THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST edit Ion, published in three volumes, 1768— 1771. SECOND , > »> ten „ 1777— 1784. THIRD , , „ eighteen „ 1788— 1797. FOURTH , , ,, twenty „ 1801— 1810. FIFTH , , ,, twenty „ 1815—1817. SIXTH , , ,, twenty „ 1823 — 1824. SEVENTH , , „ twenty-one „ 1830 — 1842. EIGHTH , , „ twenty-two „ 1853— 1860 NINTH , , ,, twenty-five „ 1875—1889. TENTH , , ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903. ELEVENTH , , published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE All rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXIV SAINTE-CLASRE OEVILLE to SHUTTLE New York Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. 342 Madison Avenue Copyright, in the United States of America, 191 1, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company. INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXIV. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,! WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. A. A. R.* Arthur Alcock Rambaut, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. f* Radcliffe Observer, Oxford. Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin -j Schonfeld Eduard. and Royal Astronomer of Ireland, 1892-1897. [ ' A. Cy. A. C. G. A. E. H. A.E. J. A. F. L. A. F. P. A. Ge. A. Go.* A. H. S. A. H.-S. A. J. G. A. L. A.M.* A. H. CI. A. N. Arthur Ernest Cowley, M.A., Litt.D. Sub-Librarian of the Bodleian Library, Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College. Albert Charles Lewis Gotthilf Guenther, M.A., M.T3., Ph.D., F.R.S. Keeper of Zoological Department, British Museum, 1875-1895. Gold Medallist, _ Royal Society, 1878. Author of Catalogues of Colubrine Snakes, Batrachia, Salientia, ' and Fishes in the British Museum ; &c. A. E. Houghton. Formerly Correspondent of the Standard in Spain. Author of Restoration of the - Bourbons in Spain. Arthur Ernest Jolliffe, M.A. Fellow, Tutor and Mathematical Lecturer, Cornus Christi College, Oxford. Senior - Mathematical Scholar, 1892. Arthur Francis Leach, M.A. Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Charity Commissioner for England and Wales. Formerly Assistant-Secretary of the Board of Education. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, 1874-1881. Author of English Schools at the Reformation; &c. Albert Frederick Pollard, M.A., F.R.Hist.S. Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893- - 1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c. Sir Archibald Geikie, K.C.B. See the biographical article : Geikie, Sir Archibald. Rev. Alexander Gordon, M.A. Lecturer in Church History in the University of Manchester. Rev. Archibald Henry Sayce, D.D., LL.D., Litt.D; See the biographical article : Sayce, A. H. Sir A. Houtum-Schindler, C.I.E. General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. Rev. Alexander James Grieve, M.A., B.D. Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and Member of Mysore Educational Service. Andrew Lang, LL.D. See the biographical article : Lang, Andrew. Rev. Allan Menzies, D.D. Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism, St Mary's College, St Andrews. Author of History of Religion ; &c. Editor of Review of Theology and Philosophy. Agnes Muriel Clay (Mrs Wilde). Formerly Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Joint-author of Sources of Roman History, 133-70 B.C. Alfred Newton, F.R.S. See the biographical article: Newton, Alfred. f Samaritans; 1 Seadiah. Shark {in part). Serrano y Dominguez, Francisco. Series. Schools. Sanders, Nicholas. f Scotland: Geography and \ Geology (in part). fSaravia, Adrian; I Servetus, Michael. J" Sardanapalus; Sargon; 1 Sennacherib; Shalmaneser. fSeistan (in part); Shiraz; I Shushter. J, Septuagint, The. f Scotland: History; t Second Sight. -< Scotland, Church of. Senate. Sand-grouse; Sandpiper; Scaup; Scoter; Scrub-bird; Secretary-bird; Seriema; Shearwater; Sheathbill; Sheldrake; Shoe-bill; Shoveler; Shrike. 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. V VI A. No. A. S. P.-P. B. R.* B. S. P. C. A. G. B. C. El. C. F. A. C. F. B. C. H. C. H.* C. H. Ha. C. J. F. C. L. K. C. H. C. Mi. C. M. W. C. PL C. R. B. C. W. R. D. B. Ha. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Scandinavian Languages. Adolf Gotthard Noreen, Ph.D. Professor of Scandinavian Languages at the University of Upsala. Author of. Geschichte der Nordischen Sprachen; Altislandische und AUnorwegische Gram- matik; &c. L Andrew Seth Pringle-Pattison, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. C Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford J Scepticism; Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 191 1. Fellow of the British Academy. J Scholasticism. Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos ; The Philosophical Radicals ; &c. L Founder and First President of \ Sa ^ s B * nks: L United States. \ Scandinavian Civilization. Hon. Bradford Rhodes. Head of Banking Firm of Bradford Rhodes & Co. 34th Street National Bank, New York. Bertha Surtees Phillpotts, M.A. (Dublin). Formerly Librarian of Girton College, Cambridge. Sir Cyprian Arthur George Bridge, G.C.B. f Admiral. Commander-in-Chief, China Station, 1901-1904. Director of Naval J Sea, Command Of the; Intelligence, 1889-1894. Author of The Art of Naval Warfare; Sea-Power and other 1 Sea-Power. Studies; &c. I Sir Charles Norton Edgcumbe Eliot, K.C.M.G., LL.D., D.C.L. Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East- Afrka Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for German East Africa, 1 900-1 904. Charles Francis Atkinson. Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal ■ Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. Charles Francis Bastable, M.A., LL.D. Saka. Seven Weeks' War (in part). Regius Professor of Laws and Professor of Political Economy in the University of J Seigniorage. Dublin. Author of Public Finance ; Commerce of Nations ; Theory of International | Trade; &c. I Charles Hose, F.R.G.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc. Jesus College, Cambridge. Formerly Divisional Resident and Member of the. Supreme Council of Sarawak. Knight of the Prussian Crown. Author of A Descriptive Account of the Mammals of Borneo ; &c. Sir Charles Holroyd. See the biographical article: Holroyd, Sir C. Sarawak. Short, Francis Job. Carlton Huntley Hayes, A.M., Ph.D. f Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member i Sforza. of the American Historical Association. I Lieut.-Col. Charles James Fox, F.R.G.S. Chief Officer, London Salvage Corps. President of Association of Professional Fire Brigade Officers. Vice-President of National Fire Brigades Union ; &c. Charles Lethbridge Kingsford, M.A., F.R.Hist.S., F.S.A. Assistant-Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor , of Chronicles of London, and Stow's Survey of London. Salvage Corps. (Salisbury, Thomas de Monta- cute, Earl of; Shore, Jane; Shrewsbury, 1st Earl of. Salic Law. Carl Theodor Mirbt, D.Th. I Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of Publizistik ~\ Sardica, Council of. im Zeitalter Gregor VII. ; Quellen zur Geschichte des Papstthums ; &c. l Chedomille Mijatovich. f Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni- J Servia. potentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James', 1895-1900 and 1902- 1903. L Sir Charles Moore Watson, K.C.M.G., C.B. f Colonel, Royal Engineers. Deputy- Inspector-General of Fortifications, 1896- A Sepulchre, The Holy. 1902. Served under General Gordon in the Soudan, 1874-1875. I Christian Pfister, D.-es-L. Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author Etudes sur le rlgne de Robert le Pieux. Charles Raymond Beazley, M.A., D.Litt., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S. Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. - Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. Charles Walker Robinson, C.B., D.C.L. Major-General (retired). Assistant Military Secretary, Headquarters of the Army, 1890-1892. Lieut.-Governor and Secretary, Royal Military Hospital, Chelsea, 1895-1898. Author of Strategy of the Peninsular War; &c. I Duncan Black Macdonald, M.A., D.D. r Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, Hartford, Conn. I «i..f>t_ Author of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional j oa » u '• Theory; Selections from Ibn Khaldun; Religious AttituJe and Life in Islam; &c. I of/ I Sanuto, Marino; Schiltberger, Johann. Salamanca: Battle, 1812. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES \n D. F. T. D. G. H. D. H. D. 0. E. A. M. Donald Francis Tovey. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. David George Hogarth, M.A. Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College. Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905. Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. David Hannay. Scherzo; Serenade. Samsun; Sardis; Scala Nuova; Schliemann, Heinrich. ' Saints, Battle of the; St Vincent, Earl of; St Vincent, Battle of; Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal -{ Santa Cruz, Marquis of; Navy; Life of Emilio Castelar; &c. Seamanship; Seven Years' War: Naval Operations. E. B. T. E. C. B. E. P. E. G. E. Gr • E. H. B. E. H. M E. J. D. E. K. C. Ed. M. E. M. T. E. 0.* E. R. B. E. Wa. Douglas Owen. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer at the Royal Naval War College, Portsmouth, and at London School of Economics. Hon. Secretary and Treasurer -l Shipping. of the Society of Nautical Research. Author of Declaration of War; Belligerents and Neutrals ; Ports and Docks ; &c. Edward Alfred Minchin, M.A., F.Z.S. r Professor of Protozoology in the University of London. Formerly Fellow of Merton J Seyphomedusae. College, Oxford, and Jodrell Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, j University College, London. I Edward Burnett Tylor, D.C.L., LL.D. See the biographical article: Tylor, Edward Burnett. Rt. Rev. Edward Cuthbert Butler, M.A. , O.S.B., Litt.D. Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius ' in Cambridge Texts and Studies. Rt. Hon. Sir Edward Fry. See the biographical article: Salutations. Servites. Fry, Sir Edward. 4 Selborne, 1st Earl of. f Samain, Albert Victor; • \ Sermon. -1 Samos {in part). Edmund Gosse, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article : Gosse, Edmund. Ernest Arthur Gardner, M.A. See the biographical article: Gardner, Percy. Sir Edward Herbert Bunbury, Bart., M.A., F.R.G.S. (d. 1895). M.P. for Bury St Edmunds, 1847-1852. Author of A History of Ancient Geography; &c. Ellis Hovell Minns, M.A. f Sarmatae; University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian < e cv *jjj a at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. [ Edward Joseph Dent, M.A., Mus.Bac. Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. and Works. Samos (in part). Author of A. Scarlatti: his Life) Scarlatti, Alessandro. Edmund Kerchever Chambers. Assistant Secretary, Board of Education. Sometime Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Chancellor's English Essayist, 1891. Author of The Medieval -{ Shakespeare. Stage. Editor of the "Red Letter" Shakespeare; Donne's Poems; Vaughan's Poems; Sec. EdUard Meyer, Ph.D., D.Litt., LL.D. r s ana t ru ces- Satrap- Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des 1 c . . . _', j ... Alterthums; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstdmme. [_ Seieucia; anapur 1.-111. Sir Edward Maunde Thompson, G.C.B., I.S.O., D.C.L., Litt.D., LL.D. Director and Principal Librarian, British Museum, 1898-1909. Sandars Reader in Bibliography, Cambridge University, 1895-1896. Hon. Fellow of University College, Oxford. Correspondent of the Institute of France and of the Royal Prussian - Academy of Sciences. Author of Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography. Editor of Chronicon Angliae. Joint-editor of publications of the Palaeographical Society, the New Palaeographical Society, and of the Facsimile of the Laurentian Sophocles. Edmund Owen, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of " A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. Edwyn Robert Bevan, M.A. New College, Oxford. Author of The House of Seleucus ; Jerusalem under the High ■ Priests. Rev. Edmond Warre, M.A., D.D., D.C.L., C.B., C.V.O. Provost of Eton. Hon. Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. College, 1884-1905. Author of Grammar of Rowing; &c. Headmaster of Eton ■ Seals; Shorthand: Greek and Roman Tachygraphy. Scalp: Surgery; Shock. Seleucid Dynasty. Ship: History to the Invention of Steamships. Vlll f. E. Br. F. G. M. B F. G. P. F.J. G. F. LI G. F. N. M. F. R. C. F. S. F. W. R.* G. A. B. G. C. T. B. G. D. G. E. D. G. G. S. G. H. Bo. G. Sa. G. W. R. G. W. T. H. A. R. H. Ch. H. De. H. F. G. H. F. T. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Rev. Frank Edward Brightman, M.A., Ph.D., D.Litt. f Fellow and Tutor of Magdalen College, Oxford. Prebendary of Lincoln Cathedral. J SeraDion. Pusey Librarian, Oxford, 1884-1903. Author of Liturgies: Eastern and Western; } OBrB P ,QI, « &c. I Frederick George Meeson Beck, M.A. Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. H Saxons. Frederick Gymer Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.Anthrop.Inst. Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer onj S(. a in # Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women, ' London. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. Major-General Sir Frederick John Goldsmid. Seethe biographical article: Goldsmid (family). Francis Llewellyn Griffith, M.A., Ph.D., F.S.A. Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of Stories of the High Priests of Memphis ; &c. Col. Frederic Natusch Maude, C.B. Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University. Author of War and the World's Policy; The Leipzig Campaign; The Jena Campaign; &c. Frank R. Cana. Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. Francis Storr. Trinity College, Cambridge. d'Academie, Paris. { Seistan (in part). Sais; Scarab; Serapis; Sesostris. r Sedan: Battle of; \ Seven Weeks' Wat (in part); {- Seven Years' War (in part). J" St Helena (in part); I Senegal; Senussi. Editor of the Journal of Education, London. Ofncier ■< Sand, George Frederick William Rudler, I.S.O., F.G.S. Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. George A. Boulenger, D.Sc, F.R.S. In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London. Sir George Christopher Trout Bartley, K.C.B. (1842-1910). Founder of the National Penny Bank. M.P. for North Islington, 1885-1906. Author of Schools for the People; Provident Knowledge Papers; &c. George Dobson. Author of Russia's Railway Advance into Central Asia; &c. George Edward Dobson, M.A., M.B., F.Z.S., F.R.S. (1848-1895). Army Medical Department, 1868-1888. Formerly Curator of the Royal. Victoria Museum, Netley. Author of Monograph of the Asiatic Chiroptera, &c. ; A Monograph of the Insectivora, Systematic and Anatomical. George Gregory Smith, M.A. Professor of English Literature, Queen's University, Belfast. Author of The Days of James IV.; The Transition Period; Specimens of Middle Scots, &c. Rev. George Herbert Box, M.A. Rector of Sutton Sandy, Beds. Formerly Hebrew Master, Merchant Taylors' School, London. Lecturer in the Faculty of Theology, University of Oxford, 1908-1909. " Author of Translation of Book of Isaiah ; &c. George Saintsbury, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article: Saintsbury, George Edward Bateman. Major George William Redway. Author of The War of Secession, 1861-1862; Fredericksburg: a Study in War. Rev. Griffithes Wheeler Thatcher, M.A., B.D. Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. Henry A. Rowland. See the biographical article: Rowland, Henry Augustus. Hugh Chisholm, M.A. Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the 10th edition. Rev. Hippolyte Delehaye, S J. Bollandist. Joint-editor of the Acta Sanctorum; and the Analecta Bollandiana. Hans Friedrich Gadow, F.R.S., Ph.D. Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. Author of " Amphibia and Reptiles " in the Cambridge Natural History; &c. Rev. Henry Fanshawe Tozer, M.A., F.R.G.S. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Corresponding Member of the Historical Society of Greece. Author of History of Ancient Geography; Classical Geography; Lectures on the Geography of Greece ; &c. J Sapphire; \ Serpentine. Salmon and Salmonidae. Savings Banks (in part). I Saltykov, Michael. j Scotland: Literature; 1 Scott, Alexander. Shekinah. f Saint-Simon, Due de; iSevigng, Madame de. /Seven Days' Battle; t Shenandoah Valley Campaigns. f Shahrastani; [ Shi'ites. { Screw: Errors of Screws. Salisbury, Marquess of; Shakespeare: The Shakespeare- Bacon Theory; Sherbrooke, Viscount. ("Sebastian, St; I Sergius, St. Sauropsida. Santorin. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES IX H. L. H. H. R. T. LA. J. A. M. J. A. PI. J. A. R. J. Bt. J. B. A. J. E. J. E. S.* J. F. S. J. G. Ft. J. G. H. J. G. K. J. G. R. J. G. Sc. J. G. Si. J. H. A. H. J. H. M. J. H. R. i. m. ft. Harriet L. Hennessy, M.D. (Brux.), L.R.C.P.I., L.R.C.S.I. Henry Richard Tedder, F.S.A. Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London. | Sepsis. 1 Shakespeare: Bibliography. Scillitan Martyrs. Israel Abrahams, M.A. f . Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. J Samuel 01 Nenardea; Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short | Shekel. History of Jewish Literature ; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages ; Judaism ; &c. I James Alexander Manson. f Formerly Literary Editor of the Daily Chronicle, and Chief Editor, Cassell & Co., Ltd. 1 Scotland: Geography {in part). Author of The Bowler's Handbook ; &c. I John Arthur Platt, M.A. f Professor of Greek in University College, London. Formerly Fellow of Trinity -j Sappho. College, Cambridge. Author of editions of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey ; &c. I Very Rev. Joseph Armitage Robinson, M.A., D.D. Dean of Wells. Dean of Westminster, 1902-1911. Fellow of the British Academy. Chaplain-in-Ordinary to the King. Hon. Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge. Norrisian Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge, 1893- 1899. Author of Some Thoughts on the Incarnation; &c. James Bartlett. f Scaffold; Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation', Quantities, &c, King's College, i Seweraee' London. Member of Society of Architects, Institute of Junior Engineers, Quantity | « Surveyors' Association. Author of Quantities. I Snoring. Joseph Beavington Atkinson. f Formerly Art-critic of the Saturday Review. Author of An Art Tour in the Northern \ Schadow. Capitals of Europe; Schools of Modern Art in Germany. L H. Julius Eggeling, Ph.D. f Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology, Edinburgh University. Formerly J Sanskrit. Secretary and Librarian to the Royal Asiatic Society. ■ l. . John Edwin Sandys, M.A., Litt.D., LL.D. r Public Orator in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of History of Classical "* Scholarship ; &c. Rev. John Frederick Smith. Author of Studies in Religion under German Masters; translated G. H. A. von - Ewald's Commentaries on the Prophets of the Old Testament and the Book of Job. James George Frazer, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Litt.D. Professor of Social Anthropology, Liverpool University. Fellow of Trinity College, - Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of The Golden Bough; &c. Joseph G. Horner, A.M.I.Mech.E. Author of Plating and Boiler Making ; Practical Metal Turning ; &c. John Graham Kerr, M.A., F.R.S. Regius Professor of Zoology in the University of Glasgow. Formerly Demonstrator in Animal Morphology in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of Christ's College, ■ Cambridge, 1898-1904. Walsingham Medallist, 1898. Neill Prizeman, Royai Society of Edinburgh, 1904. John George Robertson, M.A., Ph.D. Professor of German Language and Literature, University of London. Editor of the Modern Language Journal. Author of History of German Literature ; Schiller after ' a Century; &c. Sir James George Scott, K.C.I.E. Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. The Upper Burma Gazetteer. Scaliger {in part). Schleiermacher {in part). Saturn {in part). Screw. Selachians; Shark {in part). Author of Burma; Rev. James Gilliland Simpson, M.A. • Canon of St Paul's, London. Principal of Leeds Clergy School and Lecturer of Leeds . Parish Church, 1900-1910. John Henry Arthur Hart, M.A. Fellow, Theological Lecturer and Librarian, St John's College, Cambridge. John Henry Middleton, M.A., Litt.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Times; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times. John Horace Round, M. A., LL.D. ( Seutaee* Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family -i ocuiage, History ; Peerage and Pedigree. [_ SerjeBnty. John Holland Rose, M.A. , Litt.D. -\ f Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge J gavary. University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I.; Napoleonic 1 Studies; The Development of the European Nations; The Life of Pitt; &c. I Schiller. Salween: River; Shan States Scotland, Episcopal Church of. -j Scribes. Sangallo; Sculpture {in part). X J. H. V. C. J. K. I. 1. L. M. J. M. M. J. P.-B. J. S. F. J. S. R. J. T. Be. J. T. C. J. T. S.* J. W. J. W. He. K. G. J. K. S. L. Be. L. J. S. L. V. L. V.* M. A. C. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES John Henry Verrinder Crowe. r Lieut. -Colonel, Royal Artillery. Commandant of the Royal Military College of Canada. Formerly Chief Instructor in Military Topography and Military History -j Shipka PaSS. and Tactics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. Author of Epitome of the Russo-Turhish War, 1877-1878; &c. I John Kells Ingram, LL.D. See the biographical article: Ingram, John Kblls. f Say, Jean Baptiste; I Senior, Nassau. Salamis: Cyprus. John Linton Myres, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College. Formerly Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient . Geography, University of Liverpool. Lecturer in Classical Archaeology in the University of Oxford, and Student and Tutor of Christ Church. Author of A History of Rome ; &c. John Malcolm Mitchell. [ Sehelling (in part) ; Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London ■{ Shaftesbury, 3rd Earl Of College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. I (in part). James George Joseph Penderel-Brodhurst. ( Sheraton, Thomas. Editor of the Guardian, London. \ «•«»«, * »"»•• John Smith Flett, D.Sc., F.G.S. fSand; Sandstone; Petrographer to the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. Formerly Lecturer J coannli+o ( T? rhA- on Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of 1 » c »P 0Ule Knocks), Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society of London. I Schorl. James Smith Reid, M.A., LL.D., Litt.D. Professor of Ancient History and Fellow and Tutor of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Christ's College. Browne's and Chancellor's Medals. Editor of editions of Cicero's Academia; De Amicilia; &c. John Thomas Bealby. Joint-auth University, 1905-1908. I Samos (m part). Leon Jacques Maxime Prinet. f Auxiliary of the Institute of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences). -! St Neetaire; Author of L' Industrie du sel en Franche-Comte. |_ St Pol, Counts Of. M. Th. Houtsma. f Professor of Semitic Languages in the University of Utrecht. \ Seljuks. Osmund Airy, M.A., LL.D. f H.M Inspector of Schools and Inspector of Training Colleges, Board of Education, J ofc .. „, A . _, , . London. Author of Louis XIV. and the English Restoration; Charles II.; &c.1 SnaltesDury, 1st Earl 01. Editor of the Lauderdale Papers ; &c. I P. A. K. Prince Peter Alexeivitch Kropotkin. See the biographical article: Kropotkin, Prince, P. A. St Petersburg {in part) ; Sakhalin {in part) ; Samara: Government {in part) ; Samarkand: City (in part) ; . Saratov: Government (in part). P. C. M. Peter Chalmers Mitchell, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LL.D. Secretary of the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Com- I - parative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. 1 sex< Author of Outlines of Biology ; &c. I Percy Gardner, LL.D., F.S.A., D.Litt. -fennnae See the biographical article : Gardner, Percy. \ »««?»»• Paul George Konody. f Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of the Artist. < Sculpture (in part). Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c. L Percy Somers Tyringham Stephens, J.P. J* Contributor to the Badminton Magazine. \ Snooting. Paul Vinogradoff, D.C.L., LL.D. J See the biographical article: Vinogradoff, Paul. ^Serittom. Sir Phillip Watts, K.C.B., F.R.S., LL.D. f «..-t». ttj?i^.«, <■;*,,„ it,* t**** Director of Naval Construction for the British Navy. Chairman of the Federation I Sm ?- Htstory since the Inven- of Shipbuilders. Naval Architect and Director of War Shipbuilding Department 1 <*"» °J Steamships-. of Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth & Co., Ltd., 1885-1901. [ Shipbuilding. Robert Adamson, LL.D. J Cb |,,,ii„,_ (s „ A/tW \ See the biographical article : Adamson, Robert. \ » eneuln S tf » pan). Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister, M.A. , F.S.A. f Samaria* St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Ex- ■{ choohom ploration Fund. L&neenem. Colonel Robert Alexander Wahab, C.B., C.M.G., CLE. f Formerly H.M. Commissioner, Aden Boundary Delimitation. Served with Tirah J «-_. Expeditionary Force, 1897-1898, and on the Anglo-Russian Boundary Com- 1 o*" 8 - mission, Pamirs, 1895. I Richard Copley Christie. f g „ a ii,, er u n j, art \ See the biographical article: Christie, Richard Copley. \ » cau B er V n P an >- Robert Drew Hicks, M.A. I seneca (in part). Fellow, formerly Lecturer in Classics, Trinity College, Cambridge. \ Richard Garnett, LL.D. J Sarpi, Paolo; See the biographical article: Garnett, Richard. \ Satire. Reginald Innes Pocock, F.Z.S. J Scorpion. Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. L Xll INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES R. J. H. R. L.* R. L. A. R. N. B. R. P.* R. S. C. R. W. S. A. C. S.N. T. As. T. A. A. T. A. I. T. Ba. T. C. A. T. F. T. G. C. T. K. T. K. C. T. L. H. Ronald John McNeill, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Gazette (London). Formerly Editor of the St James's St John, Oliver; St Leger, Sir Anthony; Scroggs, Sir William; Scrope Family; Ship-money; Shrewsbury, Duke of. Richard Lydekker, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. r Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of J Seal {in part) ; Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum; The Deer\ Serow; Sheep (in part), of all Lands; The Game Animals of Africa; &c. |_ Sir Reginald Laurence Antrobus, K.C.M.G. f Crown Agent for the Colonies, London. Assistant Under-Secretary of State for -J St Helena {in part). the Colonies, 1 898-1909. [ Robert Nisbet BAiN(d. 1909). f Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: The c hne*<»H Hannihai- Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 15 13-1900; The First Romanovs, \ ° e "° 5lea > Mannioai, 1613-172$; Slavonic Europe: The Political History of Poland and Russia from Shaflrov, Peter. 1469 to 1796 ; &c. I Robert Peele. Professor of Mining in Columbia University, New York. Shaft-sinking. Robert Seymour Conway, M. A., D.Litt. r Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. J Cai«irt«c Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff ; and Fellow of Gonville | "arnrUuJS. and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. [ Robert Wallace, F.R.S. (Edin.), F.L.S. Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy at Edinburgh University, and Garton Lecturer on Colonial and Indian Agriculture. Professor of Agriculture, R.A.C.,_ Cirencester, 1882-1885. Author of Farm Live Stock of Great Britain; The Agri- culture and Rural Economy of Australia and New Zealand; Farming Industries of Cape Colony; &c. Stanley Arthur Cook, M.A. f c . e Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, SaMSOn; Samuel; Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Author of Glossary of -I Samuel, Books of; Aramaic Inscriptions; The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Saul* Serpent-worship. Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c. I ' Sheep {in part). Simon 'Newcomb, LL.D., D.Sc. See the biographical article: Newcomb, Simon. { Saturn: Planet. Thomas Ashby, M.A., D.Litt. Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member, of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topo- graphy of the Roman Campagna. Thomas Andrew Archer, M.A. Author of The Crusade of Richard I. ; &c. Thomas Allan Ingram, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin. Sir Thomas Barclay, M.P. Member of the Institute of International Law. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Salerno; Sardinia; Sassari; Satricum; Saturnia; Segesta; Segusio; Selinus; Sessa Aurunca; Severiana, Via. Salvian. Savings Banks {in part). Author of Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy ; &c. burn, 1910. M.P. for Black- Search. Sir Thomas Clifford Allbutt, K.C.B., M.A., M.D., D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S. r Regius Professor of Physic in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow of Gonville J Semmelweiss Ienatz and Caius College. Physician to Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge. Editor of 1 > 8 • Systems of Medicine. [ Rev. Thomas. Fowler, M.A. , D.D., LL.D. (1832-1904). r President of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, 1881-1904. Honorary Fellow of chaHochtiro *JrH TParl «f Lincoln College. Professor of Logic, 1873-1888. Vice-Chancellor of the University \ &nalle5Dur y> a ™ J"*" 0I of Oxford, 1899-1901. Author of Elements of Deductive Logic; Shaftesbury and (tn part). Hutcheson; &c. I Thomas Gilbert Carver, M.A., K.C. (1848-1906). r Formerly Judge of County Courts. Author of On the Law relating to the Carriage-} Salvage. of Goods by Sea. ' [ Thomas Kirkup, M.A., LL.D. Author of An Inquiry into Socialism; Primer of Socialism; &c. Rev. Thomas Kelly Cheyne, D.Litt., D.C.L., D.D. See the biographical article: Cheyne, T. K. Sir Thomas Little Heath, K.C.B., D.Sc Assistant Secretary to the Treasury. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- bridge. Author of Treatise on Conic Sections ; &c. J Saint-Simon, Comte de I {in part). I Seraphim. Serenus "of Antissa. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi« rh. N. T. T. T. W. F. T. W. R. D. W. A. B. C. W. A. D. W. A. P. W. Ba. W. C. D. W. W. E. A. A. W. E. Ho. W. Fr. w. F. K. w. Hu. w. H. Be. w. H. F. w. H. Ha. w. L. F. w L. G. W. L.-W. TUEODOR NOLDEKE. See the biographical article: Noldeke, Theodor. Sir Travers Twiss, K.C., B.C.L., F.R.S. See the biographical article: Twiss, Sir Travers. { Semitic Languages, -I Sea Laws. Thomas William Fox. f Professor of Textiles in the University of Manchester. Author of Mechanics of J. Shuttle. Weaving. [_ Thomas William Rhys Davids, LL.D., Ph.D. Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. President of the Pali Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the Buddhists ; Early Buddhism ; Buddhist India ; Dialogues of the Buddha ; &c. Rev. William Augustus Brevoort Coolidge, M.A., F.R.G.S., Ph.D. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's College, Lampeter, 1 880-1 881. Author of Guide du Haut Dauphine; The Range of the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald ; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-188 1 ; &c. Sanchi; SSriputta; Sasana Vamsa. St Gall: Canton; St Gall: Town; St Gotthard Pass; St Moritz; Sarnen; Saussure, Horace Benedict de; Savoie; Schaflhausen: Canton; Schaflhausen: Town; Scheuchzer, Johann; Schwyz; Sempach. Sherman, John. William Archibald Dunning, Ph.D., LL.D. Lieber Professor* of History and Political Philosophy, Columbia University, New York. Author of Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction ; A History of Political ' Theories. [_ Walter Alison Phillips, M.A. r St John of Jerusalem, Order Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, J of ; - Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c. |_ Sehleswig-Holstein Question. William Backer, Ph.D. Professor of Biblical Science at the Rabbinical Seminary, Budapest. Shammai. William Cecil Dampier Whetham, M.A., F.R.S. Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Recent Development of Physical Science ; &c. Author of Theory of Solution ; -i Science. William Edmund Armytage Axon, LL.D. r Formerly Deputy Chief Librarian of the Manchester Free Libraries. On Literary J c a if 0H i Staff of Manchester Guardian, 1874-1905. Member of the Gorsedd, with the bardic j name of Manceinion. Author of Annals of Manchester; &c. [ William Evans Hoyle, M.A., D.Sc, F.Z.S., M.R.C.S. Christ Church, Oxford. Director of the National Museum of Wales. Manchester Museum, 1889-1899. William Fream, LL.D. (d. 1906). f Formerly Lecturer on Agricultural Entomology, University of Edinburgh, and J Sheep (in part). Agricultural Correspondent of The Times. [_ Winifred F. Knox. Author of The Court of a Saint. Director of the -i Sea-Serpent (in part). Saladin. Seeley, Sir J. R. Seth. Rev. William Hunt, M.A., Litt.D. President of the Royal Historical Society, 1 905-1 909. Author of History of the English Church, 5 Q7-1 066; The Church of England in the Middle Ages; Political' History of England, 1760-1801. I William Henry Bennett, M.A., D.D., D.Litt. r Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges, London, j Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and Lecturer in Hebrew at Firth 1 College, Sheffield. Author of Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets; &c. [ Sir William Henry Flower, F.R.S. J Seal (in part). See the biographical article: Flower, Sir W. H. ]^ William Henry Hadow, M.A., Mus.Doc. Principal of Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Formerly Fellow and Tutor Schubert. of Worcester College, Oxford. Member of Council, Royal College of Music. Editor " of Oxford History of Music. Author of Studies in Modern Music ; &c. Walter Lynwood Fleming, A.M., Ph.D. f Professor of History in Louisiana State University. Editor of Documentary History J Secession. of Reconstruction ; &c. ( William Lawson Grant, M.A. r , . . . , Professor of History at Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly Beit j St John: Canada; Lecturer in Colonial History at Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy 1 St Pierre and MiquelOE. Council (Colonial Series) ; Canadian Constitutional Development- [_ Sir William Lee-Warner, M.A., G. C.S.I. f Member of the Council of India. Formerly Secretary in the Political and Secret J Sayyid Ahmad Khan, Sir. Department of the India Office. Author of Life of the Marquis of Dalhousie;^ Memoirs of Field -Marshal Sir Henry Wylie Norman; &c. v XIV w. M. w. M. R. w. P. A. w. R. S. w. T. Ca. w. W w. W .R.* INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES William Minto, M.A. See the biographical article : Minto, William. William Michael Rossetti. See the biographical article : Rossetti, Dante G. Lieut.-Colonel William Patrick Anderson, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.G.S} Chief-Engineer, Department of Marine and Fisheries of Canada. Member of the Geographic Board of Canada. Past President of Canadian Society of Civil Engineers. William Robertson Smith, LL.D. See the biographical article: Smith, W. R. William Thomas Calman, D.Sc, F.Z.S. Assistant in charge of Crustacea, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Author of " Crustacea," in a Treatise on Zoology, edited by Sir E. Ray Lankester. William Wallace. See the biographical article: Wallace, William (1844-1897). William Walker Rockwell, Lie. Theol. Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. Author of Die Doppelehe lies Landgrafen Philipp von Hessen. •| Scott, Si Sir Walter {in part). f Sebastiano del Piombo; 1 Shelley. St Lawrence: River. /Salt: Ancient History and \ Religious Symbolism. { Shrimp. ■j Schopenhauer {in part), i Saragossa, Councils ok PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES St Vitus's Dance. Sal Ammoniac. Salicylic Acid. Salisbury. Salt Lake City. Saltpetre. Salt. Salvador. Salvation Army. Salzburg. Samoa. Samoyedes. Sanctuary. San Francisco. Santo Domingo. Sarsaparilla. Saskatchewan. Savannah. Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Saxe-Meiningen. Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach. Saxony. Scarlet Fever. Sehleswig-Holstein. Scilly Isles. Scipio. Scrophulariaceae. Scurvy. Seal-Fisheries. Seattle. Sea-Urchin. Sedition. Seismometer. Selenium. Selkirkshire. Senna. Sennar. Sequoia. Serjeant. Servo-Bulgarian War. Settlement. Severn.. Sewing Machines. Sextant. Seychelles. Shadow. Shakers. Shamash. Sheffield. Shell-heaps. Shell-money. Sheridan. Shetland. Shoe. Shorthand (modern). Shropshire. ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXIV SAINTE-CLAIRE DEVILLE, ETIENNE HENRI (1818-1881), French chemist, was born on the nth of March 1818 in the island of St Thomas, West Indies, where his father was French consul. Together with his elder brother Charles he was educated in Paris at the College Rollin. In 1844, having graduated as doctor of medicine and doctor of science, he was appointed to organize the new faculty of science at Besancon, where he acted as dean and professor of chemistry from 1845 to 1851. Return- ing to Paris in the latter year he succeeded A. J. Balard at the ficole Normale, and in 1859 became professor at the Sorbonne in place of J. B. A. Dumas, for whom he had begun tc lecture in 1853. He died at Boulogne-sur-Seine on the 1st of July 1881. He began his experimental work in 1 84 1 with investigations of oil of turpentine and tolu balsam, in the course of which he discovered toluene. But his most important work was in inorganic and thermal chemistry. In 1849 he discovered anhydrous nitric acid (nitrogen pentoxide), a substance interesting as the first obtained of the so-called " anhydrides " of the monobasic acids. In 1855, ignorant of what Wohler had done ten years previously, he succeeded in obtaining metallic aluminium, and ultimately he devised a method by which the metal could be prepared on a large scale by the aid of sodium, the manufacture of which he also developed. With H. J. Debray (1827-1888) he worked at the platinum metals, his object being on the one hand to prepare them pure, and on the other to find a suitable metal for the standard metre for the Inter- national Metric Commission then sitting at Paris. With L. J. Troost (b. 1825) he devised a method for determining vapour densities at temperatures up to 1400 ° C, and, partly with F. Wohler, he investigated the allotropic forms of silicon and boron. The artificial preparation of minerals, especially of apatite and isorhor- phous minerals and of crystalline oxides, was another subject in which he made many experiments. But his best known contribution to general chemistry is his work on the phenomena of reversible reactions, which he comprehended under a general theory of " dis- sociation." He first took up the subject about 1857, and it was in the course of his investigations on it that he devised the apparatus known as the " Deville hot and cold tube." His brother, Charles Joseph Sainte- Claire Deville (1814-1876), geologist and meteorologist, was born in St Thomas on the 26th of February 1814. Having attended at the Ecole des Mines in Paris, he assisted Elie de Beaumont in the chair of geology at the College de France from 1855 until he succeeded him in 1874. He made researches on volcanic phenomena, especially on the gaseous emanations. He investigated also the variations of temperature in the atmosphere and ocean. He died at Paris on the 10th of October 1876. Hjs published works include: Etudes geologiques sur les ties de Teneriffe et de Fogo (1848); Voyage geologique aux Antilles et aux ties de Teneriffe et de Fogo (1848-1859); Recherches sur les princi- paux phenomenes de meteorologie et de physique generate aux Antilles (1849); Sur les variations periodiques de la temperature (1866), and Coup d'cEil historique sur la giologie (1878). xxiv. 1 ST ELMO'S FIRE, the glow accompanying the slow discharge of electricity to earth frem the atmosphere. This discharge, which is identical with the " brush " discharge of laboratory experiments, usually appears as a tip of light on the extremities of pointed objects such as church towers, the masts of ships, or even the fingers of the outstretched hand: it is commonly accompanied by a crackling or fizzing noise. St Elmo's fire is most frequently observed at low levels through the winter season during and after snowstorms. The name St Elmo is an Italian corruption through Sant' Ermo of St Erasmus, a bishop, during the reign of Domitian, of Formiae, Italy, who was broken on the wheel about the 2nd of June 304. He has ever been the patron saint of Mediterranean sailors, who regard St Elmo's fire as the visible sign of his guar- dianship. The phenomenon was known to the ancient Greeks, and Pliny in his Natural History states that when there were two lights sailors called them Castor and Pollux and invoked them as gods. To English sailors St Elmo's fires were known as " corposants " (Ital. corpo santo). See Hazlitt's edition of Brand's Antiquities (1905) under " Castor and Pollux." . ST EMILION, a town of south-western France, in the depart- ment of Gironde, i\ m. from the right bank of the Dordogne and 27 m. E.N.E. of Bordeaux by rail. Pop. (1906), town, 1091; commune, 3546. The town derives its name from a hermit who lived here in the 7th and 8th centuries. Pictur- esquely situated on the slope of a hill, the town has remains of ramparts of the 12th and 13th centuries, with ditches hewn in the rock, and several medieval buildings. Of these the chief is the parish, once collegiate, church of the 12th and 13th centuries. A Gothic cloister adjoins the church. A fine belfry (12th, 13th and 15th centuries) commanding the town is built on the terrace, beneath which are hollowed in the rock the ora- tory and hermitage of St Emilion, and adjoining them an ancient monolithic church of considerable dimensions. Remains of a monastery of the Cordeliers (15th and 17th. centuries), of a building (13th century)known as the Palais Cardinal, and a square keep (the chief relic of a stronghold founded by Louis VIII.) are also to be seen. Disused stone quarries in the side' of the hill are used as dwellings by the inhabitants. St Emilion is celebrated for its wines. Its medieval importance, due to the pilgrimages to the tomb of the saint and to the commerce in its wines, began to decline towards the end of the 13th century owing to the foundation of Libourne. In 1272 it was the first of the towns of Guyenne to join the confederation headed by Bordeaux. SAINTE-PALAYE— ST ETIENNE SAINTE-PALAYE, JEAN BAPTISTE LA CURNE (or Lacuene) DE (1697-1781), French scholar, was born at Auxerre on the 6th of June 1697. His father, Edme, had been gentleman of the bed-chamber to the duke of Orleans, brother of Louis XIV. Sainte-Palaye had a twin brother to whom he was greatly attached, refusing to marry so as not to be separated from him. For some time he held the same position under the regent Orleans as his father had under the duke of Orleans. He had received a thorough education in Latin and Greek, and had a taste for history. In 1724 he had been elected an associate of the Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Leltres, merely from his reputation, as nothing haji been written by him before that date. From this time he- devoted himself exclusively to the work of this society. After having published numerous memoirs on Roman history, he began a series of studies on the chroniclers of the middle ages for the Historiens des Gaules et de la France (edited by Dom Bouquet) : Raoul Glaber, Helgaud, the Gesta of Louis VII., the chronicle of Morigny, Rigord and his con- tinuator, William le Breton, the monk of St Denis, Jean de Venette, Froissart and the Jouvencel. He made two journeys into Italy with his brother, the first in 1739-1740, accompanied by his compatriot, the president Charles de Brosses, who related many humorous anecdotes about the two brothers, particularly about Jean Baptiste, whom he called " the bilious Sainte- Palaye ! " On returning from this tour he saw one of Join- ville's manuscripts at the house of the senator Fiorentini, well known in the history of the text of this pleasing memorialist. The manuscript was bought for the king in 1741 and is still at the Bibliotheque nationale. After the second journey (1749) Lacurne published a letter to de Brosses, on Le Goilt dans les arts (1751). In this he showed that he was not only attracted by manuscripts, but that he could see and admire works of art. In 1 7 59 he published the first edition of his Memoir es sur I'ancienne chevalerie, consideree comme un etablissement politique el militaire, for which unfortunately he only used works of fiction and ancient stories as sources, neglecting the heroic poems which would have shown him the nobler aspects of this institution so soon corrupted by " courteous " manners; a second edition appeared at the time of his death (3 vols. 1781, 3rd ed. 1826). He prepared an edition of the works of Eustache Deschamps, which was never published, and also made a collection of more' than a hundred volumes of extracts from ancient authors relating to French antiquities and the French language of the middle ages. His Glossaire de lalanguefrancaise was ready in 1 7 56, and a prospectus had been published, but the great length of the work prevented him finding a publisher. It remained in manuscript for more than a century. In 1 764 a collection of his manuscripts was bought by the government and after his death were placed in the king's library; they are still there (fonds Moreau), with the exception of some which were given to the marquess of Paulmy in exchange, and were later placed in the Arsenal. Lacurne de Sainte-Palaye ceased work about 1771; the death of his brother was greatly felt by him, he became childish, and died on the 1st of March 1781. Sainte-Palaye had been a member of the Academie Francaise since 1758. His life was written for this Academie by Chamfort and for the Academie des Inscriptions by Dupuy; both works are of no value. See, however, the biography of Lacurne, with a list of his published works and those in manuscript, at the beginning of the tenth and last volume of the Dictionnaire historique de I'ancien langage francois, ou glossaire de la langue frangoise depuis son origine jusqu'au siecle de Louis XIV., published by Louis Favre (1875- 1882). SAINTES, a town of western France, capital of an arrondisse- ment in the department of Charente-Inferieure, 47 m. S.E. of La Rochelie by the railway from Nantes to Bordeaux. Pop. (1906), •town, 13,744; commune, 19,025. Saintes is pleasantly situated on the left bank of the Charente, which separates it from its suburb of Les Dames. It is of interest for its Roman remains, of which the best preserved is the triumphal arch of Germanicus, dating from the reign of Tiberius. This formerly stood on a Roman bridge destroyed in 1843, when it was removed and reconstructed on the right bank of the river. Ruins of baths and of an amphitheatre are also to be seen. The amphitheatre, larger than that of Nimes, and in area surpassed only by the Coliseum, dates probably from the close of the 1st or the beginning of the 2nd century and was capable of holding 20,000 spectators. A Roman building known as the Capitol was destroyed after the capture of the town from the English by Charles of Alencon, brother of Philip of Valois, in 1330, and its site is occupied by a hospital. Saintes was a bishop's see till 1790; the cathedral of St Peter, built in the first half of the 12th century, was rebuilt in the 15th century, and again after it had been almost destroyed by the Huguenots in 1568. The interior has now an unattractive appearance. The tower (15th century) is 236 ft. high. The church of St Eutropius (founded at the close of the 6th century, rebuilt in the nth, and had its nave destroyed in the Wars of Religion) stands above a very interesting well-lighted crypt — • the largest in France after that of Chartres — adorned with richly sculptured capitals and containing the tomb of St Eutropius (4th or 5th century). The fine stone spire dates from the 15th century. Notre-Dame, a splendid example of the architecture of the nth and 12th centuries, with a noble clock- tower, is no longer devoted to religious purposes. The old hotel de ville (16th and 18th centuries) contains a library, and the present hotel de ville a museum. Bernard Palissy, the porcelain- maker, has a statue in the town, where he lived from 1542 to 1562. Small vessels ascend the river as far as Saintes, which carries on trade in grain, brandy and wine, has iron foundries, works of the state railway, and manufactures earthenware, tiles, &c. Saintes (Mediolanum or Mediolanium), the capital of the Santones, was a nourishing town before Caesar's conquest of Gaul; in the middle ages it was capital of the Saintonge. Christianity was introduced by St Eutropius, its first bishop, in the middle of the 3rd century. Charlemagne rebuilt its cathedral. The Normans burned the town in 845 and 854. Richard Cceur de Lion fortified himself within its walls against his father Henry II., who captured it after a destructive siege. In 1242 St Louis defeated the English under its walls and was received into the town. It was not, however, till the reign of Charles V. that Saintes was permanently recovered from the English. The Protestants did great damage during the Wars of Religion. ST ETIENNE, an industrial town of east-central France, capital of the department of Loire, 310 m. S.S.E. of Paris and 36 m. S.S.W. of Lyons by rail. Pop. (1906), town, 130,940; commune, 146,788. St Etienne is situated on the Furens, which flows through it from S.E. to N.W., partly underground, and is an important adjunct to the silk manufacture. The town is uni- formly built, its principal feature being the straight thoroughfare nearly 4 m. long which traverses it from N. to S. The chief of the squares is the Place Marengo, which has a statue of F. Gamier, the explorer, and is overlooked by the town hall and the prefecture, both modern. The church of St Etienne dates from the 15th century, and the Romanesque church of the abbey of Valbenoite is on the S.E. outskirts of the town. A valuable collec- tion of arms and armour, a picture gallery, industrial collections, and a library with numerous manuscripts are in the Palais des Arts. St Etienne is the seat of a prefect, and has an important school of mining, and schools of music, chemistry and dyeing, &c. The town owes its importance chiefly to the coal-basin which extends between Firminy and Rive-de-Gier over an area 20 m. long by 5 m. wide, and is second only to those of Nord and Pas-de-Calais in France. There are concessions giving employment to some • 18,000 workmen and producing annually between 3,000,000 and 4,000,000 tons. The mineral is of two kinds — smelting coal, said to be the best in France, and gas coal. There are manufactures of ribbons, trimmings and other goods made from silk and mixtures of cotton and silk. This industry dates from the early 17th century, is carried on chiefly in small factories (electricity supplying the motive power), and employs at its maximum some 50,000 hands. The attendant industry of dyeing is carried on on a large scale. The manufacture of steel and iron and of heavy iron goods such as armour-plating occupies about 3000 workmen, and about half that number are employed in the production of ironmongery generally. Weaving machinery, cycles, automobiles and agricultural imple- ments are also made. The manufacture of fire-arms, carried on at the national factory under the direction of artillery officers, employs at busy times more than 10,000 men, and can turn out 480,000 rifles in the year. Private firms, employing 4500 hands, make both military rifles and sporting-guns, revolvers, &c. To these industries must be added the manufacture of elastic fabrics, glass, cartridges, liqueurs, hemp-cables, &c. ST EUSTATIUS— ST GALL At the close of the 12th century St fitienne was a parish of the Pays de Gier belonging to the abbey of Valbenoite. By the middle of the 14th century the coal trade had reached a certain development, and at the beginning of the 15th century Charles VII. permitted the town to erect fortifications. The manufacture of fire-arms for the state was begun at St fitienne under Francis I. and was put under the surveillance of state inspectors early in the 18th century. In 1789 the town was producing at the rate of 12,000 muskets per annum; between September 1794 and May 1796 they delivered over 170,000; and 100,000 was the annual average throughout the period of the empire. The first railways opened in France were the line between St fitienne and Andrezieux on the Loire in 1828 and that between St fitienne and Lyons in 1831. In 1856 St fitienne became the administrative centre of the department instead of Montbrison. ST EUSTATIUS and SABA, two islands in the Dutch West Indies. St Eustatius lies 12 m. N.W. of St Kitts in 17 50' N. and 62° 40' W. It is 8 sq. m. in area and is composed of several volcanic hills and intervening valleys. It contains Orangetown, situated on an open roadstead on the W., with a small export trade in yams and sweet potatoes. Pop. (1908) 1283. A few miles to the N.W. is the island of Saba, 5 sq. m. in extent. It consists of a single volcanic cone rising abruptly from the sea to the height of nearly 2800 ft. The town, Bottom, standing on the floor of an old crater, can only be approached from the shore 800 ft. below, by a series of steps cut in the solid rock and known as the " Ladder." The best boats in the Caribbees are built here; the wood is imported and the vessels, when complete, are lowered over the face of the cliffs. Pop. (1908) 2294. The islands form part of the colony of Curacao (q.v.) . SAINT-EVREMOND, CHARLES DE MARGUETEL DE SAINT-DENIS, Seigneur de (1610-1703), was born at Saint- Denis-le-Guast, near Coutances, the seat of his family in Normandy, on the 1st of April 1610. He was a pupil of the Jesuits at the College de Clermont (now Louis-le- Grand), Paris; then a student at Caen. For a time he studied law at the College d 'H at court. He soon, however, took to arms, and in 1629 went with Marshal Bassompierre to Italy. He served through great part of the Thirty Years' War, distinguishing himself at the siege of Landrecies (1637), when he was made captain. During his campaigns he studied the works of Montaigne and the Spanish and Italian languages. In 1639 he met Gassendi in Paris, and became one of his disciples. He was present at Rocroy, at Nordlingen, and at Lerida. For a time he was person- ally attached to Conde, but offended him by a satirical remark and was deprived of his command in the prince's guards in 1648. During the Fronde, Saint-fivremond was a steady royalist. The duke of Candale (of whom he has left a very severe portrait) gave him a command in Guienne, and Saint-fivremond, who had reached the grade of martchal de camp, is said to have saved 50,000 livres in less than three years. He was one of the numerous victims involved in the fall of Fouquet. His letter to Marshal Crequi on the peace of the Pyrenees, which is said to have been discovered by Colbert's agents at the seizure of Fouquet's papers, seems a very inadequate cause for his disgrace. Saint- fivremond fled to Holland and to England, where he was kindly received by Charles II. and was pensioned. After James II. 's flight to France Saint-fivremond was invited to return, but he declined. Hortense Mancini, the most attractive of Mazarin's attractive group of nieces, came to England in 1670, and set up a salon for love-making, gambling and witty conversation, and here Saint-fivremond was for many years at home. He died on the 29th of September 1703 and was buried in West- minster Abbey, where his monument still is in Poet's Corner close to that of Prior. Saint-fivremond never authorized the printing of any of his works during his lifetime, though Barbin in 1668 published an unauthorized collection. But he empowered Des Maizeaux to publish his works after his death, and they were published in London (2 vols., 1705), and often reprinted. His masterpiece in irony is the so-called Conversation du marechal d'Hocquincourt avet le pere Canaye (the latter a Jesuit and Saint-fivremond's master at school), which has been frequently classed with the Lettres provinciates. His CEuvres melees, edited from the MSS. by Silvestre and Des Maizeaux, were printed by Jacob Tonson (London, 1705, 2 vols.; 2nd ed. t 3 vols., 1709), with a notice by Des Maizeaux. His corre- spondence with Ninon de Lenclos, whose fast friend he was, was published in 1752; La Com&die des academistes, written in 1643, was printed in 1650. Modern editions of his works are by Hippeau (Paris, 1852), C. Giraud (Paris, 1865), and a selection (1881) with a notice by M. de Lescure. ST FLORENTIN, a town of north-central France, in the depart- ment of Yonne, 37 m. S.E. of Sens on the Paris-Lyon-Mediter- ranee railway. Pop. (1906) 2303. It stands on a hill on the right bank of the Armance, half a mile from its confluence with the Armancon and the canal of Burgundy. In the highest part of the town stands the church, begun in the latter half of the 15th century, and though retaining the Gothic form, with great flying buttresses, is mainly in the Renaissance style. It is approached through a narrow alley up a steep flight of steps, and contains a fine Holy Sepulchre in bas-relief and a choir- screen and stained glass of admirable Renaissance workmanship. The nave, left incomplete, was restored and finished between 1857 and 1862. The market-gardens of St Florentin produce large quantities of asparagus. The town stands on the site of the Roman military post Castrodunum, the sceneof themartyrdom in the 3rd century of Saints Florentin and Hilaire, round whose tomb it grew up. The abbey established here in the 9th century afterwards became a priory of the abbey of St Germain at Auxerre. The town and its territory belonged, under the Merovingians, to Burgundy, and in later times to the counts of Champagne, from whom it passed to the kings of France. Louis XV. raised it from the rank of viscounty to that of county and bestowed it on Louis Phelypeaux, afterwards Due de la Vrilliere. ST FLOUR, a town of south-central France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Cantal, situated at a height of 2900 ft. on a basaltic plateau overlooking the Lander, a tributary of the Truyere, 47 m. E.N.E. of Aurillac by rail. Pop. (1906) 4090. The streets are dark and narrow, but the town has spacious promenades established in the 18th century. St Flour grew up round the tomb of St Florus, the apostle of Auvergne, who died there in the 4th century. The abbey founded there about the beginning of the nth century became in 1317 an episcopal chapter, and the town is still the seat of a bishopric. The cathedral (1396-1466) is the principal building. The manufacture of coarse woollen fabrics, of earthenware and candles is carried on. A few miles S.E. of the town the gorge of the Truyere is spanned by the fine railway viaduct of Garabit over 600 yds. long and at -a height of 400 ft. above the river. ST GALL (Ger. St Gallen), one of the cantons of north- east Switzerland, on the border of the Austrian province of the Vorarlberg and of the independent principality of Liechtenstein. It entirely surrounds the canton of Appenzell, which, like a great part of this canton, formerly belonged to the abbots of St Gall, while the " enclave " of Horn is in the canton of Thurgau. Its area is 779-3 sq. m., of which 710-1 sq. m. are reckoned " pro- ductive," forests covering 157-1 sq. m. and vineyards 1-8 sq. m., while of the remainder 2-8 sq. m. are occupied by glaciers. The altitude above the sea-level varies from 1306 ft. (the lake of Constance) to 10,667 ft. (the Ringelspitz). The canton includes portions of the lake of Constance (21 J sq. m.), of the Walensee (rather over 7 sq. m.), and of the lake of Zurich (4 sq. m.), and several small lakes wholly within its limits. Hilly in its N. region, the height gradually increases towards the S. border, while to its S. W. and E. extend considerable alluvial plains on the banks of the Linth and of the Rhine. The two rivers just named form in part its frontiers, the principal stream within the canton being the Thur (as regards its upper course), with the middle reach of its principal affluent, the Sitter, both forming part of the Rhine basin. It has ports on the lake of Constance (Rorschach) and of Zurich (Rapperswil), as well as Weesen and Walenstadt on the Walensee, while the watering place of Ragatz (q.v.) is supplied with hot mineral waters from Pfafers. The main railway lines from Zurich past Sargans for Coire, and from Sargans past Altstatten and Rorschach for Constance.skirtits borders, while the capital is on the direct railway line from Zurich past Wil to Rorschach, and communicates by rail with Appenzell and with Frauenfeld. In 1900 the population of the canton was 250,285, of whom 243,358 were German-speaking, 5300 Italian-speaking and 710 French-speaking, while there were 150,412 " Catholics " (whether ST GALL— SAINT-GAUDENS Roman or " Old "), 99,114 Protestants and 556 Jews (mostly in the 1 extensive collection of embroideries of all ages and dates. There town of St Gall). Its capital is St Gall, the other most populous places being Tablat (pop. 12,590), Rorschach (914°). Altstatten (8724), Straubenzell (8090), Gossau (6055) and Wattwil (4971). In the southern and more Alpine portion of the canton the inhabitants mainly follow pastoral pursuits. In 1896 the number of " alps " or mountain pastures in the canton amounted to 304, capable of sup- porting 21,744 cows, and of an estimated total value of nearly 14 million francs. In the central and northern regions agriculture is generally combined with manufactures. The canton is one of the most industrial in Switzerland. Cotton- spinning is widely spread, though cloth-weaving has declined. But the characteristic industry is the manufacture, mostly by machines, of muslin, embroidery and lace. It is reckoned that the value of the embroideries and lace exported from the canton amounts to about one-seventh of the total value of the exports from Switzerland. The canton is divided into fifteen administrative districts, which comprise ninety-three communes. The existing constitution dates from 1890. The legislature or Grossrat is elected by the communes, each commune of 1500 inhabitants or less having a right to one member, and as many more as the divisor 1 500, or fraction.over 7 50, justifies. Members hold office for three years. For the election of the seven members of the executive or Regierungsrat, who also hold office for three years, all the communes form a single electoral circle. The two members of the federal Standerat are named by the legislature, while the thirteen members of the federal Nationalrat are chosen by a popular vote. The right of " facultative referendum " or of " initiative " as to legislative projects belongs to any 4000 citizens, but in case of the revision of the cantonal constitution 10,000 must sign the demand. The canton of St Gall was formed in 1803 and was augmented by many districts that had belonged since 1798 to the canton Linth or Glarus — the upper Toggenburg, Sargans (held since 1483 by the Swiss), Gaster and Uznach (belonging since 1438 to Schwyz and Glarus), Gams (since 1497 the property of the same two members), Werdenberg (owned by Glarus since 1517), Sax (bought by Zurich in 1615), and Rapperswil (since 171 2 under the protection