reform the Polish constitution as to substitute a decision by a plurality of votes for unanimity in the diet. This most simple and salutary reform was, however, rendered nugatory by the opposition of Zamoyski, and his death the same year made matters still worse, as it left the opposition in the hands of men violent and incapable, like Nicholas Zebrzydowski, or sheer scoundrels, like Stanislaw Stadnicki. From 1606 indeed to 1610 Poland was in an anarchical condition. Insurrection and rebellion triumphed everywhere, and all that Sigismund could do was to minimize the mischief as much as possible by his moderation and courage. On foreign affairs these disorders had the most disastrous effect. The simultaneous collapse of Muscovy had given Poland an unexampled opportunity of rendering the tsardom for ever harmless. But the necessary supplies were' never forthcoming and the diet remained absolutely indifferent to the triumphs of Zolkiewski and the other great generals who performed Brobdingnagian feats with Lilliputian armies. At the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War Sigismund prudently leagued with the emperor to counterpoise the united efforts of the Turks and the Protestants. This policy was very beneficial to the Catholic cause, as it diverted the Turk from central to north- eastern Europe; yet, but for the self-sacrificing heroism of Zolkiewski at Cecora and of Chodkiewicz at Khotin, it might have been most ruinous to Poland. Sigismund died very suddenly in his 66th year, leaving two sons, Wladislaus and John Casimir, who succeeded him in rotation. See Aleksander Rembowski, The Insurrection of Zebrzydowski (Pol.) (Cracow, 1893) ; Stanislaw Niemojewski, Memoires (Pol.) (Lemberg, 1899); Sveriges Historia, vol. iii. (Stockholm, 1881); Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz, History of the Reign of Sigismund III. (Pol.) (Breslau, 1836). (R. N. B.) SIGMARINGEN, a town of Germany, chief town of the Prussian principality of Hohenzollern, on the right bank of the Danube, 55 m. S. of Tubingen, on the railway to Ulm. Pop. (1905) 4621. The castle of the Hohenzollerns crowns a high rock above the river, and contains a collection of pictures, an exceptionally interesting museum (textiles, enamels, metal- work, &c), an armoury and a library. On the opposite bank of the Danube there is a war monument to the Hohenzollern men who fell in 1866 and 1870-1871. The division of Sigmaringen is composed of the two formerly sovereign principalities of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and Hohen- zollern-Hechingen (see Hohenzollern), and has an area of 440 sq. m. and a population (1905) of 68,282. The Sigmaringen part of the Hohenzollern lands was the larger of the two (297 sq. m.) and lay mainly to the south of Hechingen, though the district of Haigerloch on the Neckar also belonged to it. The name of Hohenzollern is used much more frequently than the official Sigmaringen to designate the combined principalities. See Woerl, Fuhrer durch Sigmaringen (Wurzburg,i886). 7° SIGNAL SIGNAL (a word common in slightly different forms to nearly all European languages, derived from Lat. signum, a mark, sign), a means of transmitting information, according to some pre- arranged system or code, in cases where a direct verbal or written statement is unnecessary, undesirable, or impracticable. The methods employed vary with the circumstances and the purposes in view, and the medium into which the transmitted idea is translated may consist of visible objects, sounds, motions, or indeed anything that is capable of affecting the senses, so long as an understanding has been previously effected with the recipient as to the meaning involved. Any two persons may thus arrange a system for the transmission of intelligence between them, and secret codes of this kind, depending on the inflections of the voice, the accent on syllables or words, the arrangement of sentences, &c, have been so elaborated as to serve for the production of phenomena such as are sometimes attributed to telepathy or thought transference. With the many private developments of such codes we are not here concerned, nor is it necessary to attempt an explanation of the systems of drum-taps, smoke-fires, &c, by which certain primitive peoples are supposed to be able to convey news over long distances with astonishing rapidity; the present article is confined to giving an account of the organized methods of signalling employed at sea, in military operations and on railways, these being matters of practical public importance. Marine Signalling. — A system of marine signals comprises different methods of conveying orders or information to or from a ship in sight and within hearing, but at a distance too great to permit of hailing — in other words, beyond the reach of the voice, even when aided by the speaking-trumpet. The necessity of some plan of rapidly conveying orders or intelligence to a distance was early recognized. Polybius describes two methods, one proposed by Aeneas Tacticus more than three centuries before Christ, and one perfected by himself, which, as any word could be spelled by it, anticipated the underlying principle of later systems. The signal codes of the ancients are believed to have been elaborate. Generally some kind of flag was used. Shields were also displayed in a preconcerted manner, as at the battle of Marathon, and some have imagined that the reflected rays of the sun were flashed from them as with the modern heliograph. In the middle ages flags, banners and lanterns were used to distinguish particular squadrons, and as marks of rank, as they are at present, also to call officers to the admiral, and to report sighting the enemy and getting into danger. The invention of cannon made an important addition to the means of signalling. In the instructions issued by Don Martin de Padilla in 1507 the use of guns, lights and fires is mentioned. The introduction of the square rig permitted a further addition, that of letting fall a sail a certain number of times. Before the middle of the 17th century only a few stated orders and reports could be made known by signalling. Flags were used by day, and lights, occasionally with guns, at night. The signification then, and for a long time after, depended upon the position in which the light or flag was displayed. Orders, indeed, were as often as possible com- municated by hailing or even by means of boats. As the size of ships increased the inconvenience of both plans became intolerable. Some attribute the first attempt at a regular code to Admiral Sir William Penn (1621-1670), but the credit of it is usually given to James II. when duke of York. Notwithstanding the attention paid to the subject by Paul Hoste and others, signals continued strangely imperfect till late in the 18th century. Towards 1780 Admiral Kempenfelt devised a plan of flag-signal- ling which was the parent of that now in use. Instead of in- dicating differences of meaning by varying the position of a solitary flag, he combined distinct flags in pairs. About the beginning of the 19th century Sir Home Popham improved a method of conveying messages by flags proposed by R. Hall Gower (1 767-1833), and greatly increased a ship's power of communicating with others. The number of night and fog signals that could be shown was still very restricted. In 1867 an innovation of prodigious importance was made by the adop- tion in the British navy of Vice- Admiral (then Captain) Philip Colomb's flashing system, on which he had been at work since 1858. In the British navy, which serves as a model to most others, visual signals are made with flags or pendants, the semaphore, flashing, and occasionally fireworks. Sound signals are made with fog-horns, steam-whistles, sirens and guns. The number of flags in use in the naval code, comprising what is termed a " set," are 58, and consist of 26 alphabetical flags, 10 numeral flags, 16 pendants and 6 special flags. Flag signals are divided into three classes, to each of which is allotted a separate book. One class consists of two alphabetical flags and refers to orders usual in the administration of a squadron, such as, for example, the flags LE, which might signify " Captain repair on board flagship." Another class consists of three alphabetical flags, which refer to a coded dictionary, wherein are words and short sentences likely to be required. The remaining refers to evolutionary orders for manoeuvring, which have alpha- betical and numeral flags combined. The flags which constitute a signal are termed a " hoist." One or more hoists may be made at the same time. Although flag signalling is a slow method compared with others, a fair rate can be attained with practice. For example, a signal involving 162 separate hoists has been re- peated at sight by 13 ships in company in 76 minutes. Semaphore signals are made by the extension of a man's arms through a vertical plane, the different symbols being distinguished by the relative positions of the arms, which are never less than 45° apart. To render the signals more conspicuous the signaller usually holds a small flag on a stick in each hand, but all ships are fitted with mechanical semaphores, which can be worked by one man, and are visible several miles. Flag signalling being comparatively slow and laborious, the ordinary message work in a squadron is generally signalled by semaphore. The convenience of this method is enormous, and by way of example it may be of interest to mention a record message of 350 words which was signalled to 21 ships simultaneously at the rate of 17 words per minute. Flags being limited in size, and only distinguishable by their colour, signals by this means are not altogether satisfactory at long distances, even when the wind is suitable. For signalling at long range the British navy employs a semaphore with arms from 9 to 12 ft. long mounted at the top of the mast and capable of being trained in any required direction, and worked from the deck. Its range depends upon the clearness of the atmo- sphere, but instances are on record where a message by this means has been read at 16 to 18 m. Night signalling is carried out by means of " flashing," by which is meant the exposure and eclipse of a single light for short and long periods of time, representing the dots and dashes composing the required symbol. The dots and dashes can be made mechanically by an obscuring arrangement, or by electro- mechanical means where magnets do the work, or by simply switching on and off specially manufactured electric lamps. The ordinary rate of signalling by flashing is from 7 to 10 words per minute. In the British navy, as in the army, dots and dashes are short and long exposures of light; but with some nations the dots and dashes are short and long periods of darkness, the light punctuating the spaces between them. The British navy uses the European modification of the so-called Morse code used in telegraphy, but with special signs added suitable to their code. The introduction of the " dot and dash " system into the British navy was entirely due to the perseverance of Vice-Admiral Colomb, who, in spite of great opposition, and even after it had once been condemned on its first trial at sea, carried it through with the greatest success. The value of this innovation made in 1867 may be gauged by the fact that now it is possible to handle a fleet with ease and safety in darkness and fog — a state of affairs which did not formerly exist. The simplicity of the dot and dash principle is its best feature. As the system only requires the exhibition of two elements it may be used in a variety of different manners with a minimum of material, namely, by waving the most conspicuous object at hand through short and long arcs, by exhibiting two different shapes, each representing one of the elements, or dipping a lantern in a bucket, and so on. Its SIGNAL 7i adoption has not only contributed very materially to the in- creased efficiency of the British navy, but it has been made optional for use with the mercantile marine. Curiously enough, flashing is not to any great extent used in the navies of other countries which rely more on some system of coloured lights at night. This system generally takes the form of four or five double-coloured lanterns, which are suspended from some part of the mast in a vertical line. Each lantern generally contains a red and a white lamp, either of which can be switched on. By a suitable keyboard on deck any combination of these coloured lanterns can be shown. The advantage of this system lies in the fact that each symbol is self-evident in its entirety, and does not require an expert signalman to read it, as is the case with flashing, which is a progressive performance. For long distances at night the search-light, or some other high power electric arc light, is atilized on the flashing system. Dots and dashes are then made either by flashing the light directly on the object, or by waving the beam up and down for short and long periods of time. Sometimes when a convenient cloud is available the reflection of the beam has been read for nearly 40 m., with land intervening between the two ships. In a fog signals are made by the steam-whistle, fog-horn, siren or by guns. Except for the latter method the dot and dash system is employed in a similar manner to flashing a light. Guns are some- times used in a fog for signalling, the signification being deter- mined by certain timed intervals between the discharges. The larger British ships are supplied with telegraph instruments for connexion with the shore, and heliographs are provided for land operations. Marine galvanometers are also provided, and can be used to communicate through submarine cables. To the various methods of naval signalling must be added wireless telegraphy, which in its application to ships at sea bids fair to solve some problems hitherto impracticable. (See Telegraphy: Wireless.) The international code of signals, for use between ships of all nations, is perhaps the best universal dictionary in exist- ence. By its means mariners can talk with great ease without knowing a word of one another's language. By means of a few flags any question can be asked and answered. The number of international flags and pendants used with the international code is 27, consisting of a complete alphabet and a special pendant characteristic of the code. At night flashing may be used. (C.A.G.B.; A.F.E.) Army Signalling. — Communication by visual signals between portions of an army is a comparatively recent development of military service. Actual signals were of course made in all ages of warfare, either specially agreed upon beforehand, such as a rocket or beacon, or of more general application, such as the old-fashioned wooden telegraph and the combinations of lights, &c, used by savages on the N.W. frontier of India. But it was not until the middle years of the 19th century that military signalling proper, as a special duty of soldiers, became at all general. It was about the year 1865 that, owing to the initiative of Captain Philip Colomb, R.N., whose signal system had been adopted for his own service, the question of army signalling was seriously taken up by the British military authorities. A school of signal- ling was created at Chatham, and some time later all units of the line were directed to furnish men to be trained as signallers. At first a code book was used and the signals represented code words, but it was found better to revert to the telegraphic system of signalling by the Morse alphabet, amongst the unde- niable advantages of which was the fact that it was used both by the postal service and the telegraph units of Royal Engineers. Thenceforward, iA ever-increasing perfection, the work of signallers has been a feature of almost every campaign of the British army. To the original flags have been added the helio- graph (for long-distance work), the semaphore system of the Royal Navy (for very rapid signalling at short distances), and the lamps of various kinds for working by night. Full and detailed instructions for the proper performance of the work, which provide for almost every possible contingency, have been published and are enforced. The apparatus employed for signalling in the British service consists of flags, large and small, heliograph and lamp for night work. The distances at which their signals can be read vary very considerably, the flags having but a limited ppara us# scope of usefulness, whilst the range of a heliograph is very great indeed. Whether it be 10 m. or 100 away, it has been found in practice that, given good sunlight, nothing but the presence of an intervening physical obstacle, such as a ridge or wood, prevents communication. For shorter distances moonlight, and even artificial light, have on occasion been employed as the source of light. In northern Europe the use of the instrument is much restricted by climate, and, further, stretches of plain country, permitting of a line of vision between distant hills, are not often found. It is in the wilder parts of the earth, that is to say in colonial theatres of war, that the astonishing value of the helio- graph is displaced. In European warfare flag signalling is more usually emplo fed. The flags in use are blue and white, the former for w x with light, the latter for dark backgrounds. B ^>' 1 1 V r I I I I I + I 1 I I V\ Fig. 1. There is further a distinction between the " small " flag, which is employed for semaphore messages and for rapid Morse over somewhat shorter distances, and the " large " flag, which is readable at a distance of 5 to 7 m., as against the maximum of 4 m. allowed to the small flag. With a clear atmosphere these distances may be exceeded. The respective sizes of these flags are as follows: — large flag 3'X3 r , pole 5' 6" long; small flag 2'X 2', pole 3' 6" long. The lamps used for night signalling are of many kinds. Officially only the " lime light " and the " Beg- bie " lamps are recognized, but a considerable number of the old-fashioned oil lamps is still in use, especially in the auxiliary forces, and many experiments have been made with acetylene. The lime light is obtained by raising a lime pencil to a white heat by forcing a jet of oxygen through the flame of a spirit lamp. The strong light thus produced can be read under favourable conditions at a distance of 15 m.; but the equipment of gas-bag, pressure-bag, and other accessories make the whole instrument rather cumbrous. The bull's-eye lamp differs but slightly from the ordinary lantern of civil life; it burns vegetable oil. The Begbie lamp, which burns kerosene, is rather more elaborate and gives a whiter light. It was in use for many years in India before the objections made by the authorities in England to certain features of the lamp were withdrawn. All these lamps when in use are set up on a tripod stand and signals in the Morse alphabet- are made by opening and closing a shutter in front of the light, and thereby showing long and short flashes. 72 SIGNAL The same principle is followed in the heliograph. This instru- ment, invented by Sir Henry C. Mance, receives on a mirror, and thence casts upon the distant station, the rays of the sun; the working of a small key controls the flashes by throwing the mirror slightly off its alignment and thus obscuring the light from the party reading signals. The fact that the heliograph requires sunlight, as mentioned above, militates against its employment in Great Britain, but where it is possible to use it it is by far the best means of signalling. Secrecy and rapidity are its chief advantages. An observer 6 m. distant would see none of its light if he were more than 50 yds. on one side of the exact align- ment, whereas a flag signal could be read from almost every Fig. 2. — Heliograph (by permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office). hill within range. None of the physical exertion required for fast signalling with the flag is required to manipulate the instru- ment at a high rate of speed. The whole apparatus is packed in a light and portable form. An alternative method of using the heliograph is to keep the rays permanently on the distant point, a shutter of some kind being used in front of it to produce obscurations. When in use the heliograph is fixed upon a tripod. A tangent screw (E) which moves the whole instrument (except the jointed arm L) turns the mirror in any direction. Metal U-shaped arms (C) carry the mirror (B), which is controlled by the vertical rod (J) and its clamping screw (K). The signalling mirror itself (usually having a surface of 5 in. diameter) is of glass, an un- silvered spot (R) being left in the centre. This spot retains its position through all movements in any plane. The instrument is aligned by means of the sighting vane (P) fixed in the jointed arm L, and the rays of the sun are then brought on to the distant station by turning the horizontal and vertical adjustments until the " shadow spot " cast by the unsilvered centre of the mirror appears on the vane. The heliograph is thus ready, and signals are made by the depression and release of the " collar " (I) which, with the pivoted arm (U, V) , acts as a telegraph key. When the sun makes an angle of more than 120 degrees with the mirror and the distant station, a " duplex mirror " is used in place of the sighting vane. The process of alignment is in this case a little more complicated. Various other means of making dots and dashes are referred to in the official work, ranging from the " collapsible drum " hung on a mast to the rough but effec- tive improvisation of a heliograph out of a shaving-glass. The employment of the beams of the search-light to make flashes on clouds is also a method of signalling which has been in practice very . effective. The Morse code employed in army signalling is as follows :- A B C D E F G H I K L M — N — • P S ••• T — U V w X Y Q R Z 1 — The semaphore code used in the army is shown below : — ai } I ( r n -a \\_l_ n B C B £ I 3 3 * S hldl A" * If L MM in 1YVV "Annul" / h_k "Humerafe "J or Cominy" LettenCcmnf tk Ready J^ Fig. 3. — Semaphore (the thin upright strokes represent the seaman's body, the thick strokes his arms). UtTer'W" In using this code the signaller invariably faces his reader, as unless this were enforced each letter might, be read as its opposite. In the above diagram the appearance of the signals to the reader is shown, thus the sender's right side only is used for the letter A. In sending a message accuracy is ensured by various checks. The number of words in a message is the most valuable of these, as the receiving station's number must agree before the message is taken as correct. Each word or "group" sent by the Morse code must be " answered " before the sender passes on to another. All figures are checked by the " clock check " in which 1 is repre- sented by A, 2 by B and so on. All cipher " groups " are repeated back en bloc. There is an elaborate system of signals relating to the working of the line. The " message form " in use differs but slightly from the ordinary form of the Post Office telegraphs. Signal stations in the field are classed as (a) " fixed " and " mov- ing," the former connecting points of importance, or on a line of communications, the latter moving with the troops; (b) " ter- minal," "transmitting" and "central"; the first two require no definition, the last is intended to send and receive messages in many directions. The " transmitting station " receives and sends on messages, and consists in theory of two full " ter- minals," one to receive and one to send on. It is rarely possible in the field to work rapidly with less than five men at a trans- mitting and three at a terminal station. " Central " stations SIGNAL 73 are manned according to the number of stations with which they communicate. Signalling is used on most campaigns to a large extent. In the Tirah expedition, 1897 and 1898, one signal station received and sent, between the 1st and 18th November, as many as 980 messages by heliograph, some of which were 200 to 300 words in length. It is often used as an auxiliary to the field telegraph, especially in mountainous countries, and when the wire is liable to be cut and stolen by hostile natives. In the Waziri expedition, 1 88 1, communication was maintained direct for a distance of 70 m. with a 5-in. heliograph. In the Boer War, 1899-1902, the system of heliographic signalling was employed very exten- sively by both sides. In Germany the first army signalling regulations only appeared in 1902. The practice was, however, rapidly developed and towards the end of the 1905 campaign in South-West Africa, 9 signalling officers and 200 signallers were employed in that country. These usually worked in parties of 2 or 3, each party being protected by a few infantrymen or troopers. The apparatus used was heliograph by day and a very elaborate form of lamp by night, and work was carried on between posts separated by 60 and even 90 m. The signallers were employed both with the mobile forces and in a permanent net- work of communication in the occupied territory. In 1907-1908 fresh signalling regulations were issued to the home army, and each company, battery or squadron is now expected to find one station of three men, apart from the regimental and special instructors and staff. Some experiments were carried out at Metz to ascertain the mean distance at which signals made by a man lying down could be seen, this being found to be about 1000 yds. The new regulations allow of the use of flag and lamp signalling at 4 m. instead of as formerly at ij. Three flags are used, blue, white and yellow, and it is stated that the last is the most frequently useful of the three. The enormous development of the field telegraph and telephone systems in the elaborate war of positions of 1904-1905 more or less crowded out, so to speak, visual signalling on both sides, and in any case the average illiterate Russian infantryman or the Cossack was not adaptable to signalling needs. Only about one-quarter of the signalling force (which consisted exclusively of engineer troops) in Kuropatkin's army was employed in optical work, the other three- quarters being assigned to telegraph, wireless and telephone station work. The Italians, who are no strangers to colonial warfare, have a well-developed visual signalling system. See British Official Training Manuals: Signalling (1907). Railway Signalling. — In railway phraseology the term " signal " is applied to a variety of hand motions and indications by lamps and other symbols, as well as to fixed signals; but only the last-named class — disks and semaphores, with lights, perman- ently fixed (on posts) at the side of the track — will be considered here. These may be divided into (1) interlocking signals, used at junctions and yards, and (2) block signals, for maintaining an interval of space between trains following one another. In both classes the function of a signal is to inform the engine-driver whether or not he may proceed beyond the signal, or on what conditions he may proceed, and it is essential to give him the information some seconds before it need be acted upon. The semaphore signal, which is now widely used, consists of an arm or blade about 5 ft. long extending horizontally, at right angles to the line of the track, from the top of a post (wood or iron) 15 to 30 ft. high, and sometimes higher (fig. 4). This arm, turning on a spindle, is pulled down (" off ") to indicate that a train may pass it, the horizontal (or " on") position indicating " stop "; sometimes, as on the continent of Europe, use is made of the position of the arm in which it points diagonally upwards, and on one or two English lines the arm in the safety position hangs down perpendicularly, parallel to, but a few inches away from, the post. A lamp is fixed to the side of the post about on a level with the blade, and by the movement of the blade is made to show at night red for " stop " and green for go-ahead or " all clear." The earlier practice, white for " all clear," still prevails largely in America. In the early days of railway signalling three positions of the semaphore arm were recognized: — (1) Horizontal, or at right angles to the post, denoting danger; (2) at a downward angle of 45 degrees, denoting caution; (3) hanging vertically downwards or parallel to the post, denoting all right. Corresponding to the position of the arm, three different lights were employed at night — red for danger, green for caution and white for all right. But now British railways make use of only two positions of the arm and two lights — the arm at right angles to the post and a red light, both signifying danger or stop ; and the arm at about 60 degress (or vertical, as mentioned above) and a green light, both meaning all right or proceed. It is better to abolish the use of white lights for signalling purposes. The reason is obvious. There are many lights and lamps on the plat- forms, in signal-boxes and in the streets and houses adjacent to a rail- way; and if white lights were recognized as signals, a driver might mistake a light of this nature as a signal to proceed; in fact, accidents have been caused in this manner. A white light is not to be regarded as a danger signal, as is sometimes erroneously stated, but rather as no signal at all ; and as there is a well-known rule to the effect that " the absence of a signal at a place where a signal is ordinarily shown must be treated as a danger signal," it follows that a white light, when seen at a place where a red or green light ought to be visible, is to be treated as a danger signal, not because a white light per se means danger, but because in such a case it denotes the absence of the proper signal. Some companies have adopted a purple or small white light as a " danger " signal for shunting purposes in sidings and yards; but this practice is not to be com- mended, since red should be the universal danger signal. Distant signals are used to make it unnecessary for an engine- driver to slacken his speed in case the stop (home) signal is obscured by fog or smoke, or is beyond a curve, or for any reason is not visible sufficiently far away. Encountering the distant signal at a point 400 to 800 yds. before reaching the home signal, he is informed by its position that he may expect to find the latter in the same position; if it is " off " he passes it, knowing that the home signal must be in the same position, but if it is at danger he proceeds cautiously, prepared to stop at the home signal, if necessary. The arm of a distant signal usually has a fish-tail end. In Great Britain its colour indications are generally the same as for the home signal, but occasionally it shows yellow, and on some lines it is distinguished at night by an angular band of light, shaped like a fish-tail, which appears by the side of the red or green light. In America its night colour-indication is made different from that of the home signal. Thus, where white is used to indicate all clear (in both home and distant) the distant arm, when horizontal, shows a green light; where green is the all- clear colour a horizontal distant shows either a yellow light or (on one road) a red and a green light side by side. Two lights for a single arm, giving their indication by position as well as colour, have been used to a limited extent for both home and distant signals. Dwarf signals (a in fig. 5) are used for very slow movements, such as those to or from a siding. Their blades are about 1 ft. long, and the posts about 4 ft. high; the lower arm on post c being for slow movements, is also frequently made shorter than the upper one. Where more than two full-sized arms are used on a post, the custom in America is to have the upper arm indicate for the track of the extreme right, and the others in the order in which the tracks lie; in Great Britain the opposite rule prevails, the upper arm indicating for the extreme left. But the signals controlling a large number of parallel or diverging tracks are preferably arranged side by side, often on a narrow overhead bridge or gantry spanning the tracks. All the switches and locks are con- nected with the signal cabin by iron rods (channel-iron or gas-pipe) supported (usually near the ground and often covered by boxing) on small grooved wheels set at suitable distances apart. The foundations of these supports are of wood, cast iron or concrete. Concrete foundations are comparatively recent, but are cheap and durable. For signals (but not for points) wire connexions are uni- versal in England, and are usual in America, being cheaper than rods. In changing the direction of a line of rodding a bell-crank is used, but with a wire a piece of chain is inserted and run round a grooved pulley. Wire connexions are shown at a and b, fig. 4, the main or " front " wire being attached at a. By this the signalman moves the arm down to the inclined or go- ahead position, to do which he has to lift the counter- Q>G 4ff An. s) J Fig. 4. — Semaphore signal. R, Red glass; G, green glass. 7+ SIGNAL weight c. If the wire should break, the counter-weight would restore the arm to the horizontal (stop) position, and thus prevent the unauthorized passage of a train; and in case of failure of the rod I, the iron spectacle s would act as a safety counter-weight. The back-wire 6 is added to ensure quick movement of the arm, but is not common in England. Long lines of rigid connexions are "compensated" for expansion and contraction due to changes in temperature by the introduction of bell-cranks or rocker-arms. With wire connexions compen- sation is difficult, and many plans have been tried. The most satisfactory devices are those in which the connexion, in the cabin, between the wire and the lever is broken when the signal is in the horizontal position. The wire is kept taut by a weight or spring, and at each new movement the lever (if the wire has lengthened or shortened) grips it at a new place. So early as 1846 it became a common practice in England to concentrate the levers for working the points and signals of a station in one or more cabins, and the necessity of interlocking soon became evident to prevent simul- taneous signals being given over conflicting routes, or for a route not yet prepared to receive the train. In large terminals concentration and interlocking are essential to rapid movements of trains and economical use of ground. Fig. 5 shows a typical arrangement of interlocked signals, the principle being the same whether a yard has one set of points or Inter- locking. Fig. 5.- -Interlocked signals (American practice, signals at right track and arms at right of post). a hundred. The signals (at a, b, and c) are of the semaphore pattern. For the four signals and one pair of points there are, in the second storey of the cabin C, five levers. Each signal arm stands normally in the horizontal position, indicating stop. To permit a train to pass from A to B the signalman moves the arm of signal b to an inclined position (60 degrees to 75 degrees down- wards); and the interlocking of the levers prevents this move- ment unless it can safely be made. If a has been changed to permit a movement from S to B, or if the points x have beeen set for such a movement, or if either signal on post c has been lowered, the lever for b is immovable. In like manner, to incline the arm of signal a for a movement from S to B it is first necessary to have the points set for track S, and to have the levers of all the other signals in the normal (stop) position. A sixth lever, suitably interlocked, works a lock bar, which engages with the head rod of the points; it is connected to the lock through the " detector bar," d. This bar, lying alongside of and close to the rail, must move upwards when the points lock is being moved either to lock or to unlock; and being made of such a length that it is never entirely free of the wheels of any car or engine standing or moving over it, it is held down by the flanges, and the signalman is prevented from inadvertently changing the points when a train is passing. At r is a throw-off or derailing switch (" catch- points "). When x is set for the passage of trains on the main line, r, connected to the same lever, is open; so that if a car, left on the side track unattended, should be accidentally moved from its position, it could not run foul of the main track. The function of the interlocking machine is to prevent the simultaneous display of conflicting signals, or the display of a signal over points that are not set accordingly. The most common forms of interlocking have the locking bars arranged in a horizontal plane; but for ease of description we may take one having them arranged vertically, the principle being the same. The diagram (fig. 6) shows a section with a side view of one lever. A machine consists of as many levers, placed side by side, as there are points and signals to be moved, though in some cases two pairs of points are moved simultaneously by a single lever, and two or more separate arms on the same post may be so arranged that either one of them will be moved by the same lever, the position of the point connexions being made to govern the selection of the arm to be moved. A switch rod would be connected to this lever at H; the lever K is for use where a signal is con- nected by two wires, as before described. The lever is held in each of its two positions by the catch rod V, which en- gages with notches in the segment B. When the signalman, preparatory to lowering a signal, grasps the lever at its upper end, he moves thisrodupwards, and in so doing actuates the interlocking, through the tappet N, attached at T. Lifting the tappet locks all levers which need to be locked to make it safe to move this one. In pulling over the lever the rocker R is also pulled; but the slot in it is radial to the centre on which B the lever turns, so that during the stroke N remains motionless. On the completion of the stroke and the dropping of V, N is raised still farther, and this unlocks such levers as should be unlocked after this lever is pulled ("cleared" or "reversed"). It will be seen that whenever the tappet N of any lever is locked in the Fig. 6. — Signal Lever, with Mechanical Interlocking. Fig. 7. — Interlocking Frame. and position shown in the figure, it is impossible to raise V, therefore impossible to move the lever. The action of tappet N may be understood by reference to fig. 7. A tappet, say 3, slides vertically in a planed recess in the locking plate, being held in place by strips G and K. Transverse SIGNAL 75 Power Inter- »tof ToA Fig. 8.- grooves N, O, P, carry dogs, such as J. Two dogs maybe con- nected together by bars, R. The dogs are held in place by straps Y (fig. 6). Locking is effected by sliding the dogs horizon- tally; for example, dog J has been pushed into the notch in tappet i, holding it in the normal position. If tappet 2 were raised, its notch would come opposite dog J; and then the lifting of 1 would lock 2 by pushing J to the left. By means of horizontal rod R, the lifting of 1 also locks 4. If 4 were already up, it would be impossible to lift 1. Switch and signal machines are sometimes worked by com- pressed air, or electric or hydraulic power. The use of power makes it possible to move points at a greater distance from the cabin than is permissible with manual locking. power. The most widely used apparatus is the electro- pneumatic, by which the points and signals are moved by compressed air at 70 ft) per sq. in., a cylinder with piston being fixed at each signal or switch. From a compressor near the cabin, air is conveyed in iron pipes buried in the ground. The valves admitting air to a cylinder are controlled by electro- magnets, the wires of which are laid from the cabin underground. Each switch or signal, on completing a movement, sends an electric impulse to the cabin, and the interlocking is controlled by this " return." In the machine the " levers " are very small and light, their essential i forest, and helped in the excavation of a well which Amar Das was constructing at Goindwal. Jetha was of such a mild temper that, even if any one spoke harshly to him, he would endure it and never retaliate. He became known as Ram Das, which means God's slave; and on account of his piety and devo- tion Amar Das gave him his daughter in marriage and made him his successor. Ram Das is amongst the most revered of gurus, but no particular innovation is ascribed to him. He founded, however, the golden temple of Amritsar in a.d. 1577, which has remained ever since the centre of the Sikh religious worship. From this time onward the office of guru became hereditary, but the practice of primogeniture was not followed, each guru selecting the relative who seemed most fitted to succeed him. Ram Das himself, finding his eldest son Prithi Chand worldly and disobedient, and his second unfitted by his too retiring disposition for the duties of guru, appointed his third son, Arjan, to succeed him. When Prithi Chand represented that he ought to have received the turban bound on Guru Arjan's head in token of succession to his father, Arjan meekly handed it to him, without, however, bestowing on him the guruship. The Sikhs themselves soon revolted against the exactions of Prithi Chand, and prayed Arjan to assert himself else the seed of the True Name would perish. It was Guru Arjan who compiled the Granth or Sikh Bible, out of his own and his predecessors' compositions. On this account he was accused of deposing the deities of his country and substituting for them a new divinity, but he was acquitted by the tolerant Akbar. When Akbar, however, was succeeded by Jahangir the guru aided the latter's son Khusru to escape with a gift of money. On this account his property was confiscated to the state, and he was thrown into rigorous imprisonment and tortured to death. Arjan saw clearly that it was impossible to preserve his sect without force of arms, and one of his last injunctions to his son Har Govind was to sit fully armed on his throne and maintain an army to the best of his ability. This was the turning-point in the history of the Sikhs. Hitherto they had been merely an insignificant religious sect; now, stimulated by persecution, they became a militant and political power, inimical to the Mahommedan rulers of the country. When Har Govind was installed as guru, Bhai Budha, the aged Sikh who performed the ceremony, presented him with a turban and a necklace, and charged him to wear and preserve them as the founder of his religion had done. Guru aov'tnd"'' Har Govind promptly ordered that the articles should be relegated to his treasury, the museum of the period. He said: " My necklace shall be my sword-belt, and my turban shall be adorned with a royal aigrette." He then sent for his bow, quiver, arrows, shield and sword, and arrayed himself in martial style, so that, as the Sikh chronicler states, his splendour shone like the sun. The first four gurus led simple ascetic lives and were regardless of wordly affairs. Guru Arjan, who was in charge of the great Sikh temple at Amritsar, received copious offerings and became a man of wealth and influence, while the sixth guru became a military leader, and was frequently at warfare with the Mogul authorities. Several warriors and wrestlers, hearing of Guru Har Govind's fame, came to him for service. He enrolled as his body- guard fifty-two heroes who burned for the fray. This formed the nucleus of his future army. Five hundred youths then came to him for enlistment from the Manjha, Doab and Malwa districts. These men told him that they had no offering to make to him except their lives; for pay they only required instruction in his religion; and they professed themselves ready to die in his service. The guru gave them each a horse and five weapons of war, and gladly enlisted them in his army. In a short time, besides men who required regular pay, hordes gathered round the guru who were satisfied with two meals a day and a suit of clothes every six months. The fighting spirit of the people 86 SIKHISM was roused and satisfied by the spiritual and military leader. Har Govind was a hunter and eater of flesh, and encouraged his followers to eat meat as giving them strength and daring. It is largely to this practice that the Sikhs owe the superiority of their physique over their surrounding Hindu neighbours. The regal state that the guru adopted and the army that he maintained were duly reported to the emperor Jahangir. In the Autobiography of Jahangir it is stated that the guru was imprisoned in the fortress of Gwalior, with a view to the realization of the fine imposed on his father Guru Arjan, but the Sikhs believe that the guru became a voluntary inmate of the fortress with the object of obtaining seclusion there to pray for the emperor who had been advised to that effect by his Hindu astrologers. After a time Jahangir died and was succeeded by Shah Jahan, with whom the guru was constantly at war. On three separate occasions after desperate fighting he defeated the royal troops sent against him. Many legends are told of his military prowess, for which there is no space in this summary. The guru before his death at Kiratpur, on the margin of the Sutlej, instructed his grandson and successor, Guru Har Rai, to retain two thousand two hundred mounted soldiers ever with him as a precautionary measure. Har Rai was charged with friendship for Dara Shikoh, the son of Shah Jahan, and also with preaching a religion £ a/ _ distinct from Islam. He was, therefore, summoned to Delhi, but instead of going himself he sent his son Ram Rai and shortly afterwards died. His ministry was mild but won him general respect. The eighth guru was the second son of Har Rai, but he died when a child and too young to leave any mark on Krishna, history. His elder brother Ram Rai was passed over in his favour and also in favour of the next guru for having altered a line of the Granth to please the emperor Aurangzeb. As the direct line of succession died out with Har Krishan, the guruship harked back at this point to Teg Bahadur, the second son of Har Govind and uncle of Har Rai. Teg Bahadur