of Zurich, Bern and Glarus). Authorities. — I. von Arx, Geschichte d. Kant. St Gall (3 vols., 1810-1813); G. J. Baumgartner, Geschichte d. schweiz. Freistaates u. Kant. St Gall (3 vols., Zurich and Stuttgart, 1868-1890); H. Fehr, Stoat u. Kirche in St Gall (1899); W. Gotzinger, Die romanischen Namen d. Kant. St Gall (1891); O. Henne am Rhyn, Geschichte d. Kant. St Gall von 1861 (1896); Der Kanton St Gall, 1803-1(103 (1903); J- Kuoni, Sagen des Kantons St Gotten (St Gall, 1903); St Gallische Geschichtsquellen, edited by G. Meyer von Kronau; Mitteilungen z. vaterldndischen Geschichte (publ. by the Cantonal Hist. Soc, from 1861); Th. Schlatter, Romanische Volksnamen und Verwandtes (St Gall, 1903); T. Schneider, Die Alpwirtschaft im Kanton St Gall (Soleure, 1896) ; A. Steinmann, Die ostschweizerische Slickerei-Industrie (Zurich, 1905) ; Urkundenbuch d. AJbtei St Gall, edited by H. Wartmann; H. Wartmann, " Die geschichtliche Entwickelung d. Stadt St Gall bis 1454 " (article in vol. xvi., 1868, of the Archiv f. Schweizer Geschichte), and Franz Weidmann, Geschichte d. Stiffs u. Landschaft St Gall (1834). (W. A. B. C.) ST GALL, capital of the Swiss canton of that name, is situated in the upland valley of the Steinach, 2195 ft. above the sea-level. It is by rail 9 m. S.W. of Rorschach, its port on the lake of Constance, and 53 m. E. of Zurich. The older or central portion of the town retains the air of a small rural capital, but the newer quarters present the aspect of a modern commercial centre. At either extremity considerable suburbs merge in the neighbour- ing towns of Tablat and of Straubenzell. Its chief building is the abbey church of the celebrated old monastery. This has been a cathedral church since 1846. In its present form it was con- structed in 1756-1765. The famous library is housed in the former palace of the abbot, and is one of the most renowned in Europe by reason of its rich treasures of early MSS. and printed books. Other portions of the monastic buildings are used as the offices of the cantonal authorities, and contain the extensive archives both of this monastery and of that of Pfafers. The ancient churches of St Magnus (Old Catholics) and of St Lawrence (Protestant) were restored in the 19th century. The town library, which is rich in Reformation and post-Reformation MSS. and books, is in the buildings of the cantonal school. The museum contains antiquarian, historical and natural history are a number of fine modern buildings, such as the Bourse. The town is the centre of the Swiss muslin, embroidery and lace trade. About 10,000 persons were in 1900 occupied in and near the town with the embroidery industry, and about 49,000 in the canton. Cold and fogs prevail in winter (though the town is protected against the north wind), but the heat in summer is rarely intense. In 1900 the population was 33,116 (having just doubled since 1870), of whom almost all were German-speaking, while the Protestants numbered 17,572, the Catholics (Roman or " Old ") 15,006 and the Jews 419. The town of St Gall owes its origin to St Gall, an Irish hermit, who in 614, built his cell in the thick forest which then covered the site of the future monastery, and lived there, with a few companions, till his death in 640. Many pilgrims later found their way to his cell, and about the middle of the 8th century the collection of hermits' dwellings was transformed into a regularly organized Benedictine monastery. For the next three centuries this was one of the chief seats of learning and education in Europe. About 954 the monastery and its buildings were surrounded by walls as a protection against the Saracens, and this was the origin of the town. The temporal powers of the abbots vastly increased, while in the 13th century the town obtained divers privileges from the emperor and from the abbot, who about 1205 became a prince of the Empire. In 1311 St Gall became a free imperial city, and about 1353 the gilds, headed by that of the cloth-weavers, obtained the control of the civic government, while in 141 5 it bought its liberty from the German king Sigismund. This growing independence did not please the abbot, who struggled long against it and his rebellious subjects in Appenzell, which formed the central portion of his dominions. After the victory of the Appenzellers at the battle of the Stoss (1405) they became (141 1) "allies" of the Swiss confederation, as did the town of St Gall a few months later, this connexion becoming an " everlasting " alliance in 1454, while in 1457 the town was finally freed from the abbot. The abbot, too, became (in 1451) the ally of Zurich, Lucerne, Schwyz and Glarus. In 1468 he bought the county of the Toggenburg from the representatives of its counts, a family which had died out in 1436, and in 1487 built a monastery above Rorschach as a place of refuge against the turbulent citizens, who, however, destroyed it in 1489. The Swiss intervened to protect the abbot, who (1490) concluded an alliance with them which'reduced his position almost to that of a " subject district." The townsmen adopted the Reformation in 1524, and this new cause of difference further envenomed their relations with the abbots. Both abbot and town were admitted regularly to the Swiss diet, occupying a higher position than the rest of the " allies " save Bienne, which was on the same footing. But neither succeeded in its attempts to be received a full member of the Confederation, the abbot being too much like a petty monarch and at the same time a kind of " subject " already, while the town could not help much in the way of soldiers. In 1798 and finally in 1805 the abbey was secularized, while out of its dominions (save the Upper Toggen- burg, but with the Altstatten district, held since 1490 by the Swiss) and those of the town the canton Santis was formed, with St Gall as capital. (W. A. B. C.) SAINT-GAUDENS, AUGUSTUS (1848-1907), American sculptor, was born in Dublin, Ireland, of a French father (a shoemaker by trade), and an Irish mother, Mary McGuinness, on the 1 st of March 1848, and was taken to America in infancy. He was apprenticed to a cameo-cutter, studying in the schools of the Cooper Union (1861) and the National Academy of Design, New York (1865-1866). His earliest work in sculpture was a bronze bust (1867) of his father, Bernard P. E- Saint-Gaudens. In 1868 he went to Paris and became a pupil of Jouffroy] in the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. Two years later, with his fellow-student Mercie, he went to Italy, where he spent three years. At Rome he executed his statues " Hiawatha " and " Silence." He then settled in New York. In 1874 he-made a bust of the statesman, William M. Evarts, and was commissioned to execute a large collections, while the new museum of industrial art has an I relief for St Thomas's Church, New York, which brought him ST GAUDENS-— SAINT-GERMAIN into prominence. His statue of Admiral Farragut, Madison Square, New York, was commissioned in 1878, exhibited at the Paris Salon in 1880 and completed in 188 1. It immediately brought the sculptor widespread fame, which was increased by his statue of Lincoln (unveiled 1887), for Lincoln Park, Chicago. In Springfield, Mass., is his " Deacon Chapin," known as " The Puritan." His figure of " Grief " (also known as " Death " and " The Peace of God ") for the Adams (Mrs Henry Adams) Memorial, in Rock Creek Cemetery, Washington, D.C., has been described as " an idealization complete and absolute, the render- ing of a simple, natural fact — a woman in grief— yet with such deep and embracing comprehension that the individual is magnified into a type." His Shaw Memorial in Boston, a monument to Robert G. Shaw, colonel of a negro regiment in the Civil War, was undertaken in 1884 and completed in 1897; it is a relief in bronze, n ft. by 15, containing many figures of soldiers, led by their young officer on horseback, a female figure in the clouds pointing onward. In 1903 was unveiled his equestrian statue (begun in 1892) to General Sherman, at 59th street and Fifth avenue, New York; preceding the Union commander is a winged figure of " Victory." This work, with others, formed a group at the Paris Exposition of 1900. A bronze copy of his " Amor Caritas " is in the Luxembourg, Paris. Among his other works are relief medallion portraits of Robert Louis Stevenson (in St Giles's Cathedral, Edinburgh) and the French painter Jules Bastien-Lepage; Garfield Memorial, Fairmount Park, Philadelphia; General Logan, Chicago; the Peter Cooper Memorial; and Charles Stewart Parnell in Dublin. Saint-Gaudens was made an officer of the Legion of Honour and corresponding member of the Institute of France. He died at Cornish, N.H., on the 3rd of August 1907. His monument of Phillips Brooks for Boston was left practically completed. Saint-Gaudens is rightly regarded as the greatest sculptor produced by America, and his work had a most powerful influence on art in the United States. In 1877 he married Augusta F. Homer and left a son, Homer Saint-Gaudens. His brother Louis (b. 1854), also a sculptor, assisted Augustus Saint-Gaudens in some of his works. See Royal Cortissoz, Augustus Saint-Gaudens (1907) ;Lorado Taft, History of American Sculpture (1903), containing two chapters de- voted to Saint-Gaudens ; Kenyon Cox, Old Masters and New (1905) ; C. Lewis Hind, Augustus Saint-Gaudens (1908). ST GAUDENS, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Haute-Garonne, 1 m. from the left bank of the Garonne, 57 m. S.S.W. of Toulouse, on the railway to Tarbes. Pop. (1906), town, 4535; commune, 7120. The church, once collegiate, dates chiefly from the nth and 12th centuries, but the main entrance is in the flamboyant Gothic style. The town has sawing-, oil- and flour-mills, manufactures woollen goods, and is a market for horses, sheep and agricultural produce. St Gaudens derives its name from a martyr of the 5th century, at whose tomb a college of canons was afterwards established. It was important as capital of the Nebouzan, as the residence of the bishops of Comminges and for its cloth industry. SAINT-GELAIS, MELIN DE (1487-1558), French poet, was born at Angouleme on the 3rd of November 1487. He was the natural son of Octavien de St Gelais (1466-1502), afterwards bishop of Angouleme, himself a poet who had translated the Aeneid into French. Melin, who had studied at Bologna and Padua, had the reputation of being doctor, astrologer and musician as well as poet. He returned to France in 1515, and soon gained favour at the court of Francis I. by his skill in light verse. He was made almoner to the Dauphin, abbot of Reclus in the diocese of Troyes and librarian to the king at Fontaine- bleau. He enjoyed immense popularity until the appearance of Du Bellay's Defense et illustration ... in 1549, where St Gelais was not excepted from the scorn poured on contemporary poets. He attempted to ridicule the innovators by reading aloud the Odes of Ronsard with burlesque emphasis before Henry II., when the king's sister, Margaret of Valois, seized the book and read them herself. Ronsard accepted Saint-Gelais's apology for this incident, but Du Bellay satirized the offender in the Poete courtisan. In 1554 he collaborated, perhaps with Francois Habert (1520-1574?), in a translation of the Sopkomsbe of Trissino which was represented (1554) before Catherine de Medicis at Blois. Saint-Gelais was the champion of the style marotique and the earliest of French sonneteers. He died in 1558 His CEuvres were edited in 1873 (3 vols., Bibl. elzevirienne) by Prosper Blanchemain. SAINT-GEORGES, GEORGES HENRI VERNOY DE (1790- 1875), French dramatist, was born in Paris on the 7th of November 1799. Saint-Louis ou les deux diners (1823), a vaudeville written in collaboration with Alexandre Tardif, was followed by a series of operas and ballets. In 1829 he became manager of the Opera Comique. Among his more famous libretti are: Le Val d'Andorre (1848) for Halevy, and La Fille du r&giment (1840) for Donizetti. He wrote some fifty pieces in collaboration with Eugene Scribe, Adolphe de Leuven, or Joseph Mazillier, and a great number in collaboration with other authors. Among his novels may be mentioned Un Manage de prince. Saint-Georges died in Paris on the 23rd of December 1875. SAINT-GERMAIN, Comte de (c. 1710-c. 1780) called der Wundermann, a celebrated adventurer who by the assertion of his discovery of some extraordinary secrets of nature exercised considerable influence at several European courts. Of his parentage and place of birth nothing is definitely known; the common version is that he was a Portuguese Jew, but various surmises have been made as to his being of royal birth. It was also stated that he obtained his money, of which he had abun- dance, from acting as spy to one of the European courts. But this is hard to maintain. He knew nearly all the European languages, and spoke German, English, Italian, French (with a Piedmontese accent), Portuguese and Spanish. Grimm affirms him to have been the man of the best parts he had ever known. He was a musical composer and a capable violinist. His knowledge of history was comprehensive, and his accomplishments as a chemist, on which be based his reputation, were in many ways real and considerable. He pretended to have a secret for removing flaws from diamonds, and to be able to transmute metals. The most remarkable of his professed discoveries was of a liquid which could prolong life, and by which he asserted he had himself lived 2000 years. After spending some time in Persia, Saint-Germain is mentioned in a letter of Horace Walpole's as being in London about 1743, and as being arrested as a Jacobite spy and released. Walpole says: " He is called an Italian, a Spaniard, a Pole; a somebody that married a great fortune in Mexico and ran away with her jewels to Constantinople; a priest, a fiddler, a vast nobleman." At the court of Louis XV., where he appeared about 1748, he exercised for a time extraordinary influence and was employed on secret missions by Louis XV.; but, having interfered in the dispute between Austria and France, he was compelled in June 1760, on account of the hostility of the duke of Choiseul, to remove to England. He appears to have resided in London for one or two years, but was at St Petersburg in 1762, and is asserted to have played an important part in connexion with the conspiracy against the emperor Peter III. in July of that year, a plot which placed Catherine II. on the Russian throne. He then went to Germany, where, according to the Memoires authentiques of Cagliostro, he was the founder of freemasonry, and initiated Cagliostro into that rite. He was again in Paris from 1770 to 1774, and after frequenting several of the German courts he took up his residence in Schleswig-Holstein, where he and the Landgrave Charles of Hesse pursued together the study of the " secret " sciences. He died at Schleswig in or about 1780-1785, although he is said to have been seen in Paris in 1789. Andrew Lang in his Historical Mysteries (1904) discusses the career of Saint-Germain, and cites the various authorities for it. Saint- Germain figures prominently in the correspondence of Grimm and of Voltaire. See also Oettinger, Graf Saint-German (1846); F. Bulau, Geheime Geschichten una rdthselhafte Menschen, Band i. (1850-1860); Lascelles Wraxall, Remarkable Adventures (1863); and U. Birch in the Nineteenth Century (January 1908). SAINT-GERMAIN, CLAUDE LOUIS, Comte de (1707-1778), French general, was born on the 15th of April 1707, at the Chateau of Vertamboz. Educated at Jesuit schools, he intended I to enter the priesthood, but at the last minute obtained from ST GERMAIN-EN-LAYE— ST GOTTHARD PASS Louis XV. an appointment as sub-lieutenant. He left France, according to the gossip of the time, because of a duel; served under the elector palatine; fought for Hungary against the Turks, and on the outbreak of the war of the Austrian Succession (1740) joined the army of the elector of Bavaria (who later became emperor under the name of Charles VII.), displaying such bravery that he was promoted to the grade of lieutenant field-marshal. He left Bavaria on the death of Charles VII., and after brief service under Frederick the Great joined Marshal Saxe in the Netherlands and was created a field-marshal of the French army. He distinguished himself especially at Lawfeld, Rancoux and Maastricht. On the outbreak of the Seven Years' War (1756) he was appointed lieutenant-general, and although he showed greater ability than any of his fellow-commanders and was admired by his soldiers, he fell a victim to court intrigues, professional jealousy and hostile criticism. He resigned his commission in 1760 and accepted an appointment as field-marshal from Frederick V. of Denmark, being charged in 1762 with the reorganization of the Danish army. On the death of Frederick in 1766 he returned to France, bought a small estate in Alsace near Lauterbach, and devoted his time to religion and farming. A financial crisis swept away the funds that he had saved from his Danish service and rendered him dependent on the bounty of the French ministry of war. Saint-Germain was presented at court by the reformers Turgot and Malesherbes, and was ap- pointed minister of war by Louis XVI. on the 25th of October 1775. He sought to lessen the number of officers and to establish order and regularity in the service. His efforts to introduce Prussian discipline in the French army brought on such opposition that he resigned in September 1777. He accepted quarters from the king and a pension of 40,000 livres, and died in his apartment at the arsenal on the 15th of January 1778. ST GERMAIN-EN-LA YE, a town of northern France, in the department of Seine-et-Oise, 13 m. W.N.W. of Paris by rail. Pop. (1906), town, 14,974; commune, 17,288. Built on a hill on the left bank of the Seine, nearly 300 ft. above the river, and on the edge of a forest 10,000 to 11,000 acres in extent, St Germain has a bracing climate, which makes it a place of summer residence for Parisians. The terrace of St Germain, constructed by A.Lenotre in 1672, is 15 m. long and 100 ft. wide; it was planted with lime trees in 1745 and affords an extensive view over the valley of the Seine as far as Paris and the surrounding hills: it ranks as one of the finest promenades in Europe. A monastery in honour of St Germain, bishop of Paris, was built in the forest of Laye by King Robert. Louis VI. erected a castle close by. Burned by the English, rebuilt by Louis IX., and again by Charles V., this castle did not reach its full development till the time of Francis I., who may be regarded as the real founder of the building. A new castle was begun by Henry II. and completed by Henry IV. ; it was subsequently demolished, with the exception of the so-called Henry IV. pavilion, where Thiers died in 1877. The old castle has been restored to the state in which it was under Francis I. The restoration is particularly skilful in the case of the chapel, which dates from the first half of the 13th century. In the church of St Germain is a mausoleum erected by George IV. of England (and restored by Queen Victoria) to the memory of James II. of England, who after his deposition resided in the castle for twelve years and died there in 1701. In one of the public squares is a statue of Thiers. At no great distance in the forest is the Couvent des Loges, a branch of the educational establish- ment of the Legion of Honour (St Denis). The fSte des Loges (end of August and beginning of September) is one of the most popular in the neighbourhood of Paris. ST GERMANS, a small town in the Bodmin parliamentary divi- sion of Cornwall, England, pleasantly situated on the river Lynher, 9 § m. W. by N. of Plymouth by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 2384. It contains a fine church dedicated to St Germanus. The west front is flanked by towers both of which are Norman in the lower parts, the upper part being in the one Early English and in the othei Perpendicular. The front itself is wholly Norman, having three windows above a porch with a beautiful ornate door- way. Some Norman work remains in the body of the church, but the most part is Perpendicular or Decorated. Port Eliot, a neighbouring mansion, contains an excellent collection of pictures, notably several works of Sir Joshua Reynolds. St Germans is supposed to have been the original seat of the Cornish bishopric. It was the see of Bishop Burhwold, who died in 1027. Under Leofric, who became bishop of Crediton and Cornwall in 1046, the see was removed to Exeter. Bishop Leofric founded a priory at St Germans and bestowed upon it twelve of the twenty-four hides which in the time of the Confessor constituted the bishops' manor of St Germans. There was then a market on Sundays, but at the time of the Domesday Survey this had been reduced to nothing owing to a market established by the count of Mortain on the same day at Trematon castle. In 1302 the gr^nt of infangenethef, assize of bread and ale, waif and stray by Henry III. was confirmed to the bishop, who in 131 1 obtained a further grant of a market on Fridays and a fair at the feast of St Peter ad Vincula. In 1343 the prior sustained his claim to a prescriptive market and fair at St Germans. After the suppression the borough belonging to the priory remained with the crown until 16 10. Meanwhile Queen Elizabeth created it a parliamentary borough. From 1563 to 1832 it returned two members to the House of Commons. In 1815 John Eliot was created earl of St Germans, and in 1905 the first suffragan bishop of Truro was consecrated bishop of St Germans. ST GILLES, a town of southern France, in the department of Gard, on the canal from the Rhone to Cette, 12J m. S.S.E. of Nimes by road. Pop. (1906) 5292. In the middle ages St Gilles, the ancient Vallis Flaviana, was the seat of an abbey founded towards the end of the 7th century by St Aegidius (St Gilles). It acquired wealth and power under the counts of Toulouse, who added to their title that of counts of St Gilles. The church, which survives, was founded in n 16 when the abbey was at the height of its prosperity. The lower part of the front (12th century) has three bays decorated with columns and bas-reliefs, and is the richest example of Romanesque art in Provence. The rest of the church is unfinished, only the crypt (1 2th century) and part of the choir, containing a spiral staircase, being of interest. Besides the church there is a Romanesque house serving as presbytery. The decadence of the abbey dates from the early years of the 13th century when the pilgrimage to the tomb of the saint became less popular; the monks also lost the patronage of the counts of Toulouse, owing to the penance inflicted by them on Raymond VI. in 1 209 for the murder of the papal legate Pierre de Castelnau. St Gilles was the seat of the first grand priory of the Knights Hospitallers in Europe (12th century) and was of special importance as their place of embarka- tion for the East. In 1226 the countship of St Gilles was united to the crown. In 1562 the Protestants ravaged the abbey, which they occupied till 1622, and in 1774 it was suppressed. ST GIRONS, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Ariege, 29 m. W. of Foix by rail. Pop. (1906) 5216. The town is situated on the Salat at the foot of the Pyrenees. There are mineral springs at Audinac in the vicinity, and the watering-place of Aulus, about 20 m. to the S.S.E., is reached by road from St Girons. St Lizier-de- Couserans (g.v.),nn ancient episcopal town, is 1 m. N.N.W. ST GOAR, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, on the left bank of the Rhine, opposite St Goarshausen and just below the famous Lorelei, 12 m. above Boppard by the railway from Coblenz to Mainz. Pop. (1905) 1475. It is in part sur- rounded by the ruins of its old walls, and contains an Evangelical church, with some Renaissance monuments, and a Roman Catholic church with an image of St Goar of Aquitania, around whose chapel the place originally arose. Below the town, high on an eminence above the Rhine, stands Schloss Rheinfels, the property of the king of Prussia, the most perfect of the feudal castles on the banks of the river. In the later middle ages St Goar was the capital of the county of Katzenelnbogen, and on the extinction of this family it passed to Hesse- Cassel. It came into the possession of Prussia in 181 5. ST GOTTHARD PASS, the principal route from northern Europe to Italy. It takes its name (it is not known wherefore) from St Gotthard, bishop of Hildesheim (d. 1038), but does not seem to be mentioned before the early 13th century, perhaps because the access to it lies through two very narrow Alpine ST HELENA valleys, much exposed to avalanches. The hospice on the summit is first mentioned in 1331, and from 1683 onwards was in charge of two Capuchin friars. But in 1775 the buildings near it were damaged by an avalanche, while in 1799-1800 everything was destroyed by the French soldiery. Rebuilt in 1834, the hospice was burnt in March 1905. The mule path (dating from about 1293) across the pass served for many centuries, for though Mr Greville, in 1775, succeeded in taking a light carriage across, the carriage-road was only constructed between 1820 and 1830. Now the pass is deserted in favour of the great tunnel (pierced in 187 2-1880, 91 m. in length, and attaining a height of 3786 ft.), through which runs the railway (opened in 1882) from Lucerne to Milan (1755 m.), one of the greatest engineering feats of the 19th century. It runs mainly along the eastern shore of the Lake of Lucerne, from Lucerne to Fliielen (32J m.), and then up the Reuss valley past Altdorf and Wassen, near which is the first of the famous spiral tunnels, to Goeschenen (56 m. from Lucerne). Here the line leaves the Reuss valley to pass through the tunnel and so gain, at Airolo, the valley of the Ticino or the Val Leventina, which it descends, through several spiral tunnels, till at Biasca (38 m. from Goeschenen) it reaches more level ground. Thence it runs past Bellinzona to Lugano (305 m. from Biasca) and reaches Italian territory at Chiasso, 35 m. from Milan. In 1909 the Swiss government exercised the right accorded to it by the agreement of 1879 of buying the St Gotthard Railway from the company which built it within thirty years of that date. (W. A. B.C.) ST HELENA, an island and British possession in the South Atlantic in 15 55' 26" S., 5° 42' 30" W. (Ladder Hill Observatory). It lies 700 m. S.E. of the island of Ascension (the nearest land), 1200 m. W. of Mossamedes (the nearest African port), 1695 N.W. of Cape Town, and is distant from Southampton 4477 m. It has an area of about 47 sq. m., the extreme length from S.W. to N.E. being ioj m. and the extreme breadth 8J. The island is of volcanic formation, but greatly changed by oceanic abrasion and atmospheric denudation. Its principal feature, a semi- circular ridge of mountains, open towards the south-east and south, with the culminating summit of Diana's Peak (2704 ft.) is the northern rim of a great crater; the southern rim has disappeared, though its debris apparently keeps the sea shallow (from 20 to 50 fathoms) for some 2 m. S.E. of Sandy Bay, which hypothetically forms the centre of the ring. From the crater wall outwards water-cut gorges stretch in all directions, widening as they approach the sea into valleys, some of which are 1000 ft. deep, and measure one-eighth of a mile across at bottom and three-eighths across the top (Melliss). These valleys contain small streams, but the island has no rivers properly so called. Springs of pure water are, however, abundant. Along the enclosing hillsides caves have been formed by the washing out of the softer rocks. Basalts, andesites and phonolites, represent the chief flows. Many dikes and masses of basaltic rock seem to have been injected subsequently to the last volcanic eruptions from the central crater. The Ass's Ears and Lot's Wife, picturesque pinnacles standing out on the S.E. part of the crater ridge, and the Chimney on the coast south of Sandy Bay, are formed out of such injected dikes and masses. In the neighbourhood of Man and Horse (S.W. corner of the island), throughout an area of about -40 acres, scarcely 50 sq. yds. exist not crossed by a dyke. On the leeward (northern) side of St Helena the sea-face is generally formed by cliffs from 600 to 1000 ft. high, and on the windward side these heights rise to about 2000 ft., as at Holdfast Tom, Stone Top and Oid Joan Point. The only practicable landing-place is on the leeward side at St James's Bay — an open roadstead. From the head of the bay a narrow valley extends for ij m. The greatest extent of level ground is in the N.E. of the island, where are the Deadwood and Long- wood plains, over 1700 ft. above the sea. Climate. — Although it lies within the tropics the climate of the island is healthy and temperate. This is due to the south-east trade- wind, constant throughout the year, and to the effect of the cold waters of the South Atlantic current. As a result the tempera- ture varies little, ranging on the sea level from 68° to 84° in summer and 57° to 70° in winter. The higher regions are about 10 cooler. The rainfall varies considerably, being from 30 to 50 in. a year in the hills. Flora. — St Helena is divided into three vegetation zones: (1) the coast zone, extending inland for I m. to if m., formerly clothed with a luxuriant vegetation, but now " dry, barren, soilless, lichen- coated, and rocky," with little save prickly pears, wire grass and Mesembryanthemum; (2) the middle zone (400-1800 ft.), extending about three-quarters of a mile inland, with shallower valleys and grassier slopes — the English broom and gorse, brambles, willows, poplars, Scotch pines, &c, being the prevailing forms; and (3) the central zone, about 3 m. long and 2 m. wide, the home, for the most part, of the indigenous flora. According to W. B. Hemsley (in his report on the botany of the Atlantic Islands), 1 the certainly in- digenous species of plants are 65, the probably indigenous 24 and the doubtfully indigenous 5 ; total 94. Of the 38 flowering plants 20 are shrubs or small trees. With the exception of Scirpus nodosus, all the 38 are peculiar to the island; and the same is true of 12 of the 27 vascular cryptogams (a remarkable proportion). Since the flora began to be studied, two species — Melhania melanoxylon and Acalypha rubra — are known to have become extinct; and at least two others have probably shared the same fate — Heliotropium pennifolium and Demazeria obliterata. Melhania melanoxylon, or " native ebony," once abounded in parts of the island now barren; but the young trees were allowed to be destroyed by the goats of the early settlers, and it is now extinct. Its beautiful congener Melhania erythroxylon (" redwood ") was still tolerably plentiful in 1810, but is now reduced to a few specimens. Very rare, too, has become Pelargonium cotyledonis, called " Old Father Live-for-ever," from its retaining vitality for months without soil or water. Commi- dendron robustum (" gumwood "), a tree about 20 ft. high, once the most abundant in the island, was represented in 1868 by about 1300 or 1400 examples; and Commidendron rugosum (" scrubwood ") is. confined to somewhat limited regions. Both these plants are char- acterized by a daisy- or aster-like blossom. The affinities of the indigenous flora of St Helena were described by Sir Joseph Hooker as African, but George Bentham points out that the Compositae shows, at least in its older forms, a connexion rather with South America. The exotic flora introduced from all parts of the world gives the island almost the aspect of a botanic garden. The oak, thoroughly naturalized, grows alongside of the bamboo and banana. Among other trees and plants are the common English gorse ; Rubus pinnatus, probably introduced from Africa about 1775; Hypochaeris radicata, which above 1500 ft. forms the dandelion of the country; the beautiful but aggressive Buddleia Madagascariensis ; Physalis peru- viana; the common castor-oil plant; and the pride of India. The peepul is the principal shade tree in Jamestown, and in Jamestown valley the date-palm grows freely. Orange and lemon trees, once common, are now scarce. Fauna. — St Helena possesses no indigenous vertebrate land fauna. The only land groups well represented are the beetles and the land shells. T. V. Wollaston, in Coleoptera Sanctae Helenae (1877), shows that out of a total list of 203 species of beetles 129 are probably aboriginal and 128 peculiar to the island — an individuality perhaps unequalled in the world. More than two-thirds are weevils and a vast majority wood-borers, a fact which bears out the tradition of forests having once covered the island. The Hemiptera and the land-shells also show a strong residuum ofpeculiar genera and species. A South American white ant (Termes tenuis, Hagen.), introduced from a slave-ship in 1840, soon became a plague at Jamestown, where it consumed a large part of the public library and the woodwork of many buildings, public and private. Practically everything had to be rebuilt with teak or cypress — the only woods the white ant cannot devour. Fortunately it cannot live in the higher parts of the island. The honey-bee, which throve for some time after its introduction, again died out (cf. A. R. Wa.iace,' Island Life, 1880). Besides domestic animals the only land mammals are rabbits, rats and mice, the rats being especially abundant and building their_ nests in the highest trees. Probably the only endemic land bird is the wire bird, Aegialitis sanctae Helenae; the averdevat, Java sparrow, cardinal, ground-dove, partridge (possibly the Indian chukar), pheasant and guinea-fowl are all common. The pea-fowl, at one time not uncommon in a wild state, is long since exterminated. There are no freshwater fish, beetles or shells. Of sixty-five species of sea-fish caught off the island seventeen are peculiar to St Helena; economically the more important kinds are gurnard.eel, cod, mackerel, tunny, bullseye, cavalley, flounder, hog-fish, mullet and skulpin. Inhabitants. — When discovered the island was uninhabited. The majority of the population are of mixed European (British, Dutch, Portuguese), East Indian and African descent— the Asiatic strain perhaps predominating; the majority of the early settlers having been previously members of the crews of ships returning to Europe from the East. From 1840 onward for a considerable period numbers of freed slaves of West African origin were settled here by men-of-war engaged in suppressing the slave trade. Their descendants form a distinct element 1 In the "Challenger" expedition reports, Botany, vol. i. (1885). 8 ST HELENA in the population. Since the substitution of steamships for ' sailing vessels and the introduction of new methods of preserving meat and vegetables (which made it unnecessary for sailing vessels to take fresh provisions from St Helena to avoid scurvy) the population has greatly diminished. In 1871 there were 6444 inhabitants; in 1909 the civil population was estimated at 3553. The death-rate that year, 6-4 per 1000, was the lowest on record in the island. The only town, in which live more than half the total population, is Jamestown. Longwood, where Napoleon died in 1821, is 3^ m. E. by S. of Jamestown. In 1858 the house in which he lived and died was presented by Queen Victoria to Napoleon III., who had it restored to the con- dition, but unfurnished, in which it was at the time of Bona- parte's death. Agriculture, Industries, &fc. — Less than a third of the area of the island is suitable for farming, while much of the area which might be (and formerly was) devoted to raising crops is under grass. The principal crop is potatoes, which are of very good quality. They were chiefly sold to ships — especially to " passing " ships. They are now occasionally exported to the Cape. Cattle and sheep were raised in large numbers when a garrison was maintained, so that difficulty has been found in disposing of surplus stock now that the troops have been withdrawn. The economic conditions which formerly prevailed were entirely altered by the substitution of steamers for sailing vessels, which caused a great decrease in the number' of ships calling at Jamestown. A remedy was sought in the establishment of industries. An attempt made in 1860-1872 to cultivate cinchona proved unsuccessful. Attention was also turned to the aloe (Furcraea gigantea), which grows wild at mid elevations, and the New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax), an intro- duced plant, for their utilization in the manufacture of fibre. From 1875 to 1 88 1 a company ran a mill at which they turned out both aloe and flax fibre, but the enterprise proved unremunerative. In 1907 the government, aided by a grant of £4070 from the imperial exchequer, started a mill at Longwood for the manufacture of phormium fibre, with encouraging results. Fish curing and lace making are also carried on to some extent. Trade is chiefly dependent upon the few ships that call at James- town — now mostly whalers or vessels in distress. There is also some trade with ships that " pass " without " calling." 1 In thirty years (1877-1907) the number of ships " calling " at the port sank from 664 with 449,724 tonnage to 57 with 149,182 tonnage. In the last- named year the imports were valued at £35,614; the exports (ex- cluding specie) at £1787 — but the goods supplied to " passing " vessels do not figure in these returns. In 1908 fibre and tow (valued at £3557) were added to the exports, and in 1909 a good trade was done with Ascension in sheep. St Helena is in direct telegraphic communication with Europe and South Africa, and there is a regular monthly mail steamship service. Government, Revenue, &c. — St Helena is a Crown colony. The island has never had any form of local legislative chamber, but the governor (who also acts as chief justice) is aided by an executive council. The governor alone makes laws, called ordinances, but legislation can also be effected by the Crown by order in council. The revenue, £10,287 in 1905, had fallen in 1909 to £8778 (including a grant in aid of £2500), the expenditure in each of the five years ( 1 905-1 909) being in excess of the revenue. Elementary education is provided in government and private schools. St Helena is the seat of an Anglican bishopric established in 1859. Ascension and Tristan da Cunha are included in the diocese. History. — The island was discovered on the 21st of May 1502 by the Portuguese navigator Joao de Nova, on his voyage home from India, and by him named St Helena. The Portuguese found it uninhabited, imported live stock, fruit- trees and vegetables, built a chapel and one or two houses, and left their sick there to be taken home, if recovered, by the next ship, but they formed no permanent settlement. Its first known permanent resident was Fernando Lopez, a Portuguese in India, who had turned traitor and had been mutilated by order of Albuquerque. He preferred being marooned to returning to Portugal in his maimed condition, and was landed at St Helena in 1 5 13 with three or four negro slaves. By royal command he visited Portugal some time later, but returned to St Helena, where he died in 1546. In 1584 two Japanese ambassadors to Rome landed at the island. The first Englishman known to have visited it was Thomas Cavendish, who touched there in June 1 588 during his voyage round the world. Another English 1 " Calling " ships are those which have been boarded by the harbour master and given pratique. Since 1886 boatmen are allowed to communicate with ships that have not obtained pratique, and these are known as " passing " ships. seaman, Captain Kendall, visited St Helena in 159 1, and in 1593 Sir James Lancaster stopped at the island on his way home from the East. In 1603 the same commander again visited St Helena on his return from the first voyage equipped by the East India Company. The Portuguese had by this time given up calling at the island, which appears to have been occupied by the Dutch about 1645. The Dutch occupation was temporary and ceased in. 1651, the year before they founded Cape Town. The British East India Company appropriated the island immediately after the departure of the Dutch, and they were confirmed in possession by a clause in their charter of 166 1. The company built a fort (1658), named after the duke of York (James II.), and established a garrison in the island. In 1673 the Dutch succeeded in obtaining possession, but were ejected after a few months' occupation. Since that date St Helena has been in the undisturbed possession of Great Britain, though in 1706 two ships anchored off James- town were carried off by the French. In 1673 the Dutch had been expelled by the forces of the Crown, but by a new charter granted in December of the same year the East India Company were declared "the true and absolute lords and proprietors" of the island. At this time the inhabitants numbered about 1000, of whom nearly half were negro slaves. In 1810 the company began the importation of Chinese from their factory at Canton. During the company's rule the island prospered, thousands of homeward-bound vessels anchored in the road- stead in a year, staying for considerable periods, refitting and revictualling. Large sums of money were thus expended in the island, where wealthy merchants and officials had their resi- dence. The plantations were worked by the slaves, who were subjected to very barbarous laws until 1792, when a new code of regulations ensured their humane treatment and prohibited the importation of any new slaves. Later it was enacted that all children of slaves born on or after Christmas Day 181 8 should be free, and between 1826 and 1836 all slaves were set at liberty. Among the governors appointed by the company to rule at St Helena was one of the Huguenot refugees, Captain Stephen Poirier (1697-1707), who attempted unsuccessfully to introduce the cultivation of the vine. A later governor (1 741-1742) was Robert Jenkin (q.v.) of " Jenkin's ear " fame. Dampier visited the island twice, in 1691 and 1701; Halley's Mount commemor- ates the visit paid by the astronomer Edmund Halley in 1676- r678 — the first of a number of scientific men who have pursued their studies on the island. In 1815 the British government selected St Helena as the place of detention of Napoleon Bonaparte. He was brought to the island in October of that year and lodged at Longwood, where he died in May 1821. During this period the island was strongly garrisoned by regular troops, and the governor, Sir Hudson Lowe, was nominated by the Crown. After Napoleon's death the East India Company resumed full control of St Helena until the 22nd of April 1834, on which date it was in virtue of an act passed in 1833 vested in the Crown. As a port of call the island continued to enjoy a fair measure of prosperity until about 1870. Since that date the great decrease in the number of vessels visiting Jamestown has deprived the islanders of their principal means of subsistence. When steamers began to be substituted for sailing vessels and when the Suez Canal was opened (in 1869) fewer ships passed the island, while of those that still pass the greater number are so well found that it is unnecessary for them to call (see also § Inhabitants). The with- drawal in 1906 of the small garrison, hitherto maintained by the imperial government, was another cause of depression. During the Anglo-Boer war of 1899-1902 some thousands of Boer prisoners were detained at St Helena, which has also served as the place of exile of several Zulu chiefs, including Dinizulu. Bibliography. — J. C. Melliss, St Helena: a Physical, Historical and Topographical Description of the Island, including its Geology, Fauna, Flora and Meteorology (London, 1875); E. L. Jackson, St Helena (London, 1903) ; T. H. Brooke, History of the Island of St Helena . . . to 1823 (2nd ed., London, 1824), in this book are cited many early accounts of the island; General A. Beatson (governor of the island 1808-1813), Tracts Relative to the Island of St Helena ST HELENS— ST INGBERT (London, 1816) ; Extracts from the St Helena Records from 1673 to 18$$ (compiled by H. R. Janisch, sometime governor of the island, James- town, 1885); Charles Darwin, Geological Observations on Volcanic Islands (1844). For a condensed general account consult (Sir) C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography of the British Colonies (vol. Hi., West Africa, 2nd ed., Oxford, 1900). See also M. Danvers, Report on the Records of the India Office, vol. i. pt. i. (London, 1887); The Africa Pilot, pt. ii. (5th ed., 1901) ; Report on the Present Position and Prospects of the Agricultural Resources of the Island of St Helena, by (Sir) D. Morris (1884; reprinted 1906). (R. L. A.; F. R. C.) ST HELENS, a market town and municipal, county, and parlia- mentary borough of Lancashire, England, 14 m. E.N.E. from Liverpool, on the London & North- Western and Great Central railways. Pop. (1891) 72,413; (1901) 84,410. A canal com- municates with the Mersey. The town is wholly of modern development. Besides the town hall and other public buildings and institutions there may be mentioned the Gamble Institute, erected and presented by Sir David Gamble, Bart., for a technical school, educating some 2000 students, and library. Among several public pleasure grounds the principal are the Taylor Park of 48 acres, and the smaller Victoria and Thatto Heath Parks. This is the principal seat in England for the manufacture of crown, plate, and sheet glass; there are also art glass works, and extensive copper smelting and refining works, as well as chemical works, iron and brass foundries, potteries and patent medicine works. There are collieries in the neighbourhood. To the north of the town are a few ecclesiastical ruins, known as Windleshaw Abbey, together with a well called St Thomas' well, but the history of the foundation is not known. The parliamentary borough (1885) returns one member. The county borough was created in 1888. The town was incorporated in 1868, and the corporation consists of a mayor, 9 aldermen and 27 councillors. Area 7285 acres. ST HELIER, the chief town of Jersey, the largest of the Channel Islands. Pop. (1901) 27,866. It lies on the south coast of the island on the eastern side of St Aubin's Bay. The harbour is flanked on the W. by a rocky ridge on which stands Elizabeth Castle, and commanded on the east by Fort Regent on its lofty promontory. The parish church is a cruciform building with embattled tower, dating in part from the 14th century. It contains a monument to Major Peirson, who on the occasion of a French attack on Jersey in 1781 headed the militia to oppose them, and forced them to surrender, but was killed as his followers were at the point of victory. The French leader, Baron de Rullecourt, is buried in the churchyard. The spot where Peirson fell, in what is now called Peirson Place, is marked by a tablet. A large canvas by John Singleton Copley depicting the scene is in the National Gallery, London, and a copy is in the court house of St Helier. This building (la Cohue), in Royal Square, is the meeting-place of the royal court and deliberative States of Jersey. Victoria College was opened in 1852 and commemorates a visit of Queen Victoria and the prince consort to the island in 1846. A house in Marine Terrace is distinguished as the residence of Victor Hugo (1851- 1855). Elizabeth Castle, which is connected with the main- land by a causeway, dates from 1551-1590; and in 1646 and 1649 Prince Charles resided here. In 1649 he was pro- claimed king, as Charles II., in Jersey by the royalist governor George Carteret. On actually coming to the throne he gave the island the mace which is still used at the meetings of the court and States. Close to the castle are remnants of a chapel or cell, from which the rock on which it stands is known as the Hermitage, dating probably from the 9th or 10th century, and traditionally connected with the patron saint Helerius. SAINT-HILAIRE, AUGUSTIN FRANgOIS CESAR PROU- VEN$AL DE, commonly known as Atjguste de (1799-1853), French botanist and traveller, was born at Orleans on the 4th of October 1799. He began to publish memoirs on botanical subjects at an early age. In 1816-1822 and in 1830 he travelled in South America, especially in south and central Brazil, and the results of his study of the rich flora of the regions through which he passed appeared in several books and numerous articles in scientific journals. The works by which he is best known are the Flora Brasiliae Meridionaiis (3 vols., folio, with 192 coloured plates, 1825-1832), published in conjunction with A. de Jussieti.' and J. Cambessedes, Histoire des plantes les plus remarquables du Brisil et de Paraguay (1 vol. 4to, 30 plates, 1824), Plantes usuelles des Bresiliens (1 vol. 4to, 70 plates, 1827-1828), also in con- junction with De Jussieu and Cambessedes, and Voyage dans le district des diamants etsur le littoral du Bresil (2vols., 8vo, 1833). His Lecons de botanique, comprenant principalement la morphologie vtgitale (1840), was a comprehensive exposition of botanical morphology and of its application to systematic botany. He died at Orleans on the 30th of September 1853. ST HUBERT, a small town of Belgium in the province of Luxemburg and in the heart of the Ardennes. Pop. (1904) 3204. It is famous for its abbey church containing the shrine of St Hubert, and for its annual pilgrimage. According to tradition the church and a monastery attached to it were founded in the 7th century by Plectrude, wife of Pippin of Herstal. The second church was built in the 12th century, but burnt by a French army under Conde in the 16th century. The present building is its successor, but has been restored in modern times and presents no special feature. The tomb of St Hubert— a marble sarcophagus ornamented with bas-reliefs and having four statuettes of other saints at the angles — stands in one of the side chapels. The legend of the conversion of St Hubert — a hunter before he was a saint — by his meeting in the forest a stag with a crucifix between its antlers, is well known, and explains how he became the patron saint of huntsmen. The place where he is supposed to have met the stag is still known as " la converserie " and is almost 5 m. from St Hubert on the road to La Roche. The pilgrimage of St Hubert in May attracts annually between thirty and fifty thousand pilgrims. The buildings of the old monastery have been utilized for a state training-school for waifs and strays, which contains on an average five hundred pupils. In the middle ages the abbey of St Hubert was one of the most important in Europe, owning forty villages with an annual income of over 80,000 crowns. During the French Revolution, when Belgium was divided into several departments, the possessions of the abbey were sold for £75,000, but the bishop of Namur was permitted to buy the church itself for £1350. ST HYACINTHE, a city and port of entry of Quebec, Canada, and capital of St Hyacinthe county, 32 m. E.N.E. of Montreal, on the left bank of the river Yamaska and on the Grand Trunk, Canadian Pacific, Intercolonial, and Quebec Southern railways. Pop. (1901) 9210. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, and contains a classical college, dairy school, two monasteries and several other educational and charitable institutions. It has manufactures of organs, leather, woollens and agricultural implements, and is an important distributing centre for the surrounding district. SAINTINE, JOSEPH XAVIER (1798-1865), French novelist and dramatist, whose real surname was Boniface, was born in Paris on the 10th of July 1798. In 1823 he produced a volume of poetry in the manner of the Romanticists, entitled Poemes, odes, ipitres. In 1836 appeared Picciola, the story of the comte de Charney, a political prisoner in Piedmont, whose reason was saved by his cult of a tiny flower growing between the paving stones of his prison yard. This story is a masterpiece of the sentimental kind, and has been translated into many European languages. He produced many other novels, none of striking individuality with the exception of Seul (1857), which purported to be the authentic record of Alexander Selkirk on his desert island. Saintine was a prolific dramatist, and collaborated in some hundred pieces with Scribe and others, usually under the name of Xavier. He died on the 21st of January 1865. ST INGBERT, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria on the Rohrbach, 14 m. by rail W. of Zweibriicken. Pop. (1905) 15,521. It has coal-mines and manufactures of glass and machinery. There are also large iron and steel works in the town, and other industries are the making of powder, leather, cigars, soap and cotton. St Ingbert is named after the Irish saint, St Ingobert, and belonged for 300 years to the electorate of Trier. IO ST IVES— ST JOHN, J. A. ST IVES, a market town, municipal borough and seaport in the St Ives parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 10 m. N.N.E. of Penzance, on a branch of the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 6699. It lies near the W. horn of St Ives Bay on the N. coast. The older streets near the harbour are narrow and irregular, but on the upper slopes there are modern terraces with good houses. The small harbour, protected by a breakwater, originally built by John Smeaton in 1767, has suffered from the accumulation of sand, and at the lowest tides is dry. The fisheries for pilchard, herring and mackerel are important. Boat-building and sail-making are carried on. An eminence south of the town is marked by a granite monument erected in 1782 by John Knill, a native of the town, who intended to be buried here; to maintain a quinquennial celebration on the spot he bequeathed property to the town authorities. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 1890 acres. The town takes name from St Hya, or la, an Irish virgin and martyr, who is said to have accompanied St Piran on his missionary journey to Cornwall in the 5th century, and to have landed near this place. The Patent Rolls disclose an almost continuous series of trials for piracy and plunder by St Ives sailors from the beginning of the 14th to the end of the 16th century. A mere chapelry of Lelant and the less important member of the distant manor of Ludgvan Leaze, which in Domesday Book appears as Luduam, it had no fostering hand to minister to its growth. In order to augment the influence of the Tudors in the House of Commons, Philip and Mary in 1558 invested it with the privilege of returning 2 members. Its affairs were at that time administered by a headwarden, who after 1598 appears under the name of portreeve, 12 chief burgesses and 24 ordinary burgesses. The portreeve was elected by the 24; the 12 by the chief inhabitants. This body had control over the fishing, the harbour and harbour dues, the fabric of the church, sanitation and the poor. In 1639 a charter of incorpora- tion was granted under which the portreeve became mayor, the 12 became aldermen, and the 24 were styled burgesses. Pro- vision was made for four fairs and for markets on Wednesdays and Saturdays, also for a grammar school. This charter was ■surrendered to Charles II. and a new one granted in 1685, the latter reducing the number of aldermen to 10 and of burgesses also to 10. It ratified the parliamentary franchise and the fairs and markets, and provided a court of pie-powder; it also con- tained a clause safeguarding the rights of the marquess of Winchester, lord of the manor of Ludgvan Leaze and Porthia. In 1835 a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors were invested with the administration of the borough. In 1832 St Ives lost one of its members, and in 1885 the other. Both markets are now held, but only one of the fairs. This takes place on the Saturday nearest St Andrew's day. ST IVES, a market town and municipal borough in the northern parliamentary division of Huntingdonshire, England, mainly on the left (north) bank of the Ouse, 5 m. E. of Huntingdon by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 2910. The river is crossed by an old bridge said to have been built by the abbots of Ramsey early in the 15th century. A building over the centre pier of the bridge was once 'used as a chapel. The causeway (1827) on the south side of the river is built on arches so as to assist the flow of the river in time of flood. The church of All Saints is Perpendicular, with earlier portions. A curious custom is practised annually in this church in connexion with a bequest made by a certain Dr Robert Wilde in 1678: it is the distribution of Bibles to six boys and six girls of the town. The original provision was that the Bibles should be cast for by dice on the Communion table. Oliver Cromwell was a resident in St Ives in 1634-1635, but the house which he inhabited — Slepe Hall — was demolished in the middle of the 19th century. St Ives has a considerable agricultural trade. It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area 2326 acres. The manor of " Slepe " is said to have been given by jEthelstan " Mannessune " to the abbot of Ramsey and confirmed to him by King Edgar. It owed its change of name to the supposed discovery of the grave of St Ive, a Persian bishop, in 1001, and a priory was founded in the same year by Abbot Ednoth as a cell to Ramsey. St Ives was chiefly noted for its fair, which was first granted to the abbot of Ramsey by Henry I. to be held on Monday in Easter week and eight days following. In the reign of Henry III. merchants from Flanders came to the fair, which had become so important that the king granted it to be continued beyond the eight days if the abbot agreed to pay a farm of £50 yearly for the extra days. The fair, with a market on Monday granted to the abbot in 1286, survives, and was purchased in 1874 by the corporation from the duke of Manchester. The town was incorporated in 1874. ST JEAN-D'ANG£LY, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Charente-Inferieure, 33 m. E. of Rochefort by rail. Pop. (1006) 6242. St Jean lies on the right bank of the Boutonne, which is navigable for small vessels. The parish church of St Jean stands on the site of an abbey church of the 13th century, of which some remains are left. In 1568 the monastery was destroyed by the Huguenots, but much of it was rebuilt in the 17th and 18th centuries, to which period belong two towers and the facade of an unfinished church. St Jean owes the suffix of its name to the neighbouring forest of Ang6ry (Angeriacum) . Pippin I. of Aquitaine in the 9th century established there a Benedictine monastery which was afterwards reputed to possess the head of John the Baptist. This relic attracted hosts of pilgrims; a town grew up, took the name of St Jean d'Angeri, afterwards d'Ang&y, was fortified in 1131, and in 1204 received a charter from Philip Augustus. The possession of the place was disputed between French and English in the Hundred Years' War, and between Catholics and Protestants at a later date. In 1569 it capitulated to the duke of Anjou (afterwards Henry III.). Louis XIII. again took it from the Protestants in 1621 and deprived it of its privileges and its very name, which he changed to Bourg-Louis. ST JEAN-DE-LUZ, a coast town of south-western France, in the department of Basses-Pyrenees, at the mouth of the Nivelkj 14 m. S.W. of Bayonne on a branch of the Southern railway. Pop. (1906) 3424. St Jean-de-Luz is situated in the Basque country on the bay of St Jean-de-Luz, the entrance to which is protected by breakwaters and moles. It has a 13th- century church, the chief features of which are the galleries in the nave, which, according to the Basque custom, are reserved for men. The Maison Lohobiague, the Maison de l'lnfante (both 17th cent.), and the hotel de ville (1657) are picturesque old buildings. St Jean is well known for its bathing and as a winter resort. Fishing is a considerable industry. From the 14th to the 17th century St Jean-de-Luz enjoyed a prosperity due to its mariners and fishermen. Its vessels were the first to set out for Newfoundland in 1520. In 1558, owing to the depredations of its privateers, the Spaniards attacked and burned the town. In 1627, however, it was able to equip 80 vessels, which succeeded in saving the island of R6 from the duke of Buckingham. In 1660 the treaty of the Pyrenees was signed at St Jean-de-Luz, and was followed by the marriage there of the Infanta Maria Theresa and Louis XIV. At that time the population numbered 15,000. The cession of Newfoundland to England in 1713, the loss of Canada, and the silting-up of the harbour were the three causes which contri- buted to the decline of the town. ST JOHN, CHARLES WILLIAM GEORGE (1800-1856), English naturalist and sportsman, son of General the Hon. Frederick St John, second son of Frederick, second Viscount Bolingbroke, was born on the 3rd of December 1809. He was educated at Midhurst, Sussex, and about 1828 obtained a clerk- ship in the treasury, but resigned in 1834, in which year he married a lady with some fortune. He ultimately settled in the " Laigh " of Moray, " within easy distance of mountain sport." In 1853 a paralytic seizure deprived him of the use of his limbs, and for the benefit of his health he removed to the south of England. He died at Woolston, near Southampton, on the 22nd of July 1856. His works are Wild Sports and Natural History of the Highlands (1846, 2nd ed. 1848, 3rd ed. 1861); Tour in Sutherland (1849, 2nd ed., with recollections by Captain H. St John, 1884); Notes of Natural History and Sport in Morayshire, with Memoir by C. Innes (1863, 2nd ed. 1884). They are written in a graphic style, and illustrated with engravings, many of them from clever pen-and-ink sketches of his own. ST JOHN, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1801-1875), British author and traveller, was born in Carmarthenshire, Wales, on the 24tl ST JOHN, O.