Bahadur. was P ut t0 death for refusal to embrace Islam by Aurangzeb in a.d. 1675. It is of him that the legend is told that during his imprisonment in Delhi he was accused by the emperor of looking towards the west in the direction of the imperial zenana. The guru replied, " Emperor Aurangzeb, I was on the top storey of my prison, but I was not looking at thy private apartments or at thy queen's. I was looking in the direction of the Europeans who are coming from beyond the seas to tear down thy purdahs and destroy thine empire." This prophecy became the battle-cry of the Sikhs in the assault on Delhi in 1857. Teg Bahadur was succeeded by the tenth and most powerful guru, his son Govind Singh; and it was under him that what had sprung into existence as a quietist sect of a purely oovlnd religious nature, and had become a military society Singh. for self -protection, developed into a national movement which was to rule the whole of north-western India and to furnish to the British arms their stoutest and most worthy opponents. For some years after his father's execution Govind Singh, then known as Gobind Rai, lived in retirement, brooding over the wrongs of his people and the persecutions of the fanatical Aurangzeb. He felt the necessity for a larger following and a stronger organization, and following the example of his Mahom- medan enemies used his religion as the basis of political power. Emerging from his retirement he preached the Khalsa, the " pure," and it is by this name his followers are now known. He, like his predecessors, openly attacked all distinctions of caste, and taught the equality of all men who would join him, and he instituted a ceremony of initiation with baptismal holy water by which all might enter the Sikh fraternity. The higher castes murmured, and many of them left him, for he taught that the Brahmanical threads must be broken; but the lower orders rejoiced and flocked in numbers to his standard. These he inspired with military ardour in the hope of social freedom and of national independence. He gave them outward signs of their faith in the five K's — which will subsequently be explained — he signified the military nature of their calling by the title of " singh " or " lion " and by the wearing of steel, and he strictly prohibited the use of tobacco. The following are the main points of his teaching: Sikhs must have one form of initiation, sprinkling of water by five of the faithful; they should worship the one invisible God and honour the memory of Guru Nanak and his successors; their watchword should be, " Sri wall guru ji ka khalsa, sri wah guru ji ki fatah " (Khalsa of God, victory to God!), but they should revere and bow to nought visible save the Granth Sahib, the book of their belief; they should occasionally bathe in the sacred tank of Amritsar; their locks should remain unshorn; and they should name themselves singhs or lions. Arms should dignify their person; they should ever practise their use'; and great would be the merit of those who fought in the van, who slew the enemies of their faith, and who despaired not although overpowered by superior numbers. The religious creed of Guru Govind Singh was the same as that of Guru Nanak: the God, the guru and the Granth remained unchanged. But while Nanak had substituted holiness of life for vain ceremonial, Guru Govind Singh demanded in addition brave deeds and zealous devotion to the Sikh cause as proof of faith; and while he retained his predecessors' attitude towards the Hindu gods and worship he preached undying hatred to the persecutors of his religion. During the spiritual reign of Guru Govind Singh the religious was partially eclipsed by the military spirit. The Mahommedans promptly responded to the challenge, for the danger was too serious to be neglected; the Sikh army was dispersed and two of Guru Govind Singh's sons were murdered at Sirhind by the governor of that fortress, and his mother died of grief at the cruel death of her grandchildren. The death of the emperor Aurangzeb brought a temporary lull: the guru assisted Aurangzeb 's suc- cessor, Bahadur Shah, and was himself not long after assassinated at Nander in the Deccan. As all the guru's sons predeceased him, and as he was disappointed in his envoy Banda, he left no human successor, but vested the guruship in the Granth Sahib and his sect. No formal alteration has been made in the Sikh religion since Guru Govind Singh gave it his military organization, but certain modifications have taken place as the result of time and contact with Hinduism. After the guru's death the gradual rise of the Sikhs into the ruling power of northern India until they came in collision with the British arms belongs to the secular history of the Punjab (q.v.). The chief ceremony initiated by Guru Govind Singh was the Khanda ka Pahul or baptism by the sword. This baptism may not be conferred until the candidate has reached an age of discrimination and capacity to remember obligations, cere- seven years being fixed as the earliest age, but it is monies. generally deferred until manhood. Five of the initiated must be present, all of whom should be learned in the faith. An Indian sweetmeat is stirred up in water with a two-edged sword and the novice repeats after the officiant the articles of his faith. Some of the water is sprinkled on him five times, and he drinks of it five times from the palms of his hands; he then pronounces the Sikh watchword given above and promises adherence to the new obligations he has contracted. He must from that date wear the five K's and add the word singh to his original name. The five K's are (1) the kcs or uncut hair of the whole body, (2) the kachh or short drawers ending above the knee, (3) the kara or iron bangle, (4) the khanda or small steel dagger,(s) the khanga or comb. The five K's and the other esoteric observ- ances of the Sikhs mostly had a utilitarian purpose. When fighting was a part of the Sikh's duty, long hair and iron rings concealed in it protected his head from sword cuts. The kachh or drawers fastened by a waist-band was more convenient and suitable for warriors than the insecurely tied dhoti of the Hindus or the tamba of the Mahommedans. So also the Sikh's physical strength was increased by the use of meat and avoidance of tobacco. Another Sikh ceremony is the kara parshad or com- munion made of butter, flour and sugar, and consecrated with certain ceremonies. The communicants sit round, and the. kara SIKH WARS 8 / The Slkhlsm par shad is then distributed equally to all the faithful present, no matter to what caste they belong. The object of this ceremony is to abolish caste distinctions. There may be said to be three degrees of strictness in the observances of the Sikhs. There may first be mentioned the zealots such as the Akalis, who, though generally quite illiterate, aim at observing the injunctions of o'tto^day. Guru Govind Singh; secondly, the true Sikhs or Singhs who observe his ordinances, such as the prohibi- tions of cutting the hair and the use of tobacco; and, thirdly, those Sikhs who while professing devotion to the tenets of the gurus are almost indistinguishable from ordinary Hindus. These are largely Nanakpanti Sikhs, or followers only of Guru Nanak. The Nanakpanti Sikhs do not wear the hair long, nor use any of the outward signs of the Sikhs, though they reverence the Cranth Sahib and above all the memory of their guru. They are distinguished from the Hindus by no outward sign except a slight laxity in the matter of caste observances. Sikhism attained its zenith under the military genius of Ranjit Singh. After the Biitish conquest of the Punjab the military spirit of the Sikhs remained for some time in abeyance. Then came the mutiny, and Sikhs once more were recruited in numbers and saved India for the British crown. Peace returned, and during the next twenty or twenty-five years Sikhism reached its lowest ebb; but since then the demand for Sikhs in the regiments of the Indian army and farther afield has largely revived the faith. The establishment of Singh Sabhas, of Sikh newspapers, and the spread of education have largely tended in the same direction, but the strict ethical code of Sikhism and the number of its obligatory divine services have caused many to fall away from the faith: nor does the austere Sikh ritual appeal to women, who generally prefer Hinduism with its picturesque material worship and the brightness of its innumerable festivals. At the present day the stronghold of Sikhism still remains the great Phulkian states of Patiala, Nabha and Jind and the surrounding districts of Ludhiana, Lahore, Amritsar, Jullundur and Gujranwala. In these states and districts are recruited the soldiers who form one of the main bulwarks of the British empire in India. For authorities see Cunningham, History of the Sikhs; Sir Lepel Griffin, Maharaja Ranjit Singh ("Rulers of India" series, 1892); Falcon, Handbook on Sikhs; and specially M. Macauliffe, The Sikh Religion: Its Gurus, Sacred Writings and Authors (6 vols., 1909), and two lectures before the United Service Institution of India on " The Sikh Religion and its Advantages to the State " and " How the Sikhs became a Militant Race." (M. M.) SIKH WARS, two Indian campaigns fought between the Sikhs and the British, which resulted in the conquest and annexation of the Punjab (see Punjab). First Sikh War (1843-46). — The first Sikh War was brought about by the insubordination of the Sikh army, which after the death of Ranjit Singh became uncontrollable and on the nth of December 1845 crossed the Sutlej, and virtually declared war upon the British. The British authorities had foreseen the outbreak, and had massed sufficient troops at Ferozepore, Ludhiana and Umballa to protect the frontier, but not to offer provocation. So complete were the preparations for advance that on the 12th, the day after the Sikhs crossed the Sutlej, Sir Hugh Gough, the commander-in-chief, marched 16 m. with the Umballa force to Rajpura; on the 13th the governor-general, Sir Henry Hardinge, declared war, and by the 18th the whole army had marched 150 m. to Moodkee, in order to protect Ferozepore from the Sikh attack. Wearied with their long march, the British troops were enjoying a rest, when the news came in that the Sikhs were advancing to battle at four o'clock in the afternoon. The British had some 10,000 men, and the Sikhs are estimated by some authorities as low as 10,000 infantry with 2000 cavalry and 22 guns. The battle opened with an artillery duel, in which the British guns, though inferior in weight, soon silenced the enemy, the 3rd Light Dragoons delivered a brilliant charge, and the infantry drove the enemy from position after position with great slaughter and the loss of seventeen guns. The victory was complete, but the fall of night prevented it from being followed up, and caused some of the native regiments to fire into each other in the confusion. After the battle of Moodkee Sir Henry Hardinge volunteered to serve as second in command under Sir Hugh Gough, a step which caused some confusion in the ensuing battle. At 4 a.m. on the 21st of December the British advanced S hah. from Moodkee to attack the Sikh entrenched camp under the command of Lai Singh at Ferozeshah, orders having been sent to Sir John Littler, in command at Ferozepore, to join the main British force. At n a.m. the British were in front of the Sikh position, but Sir John Littler, though on his way, had not yet arrived. Sir Hugh Gough wished to attack while there was plenty of daylight; but Sir Henry Hardinge re- asserted his civil authority as governor-general, and forbade the attack until the junction with Littler was effected. The army then marched on to meet Littler and the battle did not begin until between 3.30 and 4 p.m. The engagement opened with an artillery duel, in which the British again failed to gain the mastery over the Sikhs. The infantry, therefore, advanced to the attack; but the Sikh muskets were as good as the British, and fighting behind entrenchments they were a most formidable foe. Sir John Littler's attack was repulsed, the 62nd regiment losing heavily in officers and men, while the sepoys failed to support the European regiments. But the Moodkee force, undaunted, stormed and captured the entrenchment, though the different brigades and regiments lost position and became mixed up together in the darkness. The army then passed the night on the Sikh position, while the Sikhs prowled round keeping up an incessant fire. In the morning the British found that they had captured seventy-three pieces of cannon and were masters of the whole field; but at that moment a fresh Sikh army, under Tej Singh, came up to the assistance of the scattered forces of Lai Singh. The British were exhausted with their sleepless night, the native troops were shaken, and a determined attack by this fresh army might have won the day; but Tej Singh, after a half-hearted attack, which was repulsed, marched away, whether from cowardice, incapacity or treason, and left the British masters of the position. After the battle of Ferozeshah the Sikhs retired behind the Sutlej, but early in January they again raided across the river near Ludhiana, and Sir Harry Smith was detached to protect that city. On the 21st of January he was approaching Ludhiana when he found the Sikhs under Runjoor Singh in an entrenched position flanking his line of march at Budhowal. Sir Harry Smith passed on without fighting a general action, but suffered considerable loss in men and baggage. After receiving reinforcements Sir Harry again advanced from Ludhiana and attacked the Sikhs at Aliwal on the 28th of January. An attack upon the Sikh left near the village of Aliwal gave Sir Flarry the key of the position, and a brilliant charge by the 16th Lancers, which broke a Sikh square, com- pleted their demoralization. The Sikhs fled in confusion, losing sixty-seven guns, and by this battle were expelled from the south side of the Sutlej. Ever since Ferozeshah Sir Hugh Gough had been waiting to receive reinforcements, and on the 7th of February his siege train arrived, while on the following day Sir Harry Smith's force returned to camp. On the 10th of February Sir Hugh attacked the Sikhs, who occupied a strong entrenched position in a bend of the Sutlej. After two hours' cannonading, the infantry attack commenced at 9 A.M. The advance of the first brigade was not immediately successful, but the second brigade following on carried the entrenchments. The cavalry then charged down the Sikh lines from right to left and completed the victory. The Sikhs, with the river behind them, suffered terrible carnage, and are computed to have lost 10,000 men and 67 guns. The British losses throughout the campaign were considerably heavier than was usual in Indian warfare; but this was partly due to the fact that the Sikhs were the best natural fighters in India, and partly to the lack of energy of the Hindostani sepoys. After the battle of Sobraon Aliwal. 88 SIKKIM ChUllaa- waJla. the British advanced to Lahore, where the treaty of Lahore was signed on the nth of March. Second Sikh War {1848-1840). — For two years after the battle of Sobraon the Punjab remained a British protectorate, with Sir Henry Lawrence as resident; but the Sikhs were unconvinced of their military inferiority, the Rani Jindan and her ministers were constantly intriguing to recover their power, and a further trial of strength was inevitable. The outbreak came at Multan, where on the 20th of April 1848 the troops of the Dewan Mulraj broke out and attacked two British officers, Mr Vans Agnew and Lieutenant Anderson, eventually murdering them. On hearing of the incident, Lieut. Herbert Edwardes, who was Sir Henry Lawrence's assistant in the Derajat, advanced upon Multan with a force of levies drawn from the Pathan tribes of the frontier; but he was not strong enough to do more than keep the enemy in check until Multan was invested by a Bombay column under General Whish. In the meantime Edwardes wished for an immediate British advance upon Multan; but Lord Gough, as he had now become, decided on a cold season campaign, on the ground that, if the Sikh government at Lahore joined in the rising, the British would require all their available strength to suppress it. Multan was invested on the 18th of August by General Whish in conjunction with the Sikh general Shere Singh; but during the course of the siege Shere Singh deserted and joined the rebels, thus turning the rising into a national war. The siege of Multan was temporarily abandoned, but was resumed in November, when Lord Gough's main advance had begun, and Mulraj surrendered on the 22nd of January. In the meantime Lord Gough had collected his army and stores, and on the 9th of November crossed the Sutlej. On the 22nd of November there was a cavalry skirmish at Ramnagar, in which General Cureton and Colonel Havelock were killed. For a month after this Lord Gough remained inactive, waiting to be reinforced by General Whish from Multan; but at last he decided to advance without General Whish, and fought the battle of Chillianwalla on the 13th of January 1849. Lord Gough had intended to encamp for the night; but the Sikh guns opening fire revealed the fact that their army had advanced out of its intrenchments, and Lord Gough decided to seize the opportunity and attack at once. An hour's artillery duel showed that the Sikhs had the advantage both in position and guns, and the infantry advance commenced at three o'clock in the afternoon. The battle resulted in great loss to the European regiments, the 24th losing all its officers in a few minutes, while the total loss in killed and wounded amounted to 2338; but when darkness fell the British were in possession of the whole of the Sikh line. Lord Gough subse- quently retired to the village of Chillianwalla, and the Sikhs returned and carried off their guns. After the battle Lord Gough received an ovation from his troops, but his losses were thought excessive by the public in England and the directors of the East India Company, and Sir Charles Napier was appointed to super- sede him. Before, however, the latter had time to reach India, the crowning victory of Gujrat had been fought and won. After the fall of Multan General Whish marched to join Lord Gough, and the junction of the two armies was effected on the 1 8th of February. In the meantime the Sikhs had withdrawn from their strong intrenchments at Russool, owing to want of provisions, and marched to Gujrat, which Lord Gough considered a favourable position for attacking them. By a series of short marches he prepared the way for his " last and best battle." In this engagement, for the first time in either of the Sikh wars, the British had the superiority in artillery, in addition to a picked force of 24,000 men. The battle began on the morning of the 21st of February with two and a half hours' artillery fire, which was overwhelmingly in favour of the British. At 11.30 a.m. Lord Gough ordered a general advance covered by the artillery; and an hour and a half later the British were in possession of the town of Gujrat, of the Sikh camp, and of the enemy's artillery and baggage, and the cavalry were in full pursuit on both flanks. In this battle the British only lost 96 killed and 700 wounded, while the Sikh loss was enormous, in addition to 67 guns. This decisive victory ended the war. On the 1 2th of March the Sikh leaders surrendered at discretion, and the Punjab was annexed to British India. See Sir Charles Gough and A. D. Innes, The Sikhs and the Sikh Wars (1897) ; and R. S. Rait. Life and Campaigns of Viscount Cough (1903)- SIKKIM, called by Tibetans Dejong (" the rice country "), a protected state of India, situated in the eastern Himalaya, between 27 5' and 28° 9' N. and between 87 59' and 88° 56' E. It comprises an area of 2818 sq. m. of what may be briefly described as the catchment basin of the headwaters of the rivers Tista and Rangit. On the S. and S.E., branches of these rivers form the boundary between Sikkim and British India, while on the W., N. and N.E. Sikkim is separated from Nepal, Tibet and Bhutan by the range of lofty mountains which culminate in Kinchinjunga and form a kind of horse-shoe, whence dependent spurs project southwards, gradually contracting and lessening in height until they reach the junction of the Rangit and the Tista. Thus the country is split up into a succession of deep valleys surmounted by open plateaus cut off from one another by high and steep ridges, and lies at a very considerable elevation, rising from 1000 ft. above sea-level at its southern extremity to 16,000 or 18,000 ft. on the north. The main trade-passes into Tibet, such as the Jelep (14,500), Chola (14,550), and Kangra-la (16,000), are not nearly so high as in the western Himalaya, while those into Nepal are less than 12,000 ft. Physical Features. — Small though the country is, a wide variation of climate makes it peculiarly interesting. From a naturalist's point of view it can be divided into three zones. The lowest, stretch- ing from 1000 to 5000 ft. above sea- level, may be called the tropical zone; thence to 13,000 ft., the upper limit of tree vegetation, the temperate; and above, to the line of perpetual snow, the alpine. Down to about 1880 Sikkim was covered with dense forests, only interrupted where village clearances had bared the slopes for agri- culture, but at the present time this description does not apply below 6000 ft., the upper limit at which maize ripens; for here, owing to increase of population (particularly the immigration of Nepalese settlers) , almost every suitable spot has been cleared for cultivation. The exuberance of its flora may be imagined when it is considered that the total flowering plants comprise some 4000 species ; there are more than 200 different kinds of ferns, 400 orchids, 20 bamboos, 30 rhododendrons, 30 to 40 primulas, and many other genera are equally profuse; in fact Sikkim contains types of every flora from the tropics to the poles, and probably no other country of equal or larger extent can present such infinite variety. Butterflies abound and comprise about 600 species, while moths are estimated at 2000. Birds are profusely represented, numbering between 500 and 600 species. Among mammals, the most interesting are the snow leopard (Felis unica), the cat-bear {Aelurus fulgens) , the musk deer (Moschus moschiferus) and two species of goat antelope (Nemorhaedus bubalinus and Cemas goral). Copper and lime are the chief minerals found and worked in Sikkim, but they are of little commercial value at present. Government and Population. — The population is essentially agri- cultural, each family living in a house on its own land : there are no towns or villages, and the only collection of houses, outside the Lachen and Lachung valleys, are the few that have sprung up round country market-places, such as Rhenock, Dikkeling and Gangtok; but in the above-mentioned valleys the inhabitants, who are Bhutanese in origin and herdsmen in occupation, have large clusters of well-built houses at various altitudes up the valleys, which they occupy^ in rotation according to the season of the year. The seat of government, or in other words the palace of the raja, was formerly situated at Rubdentze ; but when that place was taken and destroyed by the Gurkhas, a new palace was built at Tumlong, close to the eastern and Tibetan boundary, while a subsidiary summer residence was erected on the other side of the Chola range at Chumbi, in the Am-mochu valley. At the present time the raja and his court remain in the more open country at Gangtok, where the British political officer and a small detachment of native troops are also stationed. 1 The first regular census of Sikkim, in 1901, returned the population at 59,014, showing an apparent increase of nearly twofold in the decade. Of the total, 65 % were Hindus and 35 % Buddhists. The Lepchas, supposed to be the original inhabitants, numbered only 8000, while no less than 23,000 were immigrants from Nepal. The state religion is Buddhism as practised in Tibet, but is not confined to one particular sect ; while among the heterogeneous popu- lation of Sikkim all manner of religious cults can be found. Educa- tion is at a low ebb, though the monasteries are supposed to maintain schools, and missionary enterprise has established others. The revenue of Sikkim has increased under British guidance from Rs. 20,000 a year to nearly Rs. 1,60,000, derived chiefly from a land and poll tax, excise, and sale of timber; the chief expenditure is on SILA— SILENUS 89 the maintenance of the state, which practically means the raja's family, and on the improvement of communications. The country has a complete system of mountain roads, bridged and open to animal (but not cart) traffic. British trade with Central Tibet is carried over the Jelep route, on the south-eastern border of Sikkim. History. — The earliest inhabitants of Sikkim were the Rong-pa (ravine folk), better known as Lepchas, probably a tribe of Indo- Chinese origin; but when or how they migrated to Sikkim is un- known. The reigning family, however, is Tibetan, and claims descent from one of the Gyalpos or princelings of eastern Chinese Tibet ; their ancestors in course of several generations found their way westwards to Lhasa and Sakya, and thence down the Am-mochu valley ; finally, about the year 1604, Penchoo Namyg6 was born at Gangtok, and in 1 64 1, with the aid of Lha-tsan Lama and two other priests of the Duk-pa or Red-hat sect of Tibet, overcame the Lepcha chiefs, who had been warring among themselves, established a firm government and introduced Buddhist Lamaism as a state religion. His son, Tensung Namyge, very largely extended his kingdom, but much of it was lost in the succeeding reign of Chak-dor Namyge (1700-1717), who is credited with having designed the alphabet now in use among the Lepchas. In the beginning of the 18th century Bhutan appropriated a large tract of country on the east. Between 1776 and 1792 Sikkim was constantly at war with the victorious Gurkhas, who were, however, driven out of part of their conquests by the Chinese in 1792; but it was not until 1 816 that the bulk of what is known to us as Sikkim was restored by the British, after the defeat of the Nepalese by General Ochterlony. In 1839 the site of Darjeeling was ceded by the raja of Sikkim. In 1849 the British resumed the whole of the plains (Tarai) and the outer hills, as punishment for repeated insults and injuries. In 1861 a Britisn force was required to impose a treaty defining good relations. The raja, however, refused to carry out his obligations and defiantly persisted in living in Tibet ; his administra- tion was neglected, his subjects oppressed, and a force of Tibetan soldiers was allowed, and even encouraged, to seize the road and erect a fort within sight of Darjeeling. After months of useless re- monstrance, the government was forced in 1888 to send an expedi- tion, which drove the Tibetans back over the Jelep pass. A con- vention was then concluded with China in 1890, whereby the British protectorate over Sikkim was acknowledged and the boundary of the state defined ; to this was added a supplemental agreement relating to trade and domestic matters, which was signed in 1893. Since that time the government has been conducted by the maharaja assisted by a council of seven or eight of his leading subjects, and guided by a resident British officer. Crime, of which there is little, is punished under local laws administered by kazis or petty chiefs. Since 1904 political relations with Sikkim, which had formerly been conducted by the lieutenant-governor of Bengal, have been in the hands of the Viceroy. Rajas of Sikkim (Dejong-Gyalpo) : Penchoo Namgye (1641- 1670), Tensung Namgye (1670-1700), Chak-dor Namgye (1700- 1717), Gyur-me Namgye (1717-1734), Penchoo Namgye (1734- 1/80), Tenzing Namgy6 (1780-1790), Cho-phoe Namgye (1790- 1861), Sikhyong Namgye (^861-1874), Tho-tub Namgye (1874), the maharaja, whose son has been educated at Oxford. Authorities. — Sir J. W. Edgar, Report on a Visit to Sikkim and the Tibetan Frontier in 1873 (Calcutta, 1874); Macaulay, Report on a Mission to Sikkim and the Tibetan Frontier (Calcutta, 1885) ; The Gazetteer of Sikkim (Calcutta, 1894) ; Hooker, Himalayan Journals (London, 1854); L. A. Waddell, Lamaism (London, 1895); Among the Himalayas (London, 1898). (A. W. P.) SILA, a mountainous forest district of Calabria, Italy, to the E. of Cosenza, extending for some 37 m. N. to S. and 25 m. E. to W. The name goes back to the Greek period, and then pro- bably belonged to a larger extension of territory than at present. In ancient times these mountains supplied timber to the Greeks for shipbuilding, the forests have given way to pastures to some extent; but a part of them, which belongs to the state, is maintained. Geologically these mountains, which consist of granite, gneiss and mica schist, are the oldest portion of the Italian peninsula; their culminating point is the Botte Donato (6330 ft), and they are not free of snow until the late spring. They are very rarely explored by travellers. SILANION, a Greek sculptor of the 4th century B.C. He was noted as a portrait-sculptor. Of two of his works, his heads of Plato and of Sappho, we possess what seem to be copies. Both are of simple ideal type, the latter of course not strictly a portrait, since Sappho lived before the age of portraits. The best copy of the Plato is in the Vatican. SILAS (fl. a.d. 50), early Christian prophet and missionary, was the companion of St Paul on the second journey, when he took the place formerly held by Barnabas. The tour included S. Galatia, Troas, Philippi (where he was imprisoned), Thes- salonica and Beroea, where Silas was left with Timothy, though he afterwards rejoined Paul at Corinth. He is in all probability the Silvanus l who is associated with Paul in the letters to the Thessalonians, mentioned again in 2 Cor. i. 19, and the bearer and amanuensis of 1 Peter (see v. 12). It is possible, indeed, that he has an even closer connexion with this letter, and some scholars (e.g. R. Scott in The Pauline Epistles, 1909) are inclined to give him a prominent place among the writers of the New Testament.. He was of Jewish birth and probably also a Roman citizen. SILAY, a town of the province of Negros Occidental, island of Negros, Philippine Islands, on the N.W. coast, about 10 m. N. of Bacolod, the capital of the province. Pop. (1903, after the annexation of Guimbalon and a portion of Eustaquio Lopez) - 22,000. There are more than fifty barrios or villages in the town and the largest of these had, in 1903, 3834 inhabitants. The language is Visayan. There is a considerable coasting trade, sugar, brought by a tramway from neighbouring towns, is shipped from here, and the cultivation of sugar-cane is an important in- dustry; Indian corn, tobacco, hemp, cotton and cacao are also grown. SILCHAR, a town of British India, in the Cachar district of Eastern Bengal and Assam, of which it is the headquarters. Pop. (1901) 9256. It is situated on the left bank of the river Barak, with a station on the Assam-Bengal railway, 271 m. N. of Chittagong. Silchar is the centre of an important tea industry, and the headquarters of the volunteer corps known as the Surma Valley Light Horse. SILCHESTER, a parish in the north of Hampshire, England, about 10 m. S. of Reading, containing the site of the Romano- British town Calleva Atrebatum. This site has been lately explored (1890-1909) and the whole plan of the ancient town within the walls recovered; unfortunately the excavators had to abandon their task before the suburbs, cemeteries and what- ever else may lie outside the walls have been examined. The results are published in Archacologia, the official organ of the London Society of Antiquaries (-see Britain: Roman). As the excavations proceeded, the areas excavated were covered in again, but the ruins of the town hall, which have been famous since the 12th century, still remain. The smaller and movable objects found in the excavations have been deposited by the duke of Wellington, owner of the site of Calleva, in the Reading museum. SILENUS, a primitive Phrygian deity of woods and springs. As the reputed inventor of music he was confounded with Marsyas. He also possessed the gift of prophecy, but, like Proteus, would only impart information on compulsion; when surprised in a drunken sleep, he could be bound with chains of flowers, and forced to prophesy and sing (Virgil, Eel. vi., where he gives an account of the creation of the world; cf. Aelian, Var. hist. iii. 18). In Greek mythology he is the son of Hermes (or Pan) and a nymph. He is the constant companion of Dionysus, whom he was said to have instructed in the cultivation of the vine and the keeping of bees. He fought by his side in the war against the giants and was his companion in his travels and adventures. The story of Silenus was often the subject of Athenian satyric drama. Just as there were supposed to be several Pans and Fauns, so there were many Silenuses, whose father was called Papposilenus (" Daddy Silenus "), represented as completely covered with hair and more animal in appearance. The usual attributes of Silenus were the wine-skin (from which he is inseparable), a crown of ivy, the Bacchic thyrsus, the ass, and sometimes the panther. In art he generally appears as a little pot-bellied old man, with a snub nose and a bald head, riding on an ass and supported by satyrs; or he is depicted lying asleep on his wine-skin, which he sometimes bestrides. A more dignified type is the Vatican statue of Silenus carrying the infant Dionysus, and the marble group from the villa Borghese in the Louvre. See Preller- Robert, Griechische Mythologie (1894), PP- 729-735; Talfourd Ely, " A Cyprian Terracotta," in the Archaeological Journal (1896); A. Baumeister, Denkmdler des klassischen Altertums, iii. (l? OON 1 For the abbreviation, cf. Lucas, Prisca ( = Priscilla), Sopater ( = Sosipater). go SILESIA SILESIA, the name of a district in the east of Europe, the greater part of which is included in the German empire and is known as German Silesia. A smaller part, called Austrian Silesia, is included in the empire of Austria-Hungary. German Silesia. ■ German Silesia is bounded by Brandenburg, Posen, Russian Poland, Galicia, Austrian Silesia, Moravia, Bohemia and the kingdom and province of Saxony. Besides the bulk of the old duchy of Silesia, it comprises the countship of Glatz, a fragment of the Neumark, and part of Upper Lusatia, taken from the kingdom of Saxony in 1815. The province, which has an area of 15,576 sq. m. and is the largest in Prussia, is divided into three governmental districts, those of Liegnitz and Breslau comprising lower Silesia, and of Oppeln taking in the greater part of moun- tainous Silesia. Physiographically Silesia is roughly divided into a flat and a hilly portion by the so-called Silesian Langental, which begins on the south-east near the river Malapane, and extends across the province in a west-by-north direction to the Black Elster, following in part the valley of the Oder. The south-east part of the province, to the east of the Oder and south of the Malapane, consists of a hilly outpost of the Carpathians, the Tarnowitz plateau, with a mean elevation of about 1000 ft. To the west of the Oder the land rises gradually from the Langental towards the southern boundary of the province, which is formed by the central part of the Sudetic system, including the Glatz Mountains and the Riesengebirge (Schneekoppe, 5260 ft.). Among the loftier elevations in advance of this southern barrier the most conspicuous is the Zobten (2356 ft.). To the north and north-east of the Oder the province belongs almost entirely to the great North-German plain, though a hilly ridge, rarely attaining a height of 1000 ft., may be traced from east to west, asserting itself most definitely in the Katzengebirge. Nearly the whole of Silesia lies within the basin of the Oder, which flows through it from south-east to north-west, dividing the province into two approximately equal parts. The Vistula touches the province on the south-east, and receives a few small tributaries from it, while on the west the Spree and Black Elster belong to the system of the Elbe. The Iser rises among the mountains on the south. Among the chief feeders of the Oder are the Malapane, the Glatzer Neisse, the Katzbach and the Bartsch; the Bober and Queiss flow through Silesia, but join the Oder beyond the frontier. The only lake of any extent is the Schlawa See, 7 m. long, on the north frontier; and the only navigable canal, the Klodnitz canal, in the mining district of upper Silesia. There is a considerable difference in the climate of Lower and Upper Silesia ; some of the villages in the Riesengebirge have the lowest mean temperature of any inhabited place in Prussia (below 40 F.). Of the total area of the province 56% is occupied by arable land, 10-2% by pasture and meadow, and nearly 29% by forests. The soil along the foot of the mountains is generally good, and the district between Ratibor and Liegnitz, where 70 to 80% of the surface is under the plough, is reckoned one of the most fertile in Germany. The parts of lower Silesia adjoining Brandenburg, and also the district to the east of the Oder, are sandy and comparatively unproductive. The different cereals are all grown with success, wheat and rye sometimes in quantity enough for exportation. Flax is still a frequent crop in the hilly districts, and sugar-beets are raised over large areas. Tobacco, oil-seeds, chicory and hops may also be specified, while a little wine, of an inferior quality, is produced near Grunberg. Mulberry trees for silk-culture have been introduced and thrive fairly. Large estates are the rule in Silesia, where about a third of the land is in the hands of owners possessing at least 250 acres, while properties of 50,000 to 100,000 acres are common. The districts of Oppeln and Liegnitz are among the most richly wooded parts of Prussia. The merino sheep was introduced by Frederick the Great, and since then the Silesian breed has been greatly improved. The woods and mountains harbour large quantities of game, such as red deer, roedeer, wild boars and hares. The fishery includes salmon in the Oder, trout in the mountain streams, and carp in the small lakes or ponds with which the province is sprinkled. The great wealth of Silesia, however, lies underground, in the shape of large stores of coal and other minerals, which have been worked ever since the 12th century. The coal measures of Upper Silesia, in the south-east part of the province, are among the most extensive in continental Europe, and there is another large field near Waldenburg in the south-west. The output in 1905 exceeded 34 million tons, valued at £12,500,000 sterling, and equal, to more than a quarter of the entire yield of Germany. The district of Oppeln also contains a great quantity of iron, the production in 1905 amounting to 862,000 tons. The deposits of zinc in the vicinity of Beuthen are perhaps the richest in the world, and produce two- thirds of the zinc ore of Germany (609,000 tons). The remaining mineral products include lead, from which a considerable quantity of silver is extracted, copper, cobalt, arsenic, the rarer metal cadmium, alum, brown coal, marble, and a few of the commoner precious stones, jaspers, agates and amethysts. The province contains scarcely any salt or brine springs, but there are well-known mineral springs at Warmbrunn, Salzbrunn and several other places. A busy manufacturing activity has long been united with the underground industries of Silesia, and the province in this respect is hardly excelled by any other part of Prussia. On the plateau of Tarnowitz the working and smelting of metals is the predominant industry, and in the neighbourhood of Beuthen, Konigshtitte and Gleiwitz there is an almost endless succession of iron-works, zinc- foundries, machine-shops and the like. At the foot of the Riesenge- birge, and along the southern mountain line generally, the textile industries prevail. Weaving has been practised in Silesia, on a large scale, since the 14th century; and Silesian linen still maintains its reputation, though the conditions of production have greatly changed. Cotton and woollen goods of all kinds are also made in large quantities, and among the other industrial products are beetroot sugar, spirits, chemicals, tobacco, starch, paper, pottery, and " Bohemian glass." Lace, somewhat resembling that of Brussels, is made by the women of the mountainous districts. The trade of Silesia is scarcely so extensive as might be expected from its im- portant industrial activity. On the east it is hampered by the stringent regulations of the Russian frontier, and the great waterway of the Oder, though in process of being regulated, is sometimes too low in summer for navigation. The extension of the railway system has, however, had its usual effect in fostering commerce, and the mineral and manufactured products of the province are freely exported. At the census of 1905 the population of Silesia was 4,942,611, of whom 2,120,361 were Protestants, 2,765,394 Catholics and 46,845 Jews. The density is 317 per sq. m., but the average is of course very greatly exceeded in the industrial districts such as Beuthen. Three-fourths of the inhabitants and territory are; German, but to the east of the Oder the Poles, more than 1,000,000 in number, form the bulk of the population, while there are about 15,500 Czechs in the south part of the province and 25,000 Wends near Liegnitz. The Roman Catholics, most of whom are under the ecclesiastical sway of the prince bishop of Breslau, are predominant in Upper Silesia and Glatz; the Protestants prevail in Lower Silesia, to the west of the Oder, and in Lusatia. The nobility is very numerous in Silesia, chiefly in the Polish districts. The educational institutions of the province are headed by the university of Breslau. In 1900 the percentage of illiterate recruits, in spite of the large Polish-speaking contingent, was only 0-05. The capital and seat of the provincial diet is Breslau (q.v.), which is also by far the largest and most important town. The towns next in point of size are Gorlitz, Liegnitz, Konigshtitte. Beuthen, Schweidnitz, Neisse and Glogau. The province sends thirty-five members to the Reichstag and sixty-five to the Prussian chamber of deputies. The government divisions of Breslau and Oppeln together form the district of the 6th army corps with its headquarters at Breslau, while Liegnitz belongs to that of the 5th army corps, the headquarters of which are at Posen. Glogau, Glatz and Neisse are fortresses. History. — The beginnings of Silesian history do not reach back beyond the 10th century a.d., at which time the district was occupied by clans of Slavonic nationality, one of which derived its name from the mountain Zlenz (mod. Zobtenburg), near Breslau, and thus gave rise to the present appellation of the whole province. The etymology of place-names suggests that the original population was Celtic, but this conjecture cannot be verified in any historical records. About the year 1000 the Silesian clans were incorporated in the kingdom of Poland, whose rulers held their ground with difficulty against continuous attacks by the kings of Bohemia, but maintained themselves successfully against occasional raids from Germany. The decisive factor in the separation of Silesia from Poland was furnished by a partition of the Polish crown's territories in 1138. Silesia was henceforth constituted as a separate principality, and in 1201 its political severance from Poland became complete A yet more important result of the partition of 1138 was the transference of Silesia to the German nation. The independent dynasty which was then established was drawn under the influence of the German king, Frederick Barbarossa, and two princes who in 1163 divided the sovereignty among themselves as dukes of Upper and Lower Silesia inaugurated the policy SILESIA 9* of inviting German colonists to their vacant domains. More extensive immigrations followed, in the course of which the whole of Silesia was covered with German settlements. The numerous townships which then sprang up acquired rights of self-govern- ment according to German law, Breslau being refounded about 1 250 as a German town, and a feudal organization was introduced among the landholding nobility. By the end of the 13th century Silesia had virtually become a German land. This ethnical transformation was accompanied by a great rise in material prosperity. Large areas of forest or swamp were reclaimed for agriculturs; the great Silesian industries of mining and weaving were called into existence, and Breslau grew to be a leading centre of exchange for the wares of East and West . The growing resources of the Silesian duchies are exempli- fied by the strength of the army with which Henry II., duke of Lower Silesia, broke the force of the Mongol invasion at the battle of Liegnitz (1241), and by the glamour at the court of the Minnesinger, Henry IV. (1 266-1 290) . This prosperity, however, was checked by a growing tendency among the Silesian dynasties to make partitions of their territories at each new succession. Thus by the end of the 14th century the country had been split up into 18 principalities: Breslau, Brieg, Glogau, Jauer, Liegnitz, Munsterberg, 01s, Schweidnitz and Steinau in Lower Silesia; Beuthen, Falkenberg, Kosel, Neisse, Oppeln, Ratibor, Strehlitz, Teschen and Troppau in the upper district. The petty rulers of these sections wasted their strength with internecine quarrels and proved quite incompetent to check the lawlessness of their feudal vassals. Save under the vigorous rule of some dukes of Lower Silesia, such as Henry I. and Bolko I., and the above- named Henry II. and IV., who succeeded in reuniting most of the principalities under their sway, the country fell into a state of growing anarchy. Unable to institute an effective national government, and unwilling to attach themselves again to Poland, the Silesian princes began about 1290 to seek the protection of the German dynasty then ruling in Bohemia. The intervention of these kings resulted in the establishment of their suzerainty over the whole of Silesia and the appropriation cf several of its petty states as crown domains. The earliest of these Bohemian overlords, King John and the emperor Charles IV., fully justified their intrusion by the vigorous way in which they restored order and regularized the administration; in particular, the cities at this time attained a high degree of material prosperity and political importance. Under later rulers the connexion with Bohemia brought the Silesians no benefit, but involved them in the destructive Hussite wars. At the outbreak of this conflict in 1420 they gave ready support to their king Sigismund against the Bohemian rebels, whom they regarded as dangerous to their German nationality, but by this act they exposed themselves to a series of invasions (1425-1435) by which the country was severely devastated. In consequence of these raids the German element of population in Upper Silesia permanently lost ground ; and a complete restitution of the Slavonic nationality seemed imminent on the appointment of the Hussite, George Podiebrad, to the Bohemian kingship in 1457. Though most of the Silesian dynasts seemed ready to acquiesce, the burghers of Breslau fiercely repudiated the new suzerain, and before he could enforce his claims to homage he was ousted by the Hungarian king, Matthias Corvinus, who was readily recognized as overlord (1469). Matthias enforced his authority by the vigorous use of his mercenaries and by wholesale confiscations of the lands of turbu- lent nobles. By instituting a permanent diet of Silesian princes and estates to co-operate with his vicegerent, he took an important step towards the abolition of particularism and the establishment of an effective central government. In spite of these reforms the Silesians, who felt severely the financial exactions of Matthias, began to resent the control of the Bohemian crown. Profiting by the feebleness of Matthias' successor Vladislav, they extorted concessions which secured to them a practical autonomy. These privileges still remained to them at the outset of the religious Reformation, which the Silesians, in spite of their Catholic zeal during the Hussite wars, accepted readily and carried out with singularly little opposition from within or without. But a drastic revolution in their government was imposed upon them by the German king, Ferdinand I., who had been prevented from interference during his early reign by his wars with the Turks, and who showed little disposition to check the Reformation in Silesia by forcible means, but subse- quently reasserted the control of the Bohemian crown by a series of important enactments. He abolished all privileges which were not secured by charter and imposed a more rigidly centralized scheme of government in which the activities of the provincial diet were restricted to some judicial and financial functions, and their freedom in matters of foreign policy was withdrawn altogether. Henceforth, too, annexations of territory were frequently carried out by the Bohemian crown on the extinction of Silesian dynasties, and the surviving princes showed an increasing reluctance to the exercise of their authority. Accordingly the Silesian estates never again chose to exercise initiative save on rare occasions, and from 1550 Silesia passed almost completely under foreign administration. An uneventful period followed under the rule of the house of Habsburg, which united the kingship of Bohemia with the archduchy of Austria and the imperial crown. But this respite from trouble was ended by the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War (1618-48), which brought Silesia to the verge of ruin. Dis- quieted by some forcible attempts on Rudolph II. 