— ST JOHN ii of September 1801. He received private instruction in the classics, and also acquired proficiency in French, Italian, Spanish, Arabic and Persian. He obtained a connexion with a Plymouth newspaper, and when, in 1824, James Silk Buckingham started the Oriental Herald, St John became assistant editor. In 1827, together with D. L. Richardson, he founded the London Weekly Review, subsequently purchased by Colburn and transformed into the Court Journal. He lived for some years on the Continent and went in 1832 to Egypt and Nubia, travelling mostly on foot. The results of his journey were published under the titles Egypt and Mohammed Alt, or Travels in the Valley of the Nile (2 vols., 1834), Egypt and Nubia (1844), and I sis, an Egyptian Pilgrimage (2 vols., 1853). On his return he settled in London, and for many years wrote political " leaders " for the Daily Telegraph. In 1868 he published a Life of Sir Walter Raleigh, based on researches in the archives at Madrid and elsewhere. He died in London on the 22nd of September 1875. Besides the works mentioned St John was also the author of Journal of a Residence in Normandy (1830) ; Lives of Celebrated Travellers (1830); Anatomy of Society (1831); History, Manners and Customs of the Hindus (1831); Margaret Ravenscroft, or Second Love (3 vols., 1835); The Hellenes, or Manners and Customs of Ancient Greece (1842); Sir Cosmo Digby, a novel (1844); There and Back Again in Search of Beauty (1853); The Nemesis of Power (1854); Philosophy at the Foot of the Cross (1854); The Preaching of Christ (1855) ; The Ring and the Veil, a novel (1856) ; Life of Louis Napoleon (1857); History of the Four Conquests of England (1862); and Weighed in the Balance, a novel (1864). He also edited, with notes, various English classics. Of his four sons, all journalists and authors of some literary dis- tinction — Percy Bolingbroke (1821-1889), Bayle, Spenser and Horace Roscoe (1 832-1 888) — the second, Bayle St John (1822- 1869), began contributing to the periodicals when only thirteen. When twenty he wrote a series of papers for Fraser under the title " De re vehiculari, or a Comic History of Chariots." To the same magazine he contributed a series of essays on Montaigne, and published in 1857 Montaigne the Essayist, a Biography, in 4 volumes. During a residence of two years in Egypt he wrote The Libyan Desert (1849). While in Egypt he learnt Arabic and'visited the oasis of Siwa. On his return he settled for some time in Paris and published Two Years in a Levantine Family (1850) and Views in the Oasis of Siwah (1850). After a second visit to the East he published Village Life in Egypt (1852); Purple Tints of Paris: Characters and Manners in the New Empire (1854); The Louvre, or Biography of a Museum (1855); the Subalpine Kingdom, or Experiences ana Studies in Savoy (1856); Travels of an Arab Merchant in the Soudan (1854); Maretimo, a Story of Adventure (1856); and Memoirs of the Duke of Saint-Simon in the Reign of Louis XIV. (4 vols., 1857). ST JOHN, OLIVER (c. 1598-1673), English statesman and judge, was the son of Oliver St John. There were two branches of the ancient family to which he belonged, namely, the St Johns of Bletso in Bedfordshire, and the St Johns of Lydiard Tregoze in Wiltshire, both descendants of the St Johns of Staunton St John in Oxfordshire. Oliver St John was a member of the senior branch, being great-grandson of Oliver St John, who was created Baron St John of Bletso 1 in 1559, and a distant cousin of the 4th baron who was created earl of Bolingbroke in 1624, and who took an active part on the parliamentary side of the Civil W T ar, being killed at the battle of Edgehill. Oliver was educated at Queens' College, Cambridge, and was called to the bar in 1626. He appears to have got into trouble with the court in connexion with a seditious publication, and to have associated himself with the future popular leaders John Pym and Lord Saye. In 1638 he defended Hampden on his refusal to pay Ship Money, on which occasion he made a notable speech. In the same year he married, as his second wife, Elizabeth Cromwell, a cousin of Oliver Cromwell, to whom his first wife also had been distantly related. The marriage led to an intimate friendship with Cromwell. St John was member for Totnes in both the Short and the Long Parliament, where he acted in close alliance with Hampden and Pym, especially in opposition to the impost of Ship Money (q.v.). In 1641, with a view of securing his support, the king appointed St John solicitor-general. None the less he 1 This title is still held by the family lineally descended from the 1st baron, said by J. H. Round to be the only peerage family descended in the male line from an ancestor living in the time of Domesday Book. took an active part in promoting the impeachment of Strafford and in preparing the bills brought forward by the popular party in the Commons, and was dismissed from office in 1643. On the outbreak of the Civil War, he became recognized as one of the parliamentary leaders. In the quarrel between the parliament and the army in 1647 he sided with the latter, and throughout this period he enjoyed Cromwell's entire confidence. In 1648 St John was appointed chief justice of the common pleas; and from this time he devoted himself mainly to his judicial duties. He refused to act as one of the commissioners for the trial of Charles. He had no hand in Pride's Purge, nor in the constitution of the Commonwealth. In 1651 he went to the Hague as one of the envoys to negotiate a union between England and Holland, a mission in which he entirely failed; but in the same year he successfully conducted a similar negotia- tion with Scotland. After the Restoration he published an account of his past conduct (The Case of Oliver St John, 1660), and this apologia enabled him to escape any more severe vengeance than exclusion from public office. He retired to his country house in Northamptonshire till 1662, when he went to live abroad. He died on the 31st of December 1673. By his first wife St John had two sons and two daughters. His daughter Johanna married Sir Walter St John of Lydiard Tregoze and was the grandmother of Viscount Bolingbroke. By his second wife he had two children, and after her death he married, in 1645, Elizabeth, daughter of Daniel Oxenbridge. See the above-mentioned Case of Oliver St John (London, 1660), and St John's Speech to the Lords, Jan. 7th, 1640, concerning Ship- money (London, 1640). See also Mark Noble, Memoirs of the Pro- tectoral House of Cromwell, vol. ii. (2 vols., London, 1787) ; Anthony a Wood, Fasti OxonienSis, edited by P. Bliss (4 vols., London, 1813); Edward Foss, The Judges of England, vol.vi. (9 vols., London, 1848); S. R. Gardiner, History of the Great Civil War (3 vols., London, 1886- 1891), and History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate (3 vols., London, 1894-1901); Lord Clarendon, History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England (7 vols., Oxford, 1839) ; Thurloe State Papers (7 vols., London, 1742) ; Edmund Ludlow, Memoirs, edited by C. H. Firth (2 vols., Oxford, 1894); Thomas Carlyle, Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches; C. H. Firth's art. in Diet, of Nat. Biog., vol. 1. (London, 1897). (R. J. M.) ST JOHN, the capital of St John county, New Brunswick. Canada, in 45° 14' N., and 66° 3' W., 481 m. from Montreal by the Canadian Pacific railway. Pop. (1901) 40,711. It is situated at the mouth of the St John river on a rocky peninsula. With it are incorporated the neighbouring towns of Carleton and (since 1889) Portland. The river, which is spanned by two bridges, enters the harbour through a rocky gorge, which is passable by ships for forty-five minutes during each ebb and flow of the tide. The harbour level at high tide (see Fundy, Bay op) is 6 to 12 ft. higher than that of the river, but at low tide about as much below it, hence the phenomenon of a fall outwards and inwards at every tide. St John is an important station of the Intercolonial, Canadian Pacific, and New Brunswick Southern railways, and shares with Halifax the honour of being the chief winter port of the Dominion, the harbour being deep, sheltered and free from ice. It is the distributing centre for a large district, rich in agricultural produce and lumber, and has larger exports than Halifax, though less imports. It is also the centre of fisheries which employ nearly 1000 men, and has important industries, such as saw, grist, cotton and woollen mills, carriage, box and furniture factories, boiler and engine shops. The beauty of the scenery makes it a pleasant residential city. St John was visited in 1604 by the Sieur de Monts (1560-c. 1630) and his lieutenant Champlain, but it was not until 1635 that Charles de la Tour (d. 1666) established a trading post, called Fort St Jean (see Parkman, The Old Regime in Canada), which existed under French rule until 1758, when it passed into the hands of Britain. In 1783 a body of United Empire Loyalists landed at St John and established a city, called Parr Town until 1785, when it was in- corporated with Conway (Carleton), under royal charter, as the city of St John. It soon became and has remained the largest town in the province, but for military reasons was not chosen as the capital (see Fredericton). Its growth has been checked by several destructive fires, especially that of Tune 1877, when half of it was swept away, but it has since been rebuilt in great part of more solid materials. (W. L. G.) 12 ST JOHN— ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM ST JOHN, an island in the Danish West Indies. It lies 4 m. E. of St Thomas, is 10 m. long and 25 m. wide; area 21 sq. m. It is a mass of rugged mountains, the highest of which is Camel Mountain (1270 ft.). Although one of the best watered and most fertile of the Virgin Group, it has little commerce. It is a free port, and possesses in Coral Bay the best harbour of refuge in the Antilles. The village of Cruxbay lies on the northern coast. Pop. (1001) 925. ( ST JOHN, a river of New Brunswick, Canada, rising in two branches, in the state of Maine, U.S.A., and in the province of Quebec. The American branch, known as the Walloostook, flows N.E. to the New Brunswick frontier, where it turns S.E. and for 80 m. forms the international boundary. A little above Grand Falls the St John enters Canada and flows through New Brunswick into the Bay of Fundy at St John. Its total length is about 450 m. It is navigable for large steamers as far as Fredericton (86 m.), and in spring and early summer for smaller vessels to Grand Falls (220 m.), where a series of falls and rapids form a descent of 70 or 80 ft. Above the falls it is navigable for 65 m. It drains an area of 26,000 sq. m., of which half is in New Brunswick, and receives numerous tributaries, of which the chief are the Aroostook, Allagash, Madawaska (draining Lake Temiscouata in Quebec), Tobique and Nashwaak. ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM, KNIGHTS OF THE ORDER OF THE HOSPITAL OF (Ordo fratrum hospitalariorum Hierosoly- mitanorum, Ordo militias Sancti Johannis Baptislae hospitalis Hierosolymitani) , known also later as the Knights of Rhodes and the Sovereign Order of the Knights of Malta. The history of this order divides itself naturally into four periods: (1) From its foundation in Jerusalem during the First Crusade to its expulsion from the Holy Land after the fall of the Latin kingdom in 1291; (2) from 1309-1310, when the order was established in Rhodes, to its expulsion from the island in 1522; (3) from 1529 to 1798, during which its headquarters were in Malta; (4) its development, as reconstituted after its virtual destruction in 1798, to the present day. Early Developments. — Medieval legend set back the beginnings to the days of the Maccabees, with King Antiochus as the founder and Zacharias, father of the Baptist, as one of the first masters; later historians of the order maintained that it was established as a military order contemporaneously with the Latin conquest of Jerusalem, and that it had no connexion with any earlier foundation (so P. A. Paoli, De origine). This view would now seem to be disproved, and it is clear that the order was connected with an earlier Hospitale Hierosolymitanum. 1 Such a hospital had existed in the Holy City, with rare interrup- tions, ever since it had become a centre of Christian pilgrimage. About 1023 certain merchants of Amalfi had purchased the site of the Latin hospice established by Charlemagne, destroyed in 1010 with the other Christian establishments by order of the fanatical caliph Hakim Biamrillah, 2 and had there founded a hospital for pilgrims, served by Benedictines and later dedicated to St John the Baptist. 3 When, in 1087, the crusaders surrounded the Holy City, the head of this hospital was a certain Gerard or 1 Cf. the bull of Pope Celestine II. to Raymond du Puy, in the matter of the Teutonic order, which describes the Hospital as " Hospitalem domum sancte civitatis Jerusalem, que a longis retro temporibus Christi pauperum usibus dedicata, tam christianorum quam etiam Sarracenorum tempore . . . . " (Le Roulx, Cartulaire, i. No. 154). 2 This solution of the much debated question of the connexion of the Hospital with the Benedictine foundation of Sancta Maria Latina is worked out in much detail by M. Delaville Le Roulx in his Les Hospitaliers en Terre Sainte, chap. i. 3 William of Tyre says that they erected in that place an altar to St John Eleemon, patriarch of Alexandria, renowned for his charities. This mistake led to the widespread belief that this saint, and not St John the Baptist, was the original patron of the order. A passage in the bull addressed by Pope Paschal to Gerard (Cartulaire, No. 30) would seem to leave the dedication in doubt: " Xenodochium, quod . . . juxta beati Johannis Baptistae ecclesiam instituisti." The patronage of St John may thus have merely been the result of this juxtaposition, as the Templars took their name from the site of the mother-house. Gerald, 4 who earned their gratitude by assisting them in some way during the siege. 6 After the capture of the city he used his popularity to enlarge and reconstitute the hospital. If, as M. Le Roulx surmises, he had previously been affiliated to the Benedictines, he now left them and adopted for his order the Augustinian rule. Donations and privileges were showered upon the new establishment. Godfrey de Bouillon led the way by granting to it in Jerusalem itself the casal Hessilia (Es Silsileh) and two bakehouses. 6 Kings, nobles and prelates followed suit, not in the Holy Land only, but in Provence, France, Spain, Portugal, England and Italy: in Portugal a whole province was in 1 1 14 made over to Gerard and his brethren (Cartul. i. No. 34). In 11 13 Pope Paschal II. took the order and its possessions under his immediate protection (bull of Feb. 15th to Gerard, Cartul. i. No. 30), his act being confirmed in 1119 by Calixtus II. and subsequently by other popes. Gerard was indeed, as Pope Paschal called [him, the "institutor" of the order, if not its founder. It retained, however, during his lifetime its purely eleemosynary character. The armed defence of pilgrims may have been part of its functions, but its organization as an aggres- sive military force was the outcome of special circumstances — the renewed activity of the Saracens — and was the work of Raymond du Puy, who succeeded as grand master on the death of Gerard (3rd of September 11 20) J Not that Raymond can be proved to have given to his order anything of its later aristocratic constitution. There is no mention in his Rule 8 of the division into knights, chaplains and sergeants; indeed, there is no mention of any military duties whatever. It merely lays down certain rules of conduct and discipline for the brethren. They are to be bound by the threefold vow of chastity, poverty and obedience. They are to claim nothing for themselves save bread, water and raiment; and this latter is to be of poor quality, " since our Lord's poor, whose servants we say we are, go naked and sordid, and it is a disgrace for the servant to be proud when his master is humble." Finally, the brethren are to wear crosses on the breast of their capes and mantles, " ut Deusperipsum vexillum et fidem et operationem et obedientiam nos custodiat." 9 Yet that Raymond laid down military regulations for the brethren is certain. Their underlying principle is revealed by a bull of Pope Alexander III. addressed (1178-1180) to the grand master Roger des Moulins, in which he bids him, " according to the custom of Ray- mond," abstain from bearing arms save when the standard of the Cross is displayed either for the defence of the kingdom or in an attack on a " pagan " city. 10 The statesmanlike qualities of Raymond du Puy rendered his long mastership epoch-making for the order. When it was decided to fortify Ibelin (Beit-Jibrin) as an outpost against attacks from the side of Ascalon, it was to the Hospitallers that the building and defence of the new castle were assigned; and from 1 137 onwards they took a regular part in the wars of the Cross. It was owing to Raymond's diplomatic skill, too, that the order was enabled to profit by the bequest made to it by Alphonso I. of Aragon, who had died childless, of a third of his kingdom. To have claimed the literal fulfilment of this bequest would have been to risk losing it all, and Raymond acted wisely in transferring the bequest, with certain important reservations, to Raymond Berenger IV., count of Barcelona and regent of * In spite of his fame, nothing is known of his origin. The sur- name " Tunc " or " Tonque " often given to him is, as Le Roulx points out, merely the result of a copyist's error for " Gerardus tunc ..." 'According to the legend, he joined the defenders on the walls and, instead of hurling stones, hurled bread at the Christians, who were short of supplies. Haled before the Mussulman governor, his accusers were confounded when the incriminating loaves they produced were discovered to be turned into stones. 6 " Fours." So the charter of Baldwin I. (Cartul. No. 20; cf. No. 225). In his Hospitallers Le Roulx has "tours," i.e. two towers, probably a misprint. 7 The existence of a certain Roger as grand master between Gerard and Raymond, maintained by some historians, is finally disproved by Raymond's own testimony: " Reginmundus, per gratiam Dei post obitum domini Giraldi factus servus pauperum Christi " (Cartul. i. No. 46). 8 The date of this can only be approximately assigned, in so far as it was confirmed by Pope Eugenius III., who died in 1 153. 9 For text see Cartulaire, i. No. 70. 10 Cartul. i. No. 527. ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM Aragon (16th of September 1140). 1 It was probably also during his sojourn in the West for the above purpose that Raymond secured from Pope Celestine II. the bull dated December 7th, 1 143, subordinating to his jurisdiction the Teutonic hospice, founded in n 28 by a German pilgrim and his wife in honour of the Blessed Virgin, which was the nucleus of the Teutonic Order (q.v.). This order was to remain subordinate to the Hospitallers actually for some fifty years, and nominally for some thirty years longer. 2 Raymond took part in the Second Crusade and was present at the council of the leaders held at Acre, in 1148, which resulted in the ill-fated expedition against Damascus. The failure before Damascus was repaired five years later by the capture of Ascalon (19th of August 1153), in which Raymond du Puy and his knights had a conspicuous share. Meanwhile, in addition to its ever-growing wealth, the order had received from successive popes privileges which rendered it, like the companion order of the Temple, increasingly independent of and obnoxious to the secular clergy. In 1135 Innocent II. had confirmed to Raymond the privileges accorded by Paschal II., Calixtus II. and Honorious II., and in addition forbade the diocesan bishops to interdict the churches of the Hospitallers, whom he also authorized, in case of a general interdict, to cele- brate mass for themselves alone. 3 In 1137 he gave them the privilege of Christian burial during such interdicts and the right to open interdicted churches once a year in order to say mass and collect money. 4 These bulls were confirmed by Eugenius III. in 1153 5 and Anastasius IV. in 1154, the latter adding the per- mission for the order to have its own priest, independent of the diocesan bishops. 6 In vain the patriarch of Jerusalem, attended by other bishops, journeyed to Rome in 1155 to complain to Adrian IV. of the Hospitallers' abuse of their privileges and to beg him to withdraw his renewal of his predecessor's bull. 7 Far different was the effect produced by Raymond du Puy's triumphant progress through southern Europe from the spring of 1 1 57 onward. From the popes, the emperor Frederick I., kings and nobles, he received fresh gifts, or the confirmation of old ones. After the 25th of October 1158, when his presence is attested at Verona, this master builder of the order disappears from history; he died some time between this date and 1x60, when the name of another grand master appears. During the thirty years of his rule the Hospital, which Gerard had instituted to meet a local need, had become universal. In the East its growth was beyond calculation: kings, prelates and laity had overwhelmed it with wealth. In the West, all Europe combined to enrich it; from Ireland to Bohemia and Hungary, from Italy and Provence to Scandinavia, men vied with each other to attract it and establish it in their midst. It was clear that for this vast institution an elaborate organization was needed, and this need was probably the occasion of Raymond's presence in Europe. The priory of St Gilles already existed as the nucleus of the later system; the development of this system took place after Raymond's death. Constitution and Organization. — The rule of the Hospital, as formulated by Raymond du Puy, was based on that of the Augus- tinian Canons (q.v.). Its further developments, of which only the salient characteristics can be mentioned here, were closely analogous to those of the Templars (q.v.), whose statutes regulating the life of the brethren, the terms of admission to the order, the maintenance of discipline, and the scale of punishments, culminating in ex- pulsion (pert de la maison), are, mutatis mutandis, closely paralleled by those of the Hospitallers. These, too, were early (probably in Raymond's time) divided into three classes: knights (fratres milites), chaplains (fratres capellani), and serjeants (fratres servientes armigeri), with affiliated brethren (confratres) and " donats " (donati, i.e. regular subscribers, as it were, to the order in return for its privileges and the ultimate right to enter the ranks of its knights). Similar, too, was the aristocratic rule which confined admission to the first 1 Cartul. i. No. 136. The arrangement was confirmed by the pope in 1 1 58 (Le Roulx, Hospiialiers, p. 59). 2 The foundation of the Teutonic Order as a separate organization was solemnly proclaimed in the palace of the Templars at Tyre on the 5th of March 1 198. Its rule was confirmed by Pope Innocent III. on Feb. 15th, 1198 (Cartul. i. No. 1072). 3 Cartul. i. No. 113. * lb. i. No. 122. 6 lb. i. No. 217. 6 lb. i. No. 226. 'This renewal was dated 19th of December 1154 (lb. i. No. 229). 13 class to sons born in lawful wedlock of knights 8 or members of knightly families, a rule which applied also to the donats. 9 For the serjeant men-at-arms it sufficed that they should not be serfs. Below these a host of servientes did the menial work of the houses of the order, or worked as artisans or as labourers on the farms. All the higher offices in the order were filled by the knights, except the ecclesiastical — which fell to the chaplains — and those of master of the squires and turcopolier (commander of the auxiliary light cavalry), which were reserved for the serjeants-at-arms. Each knight was allowed three horses, each serjeant two. The fratres capellani ranked with the knights as eligible for certain temporal posts; at their head was the " conventual prior " (clericorum magister et ecclesie custos, prior clericorum Hospitalis). In two important respects the Knights of St John differed from the Templars. The latter were a purely military organization; the Hospitallers, on the other hand, were at the outset preponderatingly a nursing brotherhood, and, though this character was subordinated during their later period of military importance, it never disappeared. It continued to be a rule of the order that in its establishments it was for the sick to give orders, for the brethren to obey. The chapters were largely occupied with the building, furnishing, and improvement of hospitals, to which were attached learned physicians and surgeons, who had the privilege of messing with the knights. The revenues of particular properties were charged with providing luxuries (e.g. white bread) for the patients, and the various provinces of the order with the duty of forwarding blankets, clothes, wine and food for their use. The Hospitallers, moreover, encouraged the affiliation of women to their older, which the monastic and purely military rule of the Templars sternly forbade. So early as the First Crusade a Roman lady named Alix or Agnes had founded at Jerusalem a hospice for women in connexion with the order of St John. Until 1 187, when they fled to Europe, the sisters had devoted themselves to prayer and sick-nursing. In Europe, however, they developed into a purely contemplative order. 10 The habit of the order, both in peace and war, was originally a black cappa clausa (i.e. the long monastic bell-like cloak with a slit ■ on each side for the arms) with a white, eight-pointed " Maltese " cross on the breast. As this was highly inconvenient for fighting, Innocent IV. in 1248 authorized the brethren to wear in locis sus- pectis a large super-tunic with a cross on the breast (Cartul. ii. No. 2479), and in 1259 Alexander IV. fixed the habit as, in peace time, a black mantle, and in war a red surcoat with a white cross (Cartul. ii. No. 2928). The unit of the organization of the order was the commandery (preceptory), a small group of knights and serjeants living in com- munity under the rule of a commander, or preceptor, 11 charged with the supervision of several contiguous properties. The commanderies were grouped into priories, each under the rule of a prior (styled unofficially " grand prior," magnus prior), and these again into provinces corresponding to certain countries, under the authority of grand commanders. These largest groups crystallized in the 14th century as national divisions under the name of " langues " (languages). 12 At the head of the whole organization was the grand master. The grand master was elected, from the ranks of the knights of justice, by the same process as the grand master of the Templars (q.v.). Alone of the bailiffs (bailivi), as the officials of the order were generically termed, he held office for life. His authority 8 The knights were ultimately distinguished as " Knights of Justice " (chevaliers de justice) and " Knights of Grace " (chevaliers de grdce). The former were those who satisfied the conditions as to birth, and were therefore knights " justly " ; the latter were those who were admitted " of grace " for superlative merits. 9 An exception was made in favour of the natural sons of counts and greater personages (Statute 7 of 1270; Cartul. ii. 3396). 10 Their premier house in Europe was at Sigena in Aragon, which they still occupy. It was granted to them by Sancia of Navarre, queen of Aragon, in 1 184, the order being definitively established there in 1188. Their .rule, which is that of Augustinian Canonesses, and dates from October 1188, is printed by Le Roulx, Cartulaire, i. No. 859. There is no word about nursing in it. In England the most important house was Buckland. The chief Danish house survives in the Lutheran convent of St John the Baptist at Schleswig, a Stift for noble ladies, whose superior has the title of prioress. On solemn occasions a realistic wax head of St John the Baptist on a charger is still produced. "Commander (comandeor, commandeur), with its Latin translation preceptor, came into use as the title of these officials somewhat late. In earlier documents they are styled ospitalarius, bajulus (bailiff), magister (master). 12 Omitting the Anglo-Bavarian langue, created in 1782, the langues (in the 15th century) were eight in number. They were (1) Provence (grand priories of St Gilles and Toulouse), (2) Auvergne (grand priory of Auvergne), (3) France (grand priories of France, Aquitaine, Champagne), (4) Italy (grand priories of Lombardy, Rome, Venice, Pisa, Capua, Barletta, Messina), (5) Aragon (castellany of Amposta, grand priories of Catalonia and Navarre), (6) England (grand priories of England — [including Scotland — -and Ireland), (7) Germany (grand priories of Germany or Heitersheim, Bohemia, Hungary, Dacia — i.e. Scandinavia— and the Bailiwick (Ballei) of ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM 14 was very great, but not absolute. The supreme legislative and controlling power was vested in the general chapter of the knights, at the periodical meetings of which the great officers of the order had to give an account of their stewardship, and which alone had the right to pass statutes binding on the order The executive power of the grand master, like that of the great dignitaries immedi- ately subordinate to him, was in the nature of a delegation from the chapter. He was assisted in its exercise by four councils: (1) the " convent " or ordinary chapter, a committee of the general chapter, 1 for administrative business; (2) a secret council, for criminal cases and affairs of state ; (3) a full council, to hear appeals from the two former; 2 and (4) the "venerable chamber of the treasury" for financial matters. To the general chapter at headquarters corre- sponded the chapters of the priories and the commanderies, which controlled the action of the priors and commanders. Immediately subordinate to the grand master were the seven great dignitaries of the order, known as the conventual bailiffs: the grand preceptor, 3 marshal, draper (Fr. drapier) or grand con- servator, hospitaller, treasurer, admiral, turcopolier. 4 The grand preceptor, elected by the chapter at the same time as the grand master and subject to his approval, was the lieutenant of the latter in his absence, empowered to seal for him and, in the event of his capture by the enemy, to act as vice-master. The functions of the marshal, draper, treasurer and turcopolier were practically identical with those of the officials of the same titles in the order of Knights Templars. That of hospitaller, on the other hand, was naturally a charge of exceptional importance in the order of St John; he had a seal of his own, and was responsible for everything concerning the hospitals of the order, the dispensing of hospitality, and of alms. The admiral, as the name implies, was at sea what the marshal was on land. ' The office first appears in 1299 when the knights, after their expulsion from the Holy Land, had begun to organize their new sea-power in Cyprus. As to the equipage and suites of the grand master and the great dignitaries, these were practically on the same scale and of the same nature as those described in the article Tem- • plars for the sister order. The grand master had the right himself to nominate his companions and the members of his household (seneschal, squires, secretaries, chaplains, &c), which, as Le Roulx points out, was such as to enable him to figure as the equal of the kings and princes with whom he consorted. The grand-mastership of Gilbert d'Assailly was signalized by the participation of the Hospitallers in the abortive expeditions of Amalric of Jerusalem into Egypt in 1162, 1168 and 1169. On the 10th of August 11 64 also they shared in the disastrous defeat inflicted by Nur-ed-din at Harran en the count of Tripoli. The important position occupied by them in the councils of the kingdom is shown by the fact that the grand preceptor Guy de Mauny was one of the ambassadors sent in 1 169 to ask aid of the princes of the West. Another important development was the bestowal on the order by Bohemund III., prince of Antioch, in 1168, and King Amalric, as regent of Tripoli, in 1170, of con- siderable territories on the north-eastern frontier, to be held with almost sovereign power as a march against the Saracens (Cartu- laire, i. Nos. 331, 411). The failure of the expedition to Egypt, however, brought considerable odium on Gilbert d'Assailly, who Brandenburg), (8) Castile (grand priories of Castile and Leon, and Portugal). Of the grand priories the most ancient and by far the most important was that of St Gilles, founded early in the 12th century, the authority of which extended originally over the whole of what is now France and a great part of Spain. In the 16th century its seat was transferred to Aries. Out of this developed the langues of Auvergne, France, Aragon and Castile, with their sub- sidiary priories. The date of the creation, of the various grand commanderies differs greatly: that of Italy was established in the 13th century, the langue of Germany in 1422, that of Castile was split off from Aragon in 1462. The castellany of Amposta (founded 1 1 57) ranked as a priory. The bailiwick of Brandenburg, which had long been practically independent of the grand prior of Germany, obtained the right to elect its own bailiff (Herrenmeister) in 1382, subject to the approval of the grand prior. In the Holy Land there were no priors; the commanderies were directly under the grand master, and the commanders (who retained the style of bailli, bailivus) ranked with the grand priors elsewhere. 1 This seems to have consisted in practice of the great dignitaries of the order. See Le Roulx, Hospitaliers, p. 314. 2 A peculiarity of the order of St John was the esgart des freres (esgart, Lat. sguardium — court) which could be demanded by any knight who thought himself wronged by a decision of his superiors, even of the grand master. 1 To be carefully distinguished from the regional grand preceptors or grand commanders, and also from the grand commander d'oulremer, who represented the grand master in the West generally. * To these the grand bailiff (German, langue) and grand chancellor (Castile) were added later. resigned the grand-mastership, probably in the autumn of 1170. 6 Under the short rule of the grand master Jobert (d. 11 77) the question of a renewed attack on Egypt was mooted; but the confusion reigning in the Latin kingdom and, not least, the scandalous quarrels between the Templars and Hospitallers, rendered all aggressive action impossible. In n 79 the growing power of the two military orders received its first set back when, at the instance of the bishops, the Lateran Council forbade them to receive gifts of churches and tithes at the hands of laymen without the consent of the bishops, ordered them to restore all " recent" 6 gifts of this nature, and passed a number of decrees in restraint of the abuse of their privileges. A more potent discipline was to befall them, however, at the hands of Saladin, sultan of Egypt, who in 1186 began his sys- tematic conquest of the kingdom. It was the Hospitallers who, with the other religious orders, alone offered an organized resistance to his victorious advance; On the 1st of May 1187 occurred the defeat of Tiberias, in which the grand master Gilbert des Moulins fell riddled with arrows, and this was followed on the 4th of July by the still more disastrous battle of Hittin. The flower of the Christian chivalry was slain or captured; the Hospitallers and Templars who fell into his hands Saladin massacred in cold blood. On the 2nd of October Jerusalem fell. Ten brethren of the Hospital were allowed to remain for a year to look after the sick; the rest took refuge at Tyre. In these straits Armengaud d'Asp was elected grand master (1188) and the headquarters of the order were established at Margat (Markab), near the coast some distance northwards of Tripoli. In the interior the knights still held some scattered fortresses; but their great stronghold of Krak 7 was reduced by famine in September 1188 and Beauvoir in the following January. The news of these disasters once more roused the crusading spirit in Europe; the offensive against Saladin was resumed, the Christians concentrating their forces against Acre in the autumn of 11 89. In the campaigns that followed, of which Richard I. of England was the most conspicuous hero, and which ended in the recovery of Acre and the sea-coast generally for the Latin kingdom, the Hospitallers, under their grand master Gamier de Naplouse 8 (Neapoli), played a prominent part. The grand-mastership of Geoffroy de Donjon, who suc- ceeded Gamier in 1192 and ruled the order till 1202, 9 was signalized, not by feats of arms, since the Holy Land enjoyed a precarious peace, but by a steady restoration and development of the property and privileges of the order, by renewed quarrels with the Templars, and in 1198 by the establishment — in face of the protests of the Hospitallers — of the Teutonic knights as a separate order. Under the grand-mastership of the pious Alphonso of Portugal, and of Geoffrey le Rat, who was elected on Alphonso's resignation in 1206, the knights took a vigorous part in the quarrel as to the succession in Antioch; under that of Garin de Montaigu (elected 1 207) they shared in the expedition to Egypt (12 18-12 21), of which he had been a vigorous advocate (see Crusades: The Fifth Crusade). In 1222^ at the instance of the emperor Frederick II., the grand master accompanied the king of Jerusalem and others to Europe to discuss the preparation of a new crusade, visiting Rome, proceeding thence to Paris and London, and returning to the Holy Land in 1225. The expedition failed of its object so far as the organization of 5 See Le Roulx, Hospitaliers, p. 76 sqq. The resignation led to bitter divisions in the order. It was urged that the resignation was invalid without the consent of the general chapter and the pope; and a temporary schism was the result. Gilbert was drowned in 1 183 crossing from Dieppe to England, whither he had gone at the invitation of Henry II. 6 The words " tempore moderno " were interpreted by Pope Alexander III. in a bull of the 1st of June 1179 as within ten years of the opening of the council (Cartul. 1. No. 566). 7 The stupendous ruins of Krak-des-Chevaliers (at Kerak, S.E. of the Dead Sea) attest the wealth and power of the knights (for a restoration see Castle, fig. 5). The castle had been given to the Hospitallers by Guillaume du Crac in 1 142. In n 93 it was again in their hands, and was subsequently greatly enlarged and strengthened. It was finally captured by the Egyptians under Bibars in 127 1. 8 Gamier had been prior of England and later of France. 9 So Le Roulx. p. 1 19. ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM 15 a general crusade was concerned; but the Hospital received everywhere enormous accessions of property. 1 Garin de Montaigu died in 1228, after consolidating by his statesmanlike attitude the position and power of his order, on the eve of Frederick II. 's crusade. In this crusade, conducted in spite of a papal excommunication, the Hospitallers took no part, being rewarded with the approval of Pope Gregory IX., who, in August 1229, issued a bull to the patriarch of Jerusalem ordering him to maintain the jurisdiction of .the Hospital over the Teutonic knights, who had dared to assist the German emperor. 2 In 1233, under the grand master Guerin, the Hospitallers took a leading part in the successful attack on the principality of Hamah. The motive of this, however — which was no more than the refusal of the emir to pay them the tribute due — seems to point to an increasing secularization of then- spirit. In 1236 Pope Gregory IX. thought it necessary to threaten both them and the Templars with excommunication, to prevent their forming an alliance with the Assassins, 3 and in 1238 issued a bull in which he inveighed against the scandalous lives and relaxed discipline of the Hospitallers. 4 Events were soon to expose the order to fresh tests. Under the grand-mastership of Pierre de Vieille Bride 6 occurred the brief " crusade " of Richard of Cornwall (nth of October 1240 to 3rd of May r24i). The truce concluded by Richard with the sultan of Egypt was accepted by the Hospitallers, rejected by the Templars, and after his departure something like a war broke out between the two bodies. In the midst of the strife of parties, in which Richard of Cornwall had recognized the fatal weakness of the Christian cause to He, came the news of the invasion of the Chorasmians. On the 23rd of August the Tatar horde took and sacked Jerusalem. On the 17th of October, in alliance with the Egyptians under Bibars, it overwhelmed the Christian host at Gaza. Of the Hospitallers only sixteen escaped; 325 of the knights were slain; and among the prisoners was the grand master, Guillaume de Chateauneuf. 6 Amid the general ruin that followed this defeat, the Hospitallers held out in the fortress of Ascalon, until forced to capitulate on the 15th of October r247. Under the vice-master, the grand pre- ceptor Jean de Ronay, they took part in 1249 in the Egyptian expedition of St Louis of France, only to share in the crushing defeat of Mansurah (nth of February 1250). Of the knights present all were slain, except five who were taken prisoners, the vice-master and one other. 7 At the instance of St Louis, after the conclusion of peace, 25 Hospitallers, together with the grand master Guillaume de Chateauneuf, were released. 8 On the withdrawal of St Louis from the Holy Land (April 1254), a war of aggression and reprisals broke out between Christians and Mussulmans; and no sooner was this ended by a precarious truce than the Christians fell to quarrelling among themselves. In the war between the Genoese and Venetians and their respective partisans, the Hospitallers and Templars fought on opposite sides. In spite of so great a scandal and of the hopeless case of the Christian cause, the posses- sions of the order were largely increased during Guillaume de Chateauneuf's mastership, both in the Holy Land and in Europe. Under the grand-mastership of Hugues de Revel, elected probably in 1255, the menace of a new Tatar invasion led to serious efforts to secure harmony in the kingdom. In 1258 the Templars, Hospitallers, and Teutonic knights decided to 1 Detailed by Le Roulx, Hospitallers, pp. 149-156. 2 Cartul. ii. No. 1944. The Teutonic knights refused to obey. In January 1240 Gregory called on them to explain their insub- ordination (No. 2247) and in March 1241 again ordered them to submit (No. 2270). 3 Cartul. ii. No. 2149. 4 Cartul. ii. No. 2186. 6 Not Villebride. The name is a corruption of Vieille Brioude (Le Roulx, Hosp. p. 183). 6 It has been generally supposed, on the authority of the chronica majora of Matthew of Paris (iv. 307-31 1), that -the grand-master was killed at Gaza. 7 See the contemporary letter, Cartulaire, ii. No. 252 1. 8 Cartul. ii. Nos. 2540-2541. submit their disputes in Syria, Cyprus and Armenia to arbitration, a decision which bore fruit in 1260 in the settlement of their differences in Tripoli and Margat. The satisfactory arrangement was possibly affected by the result of a combined attack made in 1259 on the Hospitallers by the Templars and the brethren of St Lazarus and St Thomas, which had resulted in the practical extermination of the aggressors, possibly also by the crushing defeat of the Templars and the Syrian barons by the Turcomans at Tiberias in 1260. However achieved, the concord was badly needed; for Bibars, having in 1260 driven back the Tatars and established himself in the sultanate of Egypt, began the series of campaigns which ended in the destruction of the Latin kingdom. In 1268 Bibars conquered Antioch, and the Christian power was confined to Acre, Chateau Pelerin, Tyre, Sidon, and the castles of Margat, Krak and Belda (Baldeh), in which the Hospitallers still held out. The respite afforded by the second crusade of St Louis was ended by his death at Tunis in 1270. On the 30th of March 1271 the great fortress of Krak, the key to the county of Tripoli, surrendered after a short siege. The crusade of Prince Edward of England did little to avert the ultimate fate of the kingdom, and with it that of the Hospitallers in the Holy Land. This was merely delayed by the preoccupa- tions of Bibars elsewhere, and by his death in 1277. In 1280 the Mongols overran northern Syria; and the Hospitallers distinguished themselves by two victories against enormous odds, one over the Turcomans and one over the emir of Krak (February 1281). The situation, however, was desperate, and the grand master Nicolas Lorgne, who had succeeded Hugues de Revel in 1277, wrote despairing letters of appeal to Edward I. of England. On the 25th of May 1285, Margat surrendered to the sultan Kalaun (Mansur Saifaldin). Not even the strong character and high courage of Jean de Villiers, who succeeded Nicolas Lorgne as grand master in 1285, could do more than stave off the ultimate disaster. The Hospitallers assisted in the vain defence of Tripoli, which fell on the 26th of April 1289. On the 18th of May 1291 the Mussulmans stormed Acre, the last hope of the Christians in the Holy Land. Jean de Villiers, wounded, was carried on board a ship, and sailed to Limisso in Cyprus, which became the headquarters of the order. For the remaining two years of his life Jean de Villiers was occupied in attempting the reorganization of the shattered order. The demoralization in the East was, however, too profound to admit a ready cure. The knights, represented by the grand dignitaries, addressed a petition to Pope Boniface VIII. in 1295 asking for the appointment of a permanent council of seven difinitores to control the grand master, who had become more and more autocratic. The pope did not consent; but in a severe letter to the new grand master, Eudes de Pin, he sternly reproved him for the irregularities of which he had been guilty. 9 In 1296 Eudes was succeeded by Guillaume de Villaret, grand prior of St Gilles, who for three years after his election remained in Europe, regulating the affairs of the order. In 1300, in response to the urgent remonstrances of the knights, he appeared in Cyprus. In 1299 an unnatural alliance of the Christians and Mongols gave a momentary prospect of regaining the Holy Land; in 1300 the Hospitallers took part in the raid of King Henry II. (de Lusignan) of Cyprus in Egypt, and gained some temporary successes on the coast of Syria. Of more advantage for the* prestige of the order, however, were the immense additions pi property and privileges which Guillaume de Villaret had secured in Europe from the pope and many kings and princes, 10 and the reform of the rule and drastic reorganization of the order promulgated in a series of statutes between 1300 and 1304, the year of Guillaume's death. 11 Of these changes the most significant was the definition of the powers and status of the admiral, a new great dignitary created in 1299. The grand-mastership of Foulques de Villaret, Guillaume's 9 Cartulaire, iii. Nos. 4267, 4293; cf. the letter of the chapter- general to Guillaume de Villaret, iii. No. 4310. 10 Le Roulx, Hospitaliers, p. 259 sqq. 11 These statutes are printed in the Cartulaire, iii. Nos. 4515, iv. Nos. 4549, 4574, 4612. i6 ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM nephew and successor, 1 was destined to be eventful for the order. On the 5th of June 1305 Bertrand de Got became pope as Clement V. The new pope consulted the grand master of the Templars and Hospitallers as to the organization of a new crusade, and at the same time raised the question of the fusion of the military orders, a plan which had already been suggested by St Louis, dis- cussed at the council of Lyons in 1 2 74, and approved by the pope's patron Philip IV. of France. The proposal broke down on the opposition of Jacques de Molay, grand master of the Temple; but the desired result was obtained by other and more question- able means. In October 1307 Philip IV. caused all the Templars in France, including the grand master, to be arrested on charges of heresy and gross immorality; Pope Clement V., a creature of the French king, reluctantly endorsed this action, and at his instance the other sovereigns of Europe followed the example of Philip. The famous long-drawn-out trial of the Templars followed , ending at the council of Vienne in 13 14, when Pope Clement decreed the dissolution of the order of the Temple and at the same time assigned the bulk of its property to the Hospital. 2 (See Templars, Knights.) Meanwhile an event had occurred which marks an epoch in the history of the order of the Hospital. In 1306 Foulques de Villaret, anxious to find a centre where the order would be untrammelled by obligations to another power as in Cyprus, came to an agreement with a Genoese pirate named Vignolo de' Vignoli for a concerted attack on Rhodes and other islands belonging to the Greek emperor. The exact date of their com- pleted conquest of the island is uncertain; 3 nor is it clear that the grand master took a personal part in it. By command of the pope he had left Cyprus for Europe at the end of 1306 or the beginning of 1307, and he did not return to the East till late in 1309. He returned, however, not to Cyprus but to Rhodes, and it is with 1310, therefore, when its headquarters were established in the latter island, that the second period of the history of the order of the Hospital opens. 4 The Knights in Rhodes. — The history of the order for the next fifty years is very obscure. Certain changes, however, took place which profoundly modified its character. The most important of these was its definitive division into " langues." The begin- nings of this had been made long before; but the system was only legalized by the general chapter at Montpellier in 1 330. Hitherto the order had been a cosmopolitan society, in which the French element had tended to predominate; henceforth it became a federation of national societies united only for purposes of com- merce and war. To the headship of each " langue " was attached one of the great dignitaries of the order, which thus came to represent, not the order as a whole but the interests of a section. 6 The motive of this change was probably, as Prutz suggests, 6 1 M. Le Roulx dates his election between the 23rd of November 1304 and the 3rd of November 1305 {Hosp. p. 268). 2 The Templars' property in the Spanish peninsula and Majorca was specially excepted, being subsequently assigned to the sovereigns, who transferred some of it to the native military orders. Nor did the Hospitallers receive by any means all of the rest. Philip IV. charged against the Hospital an enormous bill for expenses incurred in the trial of the Templars, including, as one item, those for torturing the knights. In France at least the Hospitallers complained that they were actually out of pocket. See Finke, Papsttum und Unter- ■gang des Tempelherrenordens, i. ad fin. None the less, the great accession of territorial property necessitated the subdivision of the gjeat regional jurisdictions, notably that of the priory of St Gilles, into new grand priories. 3 The question is discussed in detail by M. Le Roulx, Hospitallers, pp. 278 sqq. He himself dates the surrender of the castle of Rhodes in 1308. Cf. Hans Prutz, " Anfange der Hospitaliter auf Rhodos " in Sitzungsber. der K. Bay. Akad. d. Wissenschaften (1908), i. Abhandlung. 4 Foulques de Villaret's head seems to have been turned by his success. His early vigour and statesmanlike qualities gave place to luxury, debauchery and a tyrannical temper. He was ultimately deposed, and died at the castle of Teyran in Languedoc in 1327. 5 The great dignitaries were distributed as follows: Grand commander of Provence, the grand preceptor; Auvergne, the grand marshal; France, the grand hospitaller; Italy, the grand admiral; Aragon, the grand conservator or draper; England, the turcopolier; Germany, the grand bailiff; Castile, the grand chancellor. • " Die Anfange der Hospitaliter auf Rhodos." fear of the designs of Philip IV. of France and his successors to which point had been given by the fate of the Templars, and the consequent desire to destroy the preponderance of the French element. 7 The character and aims of the order were also profoundly affected by their newly acquired sovereignty — for the shadowy overlordship of the Eastern emperor was soon forgotten — and above all by its seat. The Teutonic order had established its sovereignty in Prussia, in wide and ill-defined spheres beyond the north-eastern marches of Germany. The Hospitallers ruled an island too narrow to monopolize their energies, but occupying a position of vast commercial and strategic importance. Close to the Anatolian mainland, commanding the outlet of the Archipelago, and lying in the direct trade route between Europe and the East, Rhodes had become the chief distributing point in the lively commerce which, in spite of papal thunders, Christian traders maintained with the Mahommedan states; and in the new capital of the order representatives to every language and religion of the Levant jostled, haggled and quarrelled. 8 The Hospitallers were thus divided between their duty as sovereign, which was to watch overthe interests of their subjects, and their duty as Christian warriors, which was to combat the Infidel. In view of the fact that the crusading spirit was everywhere declining, it is not surprising that their policy was henceforth directed less by religious than by political and commercial considerations. Not that they altogether neglected their duty as protectors of the Cross. Their galleys policed the narrow seas ; their consuls in Egypt and Jerusalem watched over the interests of pilgrims; their hospitals were still maintained for the service of the sick and the destitute. But, side by side with this, seculariza- tion proceeded apace. In 1341 Pope Clement VI. wrote to the grand master denouncing the luxury of the order and the misuse of its funds; in 1355 Innocent VI. sent the celebrated Juan Fernandez de Heredia, castellan of Amposta and grand com- mander of Aragon, as his legate to Rhodes, armed with a bull which threatened the order with dissolution if it did not reform itself and effect a settlement in Turkey. In 1348, indeed, the Hospitallers, in alliance with Venice and Cyprus, had captured Smyrna; but the chief outcome of this had been commercial treaties with their allies. Such treaties were, in fact, a matter of life and death; for the island was not self-supporting, and even towards the Infidel the attitude of the knights was necessarily influenced by the fact that their supplies of provisions were mainly drawn from the Mussulman mainland. By the 15th century their crusading spirit had grown so weak that they even attempted to negotiate a commercial treaty with the Ottoman sultan; the project broke down on the refusal of the knights to accept the sultan's suzerainty. The earlier history of the Hospitallers bristles with obscure questions on which modern scholarship (notably the labours of Delaville Le Roulx) has thrown new light. From 1355 onward, however, the case is different; the essential facts have been established by writers who were able to draw on a mass of well-ordered materials. Their history during the two centuries of the occupation of Rhodes, so far as its general interest for Europe is concerned, is that of a long series of naval attacks and counter-attacks; its chief outcome, for which the European states owed a debt of gratitude but ill acknowledged, the postponement for some two centuries of the appearance of the Ottomans as a first-rate naval power in the Mediterranean. The seaward advance of Osman the Turk was arrested by their victories; in 1358 they successfully defended Smyrna; in 1365 under their grand master Raymond Beranger (d. 1374), and in alliance with the king of Cyprus, they captured and burned Alexandria. The Ottoman peril, however, grew ever more imminent, and in 1395, under their grand master Philibert de Naillac, the Hospitallers 7 Philip IV. strenuously opposed the change for this reason. Prutz, Die geistlichen Ritterorden, pp 358 sqq. Compare the division of the general councils of Basel and Constance into nations." 8 See the regulations made, soon after the capture of the island, in the Capitula Rodi, a fragment of a code, published by Ewald in I News Archiv iv. pp. 265-269 ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM *7 shared in the disastrous defeat of Nicopolis. The invasion followed of Timur the Tatar, invited to his aid by the Eastern emperor. Sultan Bayezid, the victor of Nicopolis, was over- thrown; but Timur turned against the Christians and in 1402 captured Smyrna, putting the Hospitallers who defended it to the sword. It was after this disaster that the knights built, on a narrow promontory jutting from the mainland opposite the island of Kos, the fortress of St Peter the Liberator. The castle, which still stands, its name corrupted into Budrun (from Bedros, Peter), w T as long a place of refuge for Christians flying from slavery. 1 Some years later the position of the order as a Mediter- ranean sea-power was strengthened by commercial treaties with Venice, Pisa, Genoa, and even with Egypt (1423). The zenith of its power was reached a few years later, when, under the grand master Jean Bonpar de Lastic, it twice defeated an Egyptian attack by sea (1440 and 1444). A new and more imminent peril, however, arose with the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, Ior Mahommed II. had announced his intention of making Rhodes his next objective. The attack was delayed for twenty-seven years by the sultan's wars in south-eastern Europe; and meanwhile, in 1476, Pierre d'Aubusson (q.v.), the second great hero of the order, had been elected grand master. Under his inspiration, when in June 1480 the Turks, led by three renegades, attacked the island, the knights made so gallant a resistance that, in July, after repeated and decisive repulses, the Turks retreated. In 1503 Pierre d'Aubusson was succeeded by Aymar d'Amboise, who directed a long series of naval battles. In 1521 the famous Philippe de Villiers de ITsle d'Adam was elected grand master, just as the dreaded sultan Suleiman the Magnificent directed his attack on Rhodes. In 1522 he besieged the island, reinforcements failed, the European powers sent no assistance, and in 1523 the knights capitulated, and withdrew with all the honours of war to Candia (Crete). The emperor Charles V., when the news was brought to him, exclaimed, " Nothing in the world has been so well lost as Rhodes! " But he refused to assist the grand master in his plans for its recovery, and instead, five years later (1530), handed over to the Hospi- tallers the island of Malta and the fortress of Tripoli in Africa. The Knights in Malta. — The settlement of the Hospitallers in Malta was contemporaneous with the Reformation, which profoundly affected the order. The master and knights of the bailiwick of Brandenburg accepted the reformed religion, without, however, breaking off all connexion with the order (see below). In England, on the other hand, the refusal of the grand prior and knights to acknowledge the royal supremacy led to the confiscation of their estates by Henry VIII., and, though not formally suppressed, the English " langue " practically ceased to exist. 2 The knights of Malta, as they came to be known, none the less continued their vigorous warfare. Under Pierre du Pont, who succeeded Villiers de ITsle d'Adam in 1534, they took a conspicuous part in Charles V.'s attack on Goletta and Tunis (1535). In 1550 they defeated the redoubtable corsair Dragut, but in 1531 their position in Tripoli, always precarious, became untenable and they capitulated to the Turks under Dragut, concentrating their forces in Malta. In 1557 Jean Farisot de la Vallette (1494-1548) was elected grand master, and under his vigorous rule strenuous efforts were made to put the defences of Malta into a fit state to resist the expected 1 There is a reduction of a photograph of the castle in Bedford and Holbeche's Order of the Hospital, p. 20. The building materials were largely taken from the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus. 2 The great priory church at Clerkenwell in London was almost wholly destroyed by the Protector Somerset, who used the materials for his palace in the Strand. Only the great gateway, spanning St John Street, now survives above ground of the priory buildings. It is the headquarters of the revived English " langue." Sir John Rawson, prior of Kilmainham, the headquarters of the order in Ireland, accepted the royal supremacy and was created Lord Clontarf . In 1679 the duke of Ormonde erected the present hospital on the site of the ancient priory. The preceptory of Torphichen, head- quarters of the order in Scotland, was surrendered in 1547 by the preceptor Sir James Sandilands of Calder, who was created Lord Torphichen. As " Lord of St John " he had had precedence of all the barons of Scotland, and this right — originally exercised as a spiritual peer — was retained by him and his successors. Turkish attack. On the 18th of May 1565 the Ottoman fleet, under Dragut, appeared before the city, and one of the most famous sieges in history began. 