's part to suppress Protestantism in certain parts of the country, and mistrusting a formal guarantee of religious liberty which was given to them in 1609, the Silesians joined hands with the Bohemian insurgents and renounced their allegiance to their Austrian ruler. Their defection, which was terminated by a capitulation in 1621, was not punished severely, but in spite of their attempt to maintain neutrality henceforth they were quite unable to secure peace. Silesia remained a principal objective of the various contending armies and was occupied almost continuously by a succession of ill-disciplined mercenary forces whose depredations and exactions, accentuated at times by religious fanaticism, reduced the country to a state of helpless misery. Three-quarters of the population are estimated to have lost their lives, and commerce and industry were brought to a standstill. Recovery from these disasters was retarded by the permanent diversion of trade to new centres like Leipzig and St Petersburg, and by a state of unsettlement due to the govern- ment's disregard of its guarantees to its Protestant subjects. A greater measure of religious liberty was secured for the Silesians by the representatives of King Charles XII. of Sweden on their behalf, and effective measures were taken by the emperor Charles VI. to stimulate commercial intercourse between Silesia and Austria. Nevertheless in the earlier part of the 18th century the condition of the country still remained unsatisfactory. An important epoch in the history of Silesia is marked by the year 1 740, when the dominion of Austria was exchanged for that of Prussia. Availing himself of a testamentary union made in 1 537 between the duke of Liegnitz and the elector of Brandenburg, and of an attempt by the elector Frederick William to call it into force in spite of its annulment by Ferdinand I. in 1546, Frederick II. of Prussia raised a claim to the former duchies of Liegnitz, Brieg, Jagerndorf and Wohlau. The empress Maria Theresa, who was at this time involved with other enemies, was unable to prevent the occupation of Lower Silesia by Frederick and in 1 741 ceded that province to him. In the following year Frederick renewed his attack and extorted from Austria the whole of Silesia except the districts of Troppau, Teschen and Jagerndorf, the present province of Austrian Silesia. Though constrained by the general dangers of her position to make terms with Prussia, Maria Theresa long cherished the hope of recovering a possession which she, unlike her predecessors, valued highly and held by a far better title than did her opponent. A second war which Fiederick began in 1744 in anticipation of a counter-attack from her only served to strengthen his hold upon his recent conquest; but in the famous Seven Years' War (q.v.) of 1756-63 the Austrian empress, aided by France and Russia, almost effected her purpose. Silesia was repeatedly overrun by 92 SILESIAN WARS— SILICA Austrian and Russian troops, and Frederick's ultimate expulsion seemed only a question of time. Yet the Prussian king recovered his lost ground by gigantic efforts and eventually retained his Silesian territory undiminished. The annexation by Frederick was followed by a complete reorganization in which the obsolete powers of the local dynasts were abolished and Silesia became a mere province of the highly centralized Prussian state. Owing to the lack of a corporate Silesian consciousness and the feebleness of their local institutions, the people soon became reconciled to their change of rulers. Moreover Frederick, who had proved by his wars the importance which he attached to Silesia, was indefatigable in times of peace in his attempts to justify his usurpation. Making yearly visits to the country, and further keeping himself in touch with it by means of a special " minister of Silesia," he was enabled to effect numerous political reforms, chief of which were the strict enforce- ment of religious toleration and the restriction of oppressive seignorial rights. By liberal endowments and minute but judicious regulations he brought about a rapid development of Silesian industries; in particular he revived the mining and weaving operations which at present constitute the country's chief source of wealth. After its incorporation with Prussia Silesia ceases to have an independent political history. During the Napoleonic wars it was partly occupied by French troops (1806-1813), and at the begin- ning of the War of Liberation it was the chief scene of operations between the French and the allied armies. In 1815 it was enlarged by a portion of Lusatia, which had become detached from Silesia as far back as the nth century and since then had been annexed to the kingdom of Saxony. During the rest of the 19th century its peace has been interrupted from time to time by riots of discontented weavers. But the general record of recent times has been one of industrial development and prosperity hardly inferior to that of any other part of Germany. See C. Griinhagen, Geschichte Schlesiens (2 vols., Gotha, 1884- 1886), and Schlesien unter Friedrich dem Grossen (2 vols., Gotha, 1 890-1892) ; M. Morgenbesser, Geschichte von Schlesien (Berlin, 1892) ; Knotel, Geschichte Ober schlesiens (Kattowitz, 1906) ; H. Grotefend, Stammtafeln der schlesischen Fiirsten bis 1740 (Breslau, 1889); F. Rachfahl, Die Organisation der Gesamtstaatsverwaltung Schlesiens vor dem dreissigjdhrigen Kriege (Leipzig, 1894); H. Fechner, Geschichte des schlesischen Berg- und Hiittenwesens 1/41-1806 (Berlin, 1903) ; see also the Zeitschrift des Vereins fur Geschichte und Altertunt Schlesiens (Breslau, 1855 sqq.), and Oberschlesische Heimat, Zeit- schrift des ober schlesischen Geschichtsvereins (Oppeln, 1905 sqq.). Austrian Silesia. Austrian Silesia (Ger. Osterreichisch-Schlesien) is a duchy and crownland of Austria, bounded E. by Galicia, S. by Hungary and Moravia, W. and N. by Prussian Silesia. It has an area of 1987 sq. m. and is the smallest province of Austria. Silesia is divided by a projecting limb of Moravia into two small parts of territory, of which the western part is flanked by the Sudetic mountains, namely the Altvater Gebirge; while the eastern part is flanked by the Carpathians, namely the Jablunka Gebirge with their highest peak the Lissa Hora (4346 ft.). A great pro- portion of the surface of Silesia is occupied by the offshoots of these ranges. The province is traversed by the Vistula, which rises in the Carpathians within eastern Silesia, and by the Oder, with its affluents the Oppa and the Olsa. Owing to its mountain- ous character, and its slopes towards the N. and N.E., Silesia has a somewhat severe climate for its latitude, the mean annual temperature being 50 F., while the annual rainfall varies from 20 to 30 in. Of the total area 49-4% is arable land, 34-2% is covered by forests, 6-2% by pasturages, while meadows occupy 5-8% and gardens 1-3%. The soil cannot, as a rule, be termed rich, although some parts are fertile and produce cereals, vegetables, beetroot and fruit. In the mountainous region dairy-farming is carried on after the Alpine fashion and the breeding of sheep is improving. Large herds of geese and pigeons are reared, while hunting and fishing constitute also important resources. The mineral wealth of Silesia is great and consists in coal, iron-ore, marble and slate. It possesses several mineral springs, of which the best known are the alkaline springs at Karlsbrunn. Like its adjoining provinces, Silesia boasts of a great and varied industrial activity, chiefly represented by the metallurgic and textile industries in all their branches. The cloth and woollen industries are concentrated at Bielitz, Jagerndorf and Engelsberg ; linen is manufactured at Freiwaldau Freudenthal and Bennisch ; cotton goods at Friedek. The iron industry is con- centrated at Trzinietz, near Teschen, and various industrial and agricultural machines are manufactured at Troppau, Jagerndorf, Ustron and Bielitz. The organs manufactured at Jagerndorf enjoy a good reputation. Other important branches of industry are chemicals at Hruschau and Petrowitz; sugar refineries, milling, brewing and liqueurs. In 1900 the population numbered 680,422, which corresponds to 342 inhabitants per sq. m. The Germans formed 44-69% of the population, 33-21% were Poles and 22-05% Czechs and Slavs. According to religion, 84-73 were Roman Catholics, 14% Protestants and the remainder were Jews. The local diet is composed of 31 members, and Silesia sends 12 deputies to the Reichsrat at Vienna. For administrative purposes Silesia is divided into 9 districts and 3 towns with autonomous munici- palities: Troppau, the capital, Bielitz and Friedek. Other principal towns are: Teschen, Polnisch-Ostrau, Jagerndorf, Karwin, Freudenthal, Freiwaldau and Bennisch. The actual duchy is only a very small part, which was left to Austria after the Seven Years' War, from its former province of the same name. It formed, with Moravia, a single province until 1849, when it was created a separate duchy. See F. Slama, Osterreichisch-Schlesien (Prague, 1887); and A. Peter, Das Herzogtum Schlesien (Vienna, 1884). SILESIAN WARS, the name given to the contests between Austria and Prussia for the possession of Silesia. The first (1740- 1742) and second (1 744-1 745) wars formed a part of the great European struggle called the War of the Austrian Succession (q.v.), and the third war (1756-1762) similarly a part of the Seven Years' War {q.v.). SILHOUETTE, ETIENNE DE (1709-1767), controller-general of France, was born at Limoges on the 5th of July 1709. He travelled extensively while still a young man and drew attention to himself by the publication of English translations, historical writings, and studies on the financial system of England. Suc- cessively councillor to the parlement of Metz, secretary to the duke of Orleans, member of the commission on delimitation of Franco-British interests in Acadia (1749), and royal commis- sioner in the Indies Company, he was named controller-general through the influence of the marquise de Pompadour on the 4th of March 1759. The court at first reposed a blind confidence in him, but soon perceived not only that he was not a financier but also that he was bent on attacking privilege by levj'ing a land-tax on the estates of the nobles and by reducing the pensions. A storm of opposition gathered and broke: a thousand cartoons and jokes were directed against the unfortunate minister who seemed to be resorting to one financial embarrassment in order to escape another; and in allusion to the sacrifices which he demanded of the nobles, even the conversion of their table plate into money, silhouette became the popular word for a figure reduced to simplest form. The word was eventually (1835) admitted to the dictionary by the French academy. Silhouette was forced out of the ministry on the 21st of November 1759 and withdrew to Brie-sur-Marne, where during the remainder of his life he sought refuge from scorn and sarcasm in religious devotion. He died on the 20th of January 1767. Silhouette left, several translations from the English and the Spanish, accounts of travel, and dull historical and philosophical writings, a list of which is given in Querard, France litteraire, ix. 138. A Testament politique, published under his name in 1772, is apochry- phal. See J. P. Clement and A. Lemoine, M. de Silhouette (Paris, 1872). SILICA, in chemistry, the name ordinarily given to amorphous silicon dioxide, Si0 2 . This chemical compound is widely and most abundantly distributed in nature, both in the free state and in combination with metallic oxides. Free silica constitutes the greater part of sand and sandy rocks; when fairly pure it occurs in the large crystals which we know as quartz (q.v.), and which, when coloured, form the gem-stones amethyst, cairngorm, cats'-eye and jasper. Tridymite (q.v.) is a rarer form, crystallo- graphically different from quartz. Amorphous forms also occur: chalcedony (q.v.), and its coloured modifications agate, carnelian, SILICON 93 onyx and sard, together with opal (qq.v.) are examples. Amorph- ous silica can be obtained from a silicate (a compound of silica and a metallic oxide) by fusing the finely powdered mineral with sodium carbonate, decomposing the sodium silicate thus formed with hydrochloric acid, evaporating to dryness to convert the colloidal silicic acid into insoluble silica, and removing the soluble chlorides by washing with hot water. On drying, the .silica is obtained as a soft white amorphous powder, insoluble in water and in all acids except hydrofluoric; it dissolves in hot solutions of the caustic alkalis and to a less extent in alkali carbonates. It melts at a high temperature, and in the electric furnace it may be distilled, the vapours condensing to a bluish- white powder. By heating a solution of sodium silicate in a glass vessel the glass is attacked (an acid silicate being formed) and silica separates at ordinary temperatures in a hydrated amorphous form, at higher temperatures but below 180° as tridymite, and above 180° as quartz. Silicates. — These compounds are to be regarded as salts of silicic acid, or combinations of silicon dioxide and metallic basic oxides; they are of great importance since they constitute the commonest rock-forming and many other minerals, and occur in every petro- graphical species. The parent acid, silicic acid, was obtained by T. Graham by dialysing a solution of hydrochloric acid to which sodium silicate had been added; a colloidal silicic acid being re- gained in the dialyser. This solution may be concentrated until it contains about 14% of silica by open boiling, and this solution on evaporation in a vacuum gives a transparent mass of metasilicic acid, H 2 Si0 3 . The solution is a tasteless liquid having a slight acid reaction; it gradually changes to a clear transparent jelly, which afterwards shrinks on drying. This coagulation is brought about very quickly by sodium carbonate, and may be retarded by hydro- chloric acid or by a solution of a caustic alkali. Several hydrated forms have been obtained, e.g. 2Si0 2 -H 2 0, 3Si0 2 -H 2 0, 4Si0 2 -H 2 0, 8Si0 2 -H 2 0; these are very unstable, the first two losing water on ex^ posure whilst the others absorb water. The natural silicates may be regarded as falling into 5 classes, viz. orthosilicates, derived from Si(OH) 4 ; metasilicates, from SiO(OH) 2 ; disilicates, from Si 2 3 (OH) 2 ; trisilicates, from Si 3 6 (0H) 2 ; and basic silicates. These acids may be regarded as derived by the partial dehydration of the ortho-acid. Another classification is given in Metallurgy; a list of mineral silicates is given in Mineralogy, and for the synthetical production of these compounds see also Petrology. SILICON [symbol Si, atomic weight 28-3 (0=i6)], a non- metallic chemical element. It is not found in the uncombined condition, but in combination with other elements it is, with perhaps the exception of oxygen, the most widely distributed and abundant of all the elements. It is found in the form of oxide (silica), either anhydrous or hydrated as quartz, flint, sand, chalcedony, tridymite, opal, &c, but occurs chiefly in the form of silicates of aluminium, magnesium, iron, and the alkali and alkaline earth metals, forming the chief constituent of various clays, soils and rocks. It has also been found as a constituent of various parts of plants and has been recognized in the stars. The element exists in two forms, one amorphous, the other crystalline. The older methods used for the preparation of the amorphous form, namely the decomposition of silicon halides or silicofluorides by the alkali metals, or of silica by magnesium, do not give good results, since the silicon obtained is always contaminated with various impurities, but a pure variety may be prepared according to E. Vigouroux (Ann. chim. phys., 1897, (7) 12, p. 1 53) by heating silica with magnesium in the presence of magnesia, or by heating silica with aluminium. The crystalline form may be prepared by heating potassium silicofluoride with sodium or aluminium (F. Wohler, Ann., 1856, 97, p. 266; 1857, 102, p. 382) ; by heating silica with magnesium in the presence of zinc (L. Gattermann, Ber., 1889, 22, p. 186); and by the reduc- tion of silica in the presence of carbon and iron (H. N. Warren, Chem. News, 1888, 57, p. 54; 1893, 67, p. 136). Another crystalline form, differing from the former by its solubility in hydrofluoric acid, was prepared by H. Moissan and F. Siemens (Comptes rendus, 1904, 138, p. 1299). A somewhat impure silicon (containing 90-98% of the element) is made by the Carborundum Company of Niagara Falls (United States Patents 745122 and 842273, 1908) by heating coke and sand in an electric furnace. The product is a crystalline solid of specific gravity 2-34, and melts at about 1430 C. See also German Patent 108817 for the production of crystallized silicon from silica and carborundum. Amorphous silicon is a brown coloured powder, the crystalline variety being grey, but it presents somewhat different appear- ances according to the method used for its preparation. The specific gravity of the amorphous form is 2-35 (Vigouroux), that of the crystalline variety varying, according to the method of preparation, from 2-004 to 2-493. The specific heat varies with the temperature, from 0-136 at -39 C. to 0-2029 a t 2 3 2 ° C. Silicon distils readily at the temperature of the electric furnace. It is attacked rapidly by fluorine at ordinary temperature, and by chlorine when heated in a current of the gas. It undergoes a slight superficial oxidation when heated in oxygen. It combines directly with many metals on heating, whilst others merely dissolve it. When heated with sodium and potassium, appar- ently no action takes place, but if heated with lithium it forms a lithium silicide, Li 6 Si2 (H. Moissan, Comptes rendus, 1902, 134, p. 1083). It decomposes ammonia at a red heat, liberating hydrogen and yielding a compound containing silicon and nitro- gen. It reduces many non-metallic oxides. It is only soluble in a mixture of hydrofluoric and nitric acid, or in solutions of the caustic alkalis, in the latter case yielding hydrogen and a silicate: Si+2KHO+H 2 = K !! SiOs+2H 2 . On fusion with alkaline car- bonates and hydroxides it undergoes oxidation to silica which dissolves on the excess of alkali yielding an alkaline silicate. Silicon hydride, SiH 4 , is obtained in an impure condition, as a spontaneously inflammable gas, by decomposing magnesium silicide with hydrochloric acid, or by the direct union of silicon and hydrogen in the electric arc. In the pure state it may be prepared by decom- posing ethyl silicoformate in the presence of sodium (C. Friedel and A. Ladenburg, Comptes rendus, 1867, 64, pp. 359, 1267) ; 4Si(OC 2 H 6 ) s = SiH4+3Si(OC 2 H 6 )4. When pure, it is a colourless gas which is not spontaneously inflammable at ordinary temperature and pressure, but a slight increase of temperature or decrease of pressure sets up decomposition. It is almost insoluble in water. It burns when brought into contact with chlorine, forming silicon chloride and hydrochloric acid. It decomposes solutions of silver nitrate and copper sulphate. A second hydride of silicon, of composition Si 2 H 6 , was prepared by H. Moissan and S. Smiles {Comptes rendus, 1902, pp. 569, 1549) from the products obtained in the action of hydrochloric acid on magnesium silicide. These are passed through a vessel surrounded by a freezing mixture and on fractionating the product the hydride distils over as a colourless liquid which boils at 52° C. It is also obtained by the decomposition of lithium silicide with concentrated hydrochloric acid. Its vapour is spontaneously inflammable when exposed to air. It behaves as a reducing agent. For a possible hydride (Si 2 H 3 )„ see J. Ogier, Ann. chim. phys., 1880, (5), 20, p. 5. Only one oxide of silicon, namely the dioxide or silica, is known (see Silica). Silicon fluoride, SiF 4 , is formed when silicon is brought into contact with fluorine (Moissan) ; or by decomposing a mixture of acid potas- sium fluoride and silica, or of calcium fluoride and silica with concen- trated sulphuric acid. It is a colourless, strongly fuming gas which has a suffocating smell. It is decomposed with great violence when heated in contact with either sodium or potassium. It combines directly with ammonia to form the compound SiF 4 -2NH3, and is absorbed by dry boric acid and by many metallic oxides. Water decomposes it into silicofluoric acid and silicic acid: 3SiF 4 +3H20=2H 2 SiF6+ H 2 Si0 3 . With potassium hydroxide it yields potassium silicofluoride, whilst with sodium hydroxide, sodium fluoride is produced: 3SiF4 = 4KHO= Si0 2 + 2K 2 SiF 6 + 2H 2 0; SiF 4 + 4NaOH = Si0 2 +4NaF + 2H 2 0. It combines directly with acetone and with various amines. Silicon fluoroform, SiHF 3 , was obtained by O. Ruff and Curt Albert (Ber., 1905, 38, p. 53) by decomposing titanium fluoride with silicon chloroform in sealed vessels at 100-120° C. It is a colourless gas which may be condensed to a liquid boiling at -80-2° C. On solidification it melts at about — no" C. The gas is very unstable, decomposing slowly, even at ordinary temperatures, into hydrogen, silicon fluoride and silicon: 4SiHF 3 =2H 2 +3SiF 4 -|-Si. It burns with a pale-blue flame forming silicon fluoride, silicofluoric acid and silicic acid. It is decomposed readily by water, sodium hydroxide, alcohol and ether: 2SiHF 3 +4H 2 = H 4 Si0 4 +H 2 SiF 6 +2H 2 ; SiHF 3 +3NaOH+H 2 = H 4 Si0 4 +3NaF+H 2 ; 2SiHF 3 +4C 2 H 6 0H=Si(0C 2 H 6 ) 4 + H 2 SiF 6 +2H 2 ; SiHF 3 +3(C2H 6 ) 2 = SiH(OC 2 H 6 )3+3C 2 H 5 F. Silicofluoric acid, H 2 SiF 6 , is obtained as shown above, and also by the action of sulphuric acid on barium silicofluoride, or by absorbing silicon fluoride in aqueous hydrofluoric acid. The solution on evaporation deposits a hydrated form, H 2 SiF6-2H 2 0, which decom- poses when heated. The anhydrous acid is not known, since on 94- SILISTRIA evaporating the aqueous solution it gradually decomposes into silicon fluoride and hydrofluoric acid. Silicon chloride, SiCl 4 , was prepared by J. J. Berzelius (Jahresb., 1825, 4, p. 91) by the action of chlorine on silicon, and is also ob- tained when an intimate mixture of silica and carbon is heated in a stream of chlorine and the products of reaction fractionated. It is a very stable colourless liquid which boils at 58° C. Oxygen only attacks it at very high temperatures. When heated with the alkali and alkaline earth metals it yields silicon and the corresponding metallic chlorides. Water decomposes «t into hydrochloric and silicic acids. It combines directly with ammonia gas to form SiCU-6NH 3 , and it also serves as the starting point for the prepara- tion of numerous organic derivatives of silicon. The hexachloride, Si 2 Cl6, is formed when silicon chloride vapour is passed over strongly heated silicon ; by the action of chlorine on the corresponding iodo- compound, or by heating the iodo-compound with mercuric chloride (C. Friedel, Comptes renins, 1871, 73, p. 49"). It is a colourless fuming liquid which boils at 146-148° C. It is decomposed by water, and also when heated between 350° and 1000 C, but it is stable both below and above these temperatures. The octochloride, Si 3 Cls, is formed to the extent of about J to I % in the action of chlorine on silicon (L. Gattermann, Ber., 1899, 32, p. 11 14). It is a colourless liquid which boils at 210 C. Water decomposes it with the forma- tion of silico-mesoxalic acid, HOOSi-Si(OH)2-SiOOH. Silicon chloro- form, SiHCl 3 , first prepared by H. Buff and F. Wohler (Ann., 1857, 104, p. 94), is formed by heating crystallized silicon in hydrochloric acid gas at a temperature below red heat, or by the action of hydro- chloric acid gas on copper silicide, the products being condensed by liquid air and afterwards fractionated (O. Ruff and Curt Albert, Ber., 1905, 38, p. 2222). It is a colourless liquid which boils at 33° C. It fumes in air and burns with a green flame. It is decomposed by cold water with the formation of silicoformic anhydride, H2Si 2 3 . It unites directly with ammonia gas yielding a compound of variable composition. It is decomposed by chlorine. Similar bromo-compounds of composition SiBr 4 , Si 2 Br 6 and SiHBr3 are known. Silicon tetraiodide, Silt, is formed by passing iodine vapour mixed with carbon dioxide over strongly-heated silicon (C. Friedel, Comptes rendus, 1868, 67, p. 98) ; the iodo-compound con- denses in the colder portion of the apparatus and is purified by shaking with carbon bisulphide and with mercury. It crystallizes in octahedra which melt at 120-5° C. and boil at 290° C. Its vapour burns with a red flame. It is decomposed by alcohol and also by ether when heated to 100° C: SiI 4 +2C 2 H 6 OH =Si0 2 +2C 2 H s I + 2HI; SiI 4 -H(C 2 H 5 ) 2 0==Si(OC 2 Hp 4 -4-4C 2 H 6 I. The hexaiodide, Si 2 I 6 , is obtained by heating the tetraiodide with finely divided silver to 300° C. It crystallizes in hexagonal prisms which exhibit double refraction. It is soluble in carbon bisulphide, and is decomposed by water and also by heat, in the latter case yielding the tetraiodide and the di-iodide, S12I4, an orange-coloured solid which is not soluble in carbon bisulphide. Silicon iodoform, SiHI 3 , is formed by the action of hydriodic acid on silicon, the product, which contains silicon tetraiodide, being separated by fractionation. It is also obtained by the action of hydriodic acid on silicon nitrogen hydride suspended in carbon bisulphide, or by the action of a benzene solution of hydri- odic acid on trianilino-silicon hydride (O. Ruff, Ber., 1907, 41, p. 3738). It is a colourless, strongly refracting liquid, which boils at about 220° C, slight decomposition setting in above 150° C. Water decomposes it with production of leucone. Numerous chloro-iodides and bromoiodides of silicon have been described. Silicon nitrogen hydride, SiNH, is a white powder formed with silicon amide when ammonia gas (diluted with hydrogen) is brought into contact with the vapour of silicon chloroform at -10° C. Trianilino silicon hydride, SiH(NHC6H 6 ) 3 , is obtained by the action of aniline on a benzene solution of silicon chloroform. It crystallizes in needles which decompose at 114° C. Silicon amide, Si(NH 2 )4, is obtained as a white amorphous unstable solid by the action of dry ammonia on silicon chloride at -50° C. (E. Vigouroux and C. Hugot, Comptes rendus, 1903, 136, p. 1670). It is readily decomposed by water: Si(NH 2 ) 4 +2H 2 = 4NH 3 +Si0 2 . Above o° C. it decom- poses thus: Si(NH 2 )4 = 2_HN 3 +Si(NH) 2 . Silicon sulphide, SiS 2 , is formed by the direct union of silicon with sulphur; by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen on crystallized silicon at red heat (P. Sabatier, Comptes rendus, 1880, 90, p. 819); or by passing the vapour of carbon bisulphide over a heated mixture of silica and carbon. It crystallizes in needles which rapidly de- compose when exposed to moist air. By heating crystallized silicon with boron in the electric furnace H. Moissan and A. Stock (Comptes rendus, 1900, 131, p. 139) obtained two borides, SiB 3 and SiB 6 . They are both very stable crystalline solids. The former is com- pletely decomposed when fused with caustic potash and the latter by a prolonged boiling with nitric acid. For silicon carbide see carborundum. Numerous methods have been given for the prepara- tion of magnesium silicide, Mg 2 Si, in a more or less pure state, but the pure substance appears to have been obtained by P. Lebeau (Comptes rendus, 1908, 146, p. 282) in the following manner. Alloys of magnesium and silicon are prepared by heating fragments of mag- nesium with magnesium filings and potassium silico-fluoride. From the alloy containing 25% of silicon, the excess of magnesium is removed by a mixture of ethyl iodide and ether and a residue con- sisting of slate-blue octahedral crystals of magnesium silicide is left. It decomposes water at ordinary temperature with evolution of hydrogen but without production of silicon hydride, whilst cold hydrochloric acid attacks it vigorously with evolution of hydrogen and spontaneously inflammable silicon hydride. Organic Derivatives of Silicon. The organic derivatives of silicon resemble the corresponding carbon compounds except in so far that the silicon atom is not capable of combining with itself to form a complex chain in the same manner as the carbon atom, the limit at present being a chain ' of three silicon atoms. Many of the earlier-known silicon alkyl compounds were isolated by Friedel and Crafts and by Ladenburg, the method adopted consisting in the interaction of the zinc alkyl compounds with silicon halides or esters of silicic acids. SiCU-H 2Zn(C 2 H 6 ) 2 = 2ZnCl 2 +Si(C 2 H6)4- This method has been modified by F. S. Kipping (Jour. Chem. Soc, 1901, 79, p. 449) and F. Taurke (Ber., 1905, 38, p. 1663) by condensing silicon halides with alkyl chlorides in the presence of sodium: SiCl4+4R-Cl-|-8Na = SiR4+8NaCl;SiHCl 3 +3R-Cl+6Na=SiHR 3 +6NaCl;whilstKipping (Proc. Chem. Soc, 1904, 20, p. 15) has used silicon halides with the Grignard reagent :C 2 H 6 MgBr(+SiCl4)->C 2 H 6 SiCl 3 (-|-MgBrPh)-> Ph-C 2 HrSiCi 2 (+MgBrC 3 H 7 )->Ph-C 2 H 5 -C ii H 7 -SiCl. Silicon Telramelhyl, Si(CH 3 ) 4 (tetramethyl silicane), and silicon tetraethyl, Si(C 2 H 6 ) 4 , are both liquids. The latter reacts with chlorine to give silicon nonyl-chloride Si(C 2 H5) 3 -C 2 H 4 Cl, which condenses with potassium acetate to give the acetic ester of silicon nonyl alcohol from which the alcohol (a camphor-smelling liquid) may be obtained by hydrolysis. Triethyl silicol, (C 2 H6)sSi-OH, is a true alcohol, obtained by condensing zinc ethyl with silicic ester, the resulting substance of composition, (C 2 H 6 ) 3 -SiOC 2 H5, with. acetyl chloride yielding a chloro-compound (C 2 H5) 3 SiCl, which with aqueous ammonia yields the alcohol. Silicon tetraphenyl, Si(C 6 H 5 ) 4 , a solid melting at 231° C, is obtained by the action of chlorobenzene on silicon tetrachloride in the presence of sodium. Silico-oxalic acid, (SiO-OH) 2 , obtained by decomposing silicon hexachloride with ice- cold water, is an unstable solid which is readily decomposed by the inorganic bases, with evolution of hydrogen and production of a silicate. Silicomesoxalic acid, HO-OSiSi(OH)2-SiO-OH, formed by the action of moist air on silicon octochloride at 0° C, is very unstable, and hot water decomposes it with evolution of hydrogen and forma- tion of silicic acid (L. Gattermann, Ber., 1899, 32, p. 1 1 14). Silica* benzoic acid, CsHs-SiO-OH, results from the action of dilute aqueous ammonia on phenyl silicon chloride (obtained from mercury diphenyl and silicon tetrachloride). It is a colourless solid which melts at 92° C. For silicon derivatives of the amines see Michaelis, Ber., 1896, 29, p. 710; on asymmetric silicon and the resolution of cK-benzyl-ethyl-propyl-silicol see F. S. Kipping, Jour. Chem. Soc, 1907, 91, pp. 209 et seq. The atomic weight of silicon has been determined usually by analysis of the halide compounds or by conversion of the halides into silica. The determination of W. Becker and G. Meyer (Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1905, 43, p. 251) gives the value 28-21, and the Inter- national Commission in 1910 has adopted the value 28-3. SILISTRIA (Bulgarian Silistra), the chief town of a department in Bulgaria and the see of an archbishop, situated on a low-lying peninsula projecting into the Danube, 81 m. below Rustchuk and close to the frontier of the Rumanian Dobrudja. Pop. (1892) 11,718; (1900) 12,133; (1908) 12,055, of whom 6142 were Bulgarians and 4126 Turks. The town was formerly a fortress of great strength, occupying the N.E. corner of the famous quadrilateral (Rustchuk, Silistra, Shumla, Varna), but its fortifications were demolished in accordance with the Berlin Treaty (1878). In the town is a large subterranean cavern, the Houmbata, which served as a refuge for its inhabitants during frequent bombardments. The principal trade is in cereals; wine and wood are also exported. The town is surrounded by fine vineyards, some 30 kinds of grapes being cultivated, and tobacco is grown. Sericulture, formerly a flourishing industry, has declined owing to a disease of the silk-worms, but efforts have been made to revive it. Apiculture is extensively practised and there are large market-gardens in the neighbourhood, The soil of the department is fertile, but lacking in water; the inhabitants have excavated large receptacles in which rain-water is stored. A considerable area is still covered with forest, to which the region owes its name of Deli Orman (" the wild wood") ; there are extensive tracts of pasturage, but cattle-rearing declined in 1 880-1910. A large cattle-fair, lasting three days, is held in' May. The town possessed in 1910 one steam flour-mill and some cloth factories and tanneries. Silistria was the Durostorum of the Romans (Bulgarian Drstr) ; the ancient name remains in the title of the archbishop, who is styled metropolitan of Dorostol, and whose diocese is now SILIUS ITALICUS 95 united with that of Tcherven (Rustchuk). It was one of the most important towns of Moesia Inferior and was successively the headquarters of the legio I. (Italica) and the legio XI. (Claudia). It was defended by the Bulgarian tsar Simeon against the Magyars and Greeks in 893. In 967 it was captured by the Russian prince Sviatoslav, whom the Byzantine emperor Nicephorus Phocas had summoned to his assistance. In 971 Sviatoslav, after a three months' heroic defence, surrendered the town to the Byzantines, who had meanwhile become his enemies. In 1388 it was captured by the Turks under Ali Pasha, the grand vizier of the sultan Murad. A few years later it seems to have been in the possession of the Walachian prince Mircea, but after his defeat by Mahommed I. in 1416 it passed finally into the hands of the Turks. Silistria flourished under Ottoman rule; Hajji Khalifa describes it as the most important of all the Danu- bian towns; a Greek metropolitan was installed here with five bishops under his control and a settlement of Ragusan merchants kept alive its commercial interests. In 1810 the town was surrendered to the Russians under Kamenskiy, who destroyed its fortifications before they withdrew, but they were rebuilt by foreign engineers, and in 1828-1829 were strong enough to offer a serious resistance to the Russians under Diebich, who captured the town with the loss of 3000 men. At that date the population including the garrison was 24,000, but in 1837 it was only about 4000. The town was held in pledge by the Russians for the pay- ment of a war indemnity (1829-1836). During the campaign of 1854 it was successfully defended by General Krach against the Russians under Paskievich; the circuit of its defences had been strengthened before this time by the outlying fortresses Medjid-tabia (built by English engineers) and Arab-tabia. It was again invested by the Russians in 1877, and on the con- clusion of peace was evacuated by the Turks. (J. D. B.) SILIUS ITALICUS, in full Titus Catius Silius Italicus (a.d. 25 or 26-101), Latin epic poet. His birthplace is unknown. From his cognomen Italicus the conclusion has been drawn that he came from the town of Italica in Spain; but Latin usage would in that case have demanded the form Italicensis, and it is highly improbable that Martial would have failed to name him among the literary celebrities of Spain in the latter half of the 1st century. The conjecture that Silius derived from Italica, the capital of the Italian confederation during the Social War, is open to still stronger objection. Most likely some ancestor of the poet acquired the title " Italicus " from having been a member of one of the corporations of "Italici" who are often mentioned in inscriptions from Sicily and else- where. In early life Silius was a renowned forensic orator, later a safe and cautious politician, without ability or ambition enough to be legitimately obnoxious to the cruel rulers under whom he lived. But mediocrity was hardly an efficient protec- tion against the murderous whims of Nero, and Silius was generally believed to have secured at once his own safety and his promotion to the consulship by prostituting his oratorical powers in the judicial farces which often ushered in the doom of the emperor's victims. He was consul in the year of Nero's death (68), and is mentioned by Tacitus as having been one of two witnesses who were present at the conferences between Vitellius and Flavius Sabinus, the elder brother of Vespasian, when the legions from the East were marching rapidly on the capital. The life of Silius after his consulship is well depicted by the younger Pliny: — " He conducted himself wisely and courteously as the friend of the luxurious and cruel Vitellius; he won repute by his proconsulship of Asia, and obliterated by the praiseworthy use he made of his leisure the stain he had incurred through his active exertions in former days. In dignity and contentment, avoiding power and therefore hostility, he outlived the Flavian dynasty, keeping to a private station after his governorship of Asia. " His poem contains only two passages relating to the Flavians; in both Domitian is eulogized as a warrior; in one he figures as a singer whose lyre is sweeter than that of Orpheus himself. Silius was a great student and patron of literature and art, and a passionate collector. Two great Romans of the past, Cicero and Virgil, were by him idealized and veritably worshipped; and he was the happy possessor of their estates at Tusculum and Naples. The later life of Silius was passed on the Campanian shore, hard by the tomb of Virgil, at which he offered the homage of a devotee. He closely emu- lated the lives of his two great heroes: the one he followed in composing epic verse, the other in debating philosophic questions with his friends of like tastes. Among these was Epictetus, who judged him to be the most philosophic spirit among the Romans of his time, and Cornutus, the Stoic, rhetorician and grammarian, who appropriately dedicated to Silius a commentary upon Virgil. Though the verse of Silius is not wrapped in Stoic gloom like that of Lucan, yet Stoicism lends in many places a not ungraceful gravity to his poem. Silius was one of the numerous Romans of the early empire who had the courage of their opinions, and carried into perfect practice the theory of suicide adopted by their school. Stricken by an incurable tumour, he starved himself to death, keeping a cheerful countenance to the end. Whether Silius committed to writing his philosophic dialogues or not, we cannot say. Chance has preserved to us his epic poem entitled Punica, in seventeen books, and comprising some fourteen thousand lines. In choosing the Second Punic War for his subject, Silius had, we know, many predecessors, as he doubtless had many followers. From the time of Naevius onwards every great military struggle in which the Romans had been engaged had found its poet over and over again. In justice to Silius and Lucan, it should be observed that the mythologic poet had a far easier task than the historic. In a well-known passage Petronius pointedly describes the difficulties of the historic theme. A poet, he said, who should take upon him the vast subject of the civil wars would break down beneath the burden unless he were " full of learning," since he would have not merely to record facts, which the historians did much better, but must possess an unshackled genius, to which full course must be given by the use of digressions, by bringing divine beings on to the stage, and by giving generally a mytho- logic tinge to the subject. The Latin laws of the historic epic were fixed by Ennius, and were still binding when Claudian wrote. They were never seriously infringed, except by Lucan, who substituted for the dei ex machina of his predecessors the vast, dim and imposing Stoic conception of destiny. By pro- tracted application, and being " full of learning," Silius had acquired excellent recipes for every ingredient that went to the making of the conventional historic epic. Though he is not named by Quintilian, he is probably hinted at in the mention of a class of poets who, as the writer says, " write to show their learning." To seize the moments in the history, however un- important, which were capable of picturesque treatment; to pass over all events, however important, which could not readily be rendered into heroics; to stuff out the somewhat modern heroes to something like Homeric proportions; to subject all their movements to the passions and caprices of the Olympians; to ransack the poetry of the past for incidents and similes on which a slightly new face might be put; to foist in by well- worn artifices episodes, however strange to the subject, taken from the mythologic or historic glories of Rome and Greece, — all this Silius knew how to do. He did it all with the languid grace of the inveterate connoisseur, and with a simplicity foreign to his time, which sprang in part from cultivated taste and horror of the venturesome word, and in part from the subdued tone of a life which had come unscathed through the reigns of Caligula, Nero and Domitian. The more threadbare the theme, and the more worn the machinery, the greater the need of genius. Two of the most rigid requirements of the ancient epic were abundant similes and abundant single combats. But all the obvious resemblances between the actions of heroic man and external nature had long been worked out, while for the renova- tion of the single combat little could be done till the hero of the Homeric type was replaced by the medieval knight. Silius, however, had perfect poetic appreciation, with scarce a trace of poetic creativeness. No writer has ever been more correctly and more uniformly judged by contemporaries and by posterity alike. Only the shameless flatterer, Martial, ventured to call 9 6 SILK his friend a poet as great as Virgil. But the younger Pliny gently says that he wrote poems with greater diligence than talent, and that, when, according to the fashion of the time, he recited them to his friends, " he sometimes found out what men really thought of them. " It is indeed strange that the poem lived on. Silius is never mentioned by ancient writers after Pliny except Sidonius, who, under different conditions and at a much lower level, was such another as he. Since the discovery of Silius by Poggio, no modern enthusiast has arisen to sing his praises. His poem has been rarely edited since the 18th century. Yet, by the purity of his taste and his Latin in an age when taste was fast becoming vicious and Latin corrupt, by his presentation to us of a type of a thousand vanished Latin epics, and by the historic aspects of his subject, Silius merits better treatment from scholars than he has received. The general reader he can hardly interest again. He is indeed of imitation all compact, and usually dilutes what he borrows; he may add a new beauty, but new strength he never gives. Hardly a dozen lines anywhere are without an echo of Virgil, and there are frequent admixtures of Lucretius, Horace, Ovid, Lucan, Homer, Hesiod and many other poets still extant. If we could reconstitute the library of Silius we should probably find that scarcely an idea or a phrase in his entire work was wholly his own. The raw material of the Punica was supplied in the main by the third decade of Livy, though Silius may have consulted other historians of the Hannibalic war. Such facts as are used are generally presented with their actual circumstances unchanged, and in their historic sequence. The spirit of the Punic times is but rarely misconceived — as when to secret voting is attributed the election of men like Flaminius and Varro, and distinguished Romans are depicted as contending in a gladiatorial exhibition. Silius clearly intended the poem to consist of twenty-four books, like -the Iliad and the Odyssey, but after the twelfth he hurries in visible weariness to the end, and concludes with seventeen. The general plan of the epic follows that of the Iliad and the Aeneid. Its theme is conceived as a duel between two mighty nations, with parallel dissensions among the gods. Scipio and Hannibal are the two great heroes who take the place of Achilles and Hector on the one hand and of Aeneas and Turnus on the other, while the minor figures are all painted with Virgilian or Homeric pigments. In the delineation of character our poet is neither very powerful nor very consistent. His imagination was too weak to realize the actors with distinctness and individuality. His Hannibal is evidently at the outset meant for an incarnation of cruelty and treachery, the embodiment of all that the vulgar Roman attached to the name " Punic. " But in the course of the poem the greatness of Hannibal is borne in upon the poet, and his feeling of it betrays itself in many touches. Thus he names Scipio "the great Hannibal of Ausonia"; he makes Juno assure the Carthaginian leader that if fortune had only permitted him to be born a Roman he would have been admitted to a place among the gods; and, when the ungenerous monster of the first book accords in the fifteenth a splendid burial to Marcellus, the poet cries, " You would fancy it was a Sidonian chief who had fallen. " Silius deserves little pity for the failure of his attempt to make Scipio an equipoise to Hannibal and the counterpart in personal prowess and prestige of Achilles. He becomes in the process almost as mythical a figure as the medieval Alexander. The best drawn of the minor characters are Fabius Cunctator, an evident copy of Lucan's Cato, and Paullus, the consul killed at Cannae, who fights, hates and dies like a genuine man. Clearly it was a matter of religion with Silius to repeat and adapt all the striking episodes of Homer and Virgil. Hannibal must have a shield of marvellous workmanship like Achilles and Aeneas; because Aeneas descended into Hades and had a vision of the future history of Rome, so must Scipio have his revelation from heaven; Trebia, choked with bodies, must rise in ire like Xanthus, and be put to flight by Vulcan; for Virgil's Camilla there must be an Asbyte, heroine of Saguntum; the beautiful speech of Euryalus when Nisus seeks to leave him is too good to be thrown away — furbished up a little, it will serve as a parting address from Imilce to her husband Hannibal. The descriptions of the numerous battles are made up in the main, according to epic rule, of single combats — wearisome sometimes in Homer, wearisome oftener in Virgil, painfully wearisome in Silius. The different component parts of the poem are on the whole fairly well knit together, and the transitions are not often needlessly abrupt; yet occasionally incidents and episodes are introduced with all the irrelevancy of the modern novel. The interposition of the gods is, however, usually managed with dignity and appropriateness. As to diction and detail, we miss, in general, power rather than taste. The metre runs on with correct smooth monotony, with something always of the Virgilian sweetness, though attenuated, but nothing of the Virgilian variety and strength. The dead level of literary execution is seldom broken by a rise into the region of genuine pathos and beauty, or by a descent into the ludicrous or the repellent. There are few absurdities, but the restraining force is trained perception and not a native sense of humour, which, ever present in Homer, not entirely absent in Virgil, and sometimes finding grim expression in Lucan, fails Silius entirely. The address of Anna, Dido's sister, to Juno compels a smile. Though deified on her sister's death, and for a good many centuries already an inhabitant of heaven, Anna meets Juno for the first time on the outbreak of the Second Punic War, and deprecates the anger of the queen of heaven for having deserted the Carthaginians and attached herself to the Roman cause. Hannibal's parting address to his child is also comical: he recognizes in the " heavy wailing " of the year-old babe " the seeds of rages like his own." But Silius might have been forgiven for a thousand more weaknesses than he has if in but a few things he had shown strength. The grandest scenes in the history before him fail to lift him up; his treatment, for example, of Hannibal's Alpine passage falls immensely below Lucan's vigorous delineation of Cato's far less stirring march across the African deserts. But in the very weaknesses of Silius we may discern merit. He at least does not try to conceal defects of substance by contorted rhetorical conceits and feebly forcible exaggerations. In his ideal of what Latin expression should be he comes near to his contemporary Quintilian, and resolutely holds aloof from the tenor of his age. Perhaps his want of success with the men of his time was not wholly due to his faults. His self-control rarely fails him; it stands the test of the horrors of war, and of Venus working her will on Hannibal at Capua. Only a few passages here and there betray the true silver Latin extravagance. In the avoidance of rhetorical artifice and epigrammatic antithesis Silius stands in marked contrast to Lucan, yet at times he can write with point. Regarded merely as a poet he may not deserve high praise; but, as he is a unique specimen and probably the best of a once numerous class, the preservation of his poem among the remains of Latin Literature is a fortunate accident. The poem was discovered in a MS., possibly at Constance, by Poggio, in 1416 or 1417; from this now lost MS. all existing MSS., which belong entirely to the 15th century, are derived. A valuable MS. of the 8th or 9th century, found at Cologne by L. Carrion in the latter part of the 16th century, disappeared soon after its discovery. Two editiones principes appeared at Rome in 1471; the principal editions since have been those of Heinsius (1600), Drakenborch (1717), Ernesti (Leipzig, 1791) and L. Bauer (1890). The Punica is included in the second edition of the Corpus poetarum Latinorum. A useful variorum edition is that of Lemaire (Paris, 1823). Recent writing on Silius is generally in the form of separate articles or small pamphlets; but see H. E. Butler, Post- Augustan Poetry (1909), chap. x. (J, S. R.) SILK, a fibrous substance produced by many insects, princi- pally in the form of a cocoon or covering within which the creatures are enclosed and protected during the period of their principal transformations. The webs and nests, &c, formed by spiders are also of silk. But the fibres used for manufacturing purposes are exclusively produced by the mulberry silk-moth of China, Bombyx mori, and a few other moths closely allied to that insect. Among the Chinese the name of the silkworm is " si, " Korean " soi "; to the ancient Greeks it became known SILK 97 as (Trip, the nation whence it came was to them S^pes, and the fibre itself ai\piKov, whence the Latin sericum, the French sole, the German Seide and the English silk. History. — The silk industry originated in China; and according to native records it has existed there from a very remote period. The empress, known as the lady of Si-ling, wife of a famous emperor, Huang-ti (2640 B.C.), encouraged the cultivationof the mulberry tree, the rearing of the worms and the reeling of silk. This empress is said to have devoted herself personally to the care of silkworms, and she is by the Chinese credited with the invention of the loom. A voluminous ancient literature testifies not only to the antiquity but also to the importance of Chinese sericulture, and to the care and attention bestowed on it by royal and noble families. The Chinese guarded the secrets of their valuable art with vigilant jealousy; and there is no doubt that many centuries passed before the culture spread beyond the country of its origin. Through Korea a knowledge of the silkworm and its produce reached Japan, but not before the early part of the 3rd century. One of the most ancient books of Japanese history, the Nihongi, states that towards a.d. 300 some Koreans were sent from Japan to China to engage competent people to teach the arts of weaving and preparing silk goods. They brought with them four Chinese girls, who instructed the court and the people in the art of plain and figured weaving; and to the honour of these pioneer silk weavers a temple was erected in the province of Settsu. Great efforts were made to encourage the industry, which from that period grew into one of national importance. At a period probably little later a knowledge of the working of silk travelled westward, and the cultivation of the silkworm was established in India. According to a tradition the eggs of the insect and the seed of the mulberry tree were carried to India by a Chinese princess concealed in the lining of her head dress. The fact that seri- culture was in India first estalished in the valley of the Brahma- putra and in the tract lying between that river and the Ganges renders it probable that it was introduced overland from the Chinese empire. From the Ganges valley the silkworm was slowly carried westward and spread in Khotan, Persia and the states of Central Asia. Most critics recognize in the obscure word d'meseq or d'mesheq, Amos iii. 12, a name of silk corresponding to the Arabic dimaks, late Greek jxtra^a , English damask, and also follow the ancients in understanding meshi, Ezek. xvi. 10, 13, of " silken gauze." But the first notice of the silkworm in Western literature occurs in Aristotle, Hist. anim. v. 19 (17), n (6), where he speaks of " a great worm which has horns and so differs from others. At its first metamorphosis it produces a caterpillar, then a bombylius and lastly a chrysalis — all these changes taking place within six months. From this animal women separate and reel off the cocoons and afterwards spin them. It is said that this was first spun in the island of Cos by Pamphile, daughter of Plates." Aristotle's vague knowledge of the worm may have been derived from information acquired by the Greeks with Alexander the Great; but long before this time raw silk must have begun to be imported at Cos, where it was woven into a gauzy tissue, the famous Coa veslis, which revealed rather than clothed the form. Towards the beginning of the Christian era raw silk began to form an important and costly item among the prized products of the East which came to Rome. Allusions to silk and its source became common in classical literature; but, although these references show familiarity with the material, they are singularly vague and inaccurate as to its source; even Pliny knew nothing more about the silkworm than could be learned from Aristotle's description. The silken textures which at first found their way to Rome were necessarily of enormous cost, and their use by men was deemed a piece of effeminate luxury. From an anecdote of Aurelian, who neither used silk himself nor would allow his wife to possess a single silken garment, we learn that silk was worth its weight in gold. Notwithstanding its price and the restraints otherwise put on the use of silk the trade grew. Under Justinian a monopoly of the trade and manufacture was reserved to the emperor, and XXV. 4 looms, worked by women, were set up within the imperial palace at Constantinople. Justinian also endeavoured, through the Christian prince of Abyssinia, to divert the trade from the Persian route along which silk was then brought into the east of Europe. In this he failed, but two Persian monks who had long resided in China, and there learned the whole art and mystery of silkworm rearing, arrived at Constantinople and imparted their knowledge to the emperor. By him they were induced to return to China and attempt to bring to Europe the material necessary for the cultivation of silk, which they effected by concealing the eggs of the silkworm in a hollow cane. From the precious contents of that bamboo tube, brought to Constantinople about the year 550, were produced all the races and varieties of silkworm which stocked and supplied the Western world for more than twelve hundred years. Under the care of the Greeks the silkworm took kindly to its Western home and flourished, and the silken textures of Byzan- tium became famous. At a later period the conquering Saracens obtained a mastery over the trade, and by them it was spread both east and west — the textures becoming meantime impressed with the patterns and colours peculiar to that people. They established the trade in the thriving towns of Asia Minor, and they planted it as far west as Sicily, as Sicilian silks of the 12 th century with Saracenic patterns still testify. Ordericus Vitalis, who died in the first half of the 12th century, mentions that the bishop of St Evroul, in Normandy, brought with him from Apulia in southern Italy several large pieces of silk, out of the finest of which four copes were made for his cathedral chanters. The cultivation and manufacture spread northwards to Florence, Milan, Genoa and Venice — all towns which became famous for silken textures in medieval times. In 1480 silk weaving was begun under Louis XL at Tours, and in 1520 Francis I. brought from Milan silkworm eggs, which were reared in the Rhone valley. About the beginning of the 17 th century Olivier de Serres and Laffemas, somewhat against the will of Sully, obtained royal edicts favouring the growth of mulberry plantations and the cultivation of silk; but it cannot be said that these industries were firmly established till Colbert encouraged the planting of the mulberry by premiums, and otherwise stimulated local efforts. Into England silk manufacture was introduced during the reign of Henry VI. ; but the first serious impulse to manufactures of that class was due to the immigration in 1585 of a large body of skilled Flemish weavers who fled from the Low Countries in consequence of the struggle with Spain then devastating their land. Precisely one hundred years later religious troubles gave the most effective impetus to the silk-trade of England, when the revocation of the edict of Nantes sent simultaneously to Switzerland, Germany and England a vast body of the most skilled artisans of France, who planted in these countries silk- weaving colonies which are to this day the principal rivals of the French manufacturers. The bulk of the French Protestant weavers settled at Spitalfields, London — an incorporation of silk workers having been there formed in 1629. James I. used many efforts to encourage the planting of the mulberry and the rearing of silkworms both at home and in the colonies. Up to the year 1718 England depended on the thrown silks of Europe for manufacturing purposes. But in that year Lombe of Derby, disguised as a common workman, and obtaining entrance as such into one of the Italian throwing mills, made drawings of the machinery used for this process. On his return, subsidized by the government, he built and worked, on the banks of the Derwent, the first English throwing mill. In 1825 a public company was formed and incorporated under the name of the British, Irish and Colonial Silk Company, with a capital of £1,000,000, principally with the view of introducing sericulture into Ireland, but it was a complete failure, and the rearing of the silkworm cannot be said ever to have become a branch of British industry. In 1522 Cortes appointed officials to introduce sericulture into New Spain (Mexico), and mulberry trees were then planted and eggs were brought from Spain. The Mexican adventure is 98 SILK mentioned by Acosta, but all trace of the culture had died out before the end of the century. In 1609 James I. attempted to reinstate the silkworm on the American continent, but his first effort failed through shipwreck. An effort made in 1619 obtained greater success, and, the materials being present, the Virginian settlers were strongly urged to devote attention to the profitable industry of silk cultivation. Sericulture was enjoined under penalties by statute; it was encouraged by bounties and rewards; and its prosecution was stimulated by learned essays and rhapsodical rhymes, of which this is a sample: — " Where Wormes and Food doe naturally abound A gallant Silken Trade must there be found. Virginia excels the World in both — Envie nor malice can gaine say this troth!" In the prospectus of Law's great Compagnie des Indes Occidenlales the cultivation of silk occupies a place among the glowing attrac- tions which allured so many to disaster. Onward till the period of the War of Independence bounties and other rewards for the rearing of worms and silk filature continued to be offered; and just when the war broke out Benjamin Franklin and others were engaged in nursing a filature into healthy life at Philadelphia. With the resumption of peaceful enterprise, the stimulus of bounties was again applied — first by Connecticut in 1783; and such efforts have been continued sporadically down almost to the present day. Bounties were last offered by the state of California in 1865-1866, but the state law was soon repealed, and an attempt to obtain state encouragement again in 1872 was defeated. About 1838 a speculative mania for the cultivation of silk developed itself with remarkable severity in the United States. It was caused principally through the representations of Samuel Whitmarsh as to the capabilities of the South Sea Islands mulberry (Morus multicaulis) for feeding silkworms; and so intense was the excitement that plants and crops of all kinds were displaced to make room for plantations of M . multicaulis. In Pennsylvania as much as $300,000 changed hands for plants in one week, and frequently the young trees were sold two and three times over within a few days at ever-advancing prices. Plants of a single year's growth reached the ridiculous price of $1 each at the height of the fever, which, however, did not last long, for in 1839 the speculation collapsed; the famous M. multicaulis was found to be no golden tree, and the costly plantations were uprooted. The most singular feature in connexion with the history of silk is the persistent efforts which have been made by monarchs and other potentates to stimulate sericulture within their dominions, efforts which continue to this day in British colonies, India and America. These endeavours to stimulate by artificial means have in scarcely any instance resulted in permanent success. In truth, raw silk can only be profitably brought to the market where there is abundant and very cheap labour — the fact that China, Japan, Bengal, Piedmont and the Levant are the principal producing localities making that plain. The Silkworm. The mulberry-feeding moth, Bombyx mori, which is the principal source of silk, belongs to the Bombycidae, a family of Lepidoplera in which are em- braced some of the largest and most handsome moths. B.mori is itself an inconspicuous moth (figs. 1 and 2), of an ashy white colour, with a body in the case of the male not | in. in length, the female being a little longer and stouter. Its wings are short and weak; the fore pair are falcate, and the hind pair do not reach to the end of the body. The larva (fig- 3) is hairless, of an ashy grey or cream colour, attains to a length of from 3 to 3^ in., and is slender in comparison with many of its allies. The second thoracic ring is humped, and there Fig. 1. — Bombyx mori (male). Fig. 2. — Bombyx mori (female). is a spine-like horn or protuberance at the tail. The common silkworm produces as a rule only one generation during the year; but there are races in cultivation which are bivoltine, or two- generationed, and some are multivoltine. Its natural food is the leaves of mulberry trees. The silk glands or vessels consist of two long thick-walled sacs running along the sides of the body, which open by a common orifice — the spin- neret or seripositor — on the under lip of the larva. Fig. 4 represents the head (a) and feet (&, b) of the common silkworm, while c is a diagrammatic view ol the silk glands. As the larva approaches maturity these vessels become gorged with a clear viscous fluid, which, upon being exposed to the air immediately hardens to a solid mass. Advantage is taken of this peculiarity to prepare from fully developed larvae silkworm gut used for casting lines in rod- fishing, and for numerous other purposes where lightness, tenacity, flexibility and strength are essential. The larvae are killed and hardened by steeping some hours in strong acetic acid; the silk glands are then separated from the bodies, and the vis- cous fluid drawn out to the condition of a fine uniform line, which is stretched between pins at the extremity ^ T e „ of a board. The board FlG " 3--Larva of Bombyx mart. is then exposed to the sunlight till the lines dry and harden into the condition of gut. The preparation of gut is, however, merely an unimportant collateral manufacture. When the larva is fully mature, and ready to change into the pupa condition, it proceeds to spin its cocoon, in which operation it ejects from both glands simultaneously a continuous and reelable thread of 800 I Fig. 4. to 1200 yds. in length, moving its head round in regular order continuously for three days or thereabouts. The thread so ejected forms the silk of commerce, which as wound in the cocoon consists of filaments seriposited from two separate glands (discovered by an Italian naturalist named Filippi) containing a glutinous or resinous secretion which serves a double purpose, viz. that of helping the thin viscous threads through their final outlets, and the adhesion of the two filaments when brought into contact with the atmosphere. Under the microscope cocoon silk presents the appearance (fig. 5) of a somewhat flattened combination of two filaments placed side by side, being on an average -j-jVo P art °f an i nc h ' n thickness (see also Fibres, Plate I.). The cocoons are white or yellow in colour, oviform in shape, with often a constriction in the middle (fig. 6). According to race, &c, they vary considerably in size and weight, but on an average they measure from an inch to an inch and a half in length, and from half an inch to an inch in diameter. They form SILK 99 hard, firm and compact shells with some straggling flossy filaments on the exterior, and the interior layers are so closely and densely agglutinated as to constitute a parchment-like mass which resists all attempts at unwinding. The whole cocoon with its enclosed pupa weighs from 15 grains for the smaller races to about 50 grains for Fig. 5. — Microscopic appearance of Silk of Bombyx mori. Fig. 6. — Cocoon of Bombyx mori. the breeds which spin large cocoons. From two to three weeks after the completion of the cocoon the enclosed insect is ready to escape ; it moistens one end of its self-made prison, thereby enabling itself to push aside the fibres and make an opening by which the perfect moth comes forth. The sexes almost immediately couple; the female in from four to six days lays her eggs, numbering 500 and upwards; and, with that the life cycle of the moth being complete, both sexes soon die. Sericulture. The art of sericulture concerns itself with the rearing of silk- worms under artificial or domesticated conditions, their feeding, the formation of cocoons, the securing of these before they are injured and pierced by the moths, and the maturing of a sufficient number of moths to supply eggs for the cultivation of the follow- ing year. The first essential is a stock of mulberry trees adequate to feed the worms in their larval stage. The leaves preferred in Europe are those of the white-fruited mulberry, Morus alba, but there are numerous other species which appear to be equally suitable. The soil in which the mulberry grows, and the age and condition of the trees, are important factors in the success of silkworm cultivation; and it has been too often proved that the mulberry will grow in situations where, from the nature of the leaf the trees put forth and from other circumstances, silkworms cannot be profitably reared. An elevated position with dry, friable, well-drained soil produces the best quality of leaves. Throughout the East the species of mulberry cultivated are numerous, but, as these trees have been grown for special purposes at least for three thousand years, they show the com- plex variations peculiar to most cultivated plants. The eggs of the silkworm, called graine, are hatched out by artificial heat at the period when the mulberry leaves are ready for the feeding of the larvae. These eggs are very minute — about one hundred weighing a grain; and a vast number of hatched worms may at first be kept in a small space; but the rapid growth and voracious appetite of the caterpillars demand quickly increasing and ample space. Pieces of paper punctured with small holes are placed over the trays in which the hatching goes on; and the worms, immediately they burst their shell, creep through these openings to the light, and thereby scrape off any fragments of shell which, adhering to the skin, would kill them by constriction. The rearing-house in which the worms are fed (Fr. magnanerie) must be a spacious, well-lighted and well- ventilated apartment, in which scrupulous cleanliness and sweetness of air are essential, and in which the temperature may to a certain extent be under control. The worms are more hafdy than is commonly supposed, and endure variations of temperature from 62° to 78 F. without any injury; but higher temperature is very detrimental. The lower the temperature at which the worms are maintained the slower is their growth and develop- ment; but their health and vigour are increased, and the cocoon they spin is proportionately bigger. The worms increase in size with astonishing rapidity, and no less remarkable is their growing voracity. Certain races moult or cast their skin three times during their larval existence, but for the most part the silkworm moults four times — about the sixth, tenth, fifteenth and twenty-third days after hatching. As these moulting periods approach, the worms lose their appetite and cease eating, and at each period of change they are left undisturbed and free from noise. Laurent de l'Arbousset showed in 1905 that 1 oz. cf seed of 30 grammes producing 30,000 to 35,000 silkworms (30,000 may be depended upon to reach the cocoon stage) will give a harvest of 130 to 140 lb fresh cocoons and an ultimate yield of about 12 lb raw silk properly reeled. The amount of nourishment required for this rearing is as follows: — hatching to first moult, about 9 lb of leaves of tender growth, equal to 40 to 45 lb ripe leaves; first to second moult, 24 lb, representing 100 lb ripe leaves; second to third moult, 80 lb, representing 240 lb ripe leaves; third to fourth moult, 236 lb, representing 472 lb ripe leaves; fourth moult to mounting, 1430 ft, representing 1 540 lb ripe leaves, totalling to about one ton of ripe leaves for a complete rearing. The growth of the worms during their larval stage is thus stated by Count Dandolo: — Weight per 100. Size in Lines. Worms newly hatched After 1st moult . . ,, 2nd ,, .... „ 3rd „ .... ,, 4th ,, . . . . Greatest weight and size 1 gr. 15 .. 94 .. 400 ,, 1628 „ 9500 „ 1 4 6 12 20 40 When the caterpillars are mature and ready to undergo their transformation into the pupa condition, they cease eating for some time and then begin to ascend the brushwood branches or echelletes provided for them, in which they set about the spinning of their cocoons. Crowding of positions must now be guarded against, to prevent the spinning of double cocoons (doupions) by two worms spinning together and so interlacing their threads that they can only be reeled for a coarser and inferior thread. The insects complete their cocoons m. from three to four days, and in two or three days thereafter the cocoons are collected, and the pupa killed to prevent its further progress and the bursting of the shell by the fully developed moth. Such cocoons as are selected for the production of graine, on the other hand, are collected, freed from the external floss, and preserved at a temperature of from 66° to 72 F., and after a lapse of from eleven to fifteen days the moths begin to make their appearance. The coupling which immediately takes place demands careful atten- tion; the males are afterwards thrown away, and the impreg- nated females placed in a darkened apartment till they deposit their eggs. Diseases. — That the silkworm is subject to many serious diseases is only to be expected of a creature which for upwards of 4000 years has been propagated under purely artificial conditions, and these most frequently of a very insanitary nature, and where, not the healthy life of the insect, but the amount of silk it could be made to yield, was the object of the cultivator. Among the most fatal and disastrous of these diseases with which the cultivator had long to grapple was " muscardine," a malady due to the development of a fungus, Botrytis bassiana, in the body of the caterpillar. The disease is peculiarly contagious and infectious, owing to the develop- ment of the fungus through the skin, whence spores are freed, which, coming in contact with healthy caterpillars, fasten on them and germinate inwards, giving off corpuscles within the body of the insect. Muscardine, however, has not been epidemic for many years. But about the year 1853 anxious attention began to be given in France to the ravages of a disease among silkworms, which from its alarming progress threatened to issue in national disaster. This disease, which at a later period became known as " pebrine " — a name given to it by de Quatrefages, one of its many investi- gators — had first been noticed in France at Cavaillon in the valley of the Durance near Avignon. Pebrine manifests itself by dark spots in the skin of the larvae; the eggs do not hatch out, or hatch imperfectly; the worms are weak, stunted and unequal in growth, languid in movement, fastidious in feeding; many perish before coming to maturity; if they spin a cocoon it is soft and loose, and moths when developed are feeble and inactive. When sufficient vitality remains to produce a second generation it shows in increased intensity the feebleness of the preceding. The disease is thus hereditary, but in addition it is virulently infectious and contagious. IOO SILK From 1850 onwards French cultivators were compelled, in order to keep up their silk supply, to import graine from uninfected districts. The area of infection increased rapidly, and with that the demand for healthy graine correspondingly expanded, while the supply had to be drawn from increasingly remote and contracted regions. Partly supported by imported eggs, the production of silk in France was maintained, and in 1853 reached its maximum of 26,000,000 kilos of cocoons, valued at 117,000,000 francs. From that period, notwith- standing the importation at great cost of foreign graine, reaching in some years to 60,000 kilos, the production of silk fell off with startling rapidity: in 1856 it was not more than 7,500,000 kilos of cocoons; in 1861 and 1862 it fell as low as 5,800,000 kilos; and in 1865 it touched its lowest weight of about 4,000,000 kilos. In 1867 de Quatrefages estimated the loss suffered by France in the 13 years following 1853, from decreased production of silk and price paid to foreign cultivators for graine, to be not less than one milliard of francs. In the case of Italy, where the disease showed itself later but even more disastrously, affecting a much more extended industry, the loss in 10 years de Quatrefages stated at two milliards. A loss of £120,000,000 sterling within 13 years, falling on a limited area, and on one class within these two countries, constituted indeed a calamity on a national scale, calling for national effort to contend with its devastating action. The malady, moreover, spread east- ward with alarming rapidity, and, although it was found to be less disastrous and fatal in Oriental countries than in Europe, the sources of healthy graine became fewer and fewer, till only Japan was left as an uninfected source of European graine supply. A scourge which so seriously menaced the very existence of the silkworm in the world necessarily attracted a great amount of attention. So early as 1849 Guerin Meneville observed in the blood of diseased silkworms certain vibratory corpuscles, but neither did he nor the Italian Filippi, who studied them later, connect them distinctly with the disease. The corpuscles were first accurately described by Cornalia, whence they are spoken of as the corpuscles of Cornalia. The French Academy charged de Quatrefages, Decaisne and Peligot with the study of the disease, and they issued two elaborate reports — Htudes sur les maladies actuettes des vers a sole (1859) and Nouvelles Recherches sur les maladies actuelles des vers & soie (i860) ; but the suggestions they were able to offer had not the effect of stopping the march of the disease. In 1865 Pasteur under- took a Government commission for the investigation of the malady. Attention had been previously directed to the corpuscles of Cornalia, and k had been found, not only that they occurred in the blood, but that they gorged the whole tissues of the insect, and their presence in the eggs themselves could be microscopically demonstrated. Pasteur established (1) that the corpuscles are the special character- istic of the disease, and that these invariably manifest themselves, if not in earlier stages, then in the mature moths; (2) that the cor- puscles are parasites, and not only the sign but the cause of the disease; and (3) that the disease manifests itself by heredity, by contagion with diseased worms, and by the eating of leaves on which corpuscles are spread. In this connexion he established the very important practical conclusion that worms which contract the disease during their own life-cycle retain sufficient vitality to feed, develop and spin their cocoon, although the next generation is invariably infected and shows the disease in its most virulent and fatal form. But this fact enabled the cultivator to know with assurance whether the worms on which he bestowed his labour would yield him a harvest of silk. He had only to examine the bodies of the moths yielding his graine : if they were free from disease then a crop was sure ; if they were infected the education would assuredly fail. Pasteur brought out the fact that the malady had existed from remote periods and in many unsuspected localities. He found corpuscles in Japanese cocoons and in many specimens which had been preserved for lengthened periods in public collections. Thus he came to the con- clusion that the malady had been inherent^ in many successive generations of the silkworm, and that the epidemic condition was only an exaggeration of a normal state brought about by the method of cultivation and production of graine pursued. The cure proposed by Pasteur was simply to take care that the stock whence graine was obtained should be healthy, and the offspring would then be healthy also. Small educations reared apart from the ordinary magnanerie, for the production of graine alone, were recommended. At intervals of five days after spinning their cocoons specimens were to be opened and the chrysalides examined microscopically for corpuscles. Should none have appeared till towards the period of transformation and escape of the moths, the eggs subsequently hatched out might be depended on to yield a fair crop of silk; should the moths prove perfectly free from corpuscles after depositing their eggs the next generation would certainly live well through the larval stage. For special treatment towards the regeneration of an infected race, the most robust worms were to be selected , and the moths issuing from the cocoons were to be coupled in numbered cells, where the female was to be confined till she deposited her eggs. The bodies of both male and female were to be examined for corpuscles, and the eggs of those found absolutely free from taint were preserved for similar " cellular " treatment in the following year. By this laborious and painstaking method it has been found possible to re-establish a healthy stock of valuable races from previously highly-infected breeds. The rearing of worms in small educations under special supervision has been found to be a most effective means of combating pebrine. In the same way the rearing of worms for graine in the open air, and under as far as possible natural conditions, has proved equally valuable towards the development of a hardy, vigorous and untainted stock. The open-air education was originally proposed by Chavannes of Laus- anne, and largely carried out in the canton of Vaud by Roland, who reared his worms on mulberry trees enclosed within " manchons " or cages of wire gauze and canvas. The insects appeared quickly to revert to natural conditions ; the moths brought out in open air were strongly marked, lively and active, and eggs left on the trees stood the severity of the winter well, and hatched out successfully in the following season. Roland's experience demonstrated that not cold but heat is the agent which saps the constitution of the silkworm and makes it a ready prey to disease. Grasserie is another form of disease incidental to the silkworm. It often appears before or alter the first moult, but it is only after the fourth that it appears in a more developed form. The worm attacked presents the following symptoms: the skin is distended as if swollen, is rather thin and shiny, and the body of the worm seems to have increased, that is, it suffers from fatness, or is engraisse, hence its name. The disease is characterized by the decomposition of the blood ; in fact it is really a form of dropsy. The blood loses its transparency and becomes milky, its volume increases so that the skin cannot hold it, and it escapes through the pores. This disease is more accidental than contagious and rarely takes very dangerous proportions. If the attack comes on a short time before maturity, the worms are able to spin a cocoon of a feeble character, but worms with this disease never change into chrysalides, but always die in the cocoon before transformation can take place. The causes which produce it are not well known, but it is generally attributable to currents of cold and damp air, to the use of wet leaves in feeding, and to sudden changes of temperature. Another cause of serious loss to the rearers is occasioned by Flacherie, a disease well known from the earliest times. Pasteur showed that the origin of the disease proceeded from microscopic organisms called ferments and vitrios. One has only to ferment a certain quantity of mulberry leaves, chop them up and squeeze them, and so obtain a liquid, to find in it millions of ferments and vitrios. It invariably happens during the most active period of feeding, three or four days after the fourth moult up to the rising, and generally appears after a meal of coarse leaves, obtained from mulberries pruned the same year and growing in damp soil. Flacherie is an intestinal disease of the cholera species and therefore contagious. The definite course is not occasioned so much from the ferments which exist in the leaves themselves, but from an arrest of the digestive process which allows the rapid multiplication of the former in the intestines. Good ventilation is indispensable to allow the worm to give out by transpiration the great quantity of water that it absorbs with the leaf. If this exhalation is stopped or lessened the digestion in its turn is also stopped, the leaf remains longer than usual in the intestines, the microbes multiply, invading the whole- body, and this brings about the sudden death which surprises the rearers. The true remedies consist in the avoidance of the fermenta- tion of the leaves by careless gathering, transport or packing, in proper hygienic care in ventilation and in maintaining a proper degree of dryness in the atmosphere in rainy weather, and in the usa of quicklime placed in different parts of the nursery to facilitate the transpiration of the silk-worms. Wild Silks. — The ravages of pebrine and other diseases had the effect of attracting prominent attention to the numerous othei insects, allies of the mulberry silkworm, which spin serviceable cocoons. It had been previously pointed out by Captain Hutton, who devoted great attention to the silk ques- tion as it affects the East Indies, that at least six species of Bombyx, differing from B. mori, but also mulberry-feed- ing, are more or less domesticated in India. These include B. textor, the boropooloo of Bengal, a large species having one generation Fig. 7. — Chinese Tussur Moth , yearly and producing a soft flossy Antheraea pernyi (male).- cocoon; the Chinese monthly worm, B. sinensis, having several generations, aid making a small cocoon; and the Madrasi worm of Bengal (B. croesi), the Dassee or Desi worm of Bengal (B. fortunatus) and B. arracanensis, the Burmese worm — all of which yield several SILK generations in the year and form reelable cocoons. Besides these there are many other mulberry-feeding Bombycidae in the East, principally belonging to the genera Theophila and Ocinara, the cocoons of which have not attracted cul- tivators. The moths yielding wild silks which have obtained most attention belong to the extensive and handsome family Saturnidae. The most important of the species at the present time is the Chinese tussur or tasar worm, Antheraea pcrnyi (figs. 7, 8), an oak- feeding species, native of Mongolia, from which is derived the greater part of the so-called tussur silk nowimportedintoEurope. Closely allied to this is the Indian tussur moth (fig._ 9) Antheraea mylitla, found througliout the whole of India feeding on the bher tree, Zizyphus jujuba, and on many other plants. It yields a large compact cocoon (fig. 10) of a silvery grey colour, which Sir Thomas Wardle ol Leek, who devoted a great amount of attention to the wild-silk Fig. 8. — Cocoon of Antheraea pernyi Fig. 9. — Antheraea mylitla (female). question, succeeded in reeling. Next in promising qualities the muga or moonga worm of Assam, Antheraea assama, a species to some extent domes- ticated in its native country. The yama-mai worm of Japan, Antheraea {Samia) yama-mai, an oak-feeder, is a race of considerable importance in Japan, where it was said to be jealously guarded against foreigners. Its eggs were first sent to Europe by Duchene du Bellecourt, French consul- general in Japan in 1861; but early in March following they hatched out, when no leaves, on which the larvae would feed were to be found. In April a single worm got oak-buds, on which it throve, and ultimately spun a cocoon whence a female moth issued, from which Guerin Meneville named and described the species. A further supply of eggs was secretly obtained by a Dutch physician Pompe van Meedervoort in 1863, and, as it was now known that the worm was an oak-feeder, and would thrive on the leaves of European oaks, great results were anticipated from the cultiva- tion of the yama-mai. These expectations, however, for various reasons, have been disappointed. The moths hatch out at a Fl „ G ',, I0 '~ Coc ?° n of period when oak leaves are not ready Antheraea myhtta. for ^ feedJng) and the ^ . g ^ no means of a quality to compare with that of the common mulberry worm. The mezankoorie moth of the Assamese, Antheraea mezankooria, yields a valuable cocoon, as does also IOI the Atlas moth, Attacus atlas, which has an omnivorous larva found throughout India, Ceylon, Burmah, China and Java. The Cynthia moth, Attacus cynthia, is domesticated as a source of silk in certain provinces of China, where it feeds on the Ailan- thus glandulosa. The eria or arrindi moth of Bengal and Assam, Attacus ricini, which feeds on the castor-oil plant, yields seven generations yearly, forming loose flossy orange-red and some- times white cocoons. The ailanthus silkworm of Europe is a hybrid between A. cynthia and A. ricini, first obtained by Guerin Meneville, and now spread through many silk-growing regions. These are only a few of the moths from which silks of various usefulness can be produced; but none of these presents qualities, saving perhaps cheapness alone, which can put them in competition with common silk. Physical and Chemical Relations of Silk. Common cocoons enclosing chrysalides weigh each from 16 to 50 grains, or say from 300 to 600 of small breeds and from 270 to 300 of large breeds to the lb. About one-sixth of this weight is pure cocoon, and of that one-half is obtainable as reeled silk, the remainder consisting of surface floss or blaze and of hard gummy husk. As the outer flossy threads and the inner vests are not reelable, it is difficult to estimate the total length of thread produced by the silkworm, but the portion reeled varies in length and thickness, according to the condition and robustness of the cocoon, in some breeds giving a result as low as 500 metres, and in others 900 to 1200 metres. Under favourable conditions it is estimated that n kilo- grammes of fresh cocoons give 1 kilogramme of raw silk for commerce, and about the same quantity "' for waste spinning purposes. Sir Thomas Wardle of Leek, in his handbook on silk published Fig. ii. — Microscopic appearance in 1887, showed by a series of Silk of chinese Tussur. of measurements that the diameter of a single cocoon thread or bave varied from xrVirth to -frVtrth part of an inch in diameter in the various species of Bombycides, whilst those of the Saturnides or wild species varied from ^-^th to t ^ th part of an inch. As this estimation presents some difficulties and diver- gences, the size of the thread is generally defined commercially by deniers or decigrammes, those of the Anthereas (wild silks) being said to range from 5 to 8 deniers or decigrammes, results confirmed by actual experience with the reeled thread. The silk of the various species of Antheraea and Attacus is also thicker and stronger at the centre of the reeled portion than towards its extremities; but the diameter is much greater than that of common silk, and the filaments under the microscope (fig. n) present the appearance of flat bands, the exudation from the two spinnerets being joined at their flat edges. On this account the fibres of tussur or tussore silk tend to split up into fine fibrillae under the various preparatory processes in manufacturing, and its riband structure is the cause of the glassy lustre peculiar to the woven and finished fibres. Silk fibre (see Fibres) consists essentially of a centre or core of fibroin, with a covering of sericin or silk albumen, and a little waxy and colouring matter. Fibroin, which is analogous to horn, hair and like dermal products, constitutes about 75 to 82 % of the entire mass, and has a composition represented by the formula Cut^NsOe. It has the characteristic appearance of pure silk — a brilliant soft white body with a pearly lustre — insoluble in water, alcohol and ether, but it dissolves freely in concentrated alkaline solutions, mineral acids, strong acetic acid and in ammoniacal solution of oxide of copper. Sericin, which constitutes the gummy covering (Fr. gres) of the fibre, is a gelatinous body which dissolves readily in warm soapy solutions, and in hot water, in which on cooling it forms a jelly with even as little as 1 % of the substance. It is precipitated from hot solutions by alcohol, falling as a white powder. Its formula is CisHzsNsOs. According to P. Bolley, the glands of the silkworm contain semi-liquid fibroin alone, and it is on exposure to the air that IG2 SILK the surface is acted on by oxygen, transforming the external pellicle into the more soluble form of sericin. Silk is highly hygroscopic. If desiccated at 250 ° F. it will be found to lose from 10 to 15 % of moisture according to the condition of the silk. It is a most perfect non-conductor of electricity, and in its dry state the fibres frequently get so electrically excited as to seriously interfere with their working, so that it becomes necessary to moisten them with glycerin or soapy solutions. Silk is readily distinguished from wool and other animal fibres by the action of an alkaline solution of oxide of lead, which darkens wool, &c, owing to the sulphur they contain, but does not affect silk, which is free from that body. Again, silk dissolves freely in common nitric acid, which is not the case with wool. From vegetable fibres silk is readily distinguished by the bright yellow colour it takes from a solution of picric acid, which does not adhere to vegetable substances. The rod-like appearance of silk and its absence of markings under the microscope are also easily recognizable features of the fibre. Silk Manufacture. Here we must distinguish between the reeled silk and the spun or waste silk manufactures. The former embraces a range of operations peculiar to silk, dealing as they do with continuous fibres of great length, whereas in the spun silk industry the raw materials are treated by methods analogous to those followed in the treatment of other fibres (see Weaving). It is only floss, injured and unreelable cocoons, the husks of reeled cocoons, and other waste from reeling, with certain wild silks, which are treated by the spun silk process, and the silk thereby produced loses much of the beauty, strength and brilliance which are characteristic of the manufactures from reeled silk. Filature or Reeling. — When the cocoons have been gathered the chrysalides they contain are killed either by dry heat or by exposure to steam. All cocoons stained by the premature death of the chrysalides (chiques), pierced cocoons, and any from other causes rendered unreelable, are put aside for the spun-silk manufacture. Then the uninjured cocoons are by themselves sorted into classes hiving similar shades of colour, size and quality of fibre. This assortment is of great consequence for the success of the reeling operations, as uniformity of quality and evenness and regularity of fibre are the most valuable features in raw silk. The object of reeling is to bring together the filaments {have) from two or more (generally four or five, but sometimes up to twenty) cocoons, and to form them into one continuous, uniform, and regular strand, which constitutes the " raw silk " of commerce. To do this, the natural gum of the cocoons which holds the filaments together must be softened, the ends of the filaments of the required number of cocoona must be caught, and means must be taken to unwind and lay these filaments together, so as to form a single uniform rounded strand of raw silk. As the reeling proceeds the reeler has to give the most careful attention to the thickness of the strand being pro- duced, and to introduce new cocoons in place of any from which the reelable silk has become exhausted. In this way a continuous uniform fibre or strand of raw silk of indefinite length is produced. The apparatus used for these purposes in some localities is of a very primitive kind, and the reeling being uneven and lumpy the silk is of inferior quality and low value. With comparatively simple appliances, on the other hand, a skilled reeler, with trained eye and delicate touch, can produce raw silk of remarkably smooth and even quality. According to the method commonly adopted in North Italy and France the cocoons are for a few minutes immersed in water a little under the boiling point, to which a small quantity of alkali has been added. A girl with a small hand brush of twigs keeps stirring them in the water till the silk softens, and the outer loose fibres (floss) get entangled with the twigs and come off till the end of the main filament (maitre brin) is found. These ends being secured, the cocoons are transferred to a basin or tray containing water heated to from 140 to 150 F., in which they float while the silk is being reeled off. If the water is too cold the gum does not soften enough and the cocoons rise out of the basin in reeling; if it is too hot the cocoons collapse and fall to the bottom. The ends of the requisite number of filaments being brought together, they are passed through an eyelet or guide, and similarly another equal set are passed through a corresponding guide. The two sets of filaments are then crossed or twisted around each other several turns as if to make one thread, after which they are separated and passed through separate guides to the reel round which they are separately wound. When a large number of cocoons are to be combined into one strand they may be reeled from the tray in four sets, which are first crossed in pairs, then combined into two, and those two then crossed and afterwards combined into a single strand. The object of crossing {croissage) is to round, smooth and condense the separate filaments of each set into one strand, and as the surface of the filaments is gummy and adhesive it is found on drying that they have agglutinated into a compact single fibre of raw silk. In the most approved modern filatures there is a separate cocoon boiler (cuiseuse), an oblong tank containing water boiled by steam heat. In these the cocoons are immersed in rectangular perforated boxes for about three minutes, when they are transferred to the beating machine (batteuse), an earthenware trough having a perforated false bottom through which steam keeps the water at a temperature of from 140 to 160°. In this water the cocoons are kept stirring by small brushes rotated by mechanical means, and as the silk softens the brushes gradually rise out of the water, bringing entangled with them the loose floss, and thereby revealing the main filament of each cocoon. The cocoons are next, in sufficient number, transferred to the reeler's tray (bacinella), where the water is heated to about 140 to 150°. From the tray the filaments are carried through a series of porcelain and glass eyelets, so arranged that the strand returns on itself, two portions of the same strand being crossed or intertwisted for rounding and consolidation, instead of the croissage of two separate strands as in the old method. The reel to which the raw silk is led consists of a light six-armed frame, enclosed within a wooden casing having a glass frame in front, the enclosure being heated with steam-pipes. To keep the strands from directly overlaying each other and so adhering, the last guide through which the silk passes has a reciprocating motion whereby the fibre is distributed within certain limits over the reel. Fig. 12 presents a sectional view of a reeling apparatus as used in Italy, and shows the passage of the thread from the basin to the reel, the threads being twisted around by the tavelette to give roundness to the thread, but though the principle remains much the same, great improvements have been made on this model. Throwing. — Raw silk, being still too fine and delicate for ordinary use, next undergoes a series of operations called throwing, the object of which is to twist and double it into more substantial yarn. The first operation of the silk throwster is winding. He receives the raw silk in hanks as it is taken from the reel of the filature, and putting it on a light reel of a similar construction, called the swifts, Fig. 12. he winds it on bobbins with a rapid reciprocating motion, so as to lay the fibre in diagonal lines. These bobbins are then in general taken to the first spinning frame, and there the single strands receive their first twist, which rounds them, and prevents the compound fibre from splitting up and separating when, by the subsequent scouring operations, the gum is removed which presently binds them into one. Next follows the operation of cleaning, in which the silk is simply reeled from one bobbin to another, but on its way it passes through a slit which is sufficiently wide to pass the filament but stops the motion when a thick lump or nib is presented. In the doubling, which is the next process, two or more filaments are wound together side by side on the same reel, preparatory to their being twisted or thrown into one yarn. Bobbins to the number of strands which are to be twisted into one are mounted in a creel on the doubling frame, and the strands are passed over smooth rods of glass or metal through a reciprocating guide to the bobbin on which they are wound. Each separate strand passes through the eye of a faller, which, should the fibre break, falls down and instantly stops the machine, thus effectu- ally calling attention to the fact that a thread has failed. The spinning or throwing which follows is done on a frame with upright spindles and flyers, the yarn as it is twisted being drawn forward through guides and wound on revolving bobbins with a reciprocating motion. From these bobbins the silk is reeled into hanks of definite length for the market. Numerous attempts have been made to simplify the silk-throwing by combining two or more operations on one machine, but not as yet with much success. According to the qualities of raw silk used and the throwing operations undergone the principal classes of thrown silk are — (1) " singles," which consist of a single strand of twisted raw silk made up of the filaments of eight to ten cocoons; (2) tram or weft thread, consisting of two or three strands of raw silk not twisted before doubling and only lightly spun (this is soft, flossy and comparatively SILK 103 weak) ; (3) organzine, the thread used for warps, made from two and rarely three twisted strands spun in the direction contrary to that in which they are separately twisted. Silks for sewing and em- broidery belong to a different class from those intended for weaving, and thread-makers throw their raw silks in a manner peculiar to themselves. Numbering of Silk. — The metric system of weights and measures has been adopted so widely that it forms the most suitable basis for the titrage or counts of yarns. The permanent committee of the Paris International Congress of 1900, which was held for the purpose of unification of the numerotage of counts, unanimously decided — (a) With reference to cotton, silk and other textiles spun from fibres, that they should be based on a fixed weight and variable length, the unit being one metre to one gramme. Thus number 100 would be 100 metres per gramme calculated on the single strand. (6) With reference to raw and thrown silk, in order to enable the count to show the degrees of variation incidental to this class of material, it was decided for a basis of a fixed length and variable count weight. The length of skein adopted was 450 metres and the unit of length the half decigramme. Thus the count of silk is expressed by the number of half decigrammes which the length of 450 metres weighs. This obtains whether in the single, double or more threads joined together in the doubling. This latter differs very little in actual practice from the previous method of determination by the number of deniers per 476 metres, the denier being calculated on the equivalent of 0-0531 gramme, the English equivalent showing 33J deniers per one dram avoirdupois. As the old systems of counts have some technical conveniences they will no doubt be retained for some time. In some districts, especially in Yorkshire, the count is based on the number of yards per ounce, and in others the older method of drams avoirdupois per 1000 yard skein. The English cotton yarn and spun silk counts are reckoned upon the number of hanks of 840 yds. in lib of silk, cotton being reckoned upon the single thread and spun silk on the doubled or finished thread. Thus 2/40 8 cotton indicates single 40 s doubled to 20 hanks by 840 yds. to the lb., while 40/2 fold spun silk means a single 80 3 doubled to give 40 hanks of 840 yds. to the lb. All continental conditioning establishments now formulate their tests for counts on the agreement arrived at by the International Congress of 1900. Conditioning. — Silk in the raw and thrown state absorbs a large amount of moisture, and may contain a percentage of water without being manifestly damp. As it is largely sold by weight it becomes necessary to ascertain its condition in respect of absorbed water, and for that purpose official conditioning houses are established in all the considerable centres of silk trade. In these the silk is tested or con- ditioned, and a certificate of weight issued in accordance with the results. The silk is for four hours exposed to a dry heat of 230° F., and immediately thereafter weighed. To the weight 11 % is added as the normal proportion of water held by the fibre. Scouring. — Up to this point the silk fibre continues to be com- paratively lustreless, stiff and harsh, from the coating of albumin- ous matter (gum or gr'es) on its surface. As a preliminary to most subsequent processes the removal of the whole or some portion of this gum is necessary by boiling-off, scouring or decreusage. To boil off say 300 lb of thrown silk, about 60 lb of fine white soap is shred, and dissolved in about 200 gallons of pure water. This solution is maintained at a heat of 195 , and in it the hanks of raw silk are immersed, hung on a wooden rod, the hanks»being continually turned round so as to expose all portions equally to the solvent influence of the hot solution. After being dried, the hanks are packed in linen bags and boiled for three hours in a weaker soapy solution, then washed out in pure warm water and dried in a centrifugal hydro- extractor. According to the amount of gum to be boiled off the soap solutions are made strong or weak; but care has to be exercised not to overdo the scouring, whereby loss of strength, substance and lustre would result. For some, purposes — making of gauzes, crapes, flour-bolting cloth and for what is termed " souples " — the silk is not scoured, and for silks to be dyed certain dark colours half -scouring is practised. The perfect scouring of silks removes from 20 to 27 % of their weight, according to the character of the silk and the amount of soap or oil used in the working. Scouring renders all common silks, whether white or yellow in the raw, a brilliant pearly white, with a delicate soft flossy texture, from the fact that the fibres which were agglutinated in reeling, being now degummed, are separated from each other and show their individual tenuity in the yarn. Silks to be finished white are at this point bleached by exposure in a closed chamber to the fumes of sulphurous acid, and at the close of the pro- cess the hanks are washed in pure cold water to remove all traces of the acid. Silk Weighting. — Into the dyeing of silk it is not here necessary to enter, except in so far as concerns a nefarious practice, carried on in dye-houses, which has exercised a most detrimental influence on the silk trade. Silk, we have seen, loses about one-fourth of its weight in scouring. To obviate that loss it has long been the practice to dye some dark silks " in the gum," the dye combining in these cases with the gum or gelatinous coating, and such silks are known as " souples." Both in the gum and in the boiled-off state silk has the peculiar property of imbibing certain metallic salts largely and combining very firmly with them, the fibre remaining to external appearance undiminished in strength and lustre, but much added to in size and weight. Silk in the gum, it is found, absorbs these sails more freely than boiled-off; so to use it for weighting there are these great inducements — a saving of the costly and tedious boiling-off, a saving of the 25 % weight which would have disappeared in boiling and a surface on which much greater sophistication can be practised than on scoured silk. In dyeing a silk black a certain amount of weight must be added; and the common practice in former times was to make up on the silk what was lost in the scouring. Up to 1857 the utmost the dyer could add was " Weight for weight," but an accidental discovery that year put dyers into the way of using tin salts in weighting with the result that they were enabled to add 40 oz. to scoured silk, 120 oz. to souples and as much as 150 oz. to spun silks. This excessive adulteration quickly worked its own cure by a de- creased consumption, and th£ weighting in practice in 1910 is con- fined to moderate and safer limits. The use of tin salts, especially stannic chloride, SnCU, enables dyers to weight all colours the same as black. In his " Report on English Silk Industry " to the Royal Commission on Technical Instruction (1885) Sir Thomas Wardle of Leek says: — " Colours and white of all possible shades can very easily be im- parted to this compound of silk and tin, and this method is becoming extensively used in Lyons. Thus weighting, which was until recently thought to apply only to black silks, and from which coloured silks were comparatively free, is now cheapening and deteriorating the latter in pretty much the same ratio as the former. Thus the proto- and per-salts of iron, as well as the proto- and per-salts of tin, in- cluding also a large variety of tannin, sumac, divi-divi, chestnut, valonia, the acacias {Areca Catechu and Acacia Catechu from India), from which are obtained cutch and gambier, &c, are no longer used solely as mordants or tinctorial matters, but mainly to serve the object of converting the silk into a greatly-expanded fibre, consisting of a conglomeration of more or less of these substances." Sugar also is employed to weight silk. On this adulterant Sir Thomas Wardle remarks : — " With a solution of sugar, silk can have its weight augmented from I oz. to 3 oz. per lb. I am not quite sure that this method of weighting was not first used by the throwsters, as sugar is known to have been used for adulterating and loading gum silk for a very long time, and then the idea was afterwards applied to silk after the dyeing operations. It is much resorted to for weighting coloured silks by dyers on the continent, and, though a very clumsy method, no substitute has been found so cheap and easy of application. Bichloride of tin, having chemical affinity for silk fibre, bids fair to extinguish the use of sugar, which, from its hygrometric qualities, has a tendency to ruin the silk to which it is applied, if great care be not taken to regulate the quantity. There is not the slightest use or excuse for the application of sugar, except to cheapen the silk by about 15 to 20%." Wild Silk Dyeing. — Among the disadvantages under which the silks of the wild moths long laboured one of the most serious was the natural colour of the silks, and the extreme difficulty with which they took on dyes, specially the light and brilliant colours. For success in coping with this difficulty, as well as in dealing with the whole question of the cultivation and employment of wild silks, the unwearying patience and great skill of Sir Thomas Wardle of Leek deserve special mention here. The natural colour of tussur silk is a greyish fawn, and that shade it was found impossible to discharge by any of the ordinary bleaching agents, so as to obtain a basis for light and delicate dyes. Moreover, the chemical character of the tussur silk differs from that of the mulberry silk, and the fibre has much less affinity for tinctorial substances, which it takes up un- evenly, requiring a large amount of dye-stuffs. After protracted experimenting Sir Thomas Wardle was able in 1873 to show a series of tussurs well dyed in all the darker shades of colour, but the lighter and bright blues, pinks, scarlets, &c, he could not produce. Subse- quently Tessie du Motay found that the fawn colour of natural tussur could be discharged by solution of permanganate of potash, but the oxidizing action was so rapid and violent that it destroyed the fibre itself. Gentler means of oxidation have since been found for bleach- ing tussur to a fairly pale ground. The silk of the eria or castor-oil worm {Attacus ricini) presents the same difficulties in dyeing as the common tussur. A portion of the eria cocoons are white, while the others are of a lively brown colour, and for the dyeing of light colours the latter require to undergo a bleaching process. The silk takes up colour with difficulty from a strong vat, and is consequently costly to dye. Moonga silk from ^4 ntheraea assama has generally a rather dark- brown colour, but that appears to be much influenced by the leaves on which the worm feeds, the cocoons obtained on the champaca tree (Michelia champaca) giving a fine white fibre much valued in Assam. The dark colours are very difficult to bleach, but the silk itself takes dye-colours much more freely and evenly than either tussur or eria silk. (F. W.*) Trade and Commerce. About the beginning of the 19th century the chief silk-produc- ing regions of the world were the Levant (including Broussa, Syria and Persia), India, Italy and France, the two first named sending the low-priced silk, the other two the fine qualities. ro4 SILK ■^ 8 CO ft? w OQOOOOOOOO ro CT 10 10 COCO Moi^n TO O (^vonn t» • (j o o o o c *>. T c co *-« /-< **« t o o" t hT>o HO- H H o o o o o CKJ O00 TOO f* H W lO CO O Oco o C O T O T O NO O O "I O C to co T cOO co Ci *-;oq « q o >oo_ co t Oi fOI>M\0 O" O lO 1^ M N «N OCO T rt <7 ^ <> H .o O tn ^ WminOmoonOO P» N 0"«N M lOOiM ft t^. M O >H HlO« H 00 §00 TO O vO co r- O CO CO <-iOOOOOQO coro *« T ^oo_ 0_W i-_ao T 0 T w_ 0_ M h T O c^WQOOOOOo" d d 4 "•& n O O T Q M M O CN 5 ^0,WO|N io O r- c-. 3^t0oOT0 0c0 0O " O O O co co TOO O h 00_ t-. co 0^ « O t-Q0 O s io m" io rji o" co »0 O O O T O W O00 >o O 1 co TO MvO m r-t O TO O n O 00 lOOO co m TOO O O T c CO <0 Oi m r CO o Too O O O O O T ch TO co T T 000 « 00 « T m . O\C0 iO O nco O io t- O r- T q_ T w o- O; H iriNiftui 00 cOO 9 ^ 5 o o c w T O "O »0 M O (M !>. O O w -tN^O *-oo N O O 00 t0 c: Q •O m w 00 O T m O T i O OO o i O iooo 00 TOO 00 CO MOO T r^ . co r^OO <0 ■ co O tC t o o> 00 oo 00 l-l M OO 00 CO CO l-t TOO TO O O t T T O- T h T ( «";0_0_ co e* T > CO NH lONM i MOO H O O T n Q O CO cooO T fO O T O N >^O0 lO t^CO o c-i oo CO t-*00 oo O CO TO_ O; m O; co m_ , O h n o" m o no" -T ■ T? oo oicooo T "O co , co TOO O T w TO M 00 CO N TOO co OOQ T w CO inco O 0> OO n M t-- O COCO .O w T w O NO O O «■ OO n OO COnp CO t— CO co O m o CO O M CO CO "O P im O S 1 0,0 o-o S c K -d rt M - S tf» i a rt rt ccj 3 W Tj to iii 3 >-< _S ~ U 3 E>£ to oc o r- 3 i- to g ci— fcwJi-,J 'SU0{1 5 S H 3 Z% .a I! •o-So w ^ Si o c^ 1 .2 g a 8.S-9 PJShH Coo o a a Mit3 *-» Between 1840 and 1850, after the opening of trade with China, large quantities of silk were sent from the northern port of Shanghai, and afterwards also from the southern port of Canton. The export became important just at the time when disease in Europe had lessened the production on the continent. This increased production of medium silk, and the growing demand for fine sorts, induced many of the cocoon-growers in the Levant to sell their cocoons to Europeans, who reeled them in Italian fashion under the name of " Patent Brutia," thus producing a very fine valuable silk. In 1857 commenced the exportation of Japan silk, which became so fierce a competitor with Bengal silk as gradually to displace it in favour; and the native silk reeled in Bengal has almost ceased to be made, only the best European filatures, produced under the supervision of skilled Europeans, now coming forward. China and Japan, both of which contribute so largely to the supplies that appear in European and American statistics, only export their excess growth, silk-weaving being carried on and native silk worn to an enormous extent in both countries. The other Asiatic exporting countries also maintain native silk manufactures which absorb no inconsiderable proportion of their raw material. Since about 1880 the silk production of the world (including only exports from the East) has more than doubled, the variations owing to partial failures from some countries being more than compensated by increase from others. The supplies available for European and American consump- tion have been carefully tabulated by the Lyons Chamber of Commerce, as shown by the table. While the tables indicate the fluctuations of supply they show generally that Asiatic countries, in addition to supplying the neces- sities for their home trade, export to Europe and America about three- nfths of the whole of the silk consumed in Western manufactures Up to the year i860 the bulk of the silks from the East was shipped to London, but subsequently, owing to the importance of continental demands, a large portion of the supplies has been unshipped at Genoa and Marseilles (especially the finer reeled silks from Japan and Canton), which are sold in the Milan and Lyons markets. Those for American consumption are sent direct by the Pacific route via San Francisco. Table II. shows the official annual returns of silk imports into Great Britain from 1880 to 1908. Table II. — Imports of Silk into Great Britain. Years. 1880 1884 1888 1892 1896 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 Raw Silk. 3.673,949 4,522,702 3.065,771 1,503,283 1,697,668 1,413,320 1,332,480 1,252,848 1,109,930 1,337,579 1,160,265 1,036,258 1,195,366 1,110,481 Knubs or Husks of Silk and Waste. 55,002 67,239 83,466 46,392 62,923 60,720 48,162 55,782 66,782 71,450 72,055 66,348 66,299 64,669 Thrown Silk. 203,567 323.947 559,289 502,777 572,599 664,641 624,859 802,964 662,677 769,297 878,850 924,007 938,112 809,610 Silk (including Lace, &c.) Manufacture. 13,329,935 10,984,073 10,466,537 11,412,263 16,923,176 14,767,610 13,708,645 14,320,541 I3.493.96l 13,585,462 13,010,766 13.069,588 12,862,834 11,907,661 The power loom, owing to the improvement in its mechanism, has gained a distinct precedence and materially increased its producing power. In the development of silk manufacture the hand loom has taken a very secondary position. In order to form a relative idea of the importance of the various countries engaged in silk manufacture, a tabulation of the number of looms employed in each country would prove an inadequate guide, owing to the variations from time to time of the fabrics woven, as also to the difficulty in obtaining trustworthy statistics of the number in active operation. The production and consumption of raw material shown in Table III. was prepared by Messrs Chabrieres, Morel & Co. of Lyons, Marseilles and Milan, and issued in 1905. America takes a premier position in consumption of the raw material. The development and expansion of silk manufacture, owing to the importance and extent of the home market, coupled with high protective tariffs, has been enormous. In 1867 the im- port of raw material amounted to 491,983 lb. In 1905 a record was reached of 17,812,133 lb. During the decade of 1898 to 1908 the consumption has gone on steadily from about 10 million lb in the first five years to an average of 15 million lb in the second half of the decade. France comes a good second in importance with a SILK 105 onsumption of 9 to 10 million lb annually. Lyons is the head- quarters of the trade, principally in the production of dress fabrics, plain and figured, and other light and heavier fabrics. St Etienne and St Chamond are important centres for the ribbon trade. There Table III. — Production and Consumption of Raw Material. Production. Consumption. Average of Seasons Same Average of 1 903-1004, 1904- Years 1 902-1903, 1905, 1 905-1906. 1904. Europe — • I,276,OO0 9,519,400 Italy 9,233,400 2,125,200 Switzerland .... 99,000 3,509,000 Spain 176,000 402,600 Hungary 360,800 323,400 I 1,707,200 Russia and Caucasus 893,200 2,796,200 Bulgaria, Servia and Roumania 343,200 37,400 Greece and Crete 138,600 44,000 Salonica and Adrianople . . 574,200 66,000 Germany Nil. 6,26l,20O Great Britain .... Nil. i,559, 8 oo America — United States .... Nil. 13,481,600 Asia — 1,207,800 66,000 Syria 1,100,000 242,000 Persia . . . (Exports) 556,600 (no estimates) Turkestan ... „ 600,600 China .... ,, 8,960,600 ,, Canton, China . . ,, 4,661,800 Japan .... ,, India .... ,, 11,136,400 563,200 770,000 Tonquin and Annam. „ 22,000 (no estimates) Africa — Egypt Nil. 440,000 Nil. 154,000 Algeria, Tunis .... Nil. 143.000 Various countries Nil. 121,000 Total lb 42,226,800 43,445,000 N.B. — The difference in the totals is owing to the figures being based on the production in seasons, and that of consumption upon calendar years. are also important manufactures of silk at Calais, Paris, Nimes, Tours, Avignon and Roubaix. Germany follows France with a consumption for the various fabrics of over six million fb annually. The principal seat of the trade in that country is at Crefeld, nearly one-half of the production of the empire being manu- factured there. Velvet is the special feature of the industry, about one-half of the looms being devoted to this textile, the remainder being devoted to union satins, pure broad silk goods and ribbons. Other principal centres of the silk trade in Rhenish Prussia are Viersen, Barmen, Elberfeld and Miihlheim. The f>rovince of Saxony has also important manufactures of ace and glove fabrics. Third on the list of con- tinental producers is Switzerland", Zurich takes the lead with broad goods (failles, armures, satins, serges, &c), and Basel rivals St Etienne in the ribbon trade. Russia, by a prohibitive tariff on manufactured silks of other countries, has since 1890 developed and fostered a trade which consumes annually about 3 million lb of raw material for its home industry. This has also stimulated silk culture in the Caucasus, from which province it draws about one-third of its supplies. A special feature of its manufactures consists of gold and silver tissues and brocades for sacerdotal use. Moscow is one of the principal seats for the weaving of these fabrics. Italy, the early home of the silk trade in Europe, the land of the gorgeous velvets of Genoa and the damasks and brocades of medieval Sicily, Venice and Florence, now takes only a sixth place, the centre of greatest activity being at Como; but Genoa still makes velvets, and the brocades of Venice are not a thing of the past. Austria and England follow on the list of important silk manu- factures. The former has found its principal de- velopment in Vienna and the immediate neighbourhood. By special grants from the Hungarian government silk-reeling has been fostered and encouraged. In 1885 the production of raw silk was about 300,000 lb, while in 1905 it reached 750,000 lb, an annual production which is still maintained. In the United Kingdom all the silk industries (those depending on spun silk alone excepted) have been declining since the French Treaty of i860 came into operation. This cannot be gauged by the decrease in imports of raw material from the fact before mentioned that formerly London was the centre of distribution for Eastern silk, which is now disembarked at other European ports for continental consumption. The shrinkage is the more noticeable in the throwing branch of the industry. Many of the mills formerly in operation in Derby, Nottingham, Congleton and Macclesfield have been closed owing to the importation of foreign thrown silks from Italy and France, where a lower rate of wages is paid to the operatives em- ployed in this branch. In like manner the manufacture of silk fabrics in the districts of Manchester, Middleton, Macclesfield, London (Spitalfields) and Nottingham (for silk lace) has decreased proportionately. Against this we must set off a decided increase in the manufacture of mixed goods, carried on principally in Scotland, Yorkshire and Lancashire. The remarkable development of the comparatively new trade in spun silk goes far to compensate for the loss of the older trade of net silk, and has enabled the exports of silk manufactures from Great Britain to be at least maintained and to show some signs of ex- pansion. Silk spinning has chiefly developed in the Yorkshire, Lancashire, Cheshire and Staffordshire textiles centres. Its ex- pansion and importance may be seen from the fact that the imports of waste, knubs, &c, which in i860 was 1506 cwts., reached in 1905 a record of 72,055 cwts. But it is highly significant that while the exports of British silk manufactures have not decreased, the imports in the meantime have shown a marked expansion. Although the use of silk goods has unquestionably increased since the middle of the 19th century, the expansion of native productions has not kept pace with that growth. (R. Sn.) The Spinning of " Silk Waste." The term silk waste includes all kinds of raw silk which may be unwindable, and therefore unsuited to the throwing process. Before the introduction of machinery applicable to the spinning of silk waste, the refuse from cocoon reeling, and also from silk winding, which is now used in producing spun silk fabrics, hosiery, &c, was nearly all destroyed as being useless, with the exception of that which could be hand-combed and spun by means of the distaff and spinning wheel, a method which is still practised by some of the peasantry in India and other Eastern countries. The supply of waste silk is drawn from the following sources: (1) The silkworm, when commencing to spin, emits a dull, lustre- less and uneven thread with which it suspends itself to the twigs and leaves of the tree upon which it has been feeding, or to the straws provided for it by attendants in the worm-rearing establishments: this first thread is unreelable, and, moreover, is often mixed with straw, leaves and twigs. (2) The outside layers of the true cocoon are too coarse and uneven for reeling; Table IV. — Silk Goods exported from the United Kingdom. Year. Raw Silk. Knubs, Husks, Thrown and Spun Silk. Silk Manufactures. Foreign Foreign Silk Waste British. and British. and and Noils. Colonial. Colonial. lb. cwts. £ £ £ £ i860 3,153,993 1,506 826,107 426,866 1,587,303 224,366 1865 3,!37,292 1,212 767,058 306,701 1,404,381 166,936 1870 2,644,402 4,167 1,154,364 39,771 1,450,397 166,297 1875 2,551,417 i,779 880,923 87,924 1,734,519 328,426 1880 947.165 9,241 683,591 7,553 2,030,659 259,023 1884 377,349 6,538 612,951 50,559 2,i75,4 10 644,722 1888 167,086 7,438 388,828 63,192 2,664,244 727,673 1892 164,150 7,397 322,894 32,574 1,655,310 730,316 1896 142,034 5,053 265,142 74,140 1,423,174 725,123 1900 192,616 5,691 425,647 35,858 1,637,915 919,011 1901 244,566 5,370 294,3H 48,666 1,429,381 1,021,637 1902 152,463 6,160 237,718 95,862 1,393,314 1,071,633 1903 178,458 9,740 256,341 81,707 1,436,734 1,038,634 1904 186,174 9,148 218,881 43,938 1,604,554 1,241,242 1905 188,246 13,524 298,299 53,825 1,693,314 1,142,217 1906 92,124 3,243 323,873 57,143 1,858,634 1,094,657 1907 80,645 5,007 401,336 47,404 2,009,613 1,490,066 1908 42,898 6,57i 101,316 43,7H 1,244,546 1,427,974 and as the worm completes its task of spinning, the thread becomes finer and weaker, so both the extreme outside and inside layers are put aside as waste. (3) Pierced cocoons — i.e. those from which the moth of the silkworm has emerged — and damaged cocoons. (4) During the process of reeling from the cocoon the silk often breaks; and both in finding a true and io6 SILK reelable thread, and in joining the ends, there is unavoidable waste. (5) Raw silk skeins are often re-reeled; and in this process part has to be discarded: this being known to the trade as gum-waste. The same term — gum-waste — is applied to " waste " made in the various processes of silk throwing; but manufacturers using threads known technically as organzines and trams call the surplus " manufacturer's waste." Finally we have the uncultivated varieties of silks known as " wild silks," the chief of which is tussur. The different qualities of " waste," of which there are many, vary in colour from a rich yellow to a creamy white; the chief producing countries being China, Japan, India, Italy, France and the countries in the Near East; and the best-known qualities are: steam wastes, from Canton; knubs, from China and from Italy and other Western countries; frisons, from various sources; wadding and blaze, Shanghai; china, Hangchow; and Nankin buttons; Indian and Szechuen wastes; punjum, the most lustrous of wastes; China curlies; Japan wastes, known by such terms as kikai, ostue, &c; French, Swiss, Italian, China, Piedmont, Milan, &c. There are yellow wastes from Italy, and many more far too numerous to mention. A silk " throwster " receives his silk in skein form, the thread of which consists of a number of silk fibres wound together to make a certain diameter or size, the separate fibre having actually been spun by the worm, and this fibre may measure anything from 500 to 1000 yds. in length. The silk-waste spinner receives his silk in quite a different form: merely the raw material, packed in bales of various sizes and weights, the contents being a much-tangled mass of all lengths of fibre mixed with much foreign matter, such as ends of straws, twigs, leaves, worms and chrysalis. It is the spinner's business to straighten out these fibres, with the aid of machinery, and then to so join them that they become a thread, which is known as spun silk. There are two distinct kinds of spun silk — one called " schappe " and the other " spun silk " or " discharged spun silk." All silk produced by the worm is composed of two substances — fibroin, the true thread, and sericin, which is a hard, gummy coating of the " fibroin." Before the silk can be manipulated by machinery to any advantage, the gum coating must be removed, really dissolved and washed away — and according to the method used in achieving this operation the result is either a " schappe " or a " discharged yarn." The former, " schapping," is the French, Italian and Swiss method, from which the silk when finished is neither so bright nor so good in colour as the " discharged silk "; but it is very clean and level, and for some purposes absolutely essential, as, for instance, in velvet manufacture. Schapping. — The method is as follows: If waste silk is piled in a heap in a damp, warm place, and kept moist and warm, the gum will in a few days' time begin to ferment and loosen, and can then be washed off, leaving the true thread soft and supple; but the smell caused by the fermentation is so offensive that it cannot be practised in or near towns. Therefore schappe spinners place their degumming plant in the hills, near or on a stream of pure water. The waste silk is put into large kilns and covered with hot water (temperature 170 F.). These are then hermetically closed, and left for a few hours for the gum to ferment and loosen. When thoroughly softened — the time occupied depending on the heat of the water and nature of the silk — the contents of the kiln are taken out and placed into vats of hot water, and allowed to soak there for some time. Thence the silk is taken to a washing machine, and the loosened gum thoroughly washed away. The silk is then partly dried in a hydro-extractor, and afterwards put in rooms heated by steam-pipes, where the drying is completed. " Discharging " is the method generally used by the English, and results in a silk having brilliance and purity of colour. In this process the silk waste is put into strong, open-meshed cotton bags, made to hold (in accordance with the wish of individual spinners) from 1 lb to 5 ft in weight. When about 100 lb of silk has been bagged, the whole is placed in a large wooden tub and covered with boiling water in which 12 to 20 lb of white curd soap has previously been dissolved. In this the silk is boiled from one to two hours, than taken out and put through a hydro-extractor to remove the dirty gummy solution. Afterwards it is put into another tub of soapy liquor, and boiled from one to one and a half hours. It is then once more hydro-extracted, and finally taken to a stove and dried. " Discharged silk " must be entirely free from gum when finished, where " schappe " contains a percentage of gum — some- times as much as 20 %. From this stage both classes of silk receive much the same treat- ment, differing widely in detail in different mills and districts. Conditioning. — The " degummed silk," after it is dried, is allowed to absorb a certain amount of moisture, and thus it becomes soft and pliable to the touch, and properly conditioned for working by machinery. Beating. — When the waste contains any large percentage of worm or chrysalis, it is taken to a " cocoon beater," a machine which has a large revolving disk on which the silk is put, and while revolving slowly is beaten by a leather whip or flail, which loosens the silk and knocks out the wormy matter. After the beating, the silk presents a more loose appearance, but is still tangled and mixed in length of fibre. The object of the spinner at this point is to straighten out the tangles and lumps, and to lay the fibres parallel : the first machine to assist in this process being known as an opening machine, and the second as a filling engine. Opening and Filling. — The silk to be opened is placed on a latticed sheet or feeder, and thus slowly conveyed to a series of rollers or porcupines (rollers set with rows of proj ecting steel pins) , which hold the silk firmly while presenting it to the action of a large receiving drum, covered with a sheet of vulcanized rubber, set all over with fine steel teeth. As the drum revolves at a good speed, the silk is drawn by the steel teeth through the porcupines into tne drum in more or less straight and parallel fibres. When the teeth are full the machine is stopped, and the silk stripped off the drum, then presenting a sheet-like appearance technically known as a " lap." The lap is taken to the filling engine, which is similar in construction and appearance to the opener as far as the feeding arrangements are concerned, but the drum, in place of being entirely covered with fine steel teeth, is spaced at intervals of from 5 to 10 in. with rows of coarser straight teeth, each row set parallel with the axle of the machine. The silk drawn by the rows of teeth on the drum through the porcupine rollers (or porcupine sheets in some cases) covers the whole of the drum, hooked at certain intervals round the teeth; and when a sufficient weight is on the machine, it is stopped, and an attendant cuts, with a knife, the silk along the back of each row of teeth, thus leaving a fringe of silk hooked on the pins or teeth. This fringe of silk is placed by the attendant between two hinged boards, and whilst held firmly in these boards (called book-boards) is pulled off the machine, and is called a " strip "; the part which has been hooked round the teeth is called the " face," and the other portion the " tail." By these means the silk has been opened, straightened and then cut into a certain length, the fibres now being fairly laid parallel and ready for the next operation, known as silk dressing. Silk Dressing. — This is the process equivalent to combing in the wool industry. Its purpose is to sort out the different lengths of fibre, and to clear such fibres of their nibs and noils. There are two well-known principles of dressing: one known as " flat frame," giving good result with discharged silk, and the other known as ' circular frame " dressing, suitable for schappes. The flat dressing frame is a box or frame holding a certain number of book-boards from the filling engine, which boards when full of silk are screwed tightly together in the frame. The frame is capable of being raised into contact with travelling combs, affixed to an endless belt placed round two metal rollers about 6 ft. apart. The attendant allows the silk to enter gradually into close contact with the combs, which comb through the silk in exactly the same manner as a lady combs her tresses. In a circular frame the silk is clamped between boards, and these are fixed on a large drum. This drum revolves slowly, and in its revolution conveys the fringes of silk past two quickly running smaller combing drums. These combing drums being covered with fine steel teeth penetrate their combs through the fringes of silk depending from the large drum, thus combing through the silk. In each machine the object is the same. First the filled silk is placed into a holding receptacle, clamped fast, and presented to combing teeth. These teeth retain a certain proportion of shorter fibre and rough places and tangled portions of silk, which are taken off the combs in a book-board or wrapped round a stick and again presented to the combs. This fibre again yields combings which will also be combed, and so on for five or six times until the combings are too short, and are taken from the machine and known as noils. The productions from these several combings are known as " drafts " and are of different lengths: the product of the filled silk first placed in the dressing frame being the longest fibre and of course the most valuable. The flat frame is the most gentle in its usage of the silk, but is most costly in labour; whilst the circular frame, being more severe in its action, is not suitable for the thoroughly degummed silks, but on the other hand is best for silks containing much wormy matter, because the silk hanging down into the combing teeth is thoroughly cleansed of such foreign matter, which is deposited under the machine. This method also has the advantage of being cheaper in cost of labour. Recently a new machine has been invented giving the same results as circular frame : the silk depends from boxes into combs, and at the same time has the gentle action of the flat frame. The cost of the operations is as cheap as the circular frame, therefore the machine combines the advantages of each of its predecessors. SILL, E. R.— SILL 107 Noils. — The noils resulting from the dressing operations are some- times combed, the comb used being similar to those used in the cotton trade. The resulting sliver is used by silk spinners who make a speciality of spinning short fibres, and the exhaust noils are bought by those who spin them up into " noil yarns " on the same principle as wool. The yarns are chiefly used by manufacturers of powder bags. The noils are also in great demand for mixing with wool to make fancy effects in wool cloths for the dress goods trade. Drafts. — The drafts from the dressing frame are valued in accord- ance with their length of fibre, the longest being known as A or 1st drafts and so on : — 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th Drafts. Drafts. Drafts. Drafts. Drafts. Drafts. or as quality A B C D Shorts. Each draft may be worked into a quality of its own, and by such means the most level yarns are obtained. But occasionally one or more drafts are mixed together, when price is the determining factor. Processes peculiar to Silk Spinning Industry. — The foregoing pro- cesses are all peculiar to the silk waste trade, no other fibre having to go through such processes, nor needing such machinery. In the first stages of the spun-silk industry, the silk was dressed before boiling the gum out ; the resulting drafts were cut into lengths of one or two inches. The silk was then boiled and afterwards beaten, scutched, carded, drawn, spun, folded, &c, in exactly the same way as fine cotton. Short fibre silks are still put through cards and treated like cotton; but the value of silk is in its lustre, elasticity and strength, which characteristics are obtained by keeping fibres as long as possible. Therefore, when gill drawing machinery was invented, the cutting of silk into short fibres ceased, and long silks are now prepared for spinning on what is known as " long spinning process." Following the process of dressing, the drafts have to go through a series of machines known as preparing machines: the object being to piece up the lengths of fibre, and to prepare the silk for spinning. Preparing or Drawing Machinery. — A faller or gill drawing machine consists of a long feeding sheet which conveys silk to a pair of rollers (back rollers). These rollers present the silk to a set of fallers (steel bars into which are fixed fine steel pins), which carry forward the silk to another pair of rollers, which draw the silk through the pins of the fallers and present it to the rollers in a continuous way, thus forming a ribbon of silk called a " sliver." The fallers are travelled forwards by means of screws, and when at the end of the screw are dropped automatically into the thread of a receiving screw fixed below, which carries the fallers back to their starting point to be risen by cams into the top pair of screws thus to repeat their journey. Silk Spreader. — This is the first of the series of drawing machines. The drafts from the dressing frame are made into little parcels of a few ounces in weight, and given to the spreader, who opens out the silk and spreads it thinly and evenly on to the feeding sheet, placing a small portion of the silk only on the sheet. Another portion is opened out and placed tail end to the first portion; and these opera- tions are repeated until the requisite weight is spread. During this time the silk has been conveyed through the fallers and into a large receiving drum about 3 ft. in diameter, the silk being wrapped thinly and evenly all round the circumference of the drum. When the agreed-on weight is on the drum, the silk is drawn across the face of the drum parallel with its axle, and pulled off in form of a sheet, and is called a lap. This lap is thin, but presents the fibres of silk now joined and overlapped in a continuous form, the length measured by the circumference of the drum. This lap is sometimes re-spread to make it more even, and at other times taken to a drawing machine which delivers in a sliver form. This sliver is taken through a series of four other drawing machines called " four head drawing box." Eight or more slivers are put behind the first drawing head, con- veyed through the fallers and made into one sliver in front of the machine. This sliver is put up behind the second drawing; eight or more ends together run through the second head again into one sliver; and so on through the third and fourth heads of drawing. All these doublings of the sliver and re-drawing are for the purpose of getting each fibre to lie parallel and to make the sliver of an equal weight over every yard of its length. From the last head of drawing the sliver is taken to a machine known as a gill rover. This is a drawing machine fitted with fallers through which the sliver is drawn, but the end from the front roller is wound on to a bobbin. The machine is fitted with 20 to 40 of these bobbins placed side by side, and its product is known as " slubbing roving," it being now a soft, thick thread of silk, measuring usually either 840 or 1260 yds. to 1 lb weight. Hitherto all the drawing has been by rollers and fallers, but in the next machine the drawing is done by rollers only. Dandy Roving Frame. — This is a frame built with forty or more spindles. Two or three slubbing rovings are put up behind the machine opposite each spindle; each end is guided separately into back rollers and thence between smaller rollers, known as carrier rollers, to the front rollers. The back rollers revolve slowly, the front rollers quickly, thus drawing the rovings out into a thinner size or count. The product is wound on to the bobbin by means of flyer and spindle, and is known as dandied or fine roving, and is then ready for the spinning frame. Spinning. — The spinning is done by exactly the same methods as cotton or worsted, viz. either mules, ring frames, cap or flyer frames, the choice of machine being determined by the size or count of yarn intended to be produced. Twisting and Doubling. — If a 2-fold or 3-fold yarn is needed, then two or more ends of the spun thread are wound together and after- wards conveyed to the twisting frame for the purpose of putting the needed twist in the yarn necessary for weaving or other require- ments. This process is exactly the same as in the cotton or worsted industry, ring or flyer frames being used as desired. Weft Yarns. — These are taken straight from the spinning frame, wound on to a long paper tube and so delivered to the manufacturer ready to place in the loom shuttle. Folded Yarns are hairy after being spun and folded, and in addition sometimes contain nibs and rough places. The fibre and nibs have to be cleaned off by means of a gassing machine so constructed that the end of silk (silk yarn) is frictioned to throw off the nibs, and at the same time is run very rapidly through a gas flame a sufficient number of times to burn off the hairy and fibrous matter without injuring the main thread. The yarn is now ready for reeling into skeins or for warping, both of which operations are common to all the textile yarns. It may be washed or dyed just as required, either in hank or in warp. Growth of Industry and Uses of Spun Silk. — As will have been gathered, spun silk is pure silk just as much as that used by the throwster. The spinning industry has not decreased in England. The number of mills has decreased, but machinery now runs so much more quickly than formerly that more yarn is being spun on fewer spindles. The American spinning industry shows little signs of expansion in spite of a protective tariff of some 35 %. The conti- nental spinners have largely increased, but are developing into huge syndicates, all working on the schappe principle. The three chief syndicates, one each in Italy, France and Switzerland, work very much together, practically ruling the prices for yarns and raw materials. Spun silks are used largely for silk linings, hosieries, sewing threads, elastic webbing, lace, plush and many other purposes, such as mufflers, dress goods and blouse silks; also for mixing with other fibres in form of stripes in the weaving of various fabrics, or to be used in what are known as mixed goods, i.e. a warp of silk and weft of some other fibre or weft of silk and a warp of cotton or other fibre. The article known as tussur spun is prepared in exactly the same manner as other spun silks, but its chief use is to make an imitation of sealskin known commercially as silk seal. (A. Mel.) SILL, EDWARD ROWLAND (1841-1887), American poet and educationist, was born at Windsor, Connecticut, on the 29th of April 1 84 1. He graduated at Yale in 1861, as class poet; engaged in business in California; entered the Harvard Divinity School in 1867, but soon left it for a position on the staff of the New York Evening Mail; and after teaching at Wadsworth and Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio (1868-1871), became principal of the Oak- land High School, California. He was professor of English literature at the university of California in 1874-1882. His health was failing, and he returned to Cuyahoga Falls in 1883. He devoted himself to literary work, abundant and largely anonymous, until his death in Cleveland, Ohio, on the 27th of February 1887. Much of his poetry was contributed to the Atlantic Monthly, the Century Magazine, and the Overland Monthly. Many of his graceful prose essays appeared in " The Contributors' Club," and others appeared in the main body of the Atlantic. Among his works are a translation of Rau's Mozart (1868); The Hermitage and Other Poems (1868); The Venus of Milo and Other Poems (1883), a farewell tribute to his California friends; Poems (1887); The Hermitage and Later Poems (1889); Hermione and Other Poems (1900); The Prose of Edward Rowland Sill (1900) ; Poems (1902). He was a modest and charming man, a graceful essayist, a sure critic. His contribu- tion to American poetry is small but of fine quality. His best poems, such as The Venus of Milo, The Fool's Prayer and Opportunity, gave him a high place among the minor poets of America, which might have been higher but for his early death. See A Memorial volume privately printed by his friends in 1887; and " Biographical Sketch " in The Poetical Works of Edward Rowland Sill (Boston, 1906), edited by William Belmont Parker with Mrs Sill's assistance. SILL (O.Eng. syl, Mid. E. sylle, selle; the word appears in Icel. syll, svill, Swed. syll, and Dan. syld, and in German, as Schwelle; Skeat refers to the Teutonic root swal-, swell, the word meaning the rise or swell formed by a beam at a threshold ; the Lat. solea, from which comes Fr. seuil, gives Eng. " sole," also sometimes used for " sill "), the horizontal base of a door or window-frame. I A technical distinction is made between the inner or wooden base io8 SILL of the window-frame and the stone base on which it rests — the latter being called the sill of the window, and the former that of its frame. This term is not restricted to the bases of apertures;' the lower horizontal part of a framed partition is called its sill. The term is sometimes incorrectly written " cill." (See Masonry.) SILL, in geology, an intrusive mass of igneous rock which consolidated beneath the surface and has a large horizontal extent in comparison with its thickness. In the north-eastern counties of England there is a great mass of this kind known as the Whin Sill. . The term " whin " is used in many parts of England and Scotland to designate hard, tough, dark coloured rocks often of igneous origin, and the Whin Sill is a mass of dolerite or, more strictly, quartz-diabase. Its most striking character is the great distance over which it can be traced. It starts not far north of Kirkby Stephen (Co. Durham) and follows a northerly course, describing a great curve with its convexity towards the west, till it ends on the sea-shore at Bamborough, not far south of Berwick-on-Tweed. The length of the outcrop is about 80 m., but in places it is covered with superficial deposits or may be actually discontinuous. Near Haltwhistle, however, it is visible for about 20 m., and as it lies among softer rocks (limestones and shales) , it weathers out on a bold craggy ridge or escarpment. When it crosses the streams the resistant character of the igneous rock is indicated by waterfalls or " forces," e.g. High Force in Teesdale. The thickness varies from 20 to 150 ft., but averages go ft. In some places the Whin Sill splits up into two or more smaller sills which may unite, or one of them may die out and disappear, and often small attendant sills, resembling the main mass in petrographical character, appear in association with it. It is difficult to estimate the area over which it extends, as it dips downwards from its outcrop and is no longer visible, but we may conjecture that it spreads over no less than 4000 sq. m. underground. The rocks in which it lies belong to the Carboniferous Lime- stone series, and the Sill is probably one of the manifestations of the volcanic activity which occurred during the later part of the carboniferous period. Many similar sills, often of large size, though none so great as the Whin Sill, are found in the Scottish coalfields. There are few lavas or ash beds at or above the horizons on which these intrusive rocks lie, and hence it has been concluded that towards the close of that volcanic episode in British geological history the molten magmas which were impelled upwards towards the surface found a place of rest usually within the sedimentary rocks, and rarely flowed out as lavas on the sea- bottom (the intrusive succeeding the effusive phase of volcanic action). In the Carboniferous rocks the Whin Sill lies almost like an interstratified bed, following the same horizon for many miles and hardly varying more in thickness than the sedimentary bands which accompany it. This, however, is true only on a large scale, for where the junctions are well exposed the igneous rock frequently breaks across the layers of stratification, and sometimes it departs quite suddenly from one horizon and passes to another, where again for a time it continues its apparently regular course. Its intrusive character is also shown by the emission of small veins, never very persistent, cutting the sediments above or below it. In addition, it bakes and hardens the adjacent rocks, both below and above, and this proves that the superjacent beds had already been deposited and the molten diaoase forced its way along the bedding planes, as natural lines of weakness. The amount of contact alteration is not usually great, but the sandstones are hardened to quartzites, the shales become brittle and splintery, and in the impure limestones many new calc-silicates are produced. The Whin Sill consists of a dark-green granular diabase, in which quartz or micropegmatite appears as the last product of crystallization. It is not usually vesicular and is not porphyritic, though exceptions may occasionally be noted. At both the upper and the under surface the diabase becomes much finer grained, and the finest intrusive veinlets which enter the surrounding rocks may even show remains of a glassy base. These phenomena are due to the rapid cooling where the magma was in contact with the sediments. No ash beds accompany the Whin Sill, but there are certain dikes which occur near it and probably belong to the same set of injections. In many places the diabase is quarried as a road-mending stone. The great Palisade trap of the Hudson river, which is an almost exact parallel to the Whin Sill, is an enormous sheet of igneous rock exposed among the Triassic beds of New Jersey and New York. It has an outcrop which is about 100 m. long; its thickness is said to be in places 800 ft., though usually not above 200 to 300 ft. Like the Whin Sill the rock is a quartz-diabase occasionally passing into olivine-diabase, especially near its edges. The Palisade diabase is compact, non-vesicular and non-porphyritic as a rule. It follows the bedding planes of the sedimentary rocks into which it was injected, but breaks across them locally and produces a considerable amount of contact alteration. In New Jersey, however, there is also an ex- tensive development of effusive rocks which are olivine-basalts, and by their slaggy surfaces, the attendant ash-beds and their strictly conformable mode of occurrence, show that they were true lavas poured out at the surface. There can be little doubt that they belong to the same period as the Palisade trap, and they are consequently later than the Whin Sill. These great sheets of igneous rock intruded into cold and nearly horizontal strata must have solidified very gradually. Their edges are fine grained owing to their having been rapidly chilled, and the whole mass is usually divided by joints into vertical columns, which are narrower and more numerous at top and base and broader in the centre. Where exposed by denudation the rocks, owing to this system of jointing, tend to present a nearly vertical, mural escarpment which seems to consist of polygonal pillars. The name " Palisade trap " expresses this type of scenery, so characteristic of intrusive sills, and very fine examples of it may be seen on the banks of the Hudson river. In Britain it is no less clearly shown, as by the Sill at Stirling on which Wallace's Monument is placed; and by the well-known escarpment of Salisbury Crags which fronts the town of Edinburgh. In the Tertiary volcanic district of the West of Scotland and North Ireland, including Skye, Mull and Antrim, innumerable sills occur. Perhaps the best known is the Sciur of Eigg, which forms a high ridge terminating in a vertical cliff or Sciur in the island of Eigg, one of the inner Hebrides. At one time it was supposed to be a lava-flow, but A. Harker has maintained that it is of intrusive origin. This Sill occupies only a small area as compared with those above described. Its length is about two and a half miles and its breadth about a quarter of a mile. On the east side it terminates in a great cliff from 300 to 400 ft. high, rising from a steep slope below. This cliff is beautifully columnar, and shows also a horizontal banding, simulat- ing bedding. The back of the intrusive sheet is a long ridge sloping downwards to the west. The rock of which the Sciur of Eigg consists is a velvety black pitchstone, containing large shining crystals of felspar; it is dull or cryptocrystalline in places, but its glassy char- acter is one of its most remarkable peculiarities. In the Tertiary volcanic series of Scotland and Ireland intrusive sheets build up a great part of the geological succession. They are for the most part olivine-basalts and dolerites, and while some of them are nearly horizontal, others are inclined. Among the lavas of the basaltic plateaus there is great abundance of sills, which are so numerous, so thin and so nearly concordant to the bedding of the effusive rocks that there is great difficulty in distinguishing them. As a rule, however, they are more perfectly columnar, more coarsely crystalline and less vesicular than the igneous rocks which consoli- dated at the surface. These sills are harder and more resistant than the tuffs and vesicular lavas, and on the hill slopes their presence is often indicated by small vertical steps, while on the cliff faces their columnar jointing is often very conspicuous. On modern volcanoes intrusive sheets are seldom visible except where erosion has cut deep valleys into the mountains and exposed their interior structure. This is the case, for example, in Ireland, Teneriffe, Somma and Etna and in the volcanic islands of the West Indies. In their origin the deep-seated injections escape notice; many of them in fact belong to a period when superficial forms of volcanic action have ceased and the orifices of the craters have been obstructed by ashes or plugged by hard crystalline rock. But in the volcanoes of the Sandwich Islands the craters are filled at times with liquid basalt which suddenly escapes, without the appearance of any lava at the surface. The molten rock, in such a case, must have found a passage underground, following some bedding plane or fissure, and giving rise to a dike or sill among the older lavas or in the sediment- ary rocks beneath. Many of the great sills, however, may have been connected with no actual volcanoes, and may represent great supplies of igneous magma which rose from beneath but never actually reached the earth's surface. The connexion between sills and dikes is very close ; both of them are of subterranean consolidation, but the dikes occupy vertical or highly inclined fissures, while the sills have a marked tendency to a horizontal position. Accordingly we find that sills are most common in stratified rocks, igneous or sedimentary. Very frequently sills give rise to dikes, and in other cases dikes spread out in a horizontal direction and become sills. It is often of considerable importance to SILLIMAN— SILURIAN 109 distinguish between sills and lavas, but this may be by no means easy. The Sciur of Eigg is a good example of the difficulty in iden- tifying intrusive masses. Lavas indicate that volcanic action was going on contemporaneously with the deposit of the beds among which they occur. Sills, on the other hand, show only that at some subsequent period there was liquid magma working its way to the surface. (J. S. F.) SILLIMAN, BENJAMIN (1779-1864), American chemist and geologist, was born on the 8th of August 1779 at Trumbull (then called North Stratford), Connecticut. Entering Yale College in 1792, he graduated in 1796, became tutor in 1799, and in 1802 was appointed professor of chemistry and mineralogy, a position which he retained till 1853, when by his own desire he retired as professor emeritus. Not only was he a popular and successful teacher of chemistry, mineralogy and geology in the college for half a century, but he also did much to improve and extend its educational resources, especially in regard to its mineralogical collections, the Trumbull Gallery of Pictures, the Medical Institution and the Sheffield Scientific School. Outside Yale he was well known as one of the few men who could hold the attention of a popular audience with a scientific lecture, and on account of his clear and interesting style, as well as of the un- wonted splendour of his illustrative experiments, his services were in great request not only in the northern and eastern states but also in those of the south. His original investigations were neither numerous nor important, and his name is best known to scientific men as the founder, and from 1818 to 1838 the sole editor, of the American Journal of Science and Arts — often called Silliman's Journal, — one of the foremost American scientific serials. In 1810 he published A Journal of Travels in England, Holland and Scotland, in which he described a visit to Europe undertaken in 1805 in preparation for the duties of his chair. He paid a second visit in 1851, of which he also issued an account, and among his other publications were Elements of Chemistry (1830), and editions of W. Henry's Chemistry with notes (1808), and of R. Bakewell's Geology (1827). He died at New Haven on the 24th of November 1864. His son, Benjamin Silliman (1816-1885), chemist and mineralogist, was born at New Haven on the 4th of December 1816. After graduating at Yale in 1837 he became assistant to his father, and in 1847 was appointed professor in the school of applied chemistry, which was largely due to his efforts and formed the nucleus of the subsequent Sheffield Scientific School. In 1849 he was appointed professor of medical chemistry and toxicology in the Medical College at Louisville, Kentucky, but relinquished that office in 1854 to succeed his father in the chair of chemistry at Yale. The duties of this professorship, so far as they related to the Academic College, he gave up in 1870, but he retained his connexion with the Medical College till his death, which happened at New Haven on the 14th of January 1885. Much of his time, especially during the last twenty years of his life, was absorbed in making examinations of mines and preparing expert reports on technical processes of chemical manufacture; but he was also able to do a certain amount of original work, publishing papers on the chemistry of various minerals, on meteorites, on photo- graphy with the electric arc, the illuminating powers of gas, &c. A course of lectures given by him on agricultural chemistry in the winter of 184 5-1846 at New Orleans is believed to have been the first of its kind in the United States. In 1846 he published First Principles of Chemistry and in 1858 First Principles of Physics or Natural Philosophy, both of which had a large circula- tion. In 1853 he edited a large quarto illustrated volume, The World of Science, Art and Industry, which was followed in 1854 by The Progress of Science and Mechanism. In 1874, when the 100th anniversary of Priestley's preparation of oxygen was celebrated as the " Centennial of Chemistry " at Northumberland, Pa., where Priestley died, he delivered an historical address on " American Contributions to Chemistry," which contains a full list, with their works, of American chemists up to that date. From 1838 to 1845 he was associated with his father in the editorship of the American Journal of Science, and from 1845 to the end of his life his name appeared on the title page as one of the editors in chief. SILLIMANITE, a rock-forming mineral consisting of aluminium silicate, A^SiOs. It has the same percentage chemical composi- tion as cyanite (q.v.) and andalusite {q.v.), but differs from these in crystalline form and physical characters. It crystallizes in the orthorhombic system and has the form of long, slender needles without terminal planes, which are often aggregated together to form fibrous and compact masses; hence the name fibrolite, which is often employed for this species. The name sillimanite is after Benjamin Silliman the elder. There is a perfect cleavage in one direction parallel to the length of the needles. The colour is greyish-white or brownish, and the lustre vitreous. The hardness is 65 and the specific gravity 3-23. Sillimanite is a characteristic mineral of gneisses and crystalline schists, and it is sometimes a product of contact-metamorphism. It has been observed at many localities; e.g. in Bohemia (the Faserkiesel of Lindacker, 1792), with corundum in the Carnatic (fibrolite of comte de Bournon, 1802), Chester in Connecticut (sillimanite of G. T. Bowen, 1824), Monroe in New York (" mon- rolite "), Bamle near Brevik in Norway (" bamlite "). Pre- historic implements made of compact sillimanite are found in western Europe, and have a certain resemblance to jade imple- ments. (L. J. S.) SILLY, weakly foolish, stupid. This is the current sense of a word which has much changed its meaning. The O.E. scelig (usually gesdlig) meant prosperous, happy, and was formed from sal, time, season, hence happiness, cf. Icel. scela, bliss; Ger. selig, blessed, happy, &c, probably also allied to Lat. salvus, whole, safe. The development of meaning is happy, blessed, innocent or simple, thence helpless, weak, and so foolish. The old provincial and Scottish word for a caul (q.v.) was " silly- how," i.e. " lucky cap." The development of meaning of " simple," literally " onefold " (Lat. simplex), plain, artless, hence unlearned, foolish, is somewhat parallel. A special meaning of " simple," in the sense of medicinal herbs, is due to the supposition that each herb had its own particular or simple medicinal value. SILURES, a powerful and warlike tribe in ancient Britain, occupying approximately the counties of Monmouth, Brecon and Glamorgan. They made a fierce resistance to the Roman conquest about a.d. 48, but a legionary fortress (Isca Silurum, Ca?rleon) was planted in their midst and by a.d. 78 they were overcome. Their town Venta Silurum (Caerwent, 6 m. W. of Chepstow) became a Romanized town, not unlike Silchester, but smaller. Its massive Roman walls still survive, and recent excavations have revealed a town hall and market square, a temple, baths, amphitheatre, and many comfortable houses with mosaics, &c. An inscription shows that under the Roman Empire it was the chef-lieu of the Silures, whose ordo or county council provided for the local government of the district. (F. J. H.) SILURIAN, in geology, a series of strata which is here under- stood to include those Palaeozoic rocks which lie above the Ordovician and below the Devonian or Old Red Sandstone, viz. the Llandoverian (Valentian of C. Lapworth), Wenlockian and Ludlovian groups of Great Britain with their foreign equiva- lents. A word of caution is necessary, however, for in the early history of British stratigraphy the exact delimitation of " Silurian" was the subject of a great controversy, and the term has been used with such varying significance in geological literature, that considerable confusion may arise unless the numerous inter- pretations of the title are understood. The name " Silurian " was first introduced by Sir R. I. Murchison in 1835 for a series of rocks on the border counties of England and Wales — a region formerly inhabited by the Silures. Murchison's Silurian em- braced not only the rock groups indicated above, but others below them that were much older, even such as are now classed as Cambrian. About the same time A. Sedgwick proposed the term Cambrian for a great succession of rocks which includes much of Murchison's Silurian system in its upper part; hence arose that controversy which left so lasting a mark on British geology. In 1850 A. d'Orbigny suggested the name " Murchi- sonian " for what is here retained as the Silurian system. As a solution of the difficulties of nomenclature, Professor C. Lapworth in 1879 proposed the term Ordovician systems (q.v.) [IO SILURIAN for those rocks which had been the Lower Silurian of Murchison and the Upper Cambrian of Sedgwick. An approximate cor- relation of the usages of the title " Silurian" is here given in tabulated form: — R. I. Murchison. A. Sedgwick. C. Lapworth. American. A. de Lapparent. E. Renevier. Silurian. t o ^ ^ (Upper Silurian of some authors.) c a) •c a an ana) Silui &c. ;mien Traih andien th ed.) u E Q s§5 m 3 £ 52. t=w W sOS 3 0~ C o5 3 Ordovician. ^ c/T (Lower Silurian of some authors.) CO c c .2 ■> o an (Dana mplainic Emmon &c). 3 lo d .Si *o '> o cr 3 as u XI o Siluri Cha (Hall, -a o LO E u Cambrian. Upper. c .2 c .3 a 'C Middle. Lower. S 42 s x> s a! U u ^ O The Silurian rocks are almost wholly of marine origin and in- clude all the usual phases of sedimentation; shales and mudstones, marls and limestones, sandstones and grits are all represented in Great Britain and in most other countries where the Silurian is known. The majority of the rocks were deposited in the com- paratively shallow waters of epicontinental seas, the graptolitic shales and sponge-bearing cherts being perhaps the representa- tive's of the deeper waters. Locally, glauconitic limestones and ironstones (Clinton beds) indicate special conditions; while the isolation and desiccation of certain marine areas (New York) towards the close of the period gave rise to beds of red sandstone, red marls, gypsum and rock salt. The hydraulic limestone (Water Lime) of New York was probably a brackish-water forma- tion. In Sweden and elsewhere some of the limestones and shales are distinctly bituminous. Distribution. — In the preceding Ordovician period several well- marked marine provinces are indicated by the fossil contents of the rocks. At the beginning of Silurian time a general transgression of the sea — which had commenced at the close of the Ordovician — was in progress in the N. hemisphere (Europe and the Appalachian region). This culminated at the time when the Wenlock beds and their equivalents (Niagaran and Oesel beds) were forming at the bottom of a great periarctic sea or shallow ocean. It is thus found that the same general characters prevail in the Silurian of Britain, N. America, Scandinavia and the Baltic region, Russian Poland (Podolia, Kielce, Galicia), the Arctic regions, New Siberia (Kotelny), Olenk district, Waigatsch, N. Zembla, Tunguska, Greenland, Grinnell Land and China. The Bohemian region, comprising central Bohemia, Thuringia, Fichtelgebirge, Salzburg, Pyrenees, Languedoc, Catalonia, South Spain, Elba and Sardinia, alone retained some of its marked individuality. Later in the period a gradual withdrawal of the sea set in over the N. hemisphere, affecting the British area (except Devon), the left of the Rhine, Norway and the Baltic region, N. Russia, Siberia and the Ural region, Spitzbergen, Greenland and the W. states of N.- America. Thus the later Silurian conditions heralded those of the succeeding Devonian and Old Red Sandstone, and there is generally a gradual passage from one set of rocks to the other (Downtonian of Great Britain). The Silurian rocks may occur in close continuity with the upper Ordovician, as in S. Europe; or, as in the typical region, the Llandovery beds may rest unconformably upon older rocks; in N. America also there is a marked uncon- formity on this horizon. A large part of N. America was apparently land during part of Silurian time ; the lower members arc found in the E. alone, while the Cayaguan division is found to extend farther E. than the middle or Niagaran division, but not so far W. The falls of Niagara owe their existence to the presence of the hard Lockport and Guelph beds resting upon the softer Rochester shales. Most of the essential information as to the distribution of Silurian rocks will be found in a condensed form in the accompanying table and map; but attention may here be drawn to the upper Silurian (Ludlovian) limestone of Cornwallis Island, the mid-Silurian lime- stone of Grinnell Land and the lower Silurian limestone of New Siberia. Limestones of lower and middle Silurian age are found also in Timan, Tunguska and elsewhere in N. Russia. Rocks of this system in S. America have been only superficially studied ; they occur in the lower regions of the Amazon, where they bear some resemblance to the Medina and Clinton stages of N. America, and in Bolivia and Peru. Little is known of the Silurian rocks recorded from N. Africa. Silurian Life. — Our know- ledge of the life of this period is limited to the inhabitants of the seas and of the brackish waters of certain districts. The remains of marine organisms are abundant and varied. Grap- tolites flourished as in the pre- ceding period, but the forms characteristic of the Ordovician gave place early in the Silurian to the single-axis type {Mono- graptidae) which prevailed until the close of the period (Rast- rites, Monograptus, Retiolites and Cyrtograptus). As in the Ordovician rocks, the grapto- lites have been largely em- ployed as zonal indicators. Trilobites were important; the genera Calymene, Phacops and Encrinurus attained their maxi- mum development ; Proehis, Bronteus, Cyphaspis, Arethusina may be mentioned from among many other genera. The ostracods Leperditia and Bey- richia are very abundant locally. A feature of great interest is the first appearance of the remarkable Eurypterid crustacean Eurypterus, which occasionally reached the length of over a yard, and of the limulids, Neolimulus and Hemiaspis. The cephalopods were the predominant molluscs, especially Orthoceras and various abbrevi- ated or coiled orthoceras-like forms (Cyrtoceras, Phragmoceras, Trochoceras, Ascoceras); there was also a Nautilus, and an early form of goniatite has been recorded. Gasteropods include the genera Platyceras, Murchisonia and Bellerophon; the pteropod Tentaculites is very abundant in certain beds. The pelecypods were not very important (Cypricardinia, Cardiola interrupta, C. cornucopiae). Next to the cephalopods in importance were the brachiopods : in the lower Silurian pentamerus-like forms still continued (P. Knightii, Perlatcth Sua Silurian Period Suggested distribution of Land & Water \ After de Lapparent <> ' Tno ItAar/ed portions Indicate rceions'in which Sltariun racks ttauo barn found P. oblongus), but the spire-bearing forms soon began to increase (Spirifer, Whitfieldia, Meristina, Airy pa). Other genera include Rhynckonella, Chonetes, Terebratula, Strophomena, Stricklandinia. The bryozoa, especially the bulky rock-building forms, were less in evidence than in the Ordovician. The echinoderms were well represented by the crinoids (Cyathocrinus, Crotalocrinus, Taxocrinus), some of which are found in a state of beautiful preservation at Dudley in England, Lockport (New York) ( Waldron (Indiana) in N. America and also in Gothland in the Baltic. Cystids were abundant, but less so than in the Ordovician ; blastoids made their first appear- ance. Corals, mostly tabulate forms, flourished in great abundance in the clearer waters and frequently formed reefs (Favosites goth- landica, Halysites catenularia, Alveolites, Heliolites) ; tetracorallian forms include Stauria, Cyalhopkyllum, Cystiphyllum, Acervularia, Omphyma and the remarkable Goniophyllum. Sponges were repre- sented by Aslylospongia, Aulocopium, &c. The peculiar genera SILVA Approximate Correlation of Silurian Rocks. Ill Graptolite Zones (Britain). England and Wales. Scotland. Scandinavian. Baltic Region. Bohemia. ** o 4) 3 a < North America (New York). «-3 P3 < .5 3 < Monograptus Downton Downtonian Upper Cardiola Eurypterus Stage E 2 of Manlius 8 leintwardin- and and beds and upper beds. J. Barrande. limestone. 13 •« ensis. Ludlow Raeberry Cep halo pod or c Rondout < "j S > s M. bohemicus. groups. Castle beds. Gothland lime- stone. Limestones with E Water Lime. Cobleskill !-• J3 .S? cephalopods. limestone. vO "? a Jj M. Nilssoni. Red sandstone. Upper Oesel Salina beds of < V- 3 a fe E g Lower cephalopod beds: O Onondaga < ^ 60 o u a Cyrtograptus beds. with sandstone. marl. ~ a C-rj a ctj limestone. o o -q e-ft. In a Murchisoni, « a u a Rochester < .y -o 'E .ii o shales. Clinton beds. £ < 'o o d 22 60 f C - ►3 ' oj £ o So rt o P £ M S'£ J?S OJ J3 Rastriles Tarannon, Queensberry Rastrites shales Pentamerus Stage Ei of • — C d J c =3 «*- rt ri o maximus. Llandovery, beds. and Strickland- beds. J. Barrande. a rf w Medina u, rf .1 S-f and inia marls. Graptolite S a sandstone. £ O. <3 "K §1 M. spinigerus. May Hill Birkhill shales shales rt "3 2 < a 3 rf fl c& ■*-.£ groups. and with O .H.l Oneida o -w -a .1 S 851 M. grcgarius. Graptolitic beds diabase conglomerate. a of the at the base. *3 >i c/3 "c3 — "73 +8-833. The fusing points of all copper-silver alloys lies below that of pure copper; that of British standard silver is lower than even that of pure silver Compounds of Silver. Silver forms one perfectly characterized oxide, Ag 2 0, from which is derived a series of stable salts, and probably several less perfectly known ones. Argentic or silver oxide, Ag20, is obtained as a dark brown precipitate by adding potash to a solution of a silver salt; on drying at 6o°-8o° it becomes almost black. It is also obtained by digesting freshly precipitated silver chloride with potash. It is sparingly soluble in water (one part in 3000) ; and the moist oxide frequently behaves as the hydroxide, AgOH, i.e. it converts alkyl haloids into alcohols. It begins to decompose into silver and oxygen at 250 . Silver peroxide, AgO, appears under certain conditions as minute octahedra when a solution of silver nitrate is electrolysed, or as an amorphous crust in the electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid between silver electrodes. It readily decomposes into silver and oxygen. It dissolves in ammonia with the liberation of nitrogen and the formation of silver oxide, Ag 2 0; and in sulphuric acid forming a fairly stable dark green liquid which, on dilution, gives off oxygen and forms silver sulphate. It is doubtful whether the pure compound has been obtained. The compound obtained from silver nitrate always contains nitrogen; it appears to have the constant composition Ag 7 NOn, and has been named silver peroxynitrate. Similarly the sulphate yields 5Ag 2 2 , 2Ag 2 S0 7 , silver peroxysulphate, and the fluoride the peroxyfluorides' AguFsOis, Ag 7 FO s . The sesquioxide, Ag<03, is supposed to be formed when silver peroxide is treated with ammonia (Watson, Jour. Chem. Soc, 1906, 89, p 578). Silver chloride, AgCl, constitutes the mineral cerargyrite or horn silver; mixed with clay it is the butter-milk ore of the German miners. Early names for it are Lac argenti and Luna cornea, the first referring to its form when freshly precipitated, the latter to its ap- pearance after fusion. It is readily obtained as a white curdy precipitate by adding a solution of a chloride to a soluble silver salt It is almost insoluble in water, soluble in 50,000 parts of nitric acid, and more soluble in strong hydrochloric acid and solutions of alkaline chlorides. It readily dissolves in ammonia, the solution, on evapora- tion, yielding rhombic crystals of 2AgCl-3NH s ; it also dissolves in sodium thiosulphate and potassium cyanide solutions. On exposure to light it rapidly darkens, a behaviour utilized in photography (q.v.). Abney and Baker have shown that the pure dry chloride does not blacken when exposed in a vacuous tube to light, and that the blackening is due to absorption of oxygen accompanied by a loss of chlorine. Hydrogen peroxide is also formed. It melts at about 460 to a clear yellow liquid, which, on cooling, solidifies to a trans- lucent resinous mass. It is reduced to metallic silver by certain metals — zinc, iron, &c. — in the presence of water, by fusion with alkaline carbonates or cyanides, by heating in a current of hydrogen, or by digestion with strong potash solution, or with potassium carbonate and grape sugar. Silver bromide, AgBr, constitutes the mineral bromargyrite or bromyrite, found in Mexico and Chile. It is obtained as a yellowish white precipitate by mixing solutions of a bromide and a silver salt. It is very slightly soluble in nitric acid, and less soluble in ammonia than the chloride. It melts at 427°, and darkens on exposure to air. The minerals embolite, mega- bromite and microbromite, occurring in Chile, are variable mixtures of the chloride and bromide. Silver iodide. Agl, occurs in nature as the mineral iodargyrite or iodyrite, forming hexagonal crystals, or yellowish green plates. It is obtained as a light yellow powder by dissolving the metal in hydriodic acid, or by precipitating a silver salt with a soluble iodide. It is very slightly soluble in acids and ammonia, and almost insoluble in alkaline chlorides; potassium iodide, however, dissolves it to form Agl-KI. Silver iodide is dimorphous; at ordinary temperatures the stable form is hexa- gonal; on heating to about 138 the colour changes from deep yellow to yellowish-white with the formation of cubic crystals. Silver fluoride, AgF, is obtained as quadratic octahedra, with one molecule of water, by dissolving the oxide or carbonate in hydrofluoric acid. It is deliquescent, and dissolves in half its weight of water to form a strongly alkaline liquid. It is not decomposed by sunlight. It melts at 435 and, on cooling, forms a yellow transparent mass. In addition to the salts described above there exist sub-salts. Silver nitrate, AgNOs, one of the most important silver salts, is obtained by dissolving the metal in moderately dilute nitric acid; on evaporation it separates in the anhydrous form as colourless triclinic plates. It dissolves in water, alcohol and ether. It stains the skin and hair black: an ethereal solution having been employed as a dye for the hair. Mixed with gum arabic it forms a marking ink for linen. It fuses at 218°; and when cast in quill-like moulds, it constitutes the lunar caustic of medicine, principally used as a cauterizing agent. Silver sulphide, Ag 2 S, constitutes the mineral argentite or silver glance, and may be obtained by heating silver with sulphur, or by precipitating a silver salt with sulphuretted hydrogen. Thus ob- tained it is a brownish solid, which readily fuses and resolidifies to a soft leaden-grey mass. It forms with silver nitrate the yellowish green solid, Ag 2 S-AgNC>3, and with silver sulphate the orange-red powder, Ag 2 S-Ag 2 S04. Silver sulphate, Ag 2 SO<, is obtained as white crystals, sparingly soluble in water, by dissolving the metal in strong sulphuric acid, sulphur dioxide being evolved, or by adding strong sulphuric acid to a solution of the nitrate. It combines with ammonia to form the readily soluble 2NH 3 -Ag 2 S04. Silver selenide, Ag 2 Se, resembles the sulphide. It occurs in the minerals naumannite, PbSe-Ag 2 Se, and eukairite, Ag 2 Se-Cu 2 Se. The telluride, Ag 2 Te, occurs in nature as the mineral hessite. Fulminating silver is an extremely explosive black powder, first obtained in 1788 by Berthelot, who acted with ammonia on silver oxide (prepared by adding lime water to a silver solution). When dry it explodes even on touching with a feather. It appears to be silver nitride AgaN, but it usually contains free silver and sometimes hydrogen. It is to be distinguished from silver fulminate (see Fulminic Acid). The nitride AgN 3 , silver azoimide (q.v.), is also highly explosive. See j. Percy, Metallurgy of Silver and Gold (London, 1880), part i. ; T. Egleston, The Metallurgy of Silver, Gold and Mercury (New York, 1887-1890), part i. ; M. Eissler, The Metallurgy of Silver (London, 1891); H. F. Collins, The Metallurgy of Lead and Silver (London, 1900), part ii. ; H. O. Hofman, Hydrometallurgy of Silver (1907); C. Schnabel, Metallurgy, translated by H. Louis, 2nd ed. vol. i. (I905)- Medicinal Use. Two salts of silver are used in the British pharmacopoeia. (1) Argenti nitras (United States and British pharmacopoeia), lunar caustic, incompatible with alkalis, chlorides, acids, except nitric and acetic, potassium iodide and arsenical solutions. From the nitrate are made (a) argenti nitras indurata, toughened caustic, containing 19 parts of silver nitrate and one of potassium nitrate fused together into cylindrical rods; (b) Argenti nitras mitigatus, mitigated caustic, in which 1 part of silver nitrate and 2 parts of potassium nitrate are fused together into rods or cones. (2) Argenti oxidum, incompatible with chlorides, organic substances, phenol, creosote, &c, with which it forms explosive compounds. Therapeutics. — Externally the nitrate has a caustic action, de- stroying the superficial tissues and separating the part acted on as a slough. Its action is limited. It may be" employed to destroy warts or small growths, to reduce exuberant granulations or it may be applied to bites. In granular lids and various forms of ophthalmia solutions of silver nitrate (2 grs. to I fl. oz.) are employed. A I % solution is also used as a prophylactic for ophthalmia neonatorum. The effects of the nitrate being both astringent and stimulating as well as bactericidal, solutions of it are used to paint indolent ulcers, and in chronic pharyngitis or laryngitis. Salts of silver are most useful as an injection in subacute and chronic gonorrhoea, either the nitrate (1 to 5% solution) being employed, or protargol, which is a proteid compound containing 8 % of silver nitrate, is used in I % solution; they also benefit in leucorrhoea. In pruritus of the SILVERFISH— SILVESTER (POPES) 117 vulva and anus a weak solution of silver nitrate will relieve the itching, and strong solutions painted round the base of a boil at the beginning will abort its formation. Internally the nitrate has been used in the treatment of gastric ulcer, in ulcerative conditions of the intestine and in chronic dysentery. For the intestinal conditions it must either be given in a keratin-coated pill or injected high up into the rectum The oxide has been given in epilepsy and chorea. Nitrate of silver is eliminated from the system very slowly and the objection to its employment continuously as a drug is that it is deposited in the tissues causing argyria, chronic silver poisoning, of which the most prominent symptom is dark slate-blue colour of the lips, cheeks, gums and later of the skin. Taken in large doses nitrate of silver is a powerful poison, causing violent abdominal pain, vomiting and diarrhoea with the develop- ment of gastro-enteritis. In some cases nervous symptoms and delirium supervene. The treatment consists in the use of solutions of common salt, followed by copious draughts of miik or white of egg and water or soap in water, in order to dilute the poison and protect the mucous membranes of the oesophagus and stomach from its action. SILVERFISH, a small active insect, so-called from the silvery glitter of the scales covering the body. It is less than half an inch long and is found in damp corners or amongst books and papers in houses. Although accredited with destroying paper and linen, it probably feeds only on farinaceous or saccharine substances. Scientifically it is known as Lepisma saccharina and belongs to the sub-order Thysanura of the order Aptera. SILVERIUS, pope from June 536 to March 537, successor of Pope Agapetus I., was a legitimate son of Pope Hormisdas, born before his father entered the priesthood. He was conse- crated on the 8th of June 536, having purchased his elevation from the Gothic king Theodotus. Six months afterwards (Dec. 9) he was one of those who admitted Belisarius into the city. He opposed the restoration of the patriarch Anthimus, whom Agapetus had deposed, and thus brought upon himself the hatred of Theodora, who desired to see Vigilius made pope. He was deposed accordingly by Belisarius in March 537 on a charge of treasonable correspondence with the Goths, and degfaded to the rank of monk. He went to Constantinople, and Justinian, who entertained his complaint, sent him back to Rome, but Vigilius was ultimately able to banish his rival to Pandataria, where the rest of his life was spent in obscurity. The date of his death is unknown. SILVES, a city of S. Portugal, in the district of Faro (formerly the province of Algarve); on the right bank of the river Silves at the head of its estuary, and 30 m. W.N.W. of Faro. Pop. (1900) 9687. Silves is surrounded by Moorish walls and domin- ated by a Moorish castle. It has a fine Gothic church. It has manufactures of corks and soap; and exports corn, vegetables and fruits. Large numbers of pigs are bred, and fishing is carried on in the river and at sea. Alphonso III. (1210-1248) wrested Silves from the Moors. SILVESTER, the name of three popes. Silvester I., bishop of Rome from January 314 to December 335, succeeded Melchiades and was followed by Marcus. The accounts of his papacy preserved in the Liber ponlificalis are little else than a record of the gifts said to have been conferred on the Roman church by Constantine the Great. He was represented at the council of Nice. The story of his having baptized Constantine is pure fiction, as almost contemporary evidence shows the emperor to have received this rite near Nicomedia at the hands of Eusebius, bishop of that city. Accord- ing to DSllinger, the entire legend, with all its details of the leprosy and the proposed bath of blood, cannot have been com- posed later than the close of the 5th century (cf. Duchesne, the Liber ponlificalis, i. 109). The so-called Donation of Constantine was long ago shown to be spurious, but the document is of very considerable antiquity and, in Dollinger's opinion, was forged in Rome between 752 and 777. It was certainly known to Pope Adrian in 778, and was inserted in the false decretals towards the middle of the next century. Silvester II., pope from 999 till 1003, and previously famous, under his Christian name of Gerbert, first as a teacher and afterwards as archbishop successively of Reims and Ravenna, was an Aquitanian by birth, and was educated at the abbey of St Gerold in Aurillac. Here he seems to have had Gerald for his abbot and Raymond for his instructor, both of whom were among the most trusted correspondents of his later life. From Aurillac, while yet a young man (adolescens) , he was taken to the Spanish march by " Borrell, duke of Hither Spain," prosecut- ing his studies. Borrell entrusted him to the care of a Bishop Hatto, under whose instruction Gerbert made great progress in mathematics. In this duke we may certainly recognize Borel, who, according to the Spanish chroniclers, was count of Barcelona from 967 to 993, while the bishop may probably be identified with Hatto, bishop of Vich or Ausona from about 960 to 971 or 972. In company with his two patrons Gerbert visited Rome, where the pope, hearing of his proficiency in music and astronomy, induced him to remain in Italy, and introduced him to the emperor Otto I. A papal diploma, still extant, shows that Count Borel and Bishop Octo or Otho of Ausona were at Rome in January 971, and, as all the other indications point. to a corresponding year, enables us to fix the chronology of Gerbert's later life. When brought before the emperor, Gerbert admitted his skill in all branches of the quadrivium,but lamented his comparative ignorance of logic. Eager to supply this deficiency he followed Lothair's ambassador Germanus, archdeacon of Reims, to that city, for the sake of studying under so famous a dialectician in the episcopal schools which were rising into reputation under Archbishop Adalbero (969-989). So promising a scholar soon attracted the attention of Adalbero himself, and Gerbert was speedily invited to exchange his position of learner for that of teacher. At Reims, he seems to have studied and lectured for many years, having amongst his pupils Hugh Capet's son Robert, afterwards king of France, and Richer, to whose history we owe almost every detail of his master's early life. According to this writer Gerbert's fame began to spread over Gaul, Germany and Italy, till it roused the envy of Otric of Saxony, in whom we may recognize Octricus of Magdeburg, the favourite scholar of Otto I., and, in earlier days, the instructor of St Adalbert, the apostle of the Bohemians. Otric, suspecting that Gerbert erred in his classification of the sciences, sent one of his own pupils to Reims to take notes of his lectures, and, finding his suspicions correct, accused him of his error before Otto II. The emperor, to whom Gerbert was well known, appointed a time for the two philosophers to argue before him; and Richer has left a long account of this dialectical tournament at Ravenna, which lasted out a whole day and was only terminated at the imperial bidding. The date of this controversy seems to have been about Christmas 980, and it was probably followed by Otric's death, on the 1st of October 981. It must have been about this time that Gerbert received the great abbey of Bobbio from the emperor. That it was Otto II., and not, as formerly supposed, Otto I., who gave him this benefice, seems evident from a diploma quoted by Mabillon (Annates, iv. 121). Richer, however, makes no mention of this event; and it is only from allusions in Gerbert's letters that we learn how the new abbot's attempts to enforce his dues waked a spirit of discontent which at last drove him in November 983 to take refuge with his old patron Adalbero. It was to no purpose that he appealed to the emperor and empress for restitu- tion or redress; and it was perhaps the hope of extorting his reappointment to Bobbio, as a reward for his services to the imperial cause, that changed the studious scholar of Reims into the wily secretary of Adalbero. Otto II. died in December 983, leaving the empire to his infant heir Otto III. Lothair, king of the west Franks, claimed the guardianship, and attempted to make use of his position to serve his own purposes in Lorraine, which would in all probability have been lost to the empire but for the efforts of Adalbero and Gerbert. Gerbert's policy is to be identified with that of his metropolitan, and was strongly influenced by gratitude for the benefits that he had received from the first two Ottos. According to M. Olleris's arrangement of the letters, Gerbert was at Mantua and Rome in 985. Then followed the death of Lothair (2nd of March 986) and of Louis V., the last Carolingian king, in May 987. Later on in the same year Adalbero crowned n8 SILVESTER (POPES) Hugh Capet (ist June) and his son Robert (25th December). Such was the power of Adalbero and Gerbert in those days that it was said their influence alone sufficed to make and unmake kings. The archbishop died on the 23rd of January 989, having, according to his secretary's account, designated Gerbert his successor. Notwithstanding this, the influence of the empress Theophana, mother of Otto III., secured the appointment for Arnulf , a bastard son of Lothair. The new prelate took the oath of fealty to Hugh Capet and persuaded Gerbert to remain with him. When Charles of Lorraine, Arnulf's uncle, and the son of Louis IV. D'Outremer, surprised Reims in the autumn of the same year, Gerbert fell into his hands and for a time continued to serve Arnulf, who had gone over to his uncle's side. He had, however, returned to his allegiance to the house of Capet before the fall of Laon placed both Arnulf and Charles at the mercy of the French king (March 991). Then followed the council of St Basle, near Reims, at which Arnulf confessed his treason and was degraded from his office (17th June 991). In return for his services Gerbert was elected to succeed the deposed bishop. The episcopate of the new metropolitan was marked by a vigour and activity that were felt not merely in his own diocese, but as far as Tours, Orleans and Paris. Meanwhile the friends of Arnulf appealed to Rome, and a papal legate was sent to investigate the question. As yet Hugh Capet maintained the cause of his nominee and forbade the prelates of his kingdom to be present at the council of Mouzon, near Sedan (June 2, 995). Notwithstanding this prohibition Gerbert appeared in his own behalf. Council seems to have followed council, but with uncertain results. At last Hugh Capet died in 996, and, shortly after, his son Robert married Bertha, the widow of Odo, count of Blois. The pope condemned this marriage as adulterous; and Abbo of Fleury, who visited Rome shortly after Gregory V.'s accession, is said to have procured the restoration of Arnulf at the- new pontiff's demand. We may surmise that Gerbert left France towards the end of 995, as he was present at Otto III.'s coronation at Rome on the 21st of May 996. Somewhat later he became Otto's instructor in arithmetic, and had been appointed archbishop of Ravenna before May 998. Early in the next year he was elected pope (April 999), and took the title of Silvester II. In this capacity Gerbert showed the same energy that had characterized his former life. He is generally credited with having fostered the splendid vision of a restored empire that now began to fill the imagination of the young emperor, who is said to have confirmed the papal claims to eight counties in the Ancona march. Writing in the name of the desolate church at Jerusalem he sounded the first trumpet-call of the crusades, though almost a century was to pass away before his note was repeated by Peter the Hermit and Urban II. 1 Nor did Silvester II. confine himself to plans on a large scale. He is also found confirming his old rival Arnulf in the see of Reims; summoning Adalbero or Azelmus of Laon to Rome to answer for his crimes; judging between the archbishop of Mainz and the bishop of Hikfesheim; besieging the revolted town of Cesena; flinging the count of Angouleme into prison for an offence against a bishop; confirming the privileges of Fulda abbey; granting charters to bishoprics far away on the Spanish mark; and, on the eastern borders of the empire, erecting Prague as the seat of an archbishopric for the Slavs. More remarkable than all his other acts is his letter to St Stephen, king of Hungary, to whom he sent a golden crown, and whose king- dom he accepted as a fief of the Holy See. It must, however, be remarked that the genuineness of this letter, in which Gerbert to some extent foreshadows the temporal claims of Hildebrand and Innocent III., has been hotly contested, and that the original document has long been lost. All Gerbert's dreams for the advancement of church and empire were cut short by the death of Otto III., on the 4th of February 1002; and this event was followed a year later by the death of the pope himself, which took place on the 1 2th of May 1003 . His body was buried in the church 1 This letter, even if spurious as now suspected, is found in the 1 1 1 h-centurv Leiden M S. . and is therefore anterior to the first crusade. of St John Lateran, where his tomb and inscription are still to be seen. A few words must be devoted to Silvester II. as regards his attitude to the Church of Rome and the learning of his age. He has left us two detailed accounts of the proceedings of the council of St Basle; and, despite his reticence, it is impossible to doubt that he was the moving spirit in Arnulf's deposition. On the whole it may be said that his position in this question as to the rights of the papal see over foreign metropolitans resembled that of his great predecessor Hincmar, to whose authority he constantly appeals. But he is rather the practised debater who will admit his opponent's principles for the moment when he sees his way to moulding them to his own purposes, than the philosophical statesman who has formulated a theory from whose terms he will not move. Roughly sketched, his argument is as follows. Rome is indeed to be honoured as the mother of the churches; nor would Gerbert oppose her judgments except in two cases — (1) where she enjoins something that is contrary to the decrees of a universal council, such as that of Nice, or (2) where, after having been once appealed to in a matter of ecclesiastical discipline and having refused to give a plain and speedy decision, she should, at a later date, attempt to call in question the provisions of the metropolitan synod called to remedy the effects of her negligence. The decisions of a Gregory or a Leo the Great, of a Gelasius or an Innocent, prelates of holy life and unequalled wisdom, are accepted by the universal church ; for, coming from such men, they cannot but be good. But who could recognize in the cruel and lustful popes of later days — in John XII. or Boniface VII., " monsters, as they were, of more than human iniquity " — anything else than " Anti- christ sitting in the temple of God and showing himself as God "? Gerbert proceeds to argue that the church councils admitted the right of metropolitan synods to depose unworthy bishops, but contends that, even if an appeal to Rome were necessary, that appeal had been made a year before without effect. This last clause prepares us to find him shifting his position still farther at the council of Causey, where he advances the proposition that John XV. was represented at St Basle by his legate Seguin, archbishop of Sens, and that, owing to this, the decrees of the latter council had received the papal sanction. Far firmer is the tone of his later letter to the same archbishop, where he contends from historical evidence that the papal judgment is not infallible, and encourages his brother prelate not to fear excommunication in a righteous cause, for it is not in the power even of the successor of Peter ' ' to separate an innocent priest from the love of Christ." Besides being the most distinguished statesman, Gerbert was also the most accomplished scholar of his age. But in this aspect he is rather to be regarded as the diligent expositor of other men's views than as an original thinker. Except as regards philosophical and religious speculation, his writings show a range of interest and knowledge quite unparalleled in that generation. His pupil Richer has left us a detailed account of his system of teaching at Reims. So far as the trivium is concerned, his text-books were Victorinus's translation of Porphyry's Isagoge, Aristotle's Categories, and Cicero's Topics with Manlius's Commentaries. From dialectics he urged his pupils to the study of rhetoric; but, recognizing the necessity of a large vocabulary, he accustomed them to read the Latin poets with care. Virgil, Statius, Terence, Juvenal, Horace, Persius and Lucan are specially named as entering into a course of training which was rendered more stimulating by a free use of open discussion. More remarkable still were his methods of teaching the quadrivium. To assist his lectures on astronomy he constructed elaborate globes of the terrestrial and celestial spheres, on which the course of the planets was marked; for facilitating arithmetical and perhaps geometrical processes he constructed an abacus with twenty-seven divisions and a thousand counters of horn. A younger contemporary speaks of his having made a wonderful clock or sun-dial at Magdeburg ; and we know from his letters that Gerbert was accustomed to ex- change his globes for MSS. of those classical authors that his own library did not contain. More extraordinary still was his knowledge of music — an accomplishment which seems to have been his earliest recommendation to Otto I. Probably he was beyond his age in this science, for we read of Garamnus, his first tutor at Reims, whom he attempted to ground in this subject: " Artis difficultate victus, a musica rejectus est." Gerbert's letters contain more than one allusion to organs which he seems to have constructed, and William of Malmesbury has preserved an account of a wonderful musical instrument still to be seen in his days at Reims, which, so far as the English chronicler's words can be made out, seems to refer to an organ worked by steam. The same historian tells us that Gerbert borrowed from the Arabs (Saraceni) the abacus with ciphers (see Numerals). Perhaps Gerbert's chief claim to the remembrance of posterity is to be found in the care and expense with which he gathered together MSS. of the classical writers. His love for literature was a passion. In the turmoil of his later life he looked back with regret to his student days; and " for all his troubles philosophy was his only cure." Everywhere — at Rome, at Treves, at Moutier-en-Der, at Gerona in Spain, at Barcelona — he had friends or agents to procure him copies of the great Latin writers for Bobbio or Reims. To the abbot of Tours he writes that he is " labouring assiduously to form a library," and " throughout Italy, Germany and Lorraine (Belgica) SILVESTRE— SILVESTRINES n 9 is spending vast sums of money in the acquisition of MSS." It is noteworthy, however, that Gerbert never writes for a copy of one of the Christian fathers, his aim being, seemingly, to preserve the fragments of a fast-perishing secular Latin literature. Despite his residence on the Spanish mark, he shows no token of a knowledge of Arabic, a fact which is perhaps sufficient to overthrow the statement of Adhemar as to his having studied at Cordova. There is hardly a trace to be found in his writings of any acquaintance with Greek. So remarkable a character as that of Gerbert left its mark on the age, and fables soon began to cluster round his name. Towards the end of the nth century Cardinal Benno, the opponent of Hilde- brand, is said to have made him the first of a long line of magician popes. Ordericus Vitalis improves this legend by details of an inter- view with the devil, who prophesied Gerbert's threefold elevation in the famous line that Gerbert's contemporaries attributed to the pope himself : Transit in R. Gerbertus in R. post papa vigens R. A few years later William of Malmesbury adds a love adventure at Cordova, a compact with the devil, the story of a speaking statue that foretold Gerbert's death at "Jerusalem— a prophecy fulfilled, somewhat as in the case of Henry IV. of England, by his dying in the Jerusalem church of Rome — and that imaginative story of the statue with the legend " Strike here," which, after having found its way into the Gesta Romanorum, has of late been revived in the Earthly Paradise. Gerbert's extant works may be divided into five classes, (a) A collection of letters, some 230 in number. These are to be found for the most part in an nth-century MS. at Leiden. Other important MSS. are those of the Barberini Library at Rome (late 16th century), of Middlehill (17th century), and of St Peter's abbey, Salzburg. With the letters may be grouped the papal decrees of Gerbert when Silvester II. (b) The Acta concilii Remensis ad Sanctum Basolum, a detailed account of the proceedings and discourses at the great council of St Basle; a shorter account of his apologetic speeches at the councils of Mouzon and Causey; and drafts of the decrees of two or three other councils or imperial constitutions promulgated when he was archbishop of Ravenna or pope. The important works on the three above-mentioned councils are to be found in the 11th- century Leiden MS. just alluded to. (c) Gerbert's theological works comprise a Sermo de informatione episcoporum and a treatise en- titled De corpore et sanguine Domini, both of very doubtful authen- ticity, (d) Of his philosophical works we only have one, Libellus de ralionali et ratione uti, written at the request of Otto III. and pre- served in an 1 1 th-century MS. at Paris, (e) His mathematical works consist of a Regula de abaco computi, of which a 12th-century MS. is to be found at the Vatican ; and a Libellus de numerorum divisione (nth- and 12th-century MSS. at Rome, Montpellier and Paris), dedicated to his friend and correspondent Constantine of Fleury. A long treatise on geometry, attributed to Gerbert, is of somewhat doubtful authenticity. To these may be added a very short dis- quisition on the same subject addressed to Adalbold, and a similar one, on one of his own spheres, addressed to Constantine, abbot of Micy. All the writings of Gerbert are collected in the edition of A. Olleris (Clermont, 1867). (T. A. A.) Silvester III. When Boniface IX. was driven from Rome early in January 1044, John, bishop of Sabina, was elected in his stead and took the title of Silvester III. Within three months Boniface returned and expelled his rival. Nearly three years later (December 1046) the council of Sutri deprived him of his bishopric and priesthood. He was then sent to a monastery, where he seems to have died. SILVESTRE, PAUL ARMAND (1837-1901), French poet and conleur, was born in Paris on the 18th of April 1837. He studied at the Ecole polytechnique with the intention of entering the army, but in 1870 he entered the department of finance. He had a successful official career, was decorated with the Legion of Honour in 1886, and in 1892 was made inspector of fine arts. Armand Silvestre made his entry into literature as a poet, and was reckoned among the Parnassians. His volumes of verse include: Rimes neuves et vieilles (1866), to which George Sand wrote a preface; Les Renaissances (1870); La Chanson des heures (1878); Le Chemin des eloiles (1885), &c. The poet was also a contributor to Gil Bias and other Parisian journals, distinguishing himself by the licence he permitted himself. To ' these " absences " from poetry, as Henri Chantavoine calls them, belong the seven volumes of La Vie pour rire (1881-1883), Conies pantagrueliques et galants (1884), Le Livre des joyeusetes (1884), Gauloiseries nouvelles (1888), &c. For the stage he wrote in many different manners: Sapho (1881), a drama; Henry VIII (1883), with Leonce Detroyat, music by Saint-Saens; and the Drames sacres (1893), religious pictures after 14th- and 15th- century Italian painters, with music by Gounod. An account of his varied and somewhat incongruous production is hardly com- plete without mention of his art criticism. Le Nu au Salon (1888-1892), in five volumes, with numerous illustrations, was followed by other volumes of the same type. He died atToulouse on the 19th of February 1901. SILVESTRE DE SACY, ANTOINE ISAAC, Baron (1758-1838), French orientalist, was born in Paris on the 21st of September 1758. His father was a Parisian notary named Silvestre, and the additional name of de Sacy was taken by the younger son after a fashion then common with the Paris bourgeoisie. From the age of seven years, when he lost his father, he was educated in the closest seclusion by his mother. In 1781 he was appointed councillor in the cour des monnaies, and was advanced in 1791 to be a commissary-general in the same department. De Sacy had successively acquired all the Semitic languages, and as a civil servant he found time to make himself a great name as an orientalist. He began successfully to decipher the Pahlavi inscriptions of the Sassanian kings (1787-1791). 1 In 1792 hfe retired from the public service, and lived in close seclusion in a cottage near Paris till in 1795 he became professor of Arabic in the newly founded school of living Eastern languages. The interval was in part devoted to the study of the religion of the Druses, which was the subject of his last and unfinished work, the Expose de la religion des Druzes (2 vols., 1838). Since the death of Johann Jakob Reiske Arabic learning had been in a backward state. In the Grammaire arabe (2 vols., isted. 1810, 2nd ed. 1831) and the Chrestomathie arabe (3 vols., 1806), together with its supplement, the Anthologie grammatical (1829), De Sacy supplied admirable text-books, and earned the gratitude of later Arabic students. In 1806 he added the duties of Persian pro- fessor to his old chair, and from this time onwards his life was one of increasing honour and success, broken only by a brief period of retreat during the Hundred Days. He was perpetual secretary of the Academy of Inscriptions from 1832 onwards; in 1808 he had entered the corps legislatif; he was made a baron in 1 813; and in 1832, when quite an old man, be became a peer of France and was regular in the duties of the chamber. In 181 5 he became rector of the university of Paris, and after the second restoration he was active on the commission of public instruction. With Abel Remusat he was joint founder of the Societe asiatiqite, and was inspector of oriental types at the royal printing press. De Sacy died on the 21st of February 1838. Among his other works are his edition of Hariri (1822, 2nd edition by Reinaud, 1847, 1855), with a selected Arabic commentary, and of the Alfiya (1833), and his Calila et Dimna (1816), — the Arabic version of that famous collection of Buddhist animal tales which has been in various forms one of the most popular books of the world. A version of Abd-Allatif, Relation arabe sur VEgypte, and essays on the history of the law of property in Egypt since the Arab conquest (1805-1818). To biblical criticism he contributed a memoir on the Samaritan Arabic of the Pentateuch (Mem. Acad, des Inscr. vol. xlix.), and editions of the Arabic and Syriac New Testaments lor the British and Foreign Bible Society. Of the brilliant teachers who went out from his lecture-room may be mentioned Professor Heinrich Leberecht Fleischer (1801-1888), who contributed elabor- ate notes and corrections to the Grammaire arabe [Kleinere Schriften, vol. i., 1885). SILVESTRINES, or Sylvestrines, an order of monks under the Benedictine rule, founded 1231 by St Silvester Gozzolini. He was born at Osimo near Ancona and held a canonry there. About 1227 he resigned it to lead an austere eremitical life. Disciples came to him, and in 1231 he built a monastery at Montefano. The rule was the Benedictine, but as regards poverty in external things, far stricter than the Benedictine. The order was approved in 1247 by Innocent IV., and at Silvester's death in 1 267 there were eleven Silvestrine monasteries. At a later date there were 56, mostly in Umbria, Tuscany and the March of Ancona. In 1907 there were nine Silvestrine houses, one in Rome, and about 60 choir monks. Since 1855 they 1 A communication to Eichhorn on the Paris MS. of the Syro- Hexaplar version of IV. Kings formed the basis of a paper in the latter's Repertorium, vol. vii. (1780). This was de Sacy's literary debut. It was followed by text and translation of the letters of the Samaritans to Jos. Scaliger (ibid. vol. xiii., 1783) and by a series of essays on Arabian and Persian history in the Recueil of the Academy of Inscriptions and in the Notices et extraits. 120 SIMANCAS— SIMCOE have had a house and a mission in Ceylon. The order has no history. The habit is blue. See Helyot, Histoire des ordres religieux (1718), vi. c. 21; Max Heimbucher, Orden u. Kongregationen (1907), i. § 30; Wetzer u. Welte, Kirchenlexicon (ed. 2). (E. C. B.) SIMANCAS, a town of Spain, in the province of Valladolid; 8 m. S.W. of Valladolid, on the road to Zamora and the right bank of the river Pisuerga. Pop. (1900) 1129. Simancas is a town of great antiquity, the Roman Septimanca, with a, citadel dating from the Moorish occupation in the 9th century, a fine bridge of seventeen arches, and many remains of old walls. In 934 it was the scene of a bloody battle between the Moors and Christians. The citadel is now the Archivo General del Reino, to which the national archives of Spain were removed by order of Philip II. in 1563. Their transference thither was first suggested to Charles V. by Cardinal Ximenes or Cisneros (d. 1 51 7). The extensive alterations were made by three celebrated 16th-century architects, Juan de Herrera, Alonso Berruguete and Juan Gomez de Mora; the arrangement of the papers was en- trusted to Diego de Ayala. They occupy forty-six rooms, and are arranged in upwards of 80,000 bundles (33,000,000 documents), including important private as well as state papers. The archives of the Indies were transferred in 1784 to the Lonja of Seville (q.v.). Permission to consult the documents at Simancas can be readily obtained. SIMBIRSK, a government of E. Russia, on the right bank of the middle Volga, with the government of Kazan on the N., Samara on the E., Saratov on the S., and Penza and Nizhniy- Novgorod on the W. It has an area of 18,095 S Q- m - and occupies the E. of the great central plateau of middle Russia. Its higher parts range from 750 to 1000 ft. above the sea, and form the Zhegulev range of hills, which compels the Volga to make its great bend at Samara. In the W. a broad depression, traversed by numerous rivers and streams, extends along the left bank of the Sura. The Volga flows for 300 m. along the E. boundary, separat- ing Simbirsk from Samara. The shallow Sviyaga rises in the Samarskaya Luka Hills and flows parallel to the Volga, at a distance of 2 to 20 m. but in the opposite direction. The Sura, also flowing N., drains the W. of Simbirsk; it is navigable for more than 270 m. A few lakes and marshes exist in the W. The climate is severe, and the extremes are great. At the city of Simbirsk the average temperature is 38-7°, but the thermometer sometimes reaches 115 F., and frosts of —47° F. are not un- common; the average rain and snowfall is only 17-6 in. In respect to the geology, all systems, beginning with the Carbon- iferous, are represented in the government. The exact age of the " Variegated Marls, " the subject of animated polemics among Russian geologists, remains problematic, but the inquiries of Professor Pavlov have definitely settled the geological age of the Jurassic formations. Triassic deposits appear in the N.; Carboniferous and Cretaceous predominate in the E. of the province, where they are covered in many places by Tertiary deposits; Chalk and Eocene deposits crop up chiefly in the W. and the Chalk in the S. Post-Pliocene deposits, containing bones of the mammoth and other • extinct mammals, overlie the older formations. Sulphur, asphalt, salt, ochre, and iron- ore are extracted, as well as various building stones. The estimated pop. in 1906 was 1,783,000. Nearly all the inhabitants either belong to the Russian Orthodox Church or are Nonconformists, there being only 145,000 Mussulmans. The greater number (about two-thirds) are Great Russians, the remainder being Mordvinians (12%), Chuvashes (8%), and Tatars (8%), with about 1000 Jews. The Mordvinians are settled chiefly in the N.W., in Ardatov and Alatyr, and on the Volga in Sengilei; the Chuvashes make about one-third of the population of the districts of Buinsk and Kurmysh, contiguous to Kazan; the Tatars constitute -about 35% in Buinsk and 18% in Sengilei. The villages in Simbirsk are large, many of them having 3000 to 5000 inhabitants. The government is divided into eight districts, the chief towns of which are Simbirsk, Alatyr, Ardatov, Buinsk, Karsun, Kurmysh, Sengilei and Syzran. School gardens and school farms have been widely introduced, while bee-keeping is taught in over 50 schools. Owing to the efforts of the zemstvos (local councils), sanitation is well looked after. Agri- culture is the principal occupation. Out of the total area the peasant village communities hold 40%, private owners 20%, the imperial domains 5%, and the towns and the crown 0'6%. The area under forests amounts to 30% of the whole and over 50% is under cultivation. The peasants are rapidly buying land in con- siderable quantities. Most of their allotments (more than 76 %) are cultivated, and besides what they own they rent over 500,000 acres from private owners. The principal crops are wheat, rye, oats, barley and potatoes. Good breeds ot horses are kept, and considerable numbers are exported. Fishing (sturgeon) is carried on in the Volga and the Sura, timber trade in the N. and shipbuilding on the Sura. Domestic trades give employment to over 15,000 persons; carts, sledges, wheels and all sorts of wooden wares are made in the villages, as also felt goods, boots, gloves, caps, handkerchiefs, ropes and fishing-nets, all extensively exported. The factories employ less than 20,000 persons. They comprise mainly cloth mills, flour-mills and distilleries, with tanneries, glass, oil and starch works. There are 82 fairs, the most important of which are held at Simbirsk, Syzran and Karsun. There is a considerable export trade in grain, 'mostly rye, and in flour. The first Russian settlers made their appearance in the Simbirsk region in the 14th century, but did not go E. of the Sura. Not till two centuries later did they cross, that river and the district begin to be peopled by refugees from Moscow. The Zhegulev Mountains in the S. still continuing to be a place of refuge for the criminal and the persecuted, the town of Simbirsk was founded in 1648, with a string of small forts extending to the Sura. The region thus protected was soon settled, and, as the Russian villages advanced farther S., Syzran was founded, and a second line of small forts to the Sura was erected. The aboriginal Mordvinians rapidly lost their ethnographical individuality, especially since the middle of the 19th century. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) SIMBIRSK, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, 154 m. by the Volga S.S.W. from Kazan, between the Volga and the Sviyaga. Pop. (1897) 44,111. It is one of the best built provincial towns of Russia. It is an episcopal see of the Orthodox Greek Church. The central part of Simbirsk — the Crown {Vends), containing the cathedral and the best houses — is built on a hill 560 ft. above the Volga. Adjoining this is the commercial quarter, while farther down the slope, towards the Volga, are the storehouses and the poorest suburbs of the city; these last also occupy the W. slope towards the Sviyaga. There are three suburbs on the left bank of the Volga, communication with them being maintained in summer by steamers. A great fire having destroyed nearly all the town in 1864, it has been built again on a new plan, though still mostly of wood. The cathedral of St Nicholas dates from 17 12. The new cathedral of the Trinity was erected in 1824-1841 in com- memoration of the French invasion of 1812. The historian Karamzin (born in 1766 in the vicinity of Simbirsk) has a monument here, and a public library bearing his name contains about 1 5,000 volumes. The trade isjarisk, corn being the principal item, while next come potash, wood, fruits, wooden wares and manufactured produce. Simbirsk fair has a turnover of £650,000 annually. The city was founded in 1648, and in 1670 endured a long siege by the rebel leader Stenka Razin. SIMCOE, JOHN GRAVES (1752-1806), British soldier and first lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada, was born at Cotter- stock, Northumberland, England, on the 25th of February 1752. His father, John Simcoe, who was a captain in the Royal Navy, died in 1759, and his only brother was drowned in early youth. During Simcoe's childhood the family removed to Exeter. He was sent to Eton at the age of fourteen, and three years later entered Merton College, Oxford. After two years of college life, he became ensign in the 35th regiment, first seeing active service at Boston in 1775, and remaining in America during the greater part of the Revolutionary War. In 1776 he secured command of the Queen's Rangers with the rank of major. His military career in America ended with the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown (Oct. 19, 1781). He returned to England on parole, and for the next ten years divided his time between London and his family estate in Devon. In December SIMEON 121 1782 he married Elizabeth Posthuma, only child of Colonel Thomas Gwillim of Old Court, Herefordshire. In 1790 he was elected member of parliament for St Mawes in Cornwall, and at the close of his first session was appointed lieutenant-governor of the new province of Upper Canada created under the Con- stitutional Act of 1 791. He reached Kingston, Upper Canada, on the 1st of July 1792. There the first council was assembled, the government of the new province proclaimed, and the oaths of office taken. Immediately afterwards preparations were made for the election of the first house of assembly, which opened at Newark near the mouth of the Niagara river, on the 17th of September 1792. Simcoe's ideas of colonial government were dominated by military and aristocratic conceptions quite unsuited to the pioneer conditions of Upper Canada. Thus, while his administration was characterized by the most dis- interested devotion to what he conceived to be for the best interests of the province, it was rendered ineffective by the impracticable character of his projects and the friction which developed between himself and Lord Dorchester, the governor- general. He left Canada in September 1 796, and was immediately afterwards sent on a mission to San Domingo, from which, however, he returned in a few months on account of ill-health. In October 1798 he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant- general, and appointed colonel of the 22nd foot. During 1800-1801 he was in command at Plymouth. Desiring more active service, he was designated commander-in-chief for India to succeed Lord Lake, but before taking the appointment his health broke and he died at Exeter on the 26th of October 1806. See D. C. Scott, John Graves Simcoe (1905). SIMEON, in the Old Testament, the name of a tribe of Israel, named after the second son of Jacob by Leah (Gen. xxix. 33). According to Gen. xxxiv., the brothers Simeon and Levi massacred the males of Shechem to avenge the -violation of their sister Dinah (" judgment ") by. Shechem the son of Hamor. Jacob disavowed the act, and on his deathbed solemnly cursed their ferocity, condemning the two to be divided in Jacob and scattered in Israel (xlix. 5-7). Subsequently the priestly Levites are found distributed throughout Israel without portion or inheritance (Deut. xviii. 1, Josh. xiii. 14). The career of Simeon, on the other hand, raises numerous questions. Simeon is reckoned among the N. tribes in 2 Chron. xv. 9, xxxiv. 6, but is elsewhere assigned a district in S. Palestine, the cities of which are other- wise ascribed to Judah (cf. Josh. xix. 1-9 with xv. 26-32). 1 A gloss in 1 Chron. iv. 31 (which breaks the connexion) states that the latter was their seat in David's time, but there is no support for this in other records (see 1 Sam. xxvii., xxx.). In fact, Simeon is not mentioned in the " blessing of Moses " (Deut. xxxiii.," see S. R. Driver, Deut. p. 397 seq.), or in the stories of the "judges"; and notwithstanding references to it in the chronicler's history of the monarchy, it is not named in the earlier books of Samuel and Kings. But is Gen. xxxiv. to be taken literally? Shechem is the famous holy city, Hamor a well-known native family, Jacob talks of himself as being " few in number," and the deeds of Simeon and Levi are those of communities, not of individuals. What historical facts are thus represented, and how they are to be brought into line with the early history of Israel, are problems which have defied solution (see J. Skinner, Genesis, p. 421 seq.). It is conjectured that Dinah represents a clan or group (cf. Dan) which settled in Shechem and was exposed to danger (e.g. oppression or absorp- tion); the tribes Simeon and Levi intervened on its behalf, the ensuing massacre was avenged by the Canaanites, and the two were broken up. These events would belong to an early stage in the invasion of Palestine by the Israelites (i5th-i3th century B.C.), perhaps to a preliminary settlement by the " sons " of Leah (Reuben, Simeon, Levi and Judah), previous to the entrance of the " son " of Rachel, Joseph, the " father " 1 It is difficult to determine whether the writers included Simeon among the ten N. tribes (2 Sam. xix. 43, 1 Kings xi. 31, 35) which are contrasted with the one (Judah, I Kings xi. 32, 36, xii. 20), or two (plus Benjamin; ib. xii. 21-23) which remained faithful to the Davidic dynastj'. of Ephraim and Manasseh. 2 The internal biblical evidence has forced all independent investigators to adopt some recon- struction, but the above theory is in many respects precarious. 3 It may explain the disappearance of a secular tribe of Levi, but not the rise of the sacred Levites. Even in Judges ix. 28 Shechem is still held by the family of Hamor (cf. Gen. xxxiii. 19), and if Simeon was scattered and divided at any early date, its appearance in tradition many centuries later is inexplicable. On the other hand, the latter feature is significant for its vitality in post-exilic traditions. Gen. xxxiv. and the narratives upon which the above reconstruction depends are preserved by compilers of the 6th century and later, and the correlation of Simeon and Levi points to a time when the latter had at length become the recognized eponym of the well-known ecclesiastical body. Gen. xxxiv. has been heavily revised and is in a post-exilic dress. The original story must have concerned Simeon and Levi alone (vv. 25 seq., 30, cf. xlix. 7), but it has been adapted to tribal history, to the spoliation of Shechem by all the " sons " of Jacob (xxxiv. 27-29) Both forms have lost their true sequel, and when Jacob and his sons journey S. they are protected from pursuit by a mysterious panic which seizes the district (Gen. xxxv. 5). As the narrative now stands, the conduct of Simeon and Levi is judged far less unfavourably than in Jacob's curse, and the editor evidently shared that aversion from foreign marriages (especially with the Samaritans of Shechem) which is characteristic of the post-exilic age (cf. Neh. xiii. 27-29). It is the attitude of the story of the zeal of Phinehas (Num. xxv. 1-15). and of the terrible extermination of Midian (ib. xxxi.), and it becomes more pronounced as early Judaism extolled the two brothers. 4 In these circumstances the original narrative can scarcely be re- covered, and one can only point to the traditions of the Levites (Q- v - § 3) ar >d the hints of fierce religious reforms which, in certain circles and at an intermediate stage in the literary growth of the bibli- cal sources, were condemned. In fact, the Levites are connected by the genealogical evidence with S. Palestine, the district which is associated with the scene of their divine selection, with the seat of the tribe Simeon, and with the life of Israel around Kadesh previous to Joshua's invasion. Herein lies the peculiar complexity of the problem. Underlying Gen. xxxiv. and other portions of Genesis may be recognized the tradition of a settlement of Jacob, which belongs to a cycle quite independent of the descent into Egypt and the Exodus (cf. E. Meyer, op. cit., and J. Skinner, Genesis, p. 418). But the story of the entrance of Jacob and his " sons " finds a parallel in the entrance of the tribes under Joshua and in the S. move of Judah and Simeon (see Genesis). With the conquest of Zephath (renamed Hormah, Judg. i. 17) by these tribes, compare not only Judah's settlement (Gen. xxxviii., cf. Skinner p. 450), but also that of Simeon (Gen. xlvi. 10), and the related tradition that Simeon married a Zephathite (Jubilees, xliv. 13). 1 Chron. iv. 39 sqq. men- tions a Simeonite occupation of Gedor, or rather Gerar, which would bring this tribe into the district of Kadesh (cf. Gen. xx. 1 seq., xxvi. 1), and adds a raid upon Mount Seir (Edom) ending in the over- throw of Amalek (1 Chron. iv. 39-43). 5 S. Palestine, associated with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, and with the separation of the non- Israelite Ishmael and Esau (Edom), is the district whence Jacob de- parted to his Aramaean relatives (Gen. xxviii. sqq.). Hormah, too, is the scene of an Israelite victory in the story of the Exodus (Num. xxi. 1-3), and is connected with evidence suggesting that this victory at the very gate of the promised land belongs to a tradition of some movement from Kadesh into Judah (Wellhausen, G. F. Moore, H. P. Smith, and others; see Exodus, The). The other tradition, that the Israelites were defeated there by Amalekites and Canaanites, explains the detour by Edom and Moab (ib. xiv. 25, 40-45), and the appearance of the tribes E. of the Jordan to invade the land of their ancestors. Obviously these represent fundament- ally differing views, which cannot be woven into a single outline; and they cannot be isolated from more profound questions which really affect all ordinary conceptions of the structure of biblical history. See S. A. Cook, Amer. Journ. of Theol. xiii. 370-388 (1909); Jews, §§ 5-8, 22; Levites; Palestine: History. (S. A. C.) 2 So in general, the favourite interpretation (Wellhausen, Stade, Guthe and many others) with some variation of detail, see especially Gunkel's commentary (Handkommentar, 1901, pp. 335 sqq.). 3 See the instructive study by E. Meyer, Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme (1906), pp. 409-428 (especially his criticisms, p. 421 seq.) ; cf. also I. Benzinger, Hebr. Archaologie (1907), pp. 345 sqq. (whose astral interpretation of the narrative, however, is quite inadequate). 4 See Judith ix. 2, Philo, De Migr. Abrahami, 39, and, for fuller details of the trend of Jewish opinion, R. H. Charles, Book of Jubilees, p. 179, id., " Test, of xii. Patriarchs," p. 22. 6 On these wars, see the criticisms of H. W. Hogg in his elaborate study of Simeon, Ency. Bib. col. 4524-34. 122 SIMEON OF DURHAM— SIMLA SIMEON (or Symeon) OF DURHAM (d. after 1129), English chronicler, embraced the monastic life before the year 1083 in the monastery of Jarrow; but only made his profession at a later date, after he had removed with the rest of his community to Durham. He was author of two historical works which are particularly valuable for northern affairs. He composed his Historia ecclesiae Dunelmensis, extending to the year 1096, at some date between 1104 and 1108. The original manuscript is at Durham in the library of Bishop Cosin. It is divided into four books, which are subdivided into chapters; the order of the narrative is chronological. There are two continuations, both anonymous. The first carries the history from 1096 to the death of Ranulf Flambard (n 29); the second extends from 1133 to 1 144. A Cambridge MS. contains a third continuation covering the years 1141-1154. About 1129 Simeon undertook to write a Historia regum Anglorum et Dacorum. This begins at the point where the Ecclesiastical History of Bede ends. Up to 957 Simeon merely copies some old Durham annals, not otherwise preserved, which are of value for northern history; from that point to 1 1 19 he copies Florence of Worcester with certain interpolations. The section dealing with the years 1119-1129 is, however, an independent and practically contemporaneous narrative. Simeon writes, for his time, with ease and perspicuity; but his chief merit is that of a diligent collector and copyist. Other writings have been attributed to his pen, but on no good authority. They are printed, along with his undoubted works, in the Scriptores decern of Roger Twysden (1652). The most complete modern edition is that of Thomas Arnold (" Rolls " series, 2 vols., 1882-1885). The value of the " Northumbrian Annals," which Simeon used for the Historia regum, has been discussed by J. H. Hinde in the preface to his Symeonis Dunelmensis opera, vol. i. pp. xiv. ff. (1868); by R. Pauli in Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, xii. pp. 137 sqq. (Gottingen, 1872); and by W. Stubbs in the intro- duction to Roger of HovebZen, vol. i. p. x. (" Rolls " series). Simeon's works have been translated by J. Stevenson in his Church Historians of England, vol. iii. part ii. (1855). (H. W. C. D.) SIMEON, CHARLES (1759-1836), English evangelical divine, was born at Reading and educated at Eton and Cambridge. In 1782 he became fellow of King's College, Cambridge, and took orders, receiving the living of Holy Trinity, Cambridge, in the following year. He was at first so unpopular that the services were frequently interrupted, and he was often insulted in the streets. Having lived down this prejudice, he subsequently gained a very remarkable and lasting influence among the under- graduates of the university. He became a leader among evangelical churchmen, was one of the founders of the Church Missionary Society, and acted as adviser to the East India Company in the choice of chaplains for India. His chief work is a commentary upon the whole Bible, entitled Horae homileticae (London, 1819- 1820). He died on the 13th of November 1836. The " Simeon Trustees " were instituted by him for the purpose of acquiring church patronage in the interests of evangelical views. See Memoirs of Charles Simeon, with a selection from his writings and correspondence, edited by the Rev. W. Carus (3rd ed., 1848); H. C. G. Moule, Charles Simeon (London, 1892). SIMEON, JOSEPH JER6ME, Comte (1749-1842), French jurist and politician, was born at Aix on the 30th of September 1749. His father, Joseph Sextius Simeon (17 17-1788), had been professor of law and royal secretary for the parlement of Provence. J. J. Simeon followed his father's profession, but he was outlawed for his share in the federalist movement in 1793, and only returned to France after the revolution of Thermidor. In the council of the Five Hundred, of which he was now a member, he took the conservative side. In 1799, for protesting against the invasion of the chamber by P. F. C. Augereau, he was im- prisoned until the 18th Brumaire (9th November). In the Tribunate he had an important share in the preparation of the Civil Code, being rewarded by a seat in the council of state. In 1807 he was one of the commissioners sent to organize the new kingdom of Westphalia, and was premier of King Jerome. He served the Restoration as councillor of state and in the chamber of peers. In 1820 he was under-secretary of state for justice, and in the next year minister of the interior until the fall of the Richelieu ministry. A baron of the Empire and count at the second Restoration, he was admitted to the. Academy of Moral and Political Science in 1832, and in 1837 he became president of the Cour des Comptes. He died in Paris on the 19th of January 1842 in his 93rd year. His son, Joseph Balthasar, Comte Simeon (1781-1846), entered the diplomatic service under the Empire. At the Restoration he was successively prefect of Var, Doubs and Pas de Calais. He was director-general of fine arts in 1828, and had a great reputation as a connoisseur and collector. SIMEON STYLITES, ST (390-459), the first and most famous of the Pillar-hermits (Gr. crrOXos, pillar), was born in N. Syria. After having been expelled from a monastery for his excessive austerities, at thirty years of age he built a pillar six feet high on which he took up his abode. He made new pillars higher and higher, till after ten years he reached the height of sixty feet. On this pillar he lived for thirty years without ever descending. A railing ran round the capital of the pillar, and a ladder enabled his disciples to take him the necessaries of life. From his pillar he preached and exercised a great influence, converting numbers of heathen and taking part in ecclesiastical politics. The facts would seem incredible were they not vouched for by Theodoret, who knew him personally {Historia religiosa, c. 26). Moreover, Simeon had many imitators, well authenticated Pillar-hermits being met with till the 16th century. The standard work on the subject is Les Stylites (1895), by H. Delehaye, the Bollandist; for a summary see the article " Saulen- heilige," in Herzog's Realencyklopddie (ed. 3). On Simeon see Th. Noldeke's Sketches from Eastern History (1892), p. 210, and the Dictionary of Christian Biography. (E. C. B.) SIMFEROPOL, a town of Russia, capital of the government of Taurida, in the S. of the Crimea, 78 m. by rail N.E. of Sevastopol and 800 from Moscow. Pop. (1897) 60,876. It occupies an admirable site on the N. slopes of the Chatyr-dagh Mountains, and is divided into two parts — the European, well built in stone, and the Tatar, with narrow and filthy streets peopled by some 7000 Tatars and by Jews. Although it has grown since the rail- way brought it into connexion with the rest of the empire, it still remains a mere administrative centre. It is the see of a bishop of the Orthodox Greek Church and the headquarters of the 7th Russian army corps. There are a museum and monuments to Dolgoruki, conqueror of the Crimea, and to the empress Catherine II. (1890). The town is famous for its fruit. In the neighbourhood stood the small fortress of Napoli, erected by the ruler of Taurida some hundred years before the Christian era, and it existed until the end of the 3rd century. Afterwards the Tatar settlement of Ak-mechet, which in the 17th century was the residence of the chief military commander of the khan, had the name of Sultan-serai. In 1736 it was taken and burnt by the Russians, and in 1784, after the conquest of the Crimea by the Russians, it received its present name and became the capital of Taurida. SIMLA, a town and district in British India, in the Delhi division of the Punjab. The town is the summer residence of the viceroy and staff of the supreme government, and also of the Punjab government. It is 58 m. by cart-road from the railway station of Kalka, which is n 16 m. from Calcutta. A metre-gauge railway, 68 m. long, was opened from Kalka to Simla in 1903. The population in 1901 was 13,960, but that was only the winter population, and the summer census of 1904 returned the number of 35,250. The sanatorium of Simla occupies a spur of the lower Himalaya, running E. and W. for about 6 m. The ridge culminates at the E. in the eminence of Jakko, in the vicinity of which bungalows are most numerous; the viceregal lodge stands on Observatory Hill. The E. of the station is known as Chota Simla and the W. as Boileauganj. The situation is one of great beauty; and the houses, built separately, lie at elevations between 6600 and 8000 ft. above sea-level. To the N., a beautiful wooded spur, branching from the main ridge, is known as Elysium. Three miles W. is the cantonment of Jutogh. The minor sanatoria of Kasauli, Sabathu, Dagshai and Solon he some distance to the S. The first European house at Simla was built in 1819, and the place was first visited by a governor-general in 1827. It has gradually SIMLER— SIMMS 123 become the permanent headquarters of many of the official establishments. During the season Simla is the focus of Indian society; and viceregal and other balls, and entertainments of every description, are frequent. Simla is the headquarters of a volunteer rifle corps, and there are numerous libraries and institutes, of which the chief is the United Service Institution, with a subsidy from government. The two chief medical institutions are the Ripon and Walker hospitals. There are a theatre, concert room and numerous churches. Educational institutions include Bishop Cotton's school for boys, the Mayo industrial school for girls, several aided schools for European boys and girls, and two Anglo-vernacular schools for natives. The Lawrence military asylums are at Sanawar, near Kasauli. The District of Simla has an area of 101 sq. m., and had a population in 1901 of 40,351. The mountains of Simla and the surrounding native states compose the S. outliers of the great central chain of the E. Himalaya. They descend in a gradual series from the main chain to the general level of the Punjab plain, forming a transverse S.W. spur between the great basins of the Ganges and the Indus. S. and E. of Simla the hills between the Sutlej and the Tons centre in the great peak of Chor, 11,982 ft. above sea-level. Throughout all the hills forests of deodar abound, while rhododendrons clothe the slopes up to the limit of perpetual snow. The principal rivers are the Sutlej, Pabar, Giri, Gambhar and Sarsa. The acquisition of the patches of territory forming the district dates from various times subsequent to the close of the Gurkha War in 1816, which left the British in possession of the whole tract of hill-country from the Gogra to the Sutlej. Kumaon and Dehra Dun were annexed to the British dominions; but the rest, with the exception of a few localities retained as military posts and a portion sold to the raja of Patiala, was restored to the hill rajas, from whom it had been wrested by the Gurkhas. Garhwal state became attached to the North- Western Provinces; but the remaining principalities rank among the dependencies of the Punjab, and are known collectively as the Simla Hill States, under the superintendence of the deputy-commissioner of Simla, subordinate to the commissioner at Umballa. The chief of the Simla Hill States — which number 28 in all — are Jubbal, Bashahr, Keonthal, Baghal, Bilaspur and Hindur. SIMLER, JOSIAS (1530-1576), author of the first book relating solely to the Alps, was the son of the former prior of the Cistercian convent of Kappel (Canton of Zurich), and was born at Kappel, where his father was the Protestant pastor and schoolmaster till his death in 1557. In 1544 Simler went to Zurich to continue his education under his godfather, the celebrated reformer, Heinrich Bullinger. After having completed his studies at Basel and Strasburg, he returned to Zurich, and acted as a pastor in the neighbouring villages. In 1552 he was made professor of New Testament exegesis at the Carolinum at Zurich, and in 1 560 became professor of theology. In 1 559 he had his first attack of gout, a complaint which finally killed him. In 1555 he published a new edition of Conrad Gesner's Epitome of his Bibliotheca universalis (a list of all authors who had written in Greek, Latin or Hebrew), in 1574 a new edition of the Biblio- theca itself, and in 1575 an annotated edition of the Antonine Itinerary. About 1551 he conceived the idea of making his native land better known by translating into Latin parts of the great Chronik of Johann Stumpf. With this view he collected materials, and in 1574 published a specimen of his intended work in the shape of a monograph on the Canton of the Valais. He published in the same volume a general description of the Alps, as the Introduction to his projected work on the several Swiss Cantons. In this treatise, entitled De Alpibus com- mentarius, he collected all that the classical authors had written on the Alps, adding a good deal of material collected from his friends and correspondents. This Commentarius is the first work exclusively devoted to the Alps, and sums up the knowledge of that region possessed in the 16th century. It was republished by the Elzevirs at Leiden in 1633, and again at Zurich in 1735, while an elaborate annotated edition (prepared by Mr Coolidge) , with French translation, notes and appendices, appeared at Grenoble in 1904. Another fragment of his vast plan was the work entitled De Helvetiorum republica, which appeared at Zurich in 1576, just before his death. It was regarded as the chief authority on Swiss constitutional matters up to 1798. See lives by G. von Wyss (Zurich, 1855), and in Mr Coolidge's book, pp. cxlvii.-clviii. (W. A. B. C.) SIMMONS, EDWARD EMERSON (1852- ), American artist, was born at Concord, Massachusetts, on the 27th of October 1852. He graduated from Harvard College in 1874, and was a pupil of Lefebvre and Boulanger. in Paris, where he took a gold medal. He was awarded the prize by the Municipal Art Society of New York for a mural decorative scheme, which he carried out for the criminal courts building, later decorating the Waldorf-Astoria hotel in New York, the Library of Congress, Washington, and the Capitol at Saint Paul, Minnesota. He was one of the original members of the Ten American Painters. SIMMS, WILLIAM GILMORE (1806-1870), American poet, novelist and historian, was born at Charleston, S.C., on the 17th of April 1806 of Scoto-Irish descent. His mother died during his infancy, and his father having failed in business and joined Coffee's Indian fighters, young Simms was brought up by his grandmother. He was clerk in a drug store for some years, and afterwards studied law, the bar of Charleston admitting him to practice in 1827, but he soon abandoned his profession for literature. At the age of eight he wrote verses, and in his 19th year he produced a Monody on Gen. Charles Colesworth Pinckney (Charleston, 1825). Two years later, in 1827, Lyrical and Other Poems and Early Lays appeared; and in 1828 he began journalism, editing and partly owning the City Gazette. The enterprise failed, and the editor devoted his attention entirely to letters, and in rapid succession published The Vision of Cortes, Cain, and other Poems (1829), The Tricolor, or Three Days of Blood in Paris (1830), and his strongest poem, Atalantis, a story of the sea (1832). Atalantis established his fame as an author, and Martin Faber, the Story of a Criminal, was warmly received. During the American) Civil War Simms espoused the side of the Secessionists in a weekly newspaper, and suffered damage at the hands of the Federal troops when they entered Charleston. He served in the state House of Representatives in 1 844- 1 846, and the university of Alabama conferred on him the degree of LL.D. He died at Charleston on the nth of June 1870. In addition to the works mentioned above, Simms published the following poetry: — Southern Passages and Pictures, lyrical, senti- mental and descriptive poems (New York, 1839) ; Donna Florida, a tale (Charleston, 1843); Grouped Thoughts and Scattered Fancies, sonnets (Richmond, 1845); Areytos, or Songs of^ the South (1846); Lays of the Palmetto: a Tribute to the South Carolina Regiment in the War with Mexico (Charleston, 1848) ; The Eye and the Wing, poems, (New York, 1848); The City of the Silent (1850). To dramatic literature he contributed Norman Maurice, or the Man of the People (Richmond, 1851); and Michael Bonham, or the Fall of the Alamo (Richmond, 1852). His romances of the American Revolution — Thet Partisan (1835); Mellichampe (1836); Katherine Walton, or the Rebel of Dorchester (1851); and others — describe social life at Charleston, and the action covers the whole period, with portraits of the political and military leaders of the time. Of border tales the list includes Guy Rivers, a Tale of Georgia (1834); Richard Hurdis (1838); Border Beagles (1840); Beauchampe (1842); Helen Halsey (1845); The Golden Christmas (1852); and Charlemont (1856). The historical romances are The Yemassee (1835), dealing largely with Indian character and nature; Pelayo (1838); Count Julien (1845); The Damsel of Darien (1845); The Lily and the Totem; Vasconselos (1857), which he wrote under the assumed name of " Frank Cooper " ; and The Cassique of Kiawah (i860). Other novels are Carl Werner (1838); Confession of the Blind Heart (1842); The Wigwam and the Cabin, a collection of short tales (1845-1846); Castle Dismal (1845); and Marie de Berniere (1853). Simms's other writings comprise a History of S. Carolina (Charleston, 1840); South Carolina in the Revolution (Charleston, 1853); A Geography Of South Carolina (1843); lives of Francis Marion (New York, 1844); Capt. John Smith (1846); The Chevalier Bayard (1848) and Nathanael Green (1849); The Ghost of my Husband (1866); and War Poetry of the South — an edited volume — (1867). Simms was also a frequent contributor to the magazines and literary papers, six of which he founded and conducted. In the discussion on slavery he upheld the views of the pro-slavery party. He edited the seven dramas doubt- fully ascribed to Shakespeare, with notes and an introduction to SIMNEL, LAMBERT— SIMON, SIR J. 124 each play. Simms' works in 10 vols, were published at New York in 1882; his Poems (2 vols., New York) in 1853. See his biography (Boston, 1892), by Professor William P. Trent. A bibliographical List of the Separate Writings of W. G. Simms of South Carolina (New York, 1906) was compiled by O. Wegelin. SIMNEL, LAMBERT (fl. 1477-1534). English impostor, was probably the son of a tradesman at Oxford. He was about ten years old in 1487, and was described as a handsome youth of intelligence and good manners. In i486, the year following the accession of Henry VII., rumours were disseminated by the adherents of the Yorkist dynasty that the two sons of Edward IV., who had been murdered in the Tower of London, were still alive. A young Oxford priest, Richard Symonds by name, conceived the project of putting forward the boy Simnel to impersonate one of these princes as a claimant for the crown, with the idea of thereby procuring for himself the archbishopric of Canterbury. He set about instructing the youth in the arts and graces appropriate to his pretended birth; but meanwhile a report having gained currency that the young earl of Warwick, son of Edward IV. 's brother George, duke of Clarence, had died in the Tower, Symonds decided that the impersonation of this latter prince would be a more easily credible deception. It is probable that Symonds acted throughout with the connivance of the Yorkist leaders, and especially of John de la Pole, earl of Lincoln, himself a nephew of Edward IV., who had been named heir to the crown by Richard III. The Yorkists had many adherents in Ireland, and thither Lambert Simnel was taken by Symonds early in 1487; and, gaining the support of the earl of Kildare, the archbishop of Dublin, the lord chancellor and a powerful following, who were, or pretended to be, con- vinced that the boy was the earl of Warwick escaped from the Tower, Simnel was crowned as King Edward VI. in the cathedral in Dublin on the 24th of May 1487. Messages asking for help were sent to Margaiet, duchess of Burgundy, sister of Edward IV., to Sir Thomas Broughton and other Yorkist leaders. On the 2nd of February 1487 Henry VII. held a council at Sheen to concert measures for dealing with the conspiracy. Elizabeth Woodville, widow of Edward IV., was imprisoned in the convent of Bermondsey; and the real earl of Warwick was taken from the Tower and shown in public in the streets of London. But although Lincoln is said to have conversed with Warwick on this occasion, he fled abroad immediately after the council at Sheen, where he was present. In Flanders, Lincoln joined Lord Lovell, who had headed an unsuccessful Yorkist rising in i486, and in May 1487 the two lords proceeded to Dublin, where they landed a few days before the coronation of Lambert Simnel. They were accompanied by 2000 German soldiers under Martin Schwartz, procured by Margaret of Burgundy to support the enterprise, Margaret having recognized Simnel as her nephew. This force, together with some ill-armed Irish levies commanded by Sir Thomas Fitzgerald, landed in Lancashire on the 4th of June. King Henry was at Coventry when the news of the landing reached him, and immediately marched to Nottingham, where his army was strengthened by the addition of 6000 men. The invaders met with little encouragement from the populace, who were not well disposed towards a monarch whom it was sought to impose upon them by the aid of Irish and German mercenaries. Making for the fortress of Newark, Lincoln and Sir Thomas Broughton, at the head of their motley forces, and accompanied by Simnel, attacked the royal army near the village of Stoke-on-Trent on the 16th of June 1487. After a fierce and stubborn struggle in which the Germans behaved with great valour, the Royalists were completely victorious, though they left 2000 men on the field; Lincoln, Schwartz and Fitzgerald with 4000 of their followers were killed, and Lovell and Broughton disappeared never to be heard of again. The priest Symonds, and Simnel were taken prisoners. The former was consigned to a dungeon for the rest of his life; but Henry VII., recognizing that the youthful pretender had been a tool in the hands of others and was in himself harmless, pardoned Lambert Simnel and took him into his own service in the menial capacity of scullion. He was later promoted to be royal falconer and is said to have afterwards become a servant in the household of Sir Thomas Lovell. The date of Simnel's death is unknown, but he is known to have been still Lving in the year 1 534. See Rolls of Parliament. VI. : Francis Bacon, History of Henry VII., with notes by J. R. Lumby (Cambridge, 1 881 ); Richard Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors (3 vols., London, 1885-1890); James Gairdner, Henry VII. (London, 1889) and Letters and Papers illus- trative of the reigns of Richard III. and Henry VII. (" Rolls " series, 2 vols., London, 1861-1863): The Political History of England, vol. v., by H. A. L. Fisher (London, 1906) ; and W. Busch, England under the Tudors (1895). For a contemporary account of Simnel's imposture, see Polydore Vergil, Anglicae historiae, to which all the later narratives are indebted. (R. J. M.) SIMOCATTA, 1 THEOPHYLACT, Byzantine historian, a native of Egypt, flourished at Constantinople during the reign of Heraclius (510-640), under whom he held the office of imperial secretary. He is best known as the author of a history, in eight books, of the reign of the emperor Maurice (582-602), for which period he is the best and oldest authority. The work describes the wars with the Persians, the Avars and Slavs, and the emperor's tragic end. " His want of judgment renders him diffuse in trifles and concise in the most interesting facts " (Gibbon), but his general trustworthiness is admitted. The history contains an introduction in the form of a dialogue between History and Philosophy. Photius (cod. 65) while admit- ting a certain amount of gracefulness in the language, blames the author's excessive use of figurative and allegorical expressions and moral sentiments. While the vocabulary contains many strange and affected words, the grammar and syntax are on the whole correct (ed. pr. by J. Pontanus, 1609; best edition by C. de Boor, 1887, with a valuable Index Graecitatis). Simocatta was also the author of Physical Problems^' k-xopiai. wucaf) in dialogue form, dealing with the nature of animals and especially of man (ed. J. Ideler in Physici et medici Graeci minores, i. 1841); and of a collection of 85 letters (moral, rustic, erotic), the supposed writers of which are either fictitious or well-known personages (Antisthenes to Pericles, Socrates to Plato, Socrates to Alcibiades). The best edition is by R. Hercher in Epistolographi Graeci (1873). The letters were translated into Latin (1509) by Copernicus (re- printed 1873 by F. Hipler in Spicilegium Copernicanum). See C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der by zantinischen Liter atur (1897). SIMON, ABRAHAM (1622-1692), English medallist and modeller, was born in Yorkshire in 1622. He was originally intended for the church, but turned his attention to art, and, after studying in Holland, proceeded to Sweden, where he was employed by Queen Christina, in whose train he travelled to Paris. He returned to England before the outbreak of the Civil War, and attained celebrity by his medals and portraits modelled in wax. During the Commonwealth he executed many medals of leading parliamentarians, and at the Restoration he was patronized by Charles II., from whom he received a hundred guineas for his portrait designed as a medal for the proposed order of the Royal Oak. Having incurred the displeasure of the duke of York, he lost the favour of the court, and died in obscurity in 1692. Among the more interesting of his medals are those of the 2nd earl of Dunfermline, the 2nd earl of Lauderdale and the 1st earl of Loudon; that of the duke of Albemarle, and many other fine medals, were modelled by Abraham Simon and chased by his brother Thomas Simon (q.v.). SIMON, SIR JOHN (1816-1904), English surgeon and sanitary reformer, was born in London on the 10th of October 1816. His father, Louis Michael Simon,was for many years a leading member of the London Stock Exchange. Both his grandfathers were French emigrants, who carried on business in London and Bath respectively. His father died at almost ninety-eight, and his mother at nearly ninety-five years of age. Simon was educated at a preparatory school in Pentonville, spent seven years at Dr Burney's school in Greenwich, and then ten months with a German Pfarrer in Rhenish Prussia. His father intended him for surgery, and he began the study of medicine on 1st October 1833, when he was a few days short of seventeen. He was an apprentice of Joseph Henry Green, the distinguished surgeon at St Thomas's, well known for his friendship for Samuel Taylor Coleridge, whose literary executor Green became. He became 1 Other forms of the name are Simocattos, Simocatos, Simocates. SIMON, J. F. a demonstrator of anatomy, and was assistant surgeon to King's College Hospital for several years; and in the autumn of 1847 he was appointed surgeon and lecturer on pathology at his old school, St Thomas's, where, with progressive changes, he con- tinued to remain an officer. His life was divided between two great pursuits — the career of a surgeon, and the mastery and solution of many of the great problems of sanitary science and reform. In the spring of 1844 he gained the first Astley Cooper prize by a physiological essay on the thymus gland, and the following year was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. In 1847 he gave his first lecture at St Thomas's Hospital, on the " Aims and Philosophic Method of Pathological Research," followed a little later by lectures on general pathology in relation to the principles of diagnosis, and the treatment of disease. These lectures were of great importance at the time, and of the utmost value in directing energy into new and profitable channels of work. Simon published many clinical surgical lectures of the greatest importance, and contributed a masterly article on " Inflammation " to Holmes's System of Surgery, which has become a classic of its kind. It was, however, on his appoint- ment in 1848 as medical officer of health to the City of London, and afterwards to the government, that Simon's great abilities found scope for congenial exercise. He stimulated and guided the development of sanitary science, until it reached in England the highest degree of excellence, and gave an example to the civilized world. It is impossible to overestimate the value of Sir John Simon's work, or the importance of his influence in the furtherance of the public health and the prevention of disease, and in inculcating right methods of medical government. In 1878, after filling other offices in the Royal College of Surgeons, he became its president, and in 1887 was created K.C.B. It was largely due to his advocacy that the new St Thomas's Hospital was rebuilt on its present site after it was compelled to leave its old habitation near London Bridge. As a surgeon, Simon's work came second to his interest in sanitary science, but he claimed priority over Cock in the operation of perineal puncture of the urethra in cases of retention from stricture. He died on the 23rd of July 1904. (W. MacC). SIMON, JULES FRANQOIS (1814-1896), French statesman and philosopher, was born at Lorient on the 27th of December 1814. His father was a linen-draper from Lorraine, who abjured Protestantism before his second marriage, of which Jules Simon was the son, with a Catholic Breton. The family name was Suisse, which Simon dropped in favour of his third prenomen. By dint of considerable sacrifice he was able to attend a seminary at Vannes, and was for a short time usher in a school before, in 1833, he became a student at the Ecole Normale in Paris. There he came in contact with Victor Cousin, who sent him to Caen and then to Versailles to teach philosophy. He helped Cousin, without receiving any recognition, in his translations from Plato, and in 1839 became his deputy in the chair of philosophy at the Sorbonne, with the meagre salary of 83 francs per month. He also lectured on the history of philosophy at the ficole Normale. At this period he edited the works of Malebranche (2 vols., 1842), of Descartes (1842), Bossuet (1842) and of Arnauld (1843), and in 1844-1845 appeared the two volumes of his Histoire de V ecole d' Alexandrie. He became a regular contributor to the Revue des deux mondes, and in 1847, with Amedee Jacques and fimile Saisset, founded the Liberie de penser, with the intention of throwing off the yoke of Cousin, but he retired when Jacques allowed the insertion of an article advocating the principles of collectivism, with which he was at no time in sympathy. In 1848 he represented the C6tes-du- Nord in the National Assembly, and next year entered the Council of State, but was retired on account of his republican opinions. His refusal to take the oath of allegiance to the govern- ment of Louis Napoleon after the coup d'Uat was followed by his dismissal from his professorship, and he devoted himself to philosophical and political writings of a popular order. Le Devoir (1853), which was tpanslated into modern Greek and Swedish, was followed by La Religion naturelle (1856, Eng. trans., 1887), La Liberie de conscience (1857), La Liberte politique 125 (1859), La Liberte civile (1859), L'Ouvriere (1861), L'Ecole (1864), Le Travail (1866), L'Ouvrier de huit ans (1867) and others. In 1863 he was returned to the Corps Legislatif for the 8th circonscription of the Seine, and supported " les Cinq " in their opposition to the government. He became minister of instruc- tion in the government of National Defence on the 5th of September 1870. After the capitulation of Paris in January 1871 he was sent down to Bordeaux to prevent the resistance of Gambetta to the peace. But at Bordeaux Gambetta, who had issued a proclamation excluding from the elections officials under the Empire, was all powerful. He affected to dispute Jules Simon's credentials, and issued orders for his arrest. Meanwhile Simon had found means of communication with Paris, and on the 6th of February was reinforced by Eugene Pelletan, E. Arago and Garnier-Pages. Gambetta resigned, and the ministry of the Interior, though nominally given to Arago to avoid the appearance of a personal issue, was really ia Simon's hands. Defeated in the department of the Seine, he sat for the Marne in the National Assembly, and resumed the portfolio of Education in the first cabinet of M.Thiers's presidency. He advocated free primary education yet sought to conciliate the clergy by all the means in his power; but no concessions removed the hostility of Mgr. Dupanloup, who presided over the commission appointed to consider his draft of an elementary education bill. The reforms he was actually able to carry out were concerned with secondary education. He encouraged the study of living languages, and limited the attention given to the making of Latin verse; he also encouraged independent methods at the ficole Normale, and set up a school at Rome where members of the French school of Athens should spend some time. He retained office until a week before the fall of Thiers in 1873. He was regarded by the monarchical right as one of the most dangerous obstacles in the way of a restoration, which he did as much as any man (except perhaps the comte de Chambord himself) to prevent, but by the extreme left he was distrusted for his moderate views, and Gambetta never forgave his victory at Bordeaux. In 1875 he became a member of the French Academy and a life senator, and in 1876, on the resigna- tion of M. Dufaure, was summoned to form a cabinet. He replaced anti-republican functionaries in the civil service by republicans, and held his own until the 3rd of May 1877, when he adopted a motion carried by a large majority in the Chamber inviting the cabinet to use all means for the repression of clerical agitation. His clerical enemies then induced Marshal MacMahon to take advantage of a vote on the press law carried in Jules Simon's absence from the Chamber to write him a letter regretting that he no longer preserved his influence in the Chamber, and thus practically demanding his resignation. His resignation in response to this act of the president, known as the " Seize Mai," which he might have resisted by an appeal to the Chamber, proved his ruin, and he never again held office. He justified his action by his fear of providing an opportunity for a coup d'itat on the part of the marshal. The rejection (1880) of article 7 of Ferry's Education Act, by which the profession of teaching would have been forbidden to members of non-authorized congregations, was due to his intervention. He was in fact the chief of the left centre opposed to the radicalism of Jules Grevy and Gambetta. He was director of the Gaulois from 1879 to 1881 , and his influence in the country among moderate republicans was retained by his articles in the Matin from 1882 onwards, in the Journal des Dibats, which he joined in 1886, and in the Temps from 1890. He left accounts of some of the events in which he had participated in Souvenirs du 4 septembre (1874), Le Gouvernement de M. Thiers (2 vols., 1878), in Memoires des autres (1889), Nouveaux memoires des autres (1891) and Les Derniers memoires des autres (1897), while his sketch of Victor Cousin (1887) was a further contribution to con- temporary history. For his personal history the Premiers memoires (1900) and Le Soir de ma journee (1902), edited by his son Gustave Simon, may be supplemented by Leon Seche's Figures bretonnes, Jules Simon, sa vie, son ceuvre (new ed., 1898), and G. Picot, Jules Simon: notice historique . . . (1897); also by many references to periodical literature and- collected essays in Hugo P. Thieme's Guide bibliographique de la lift, franc, de 1800 a 1906 (1907). 126 SIMON MAGUS SIMON MAGUS ("Simon the Magician"; Gr. ixdyos, a wizard), a character who appears in the New Testament and also in the works of the Christian Fathers. In Acts viii. 5-24 he is portrayed as a famous sorcerer in Samaria who had been converted to Christianity by Philip. His personality has been the subject of considerable discussion. The conclusions to which the present writer has been led are mainly as follows: (1) that all we know of the original Simon Magus is contained in Acts; (2) that from very early times he has been confused with another Simon; (3) that the idea that Simon Magus is merely a distortion of St Paid is absurd. As regards the story of Acts viii. 5-24, it will suffice to make a few remarks. First it is interesting to note that Simon Magus was . older than Christianity. The first missionary enterprise of the nascent Church brought it into contact with a magician who had for a long time amazed the people of Samaria with his sorceries (v. 11). This person gave himself out to be " some great one," but the popular voice defined his claims by saying " this man is that power of God which is called Great." Such a voice of the people cannot be imagined in Judaea, but Samaria was more open than Judaea to the influence of Greek ideas. Readers of Philo are familiar with the half-philosophical and half-mythological mode of thought by which the " powers of God " are substantialized into independent personalities. There were powers of all sorts, powers of help and salvation and also powers of punishment (Philo i. 431). It was through these powers that the incorporeal world of thought was framed, which served as the archetype of this world of appearance. The various powers are sometimes summed up under the two heads of /3 those names, he is cast out, as showing ignorance of the mysteries." From this it is evident that the Simonians did not allow that they worshipped their founders. Lipsius conjectured that the supposed worship of Simon and Helen was really that of Hercules-Melkart and Selene-Astarte. Baur before him made Simon =&?$, the Sun. In the Clementine Recognitions Helen is called Luna (ii. 8, 9), and in the Homilies she is mystically connected with the lunar month (Horn. ii. 23). Hippolytus, like the rest, identified Simon of Gitta (Zip-uv 6 Yittt]v6s, vi. 7) with Simon Magus. Reduced to despair, he says, by the curse laid upon him by Peter, he embarked on the career that has been described, " Until he came to Rome also and fell foul of the Apostles. Peter withstood him on many occasions. At last he came (here some words are missing) and began to teach sitting under a plane tree. When he was on the point of being shown up, he said, in order to gain time, that if he were buried alive he would rise again on the third day. So he bade that a tomb should be dug by his disciples and that he should be buried in it. Now they did what they were ordered, but he remained there until now: for he was not the Christ." Prefixed to this account of Simon, which, except in its dramatic close, so nearly tallies with that of Irenaeus, is a description of a book of which he was the author. It is quoted under the title of The Declaration (vi. 14, 18) or The Great Declaration (vi. 11). The 1 The account given by Irenaeus should be compared with what is said of Simon Magus in the Clementine Homilies, ii. 22, where the rivalry between Jews and Samaritans becomes evident (cf. Re- cognitions, i. 57). 2 On this see Epiph. xxi. 3. , 3 Hippolytus says the free love doctrine was held by them in its frankest form. longest extract from it is in vi. 18, but others occur here and there, and, where not explicitly quoted, it still underlies the statements of Hippolytus. It is written in a mystical and pretentious style, but the philosophy of it, if allowance be made for the allegorical method of the time, is by no means to be despised. As Hippolytus himself in more than one place (iv. 51, vi. 20) points out, it is an earlier form of the Valentinian doctrine, but there are things in it which remind us of the Stoic physics, and much use is made of the Aristotelian distinction between trkpyeia and Svva/iis. Starting from the assertion of Moses that God is "a devouring fire " (Deut. iv. 24), Simon combined therewith the philosophy of Heraclitus which made fire the first principle of all things. This first principle he denominated a " power without end " (Svvafiis birkpavTos), and he declared it to dwell in the sons of men, beings born of flesh and blood. But fire was not the simple thing that the many imagined, and Simon distinguished between its hidden and its manifest qualities, maintaining, like Locke, that the former were the cause of the latter. Like the Stoics, he conceived of it as an intelligent being. From this ungenerated being sprang the generated world of which we know, whereof there were six roots, having each its inner and its outer side, and arranged in pairs (crufiryiai) as follows : vovs and eirivoca = ovpavos and yij ; tfjcovfj and ovop.a — rfkws and (TeXijnj ; ~Koy i