3 It was ultimately raised on the 8th of September, on the appearance of a large relieving force despatched by the Spanish viceroy of Sicily, after Dragut and 25,000 of his followers had fallen. The memory of La Vallette, the hero of the siege, who died in 1568, is preserved in the city of Valletta, which was built on the site of the struggle. In 1 57 1 the knights shared in the victory of Lepanto; but this crowning success was followed during the 17th century by a long period of depression, due to internal dissensions and cul- minating during the Thirty Years' War, the position of the order being seriously affected by the terms of the peace of Westphalia (1648). The order was also troubled by quarrels with the popes, who claimed to nominate its officials (a claim renounced by Innocent XII. in 1697), and by rivalry with the Mediterranean powers, especially Venice. In Malta itself there were four rival claimants to independent jurisdiction: the grand master, the bishop of Malta, the grand inquisitor, whose office was instituted in 1572, and the Society of Jesus, introduced by Bishop Gargallo in 1592. The order, indeed, saw much fighting: e.g. the frequent expeditions undertaken during the grand-mastership of Alof de Vignacourt (1601-1622); the defence of Candia — which fell after a twenty years' siege in 1669 — under Nicholas Cottoner, grand master from 1665 to 1680; and, during the grand mastership of Gregorio Caraffa (1 680-1 690), a campaign (1683) with John Sobieski, king of Poland, against the Turks in Hungary, and the attack in alliance with Venice on the Morea in 1687, which involved the Hospitallers in the defeat at Negro- pont in 1689. The decline of the order was hastened by the practice of electing aged grand masters to ensure frequent vacancies; such were Luiz Mendez de Vasconcellos (1622-1623) and Antonio da Paula (1623-1636) and Giovanni Paolo Lascaris (de Castellar), in 1636, who died twenty-one years later at the age of ninety-seven. The character of the order at this date became more exclusively aristocratic, and its wealth, partly acquired by commerce, partly derived from the contributions of the commanderies scattered throughout Europe, was enormous. The wonderful fortifications, planned by French architects and improved by every grand master in turn, the gorgeous churches, chapels and auberges, the great library founded in 1650, were the outward and visible sign of the growth of a corresponding luxury in the private life of the order. Neverthe- less, under Raymond Perellos de Roccaful (1697-1720) and Antonio Manoel de Vilhena (1722-1736), the knights restored their prestige in the Mediterranean by victories over the Turks. In 1 741 Emmanuele Pinto de Fonseca, a man of strong character, became grand master. " He expelled the Jesuits, resisted papal encroachments on his authority and, refusing to summon the general chapter, ruled as a despot. Emanuel, prince de Rohan, who was elected grand master in succession to Francesco Jimenes de Texada in 1775, made serious efforts to revive the old spirit of the order. Under him, for the first time since 1603, a general chapter was convoked; the orders of St Anthony and St Lazarus were incorporated, and the statutes were revised and codified (1782). In 1782 also Rohan, with the approval of George III. established the new Anglo-Bavarian " langue." The last great expedition of the Maltese galleys was worthy of the noblest traditions of the order; they were sent to carry supplies for the sufferers from the great earthquake in Sicily. They had long ceased to be effec- tive fighting ships, and survived mainly as gorgeous state barges in which the knights sailed on ceremonial pleasure trips. The French Revolution was fatal to the order. Rohan made no secret of his sympathy with the losing cause in France, and Malta became a refuge-place for the emigres. In 1792 the vast possessions of the order in France were confiscated, and six years later the Directory resolved on the forcible seizure of Malta 3 In Protestant England public prayers were offered for the success of the knights. Yet a few years later Queen Elizabeth was seeking the alliance of the sultan against Spain, on the ground of I their common religion as against " the idolators ['! i8 ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM itself. Rohan had died in 1797, and his feeble successor, Baron Ferdinand von Hompesch, 1 though fully warned, made no preparations to resist. In the early summer of 1708, after a siege of only a few days, he surrendered the island, with its impregnable fortifications, to Bonaparte, and retired ignomini- ously to Trieste, carrying with him the precious relics of the order — the hand of St John the Baptist presented by the sultan Bayezid, the miraculous image of Our Lady of Philermo, and a fragment of the true cross. With this the history of the order of St John practically ends. Efforts were, however, made to preserve it. Many of the knights had taken refuge at the court of Paul I. of Russia, with whom in 1797 Hompesch had made an alliance. In October 1798 these elected the emperor Paul grand master, and in the following year Hompesch was induced to resign in his favour. The half- mad tsar took his new functions very seriously, but his murder in 1 801 ruined any hope of recovering Malta with Russian assistance. A chapter of the order now granted the right of nomination to the pope, who appointed Giovanni di Tommasi grand master. From his death in 1805 until 1879, when Leo XIII. restored the title of grand master in favour of Fra Giovanni Ceschi a Santa Croce, the heads of the order received only the title of lieutenant master. In 1814 the French knights summoned a chapter general and elected a permanent commission for the government of the order, which was recognized by the Italian and Spanish knights, by the pope and by King Louis XVIII. In the Italian states much of the property of the order was restored at the instance of Austria, and in 1841 the emperor Ferdinand founded the grand priory of Lombardo-Venetia. Present Constitution of the Order. — The " Sovereign Order of Malta " is now divided into the Italian and German langues, both under the Sacred Council (Sagro consiglio) at Rome. The Italian langue embraces the grand priories of Rome, Lombardy and Venice, and Sicily; the German langue consists of (1) the grand priory of Bohemia, (2) the association of the honorary knights (Ehrenritter) in Silesia, (3) the association of Ehrenritter in Westphalia and the Rhine country, (4) the association of English knights (not to be confused with the English order), (5) the knights received in gremio religionis, i.e. those not attached to any of the preceding divisions. At the head of the order is the grand master. Each priory has a certain number of bailiffs (grand commanders, commendatori), commanders, professed knights (i.e. those who have taken the vows), knights of justice (novices), honorary knights, knights of grace, donats and chaplains. Candidates for knighthood have to prove sixteen quarterings of nobility and, if under age, must be sons of a landowner of the pro- vince and of a mother born within its limits. If an Austrian subject, the postulant must obtain the emperor's leave to join the order; the election is by the chapter, and subject to confirmation by the pope. Knights of justice take a yearly oath to fulfil the duties laid on them by the order. After ten years they may take the full oath as professed knights. At any time before doing so, however, they are free to retire from the order and may receive the croix de devotion as honorary knights, their sole obligation being an annual subscription to the order. The croix de demotion is also bestowed on ladies of sufficiently impeccable descent. The grand master also has the right, motu proprio, to bestow the cross on distinguished people not of noble birth, who are known as knights of grace. The grand cross 2 of the order is sometimes given, honoris causa, to sovereigns and others, who then rank as honorary bailiffs. This is a gold, white enamelled " Maltese " cross, surmounted by a crown, which is worn suspended round the neck by a black ribbon. Bailiffs, professed knights and chaplains wear in addition a white linen cross sewn on to the left breast. The grand priory of Bohemia has made the nursing of the sick its speciality, and especially the organization of military hospitals. The hospice between Bethlehem and Jeru- salem is under the protection of the Austrian emperor. Protestant Orders. — In addition to the Sovereign Order of the Knights of Malta, there exist two Orders of St John of Jerusalem which derive their origin from the same source: the Prussian Johanniterorden and the English Order of St John of Jerusalem. Of these the Prussian order has the most interesting history. At the Reformation the master and knights of the bailiwick of Branden- burg adopted the new religion. They continued, however, like other Ritterstifter, to enjoy their corporate rights; they even continued to acknowledge the jurisdiction of the grand preceptor of the German langue, in so far as the confirmation of official appointments was concerned, and to send their contributions to the common fund of 1 He was the only German in the list of grand masters. 4 So called because the dignitaries wore a larger cross than the generality of the knights. the order. On the 30th of October 1810, under stress of the miseries of the Napoleonic occupation of Prussia, the order was secularized and its estates confiscated; in 1812 King Frederick William III. founded the chivalrous order of St John, to which the expropriated knights were admitted as honorary knights. In 1853 Frederick William IV. reversed this action, abolished the new chivalrous order and reconstituted the bailiwick of Brandenburg, on the ostensible ground that its maintenance had been guaranteed by the treaty of Westphalia (1648). The master (Herrenmeister) is elected by the chapter. All members of the order must be of noble birth and belong to the Evangelical Church. The cross worn is of white enamelled gold with four black eagles between the arms; a white linen cross is also sewn on the left breast of the red tunic which forms part of the uniform. The order has founded, and supports, many hospitals, including a hospice at Jerusalem (see Herrlich, Die Ballei Brandenburg, 4th ed., Berlin, 1904). As already mentioned, the English langue, though deprived of its lands, was never formally suppressed. In 1 826-1 827 the commission instituted by the French knights in 1814, which was aiming at taking advantage of the Greek War of Independence to reconquer Rhodes or to secure some other island in the Levant, suggested the restoration of the English langue, obviously with the idea of securing the help of Great Britain for their project. Certain eminent English- men, e.g. Sir Sydney Smith, had already been affiliated to the order by the grand master Baron von Hompesch; the commission now placed itself in communication with the Rev. Sir William Peat, chaplain to King George IV., and other English gentlemen of position. The negotiations resulted in articles of convention re- viving the English langue. In 1834 Sir William Peat, elected prior of the English langue, qualified himself by taking the oath de fideli administratione in the court of King's Bench, under the charter (never repealed) of Philip and Mary re-establishing the order. 3 For fifty years this was all the official recognition obtained by this curious and characteristic sham-Gothic restoration of the Romantic period. The " English langue," however, though somewhat absurd, did good service in organizing hospital work, notably in the creation of the St John's Ambulance Association, and this work was recog- nized in high quarters, the princess of Wales (afterwards Queen Alexandra) becoming a lady of justice in 1876 and the duke of Albany joining the order in 1883. In 1888 Queen Victoria granted a charter formally incorporating the order, the headquarters of which had been established in the ancient gate-way of the priory at Clerkenwell. In 1889 the prince of Wales (King Edward VII.) was installed as grand prior. The objects and constitution of the order are practically the same as those of its Prussian equivalent. The sovereign is its supreme head and patron, the heir to the throne for the time being its grand prior. It is essentially aristocratic, though — for obvious reasons — proof of sixteen quarterings of nobility is not exacted as a condition of membership. The cross is the gold, white-enamelled Maltese cross, differenced by two lions and two unicorns placed between the arms. The order also gives medals to persons of all ranks " for service in the cause of humanity." Among other good works, it supports an ophthalmic hospital at Jerusalem. Unlike the Prussian order, the members need not be Protestants, though they must profess Christianity. 4 Authorities. — From the 12th century onwards the knights exercised peculiar care in the preservation of their records, and the vast archives of the order are still preserved, all but intact, at Malta. These include not only those of the central establishment but also a large number of those of the separate commanderies. They in- clude papal bulls, the records of the general chapter, the statutes of the grand masters, title deeds, charters, and from 1629 onwards the special transactions of the Conseil d'&tat. These materials were exploited by several writers in the 17th and 1 8th centuries. The first was Giacomo Bosio, the 3rd edition of whose Istoria delta . . . illustrissima militia di S. Giov. Cierosolimitano was published in 3 vols, at Rome in 1676. This was followed by S. Pauli's Codice diplomatico del sacro militare ordine Geros. (2 vols., Lucca, 1733- '737) and P. A. Paoli's Dell' origine ed istituto del sacro militar ordine , &c. (Rome, 1781). These are still useful sources as containing references to, and extracts from, documents since lost. In 1883 J. Delaville Le Roulx published Les Archives del' Ordrede Saint- Jean, an analysis of the records preserved at Malta. This was followed in 1904 by his monumental Cartulaire general des Hospitallers de Saint- Jean de Jerusalem (1100-1310), 4 vols, folio. This gives (1) all documents anterior to 1 120, (2) all those emanating from the great dignitaries of the order, (3) all those emanating from popes, em- perors, kings and great feudatories, (4) those which fix the date of the foundation of particular commanderies, (5) those regulating the relations of the Hospitallers with the lay and ecclesiastical authorities and with the other military orders, (6) the rules, statutes and customs of the order. Hitherto unpublished documents (from the archives of Malta and elsewhere) are published in full ; those already published, and the place where they may be found, being indicated in proper sequence. Based on the Cartulaire is Le Roulx's Les 3 See Bedford and Holbeche, Appendix D. 4 The medieval vows are, of course, not taken. ST JOHNS—SAINT JOSEPH 19 Hospilaliers en Terre Sainte et en Chypre (Paris, 1904), an invaluable work in which many hitherto obscure problems have been solved. It contains a full list of published authorities. Of English works may be mentioned John Taaffe's History of the Order of Malta (1852); J. M. Kemble's Historical introduction to The Knights Hospitallers in England (Camden Soc, London, 1857); W. Porter, Hist, of the Knights of Malta (2 vols. 1858, new ed. 1883); Bedford and Holbeche, The Order of the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem (1902), for the modern order. (W. A. P.) ST JOHNS, the capital of Newfoundland, situated on the east coast of the island, in the peninsula of Avalon, in 47 33' 54" N., and 5 2 40' 18" W. It is the most easterly city of America, only 1700 m. from Queenstown in Ireland, and 2030 from Liverpool. It stands on rising ground on the north side of a land-locked harbour, which opens suddenly in the lofty iron-bound coast. The entrance, known as The Narrows, guarded by Signal Hill (520 ft.) and South Side Hill (620 ft.), is about 1400 ft. wide, narrowing to 600 ft. between Pancake and Chain Rocks. At the termination of the Narrows the harbour trends suddenly to the west, thus completely shutting out the ocean swell. Vessels of the largest tonnage can enter at all periods of the tide. There is good wharf accommodation and a well-equipped dry dock. St Johns practically monopolizes the commerce of the island (see Newfoundland), |>eing the centre of the cod, seal and whale fisheries. The chief industries are connected with the fitting out of the fishing vessels, or with the disposal and manufacture of their catch. Steamship lines run to Liverpool, New York, Halifax (N.S.) and Saint Pierre. Nearly all the commerce of the island is sea-borne, and well-equipped steamers connect St Johns with the numerous bays and outports. It is the eastern terminus of the government railway across the island to Port-aux-Basques, whence there is steamer connexion with the mainland at Sydney. The finest buildings in the city are the Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals. Education is controlled by the various religious bodies; many of the young men complete their studies in Canada or Great Britain. St Johns is not an incorporated town. A municipal council was abolished after having largely increased the debt of the city, and it is now governed by com- missioners appointed by the governor in council. St Johns was first settled by Devonshire fishermen early in the 1 6th century. It was twice sacked by the French, and captured by them in the Seven Years' War (1762), but recaptured in the same year, since when it has remained in British possession. Both in the War of American Independence and in that of 1812 it was the headquarters of the British fleet, and at one time the western end of the harbour was filled up with American prizes. The old city, built entirely of wood, was twice destroyed by fire (1816-1817 and 1846). Half of it was again swept away in 1892, but new and more substantial buildings have been erected. The population, chiefly of the Roman Catholic faith and of Irish descent, increases slowly. In 1901 the electoral district of St Johns contained 39,994 inhabitants, of whom 30,486 were within the limits of the city. ST JOHNS, a town and port of entry of Quebec, Canada, and capital of St Johns county, 27 m. S.E. of Montreal by rail, on the river Richelieu and at the head of the Chambly canal. Pop. (1901) 4030. A large export trade in lumber, grain and farm produce is carried on, and its mills and factories produce flour, silk, pottery, hats, &c. Three railways, the Grand Trunk, Canadian Pacific and Central Vermont, enter St Johns. On the opposite bank of the river is the flourishing town of St Jean d'Iberville (usually known simply as Iberville), connected with St Johns by several bridges. SAINT JOHNSBURY, a township and the county-seat of Caledonia county, Vermont, U.S.A., on the Passumpsic river, about 34 m. E.N.E. of Montpelier. Pop. (1890) 6567; (1900) 7010; (1910) 8098; of the village of the same name (1900) 5666 (1309 foreign-born); (1910) 6693. Area of the township, about 47 sq. m. Saint Johnsbury is served by the Boston & Maine and the Saint Johnsbury & Lake Champlain railways. The farms of the township are devoted largely to dairying. In the village are a Y.M.C.A. building (1885); the Saint Johnsbury Academy (1842); the Saint Johnsbury Athenaeum (1871), with a library (about 18,000 volumes in 1909) and an art gallery; the Fairbanks Museum of Natural Science (1891), founded by Colonel Franklin Fairbanks; St Johnsbury Hospital (1895); Brightlook Hospital (1899, private); the large scales manu- factory of the E. & T. Fairbanks Company (see Fairbanks, Erastus), and also manufactories of agricultural implements, steam hammers, granite work, furniture and carriages. There are two systems of water- works, one being owned by the village. The township of Saint Johnsbury was granted to Dr Jonathan Arnold (1741-1793) and associates in 1786; in the same year a settlement was established and the place was named in honour of Jean Hector Saint John de Crevecceur (1731-1813), who wrote Letters of an American Farmer (1782), a glowing description of America, which brought thither many immigrants, and who intro- duced potato planting into France. The township government was organized in 1790, and the village was incorporated in 1853. ST JOHN'S WORT, in botany, the general name for species of Hypericum, especially H. perforatum, small shrubby plants with slender stems, sessile opposite leaves which are often dotted with pellucid glands, and showy yellow flowers. H. Androsacnium is Tutsan (Fr. tout saine), so called from its healing properties. H . calycinum (Rose of Sharon) , a creeping plant with large almost solitary flowers 3 to 4 in. across, is a south-east European plant which has become naturalized in Britain in various places in hedges and thickets. SAINT JOSEPH, a city and the county-seat of Berrien county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Lake Michigan at the mouth of the Saint Joseph river, near the S.W. corner of the state. Pop. (1890) 3733! (1900) 5155, of whom 1183 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 5936. It is served by the Michigan Central and the Pere Marquette railways, by electric interurban railway to South Bend, Indiana, and by a steamboat line to Chicago. Benton Harbor, about 1 m. S.W., with which St Joseph is connected by electric line, is a terminus of the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railway. The U.S. government has deepened the harbour channel to 18 ft.; and the St Joseph river has been made navigable for vessels drawing 3 ft. from St Joseph to Berrien Springs (25 m. by river). A canal, 1 m. long, extends from the upper part of the harbour to Benton Harbor. St Joseph has a public library. The city is a summer and health resort; it has mineral (saline sulphur) springs and a large mineral-water bath house. The general offices and the hospital (1902) of the Michigan Children's Home Society are here. The city has an important trade in fruit, and has various manu- factures, including paper, fruit packages, baskets, motor boats, gasolene launches, automobile supplies, hosiery and knit goods, air guns and sashes and blinds. The municipality owns and operates its water-works and electric-fighting plant. On or near the site of the present city La Salle built in 1679 Fort Miami. In the same county, on or near the site of the present city of Niles (pop. 1910, 5156), French Jesuits established an Indian mission in 1690, and the French government in 1697 erected Fort St Joseph, which was captured from the English by the Indians in 1763, and in 1781 was seized by a Spanish party from St Louis. Fort Miami has often been confused with this Fort St Joseph, 60 m. farther up the river. St Joseph was settled in 1829, incorporated as a village in 1836 and first chartered as a city in 1891. SAINT JOSEPH, a city and the county-seat of Buchanan county, Missouri, U.S.A., and a port of entry, situated in the north-western corner of the state on the E. bank of the Missouri river. It is the third in size among the cities of the state. Pop. (1880) 32,431; (1890) 52,324; (1900) 102,979, of whom 8424 were foreign-born and 6260 were negroes; (1910 census) 77,403. St Joseph is a transportation centre of great import- ance. It is served by six railways, the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago Great Western, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Missouri Pacific, and the St Joseph & Grand Island; in addition there are two terminal railways. A steel bridge across the Missouri (built in 1872; rebuilt in 1906) connects the city with Elwood, Kansas (pop. 1910, 636), and is used by two railways. The city is laid out on hills above the bluffs of the river. The site was completely remade, however (especially in 1866-1873), and the entire business portion has been much graded down. The principal public buildings are the Federal building, the court house, an auditorium seating 7000, a Union Station and a 20 ST JUNIEN— SAINT-JUST public library. There are six city parks, of which the largest are Krug Park (30 acres) and Bartlett Park (20 acres). The State Hospital (No. 2) for the Insane(opened 1874) is immediately E. of St Joseph; in the city are the Ensworth, St Joseph and Woodson hospitals, a Memorial Home for needy old people and the Home for Little Wanderers. South St Joseph, a manu- facturing suburb, has a library and so has the northern part of the city. The great stock-yards of South St Joseph are sights of great interest. In 1909 the state legislature provided for a commission form of government which took effect in April 1910; a council of five, elected by the city at large, has only legislative powers; the mayor appoints members of a utilities commission, a park commission and a board of public works, and all officers except the city auditor and treasurer; and the charter provides for the initiative, the referendum and the recall. The city maintains a workhouse (1882), also two market houses, and owns and manages an electric-lighting plant. Natural gas is also furnished to the city from oil-fields in Kansas. A private company owns the water-works, first built in 1879 and since greatly improved. The water is drawn from the Missouri, 3 m. above the city, and is pumped thence into reservoirs and settling basins. Beside the local trade of a rich surrounding farming country, the railway facilities of St Joseph have enabled it to build up a great jobbing trade (especially in dry goods), and this is still the greatest economic interest of the city. Commerce and transport were the only distinctive basis of the city's growth and wealth until after 1890, when there was a great increase in manufacturing, especially, in South St Joseph, of the slaughtering and meat-packing industry in the last three years of the decade. In 1900 the manufactured product of the city and its immediate suburbs was valued at $31,690,736, of which $19,009,332 were credited to slaughtering and packing. In the decade of 1890-1900 the increase in the value of manu- factures (165-9%) was almost five times as great in St Joseph as in any other of the largest four cities of the state, and this was due almost entirely to the growth of the slaughtering and meat-packing business, which is for the most part located outside the municipal limits. In 1905 the census reports did not include manufactures outside the actual city limits; the total value of the factory product of the city proper in 1905 was $11,573,720; besides slaughtering and packing the other manufactures in 1905 included men's factory-made clothing (valued at $1,556,655) flour and grist-mill products (valued at $683,464), saddlery and har- ness (valued at $524,918), confectionery ($437,096), malt liquors ($407,054), boots and shoes ($350,384) and farm implements. In 1826 Joseph Robidoux, a French half-breed trader, established a trading post on the site of St Joseph. Following the purchase from the Indians of the country, now known as the Platte Purchase, in 1836, a settlement grew up about this trading post, and in 1 843 Robidoux laid out a town here and named it St Joseph in honour of his patron saint. St Joseph became the county-seat in .1846, and in 1851 was first chartered as a city. It early became a trading centre of importance, well known as an outfitting point for miners and other emigrants to the Rocky Mountain region and the Pacific coast. During the Civil War it was held continuously by the Unionists, but local sentiment was bitterly divided. After the war a rapid development began. In 1885 St Joseph became a city of the second class. Under the state constitution of 1 875 it has had the right, since attaining a population of 100,000, to form a charter for itself. In September 1909, at a special election, it adopted the commission charter described above. ST JUNIEN, a town of west-central France in the department of Haute- Vienne, on the right bank of the Vienne, 26 m. W. by N. of Limoges on the railway from Limoges to Angouleme. Pop. (1906) town, 8484; commune, 11,400. The 12th century collegiate church, a fine example of the Romanesque style of Limousin, contains a richly sculptured tomb of St Junien, the hermit of the 6th century from whom the town takes its name. Another interesting building is the Gothic chapel of Notre-Dame, with three naves, rebuilt by Louis XL, standing close to a medieval bridge over the Vienne. The town, which ranks second in the department in population and industry, is noted for leather-dressing and the manufacture of gloves and straw paper. SAINT-JUST, ANTOINE LOUIS LEON DE RICHEBOURG DE (1767— 1794), French revolutionary leader, was born at Decize in the Nivernais on the 25th of August 1767. At the outbreak of the Revolution, intoxicated with republican ideas, he threw himself with enthusiasm into politics, was elected an officer in the National Guard of the Aisne, and by fraud — he being yet under age — admitted as a member of the electoral assembly of his district. Early in 1789 he had published twenty cantos of licentious verse, in the fashion of the time, under the title of Organt au Vatican. Henceforward, however, he assumed a stoical demeanour, which, united to a policy tyrannical and pitilessly thorough, became the characteristic of his life. He entered into correspondence with Robespierre, who, flattered by his worship, admitted him to his friendship. Thus supported, Saint- Just became deputy of the department of Aisne to the National Convention, where he made his first speech on the condemnation of Louis XVI. — gloomy, fanatical, remorseless in tone — on the 13th of November 1792. In the Convention, in the Jacobin Club, and among the populace his relations with Robespierre became known, and he was dubbed the " St John of the Messiah of the People." His appointment as a member of the Committee of Public Safety placed him at the centre of the political fever-heat. In the name of this committee he was charged with the drawing up of reports to the Convention upon the absorbing themes of the overthrow of the party of the Gironde (report of the 8th of July 1793), of the Herbertists, and finally, of that denunciation of Danton which consigned him and his followers to the guillotine. What were then called reports were rather appeals to the passions; in Saint-Just's hands they furnished the occasion for a display of fanatical daring, of gloomy eloquence, and of undoubted genius; and — with the shadow of Robespierre behind him — they served their turn. Camille Desmoulins, in jest and mockery, said of Saint-Just — the youth with the beautiful countenance and the long fair locks — " He carries his head like a Holy Sacrament." " And I," savagely replied Saint- Just, " will make him carry his like a Saint Denis." The threat was not vain: Desmoulins accom- panied Danton to the scaffold. The same ferocious inflexibility animated Saint-Just with reference to the external policy of France. He proposed that the National Convention should itself, through its committees, direct all military movements and all branches of the government (report of the 10th of October I 793)- This was agreed to, and Saint-Just was despatched to Strassburg, in company with another deputy, to superintend the military operations. It was suspected that the enemy without was being aided by treason within. Saint- Just's remedy was direct and terrible: he followed bis experience in Paris, " organized the Terror," and soon the heads of all suspects sent to Paris were falling under the guillotine. But there were no executions at Strassburg, and Saint-Just repressed the excesses of J. G. Schneider (q.v.), who as public prosecutor to the revolu- tionary tribunal of the Lower Rhine had ruthlessly applied the Terror in Alsace. Schneider was sent to Paris and guillotined. The conspiracy was defeated, and the armies of the Rhine and Moselle having been inspirited by success — Saint-Just himself taking a fearless part in the actual fighting — and having effected a junction, the frontier was delivered and Germany invaded* On his return Saint-Just was made president of the Convention. Later, with the army of the North, he placed before the generals the dilemma of victory over the enemies of France or trial by the dreaded revolutionary tribunal; and before the eyes of the army itself he organized a force specially charged with the slaughter of those who should seek refuge by flight. Success again crowned his efforts, and Belgium was gained for France (May, 1794). Meanwhile affairs in Paris looked gloomier than ever, and Robespierre recalled Saint-Just to the capital. Saint- Just proposed a dictatorship as the only remedy for the con- vulsions of society. At last, at the famous sitting of the 9th Thermidor, he ventured to present as the report of the com- mittees of General Security and Public Safety a document expressing his own views, a sight of which, however, had been refused to the other members of committee on the previous evening. Then the storm broke. He was vehemently inter- rupted, and the sitting ended with an order for Robespierre's ST JUST—ST LAWRENCE 21 arrest (see Robespierre). On the following day, the 28th of July 1794, twenty-two men, nearly all young, were guillotined. Saint-Just maintained his proud self-possession to the last. See CEuvres de Saint-Just, precedees d'une notice historique sur sa vie (Paris, 1833-1834); E. Fleury, Ittudes revolutionnaires (2 vols., 1851), with which cf. articles by Sainte Beuve (Causeries du lundi, vol. v.), Cuvillier-Fleury (Portraits politiques et revolutionnaires) ; E. Hamel, Histoire de Saint-Just (1859), which brought a fine to the publishers for outrage on public decency ; F. A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la Convention (2nd ed., Paris, 1905). The CEuvres completes de Saint-Just have been edited with notes by C. Vellay (Paris, 1908). ST JUST (St Just in Penwith), a market town in the St Ives parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, i\ m. by road W. of Penzance. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5646. This is the most westerly town in England, lying in a wild district 1 m. inland from Cape Cornwall, which is 4 m. N. of Land's End. The urban district has an area of 7633 acres, and includes the small industrial colonies near some of the most important mines in Cornwall. The Levant mine is the chief, the workings extend- ing beneath the sea. Traces of ancient workings and several exhausted mines are seen. The church of St Just is Per- pendicular, with portions of the fabric of earlier date. There are ruins of an oratory dedicated to St Helen on Cape Cornwall. ST KILDA, a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia, 35 m. by rail S. of, and suburban to, Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 20,544. It is a fashionable watering-place on Hobson's Bay, and possesses the longest pier in Australia. The esplanade and the public park are finely laid out; and portions of the sea are fenced in to protect bathers. The town hall, the public library, the assembly hall, and the great Anglican church of All Saints are the chief buildings. ST KILDA (Gaelic Hirta, " the western land "), the largest of a small group of about sixteen islets of the Outer Hebrides, Inverness-shire, Scotland. It is included in the civil parish of Harris, and is situated 40 m. W. of North Uist. It measures 3 m. from E. to W. and 2 m. from N. to S., has an area of about 3500 acres, and is 7 m. in circumference. Except at the landing- place on the south-east, the cliffs rise sheer out of deep water, and on the north-east side the highest eminence in the island, Conagher, forms a precipice 1220 ft. high. St Kilda is probably the core of a Tertiary volcano, but, besides volcanic rocks, contains hills of sandstone in which the stratification is distinct. The boldness of its scenery is softened by the richness of its verdure. The inhabitants, an industrious Gaelic-speaking community (no in 1851 and 77 in 1901), cultivate about 40 acres of land (potatoes, oats, barley), keep about 1000 sheep and a few head of cattle. They catch puffins, fulmar petrels, guillemots, razor- birds, Manx shearwaters and solan geese both for their oil and for food. Fishing is generally neglected. Coarse tweeds and blanketing are manufactured for home use from the sheep's wool which is plucked from the animal, not shorn. The houses are collected in a little village at the head of the East Bay. The island is practically inaccessible for eight months of the year, but the inhabitants communicate with the outer world by means of " sea messages," which are despatched in boxes when a strong west wind is blowing, and generally make the western islands or mainland of Scotland in a week. The island has been in the possession of the Macleods for hundreds of years. In 1779 the chief of that day sold it, but in 187 1 Macleod ol Macleod bought it back, it is stated, for £3000. In 1724 the popu- lation was reduced by smallpox to thirty souls. They appear to catch what is called the " boat-cold " caused by the arrival of strange boats, and at one time the children suffered severely from a form of lockjaw known as the " eight days' sickness." See works by Donald Munro, high dean of the Isles (1585), M. Martin (1698), Rev. K. Macaulay (1764), R. Connell (1887); Miss Goodrich-Freer, The Outer Isles; Richard and Cherry Kearton, With Nature and a Camera (1896). ST KITTS, or St Christopher, an island in the British West Indies, forming, with Nevis and Anguilla, one of the presidencies in the colony of the Leeward Islands. It is a long oval with a narrow neck of land projecting from the south-eastern end; total length 23 m., area 63 sq. m. Mountains traverse the central part from N.W. to S.E., the greatest height being Mount Misery (3771 ft.). The island is well watered, fertile and healthy, and its climate is cool and dry (temperature between 78 and 85° F.; average annual rainfall 38 in.). The circle of land formed by the skirts of the mountains, and the valley of Basseterre con- stitute nearly the whole of the cultivated portion. The higher slopes of the hills afford excellent pasturage, while the summits are crowned with dense woods. Sugar, molasses, rum, salt, coffee and tobacco are the chief products; horses and cattle are bred. Primary education is compulsory. The principal towns are Old Road, Sandy Point and the capital Basseterre, which lies on the S.W. coast (pop. about 10,000). One good main road, macadamized throughout, encircles the island. The local legislature consists of 6 official and 6 unofficial members nomin- ated by the Crown. St Kitts was discovered by Columbus in 1493 and first settled by Sir Thomas Warner in 1623. Five years later it was divided between the British and the French, but at the Peace of Utrecht in 17 13 it was entirely ceded to the British Crown. Population, mostly negroes, 29,782. SAINT-LAMBERT, JEAN FRANCOIS DE (1716-1803), French poet, was born at Nancy on the 26th of December 1716. He entered the army and, when Stanislaus Leszczynski was estab- lished in 1737 as duke of Lorraine, he became an official at his court at Luneville. He left the army after the Hanoverian campaign of 1756-57, and devoted himself to literature, producing a volume of descriptive verse, Les Saisons (1769), now never read, many articles for the Encyclopidie, and some miscellaneous works. He was admitted to the Academy in 1770. His fame, however, comes chiefly from his amours. He was already high in the favour of the marquise de Boufflers, Stanislaus's mistress, whom he addressed in his verses as Doris and Thtmire, when Voltaire in 1748 came to Luneville with the marquise de Chatelet. Her infatuation for him and its fatal termination are known to all readers of the life oi Voltaire. His subsequent liaison with Madame d'Houdetot, Rousseau's Sophie, though hardly less disastrous to his rival, continued for the whoie lives of himself and his mistress. Saint-Lambert's later years were given to philosophy. He published in 1798 the Principe des mozurs chez toutes les nations ou catechisme universel, and published his CEuvres philosophiques (1803), two years before his death on the 9th of February 1803. Madame d'Houdetot survived until the 28th of January 1813. See G. Maugras, La Cow de Luneville (1904) and La Marquise de Boufflers (1907) ; also the literature dealing with Rousseau and Voltaire. ST LAWRENCE. The river St Lawrence, in North America, with the five fresh-water inland seas (see Great Lakes), Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie and Ontario, forms one of the great river systems of the world, having a length, from the source of the river St Louis (which rises near the source of the river Mississippi and falls into the head of Lake Superior) to Cape Gaspe, where it empties into the Gulf of St Lawrence, of 2100 m. The river is here considered as rising at the foot of Lake Ontario, in 44 10' N., 76 30' W., where the name St Lawrence is first applied*to it. The river, to the point where it crosses 45 N. in its north- westerly course, forms the boundary line between the state of New York and the province of Ontario; thence to the sea it is wholly within Canadian territory, running through the province of Quebec. At Point des Monts, 260 m. below Quebec, it is 26 m. wide, and where it finally merges into 'the Gulf of St Lawrence, 150 m. farther on, it is 90 m. wide, this stretch being broken by the large island of Anticosti, lying fairly in the mouth. The character of the river banks varies with the geological formations through which it runs. Passing over the Archaean rocks of the Laurentian from Kingston to Brockville the shores are very irregular, and the river is broken up by protrusions of glaciated summits of the granites and gneisses into a large number of picturesque islands, " The Thousand Islands," greatly frequented as a summer resort. From Brockville to Montreal the river runs through flat-bedded Cambro-silurian limestones, with rapids at several points, which are all run by light-draught passenger boats. For the up trip the rapids are avoided by canalization. From Montreal to Three Rivers the course is through an alluvial plain over-lying the limestones, 22 ST LAWRENCE the river at one point expanding into Lake St Peter, 20 m. long by 10 m. wide, with a practically uniform depth of 10 ft. Below Three Rivers the banks grow gradually higher until, after passing Quebec through a cleft in slate rocks of Cambrian age, the river widens, washing the feet of the Laurentian Mountains on its north shore ; while a more moderately hilly country, terminating in the Shickshock Mountains of the Gaspe Peninsula, skirts its south shore. From Kingston, at the head of the river, to Montreal, a distance of 170 m., navigation is limited to vessels of 14 ft. draught by the capacity of the canals. From Montreal to Quebec, 160 m., a ship channel has been dredged to a depth of 30 ft.; below Quebec the river is tidally navigable by vessels of any draught. The canals on the St Lawrence above Montreal have been enlarged to the capacity of the Welland canal, the improved system having been opened to commerce in the autumn of 1899. Instead of enlarging the Beauharnois canal, on the south side of the river, a new canal, the " Soulanges," was built from Coteau Landing to Cascades Point, on the north side, the Beau- harnois canal still being used for small barges. The locks of the enlarged canals are all 45 ft. wide, with an available depth of 14 ft. and a minimum length of 270 ft. The following table shows the canalized stretches in this portion of the river:— Name. From To Length in Miles. Number of Locks. Fall in Feet. Galops River .... Rapide Plat River .... Farran Point River .... Cornwall Canal . Lake St Francis Soulanges . Lake St Louis . Lachine Head of Galops Rapids Head of Ogden Island Head of Croil Island Dickinson Landing Coteau Landing Lachine Iroquois Morrisburg Farran Point Cornwall Cascades Point Montreal 7* t* 3a ioi 1 5 11 305 H H 84 3 2 1 6 4 5 154 "I 34 48 824 45 109J 21 206 In the stretch between Montreal and Quebec the ship channel, begun by the Montreal Harbour Commissioners, has been assumed by the Dominion government as a national work, and improve- ments, involving extensive dredging, have been undertaken with the aim of securing everywhere a minimum depth of 30 ft. with a minimum width of 450 ft. The whole river from Kingston to the sea is well supplied with aids to navi- gation. In the dredged portions lights are arranged in pairs of leading lights on foundations sufficiently high and solid to resist the pressure of ice movement, and there is an elabo- rate system of fog alarms, gas-lighted and other buoys, as well as telegraphic, wireless and telephonic communication, storm signal, weather and ice reporting stations and a life-saving service. Montreal, at the head of ocean navigation, the largest city in Canada, is an important distributing centre for all points in western Canada, and enjoys an extensive shipping trade with the United Kingdom, the sea-going shipping exceeding 1,500,000 tons, and the inland shipping approximating 2,000,000 tons, annually. Quebec is the summer port used by the largest steamers in the Canadian trade. There are numerous flourishing towns on both banks of the river, from Kingston, a grain trans- ferring port, to the sea. Large quantities of lumber, principally spruce (fir) and paper pulp, are manufactured at small mills along the river, and shipped over sea directly from the place of production. The mail steamers land and embark mails at Rimouski, to or from which they are conveyed by rail along the south shore. The importance to Canada of the river St Lawrence as a national trade route cannot be over-estimated. As a natural highway between all points west of the Maritime Provinces and Europe it is unique in permitting ocean traffic to penetrate 1000 m. into the heart of a country. It is, moreover, the shortest freight route from the Great Lakes to Europe. From Buffalo to Liverpool via New York involves rail or 7-ft. canal transport of 496 m. and an ocean voyage of 3034 nautical miles. Via Montreal there is a 14-ft. transport of 348 m. and river and ocean voyage of 2772 nautical miles. From Quebec to Liverpool by Cape Race is 2801 nautical miles, while the route by Belle Isle, more nearly a great circle course, usually taken between July and October, is only 2633 nautical miles. On the other hand the St Lawrence is not open throughout the year; the average time between the arrival of the first vessel at Montreal from sea and the departure of the last ocean vessel is seven months. From Kingston to Quebec the river freezes over every winter, except at points where the current is rapid. Below Quebec, although there is heavy border ice, the river never freezes over. For a few winters, while the bridge accommodation at Montreal was restricted to the old single-track Victoria bridge, railway freight trains were run across the ice bridge on temporary winter tracks. Efforts have been made to lengthen the season of navigation by using specially constructed steamers to break the ice; and it is claimed that the season of navigation could be materially lengthened, and winter floods prevented by keeping the river open to Montreal. Winter ferries are maintained at Quebec, between Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia, and between Newfoundland and Sydney, Cape Breton. In the winter of 1898-1899 an attempt was made to run a winter steamer from Paspebiac to England, but it was not successful, principally because an unsuitable vessel was used. To pass through the field of ice that is always present in the gulf, in greater or lesser quantity, specially strengthened vessels are required. The river above tide water is not subject to excessive flooding, the maxi- mum rise in the spring and early summer months, chiefly from northern tributaries from the Ottawa eastward, being 10 ft. The Great Lakes serve as impounding reservoirs for the gradual distribution of all overflows in the west. At Montreal, soon after the river freezes over each winter, there is a local rise of about 10 ft. in the level of the water in the harbour, caused by restriction of the channel by anchor ice ; and in the spring of the year, when the volume of the water is augmented, this obstruction leads to a further rise, in 1886 reaching a height of 27 ft. above ordinary low water. To prevent flooding of the lower parts of the city a dike was in 1887 built along the river front, which prevented a serious flooding in 1899. Tides enter the Gulf of St Lawrence from the Atlantic chiefly through Cabot Strait (between Cape Breton and Newfoundland), which is 75 m. wide and 250 fathoms deep. The tide entering through Belle Isle Strait, 10 m. wide and 30 fathoms deep, is comparatively little felt. The tidal undulation, in passing through the gulf, expands so widely as to be almost inappreciable in places, as, for example, at the Magdalen Islands, in the middle of the gulf, where the range amounts to about 3 ft. at springs, becoming effaced at neaps. There is also little more tide than this at some points on the north shore of Prince Edward Island. The greatest range is attained in North- umberland Strait and in Chaleur Bay, where it amounts to 10 ft. At the entrance to the estuary at Anticosti it has again the oceanic range of about 6 ft., and proceeds up the estuary with an ever- increasing range, which attains its maximum of 19 ft. at the lower end of Orleans Island, 650 m. from the ocean at Cabot Strait. This must be considered the true head of the estuary. At Quebec, 30 m. farther up, the range is nearly as great; but at 40 m. above Quebec it is largely cut off by the Richelieu Rapids, and finally ceases to be felt at Three Rivers, at the lower end of Lake St Peter, 760 m. from the ocean. The St Lawrence provides ample water-power, which is being increasingly used. Its rapids have long been used for milling and factory purposes; a wing dam on the north side of Lachine Rapids furnishes electricity to Montreal; the falls of Montmorency light Quebec and run electric street cars; and from Lake Superior to the gulf there are numerous points on the tributaries to the St Lawrence where power could be used. Nearly all the rivers flowing into the St Lawrence below Quebec are stocked with salmon (Salmo salar), and are preserved and leased to anglers by the provincial government. In the salt ST LEGER— ST LEONARDS 23 water of the gulf and lower river, mackerel, cod, herring, smelt, sea-trout, striped bass and other fish are caught for market. The St Lawrence is spanned by the following railway bridges : (1) A truss bridge built near Cornwall in 1900 by the New York & Ottawa railroad, now operated by the New York Central railroad. (2) A truss bridge with a swing, built in 1890 by the Canada Atlantic railway at Coteau Landing. (3) A cantilever bridge built in 1887 by the Canadian Pacific railway at Caugh- nawaga. (4) The Victoria Jubilee bridge, built as a tubular bridge by the Grand Trunk railway in i860, and transformed into a truss bridge in 1897-1898. The new bridge rests on the piers of the old one, enlarged to receive it, is 6592 ft. long by 67 ft. wide, has 25 spans, double railway and trolley tracks, driveways and sidewalks, and was erected without interruption of traffic. (5) A very large cantilever bridge, having a central span of 1800 ft., crosses the river at a point 7 m. above Quebec. The southern half of the superstructure, while in course of erection in August 1907, fell, killing 78 men, and necessitating a serious delay in the completion of the work. The river St Lawrence was discovered by Jacques Cartier, commissioned by the king of France to explore and trade on the American coast. Cartier entered the strait of Belle Isle in 1534; but Breton fishermen had previously resorted there in summer and penetrated as far as Brest, eleven leagues west of Blanc Sablon, the dividing line between Quebec and Labrador. Cartier circled the whole gulf, but missed the entrance to the river. On his second voyage in 1536 he named a bay on the north shore of the gulf, which he entered on the 10th of August, the feast of St Lawrence, Baye Sainct Laurens, and the name gradually extended over the whole river, though Cartier himself always wrote of the River of Canada. Early in September, he reached " Canada," now Quebec, and on the 2nd of October reached Hochelaga, now Montreal. No permanent settlement was then made. The first, Tadousac, at the mouth of the Saguenay, was established by Champlain in 1603, and Quebec was settled by him in 1608. Between that time and 1616 Champlain explored the whole river system as far west as Lake Huron, reaching it by way of the Ottawa river, and taking possession of the country in the name of the king of France. It became British by the treaty of Paris, in 1763. See S. E. Dawson, The St Lawrence, Us Basin and Border Lands (New York, 1905) (historical) ; St Lawrence Pilot (7th ed., Hydro- graphic Office, Admiralty, London, 1906) ; Sailing Directions for the St Lawrence River to Montreal (United States Hydrographic Office publication, No. 108 D, Washington, 1907): Annual Reports of the Canadian Departments of Marine and Fisheries, Public Works, and Railways and Canals, Ottawa); Transactions (Royal Society, Canada, 1898-1899), vol. iv. sec. iii.; T. C. Keefer on " Ice Floods and Winter Navigation of the St Lawrence," Transactions (Canadian Society of Civil Engineers, Presidential Address of W. P. Anderson, on improvements to navigation on St Lawrence, 1904). (W. P. A.) ST LEGER, SIR ANTHONY (c. 1496-1559), lord deputy of Ireland, eldest son of Ralph St Leger, a gentleman of Kent, was educated abroad and at Cambridge. He quickly gained the favour of Henry VIII. , and was appointed in 1537 president of a commission for inquiring into the condition of Ireland. This work he carried out with ability and obtained much useful knowledge of the country. In 1540 he was appointed lord deputy of Ireland. His first task was to repress disorder, and he at once proceeded with severity against the Kavanaghs, per- mitting them, however, to retain their lands, on their accepting feudal tenure on the English model. By a similar policy he exacted obedience from the O'Mores, the O'Tooles and the O'Conors in Leix and Offaly; and having conciliated the O'Briens in the west and the earl of Desmond in the south, the lord deputy carried an act in the Irish parliament in Dublin conferring the title of king of Ireland on Henry VIII. and his heirs. Conn O'Neill, who in the north had remained sullenly hostile, was brought to submission by vigorous measures. For the most part, however, St Leger's policy was one of moderation and conciliation — rather more so, indeed, than Henry VIII. approved. He recommended The O'Brien, when he gave token of a sub- missive disposition, for the title of earl of Thomond; O'Neill was created earl of Tyrone; and administrative council was instituted in the province of Munster; and in 1544 a levy of Irish soldiers was raised for service in Henry VIII. 's wars. St Leger's personal influence was proved by an outbreak of disturbance when he visited England in 1544, and the prompt restoration of order on his return some months later. St Leger retained his office under Edward VI., and again effectually quelled attempts at rebellion by the O'Conors and O'Byrnes. From 1548 to 1550 he was in England. He returned charged with the duty of introducing the reformed liturgy into Ireland. His conciliatory methods brought upon him the accusation that he lacked zeal in the cause, and led to his recall in the summer of 1 55 1. After the accession of Mary he was again appointed lord deputy in October 1553, but in consequence of a charge against him of keeping false accounts he was recalled for the third time in 1556. While the accusation was still under investi- gation, he died on the 16th of March 1559. By his wife Agnes, daughter of Hugh Warham, a niece cf Archbishop Warham, he had three sons, William, Warham and Anthony. William died in his father's lifetime leaving a son, Sir Warham St Leger (d. 1600), who was father of Sir William St Leger (d. 1642), president of Munster. Sir William took part in " the flight of the earls " (see O'Neill) in 1607, and spent several years abroad. Having received a pardon from James I. and extensive grants of land in Ireland, he was appointed president of Munster by Charles I. in 1627. He warmly supported the arbitrary government of Strafford, actively assisting in raising and drilling the Irish levies destined for the service of the king against the Parliament. In the great rebellion of 1641 he bore the chief responsibility for dealing with the insurgents in Munster; but the forces and supplies placed at his disposal were utterly inadequate. He executed martial law in his province with the greatest severity, hanging large numbers of rebels, often without much proof of guilt. He was still struggling with the insurrection when he died at Cork on the 2nd of July 1642. Sir William's daughter Margaret married Murrough O'Brien, 1st earl of Inchi- quin; his son John was father of Arthur St Leger, created Viscount Doneraile in 1703. , A biography of Sir Anthony St Leger will be found in Alhenae Cantabrigienses, by C. H. Cooper and T. Cooper (Cambridge, 1858) ; see also Calendar of State Papers relating to Ireland, Hen. VIII.-Eliz. ; Calendar of Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII. ; Calendar of State Papers {Domestic Series), Edward VI.— James I.; Calendar of Carew MSS. ; J. O'Donovan's edition of Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters (7 vols., Dublin, 1851); Richard Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors (3 Vols., London, 1 885-1890) ; J. A. Froude, History of England (12 vols., London, 1856-1870). For Sir William St Leger, see Strafford's Letters and Despatches (2 vols., London, 1739) ; Thomas Carte, History of the Life of James, Duke of Ormonde (6 vols., Oxford, 1851); History of the Irish Confederation and the War in Ireland, edited by Sir J. T. Gilbert (Dublin, 1882-1891). (R. J. M.) ST LEONARDS, EDWARD BURTENSHAW SUGDEN, ist Baron (1781-1875), lord chancellor of Great Britain, was the son of a hairdresser of Duke Street, Westminster, and was born on the 1 2th of February 1781. After practising for some years as a conveyancer, he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1807, having already published his well-known treatise on the Law 'of Vendors and Purchasers (14th ed., 1862). In 1822 he was made king's counsel and chosen a bencher of Lincoln's Inn. He was returned at different times for various boroughs to the House of Commons, where he made himself prominent by his opposition to the Reform Bill of 1832. He was appointed solicitor-general in 1829, was named lord chancellor of Ireland in 1834, and again filled the same office from 1841 to 1846. Under Lord Derby's first administration in 1852 he became lord chancellor and was raised to the peerage as Lord St Leonards. In this position he devoted himself with energy and vigour to the reform of the law; Lord Derby on his return to power in 1858 again offered him the same office, which from considerations of health he declined. He continued, however, to take an active interest especially in the legal matters that came before the House of Lords, and bestowed his particular attention on the reform of the law of property. He died at Boyle Farm, Thames Ditton, on the 29th of January i8?<. 24 ST LIZIER-DE-COUSERANS— ST LOUIS After his death his will was missing, but his daughter, Miss Charlotte Sugden,. was able to recollect the contents of a most intricate document, and in the action of Sugden v. Lord St Leonards (L.R. i P.D. 154) the court accepted her evidence and granted probate of a paper propounded as containing the provisions of the lost will. This decision established the pro- position that the contents of a lost will may be proved by secondary evidence, even of a single witness. Lord St Leonards was the author of various important legal publications, many of which have passed through several editions. Besides the treatise on purchasers already mentioned, they include Powers, Cases decided by the House of Lords, Gilbert on Uses, New Real Property Laws and Handybook of Property Law, Misrepresenta- tions in Campbell's Lives of Lyndhurst and Brougham, corrected by St Leonards. See The Times (30th of January 1875) ; E. Manson, Builders of our Law (1904); J. R. Atlay, Lives of the Victorian Chancellors, vol. ii. ST LIZIER-DE-COUSERANS, a village of south-western France in the department of Ariege on the right bank of the Salat, 1 m. N.N.W. of St Girons. Pop. (1906) 615; commune 1295. St Lizier, in ancient times one of the twelve cities of Novempopulania under the name of Lugdunum Consoranorum, was later capital of the Couserans and seat of a bishopric (sup- pressed at the Revolution) to the holders of which the town belonged. It has a cathedral of the 1 2th and 14th centuries with a fine Romanesque cloister and preserves remarkable remains of Roman ramparts. The old episcopal palace (17th century) and the adjoining church (14th and 17th centuries), once the cathedral with its fine chapter-hall (12th century), form part of a lunatic asylum. The Salat is crossed by a bridge of the 1 2th or 13th century. The town owes its name to its bishop Lycerius, who is said to have saved it from the Vandals in the 7th century. The chief event in its history was its devastation in 1 130 by Bernard III., count of Comminges, a disaster from which it never completely recovered. ST LO, a town of north-western France, capital of the depart- ment of Manche, 475 m. W. by S. of Caen by rail. Pop. (1906) town 9379; commune, 12,181. St L6 is situated on a rocky hill on the right bank of the Vire. Its chief building is the Gothic church of Notre-Dame, dating mainly from the 16th century. The facade, flanked by two lofty towers and richly decorated, is impressive, despite its lack of harmony. There is a Gothic pulpit outside the choir. In the hotel-de-ville is the " Torigni marble," the pedestal of an ancient statue, the in- scriptions on which relate chiefly to the annual assemblies of the Gallic deputies held at Lyons under the Romans. The modern church of Sainte-Croix preserves a Romanesque portal which belonged to the church of an ancient Benedictine abbey. St L6 is the seat of a prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a training college for masters, a school of drawing, a branch of the Bank of France, a chamber of arts and manu- factures, and a government stud. The town has trade in grain, fat stock, troop-horses and farm produce, and carries on tanning, wool-spinning and bleaching and the manufacture -of woollen and other fabrics. St L6, called Briove.ra in the Gallo-Roman period, owes its present name to St L5 (Laudus), bishop of Coutances (d. 568). In the middle ages St L6 became an important fortress as well as a centre for the weaving industry. It sustained numerous sieges, the last in 1574, when the town, which had embraced Calvinism, was stormed by the Catholics and many of its inhabitants massacred. In 1800 the town was made capital of its department in place of Coutances. ST LOUIS, the chief city and a port of entry of Missouri, an'd the fourth in population among the cities of the United States, situated on the W. bank of the Mississippi river, about 20 m. below its confluence with the Missouri, 200 m. above the influx of the Ohio, and 1270 m. above the Gulf of Mexico, occupying a land area of 61-37 S Q- m - m a commanding central position in the great drainage basin of the Mississippi system, the richest portion of the continent. Pop. (1880) 350,518, (1890) 451,770, (1900) 575,238, (191°) 687,029. The central site is marked by an abrupt terraced rise from the river to an easily sloping tableland, 4 or 5 m. long and somewhat less than 1 m. broad, behind which are rolling hills. The length of the river-front is about 19 m. The average elevation of the city is more than 425 ft.; and the recorded extremes of low and high water on the river are 379 and 428 ft. (both established in 1844). The higher portions of the city lie about 200 ft. above the river level, and in general the site is so elevated that there can be no serious interruption of business except by extraordinary floods. The natural drainage is excellent, and the sewerage system, long very imperfect, has been made adequate. The street plan is approximately rectilinear. The stone-paved wharf or river-front, known as the Levee or Front Street, is 3-7 m. long. Market Street, running E. and W., is regarded as the central thoroughfare; and the numbering of the streets is systematized with reference to this line and the river. Broadway (or Fifth Street, from the river) and Olive Street are the chief shopping centres; Washington Avenue, First (or Main) and Second Streets are devoted to wholesale trade; and Fourth Street is the financial centre. The most important public buildings are the Federal building, built of Maine granite; the county court house (1839- 1862, $1,199,872), — a semi-classic, plain, massive stone structure, the Four Courts (1871, $755,000), built of cream-coloured Joliet stone, and a rather effective city hall (1890-1904, $2,000,000), in Victorian Gothic style in brick and stone. The chief slave- market before the Civil War was in front of the Court House. The City Art Museum, a handsome semi-classic structure of original design, and the Tudor-Gothic building of the Washington University, are perhaps the most satisfying structures in the city architecturally. Among other noteworthy buildings are the Public Library, the Mercantile Library, the Mercantile, the Mississippi Valley, the Missouri-Lincoln, and the St Louis Union Trust Com- pany buildings; the German-Renaissance home of the Mercantile Club; the florid building of the St Louis Club; the Merchants' Exchange; the Missouri School for the Blind; the Coliseum, built in 1897 for conventions, horse shows, &c, torn down in 1907 and rebuilt in Jefferson Avenue, and the Union Station, used by all the railways entering the city. This last was opened in 1894, and cost, including the site, $6,500,000; has a train-shed with thirty-two tracks, covers some eleven acres, and is one of the largest and finest railway stations in the world. The city owns a number of markets. In 1907 a special architectural commission, appointed to supervise the construction of new municipal buildings, purchased a site adjacent to the City Hall, for new city courts and jail, which were begun soon afterwards. The valley of Mill Creek (once a lake bed, " Chouteau Pond," and afterwards the central sewer) traverses the city from W. to E. and gives entry to railways coming from the W. into the Union Station. The terminal system for connecting Missouri with Illinois includes, in addition to the central passenger station, vast centralized freight warehouses and depots; an elevated railway along the levee; passenger and freight ferries across the Mississippi with railway connexions; two bridges across the river; and a tunnel leading to one of them under the streets of the city along the river front. The Merchants' Bridge (1887- 1890, $3,000,000), used solely by the railways, is 1366-5 ft. long in channel span, with approaches almost twice as long. The Eads Bridge (1868-1874; construction cost $6,536,730, total cost about $10,000,000) is 3 m. farther down the river; it Carries both wagon ways and railway tracks, is 1627 ft. clear between shore abutments, and has three spans. Built entirely of steel above the piers, it is a happy combination of strength and grace, and was considered a marvel when erected. St Louis has exceptionally fine residential streets that are accounted among the handsomest in the world. The most notable are Portland Place, Westmoreland Place, Vandeventer Place, Kingsbury Place, &c, in the neighbourhood of Forest Park: broad parked avenues, closed with ornamental gateways, and flanked by large houses in fine grounds. The park system of the city is among the finest in the country, containing in 1910 2641-5 acres (cost to 1909, $6,417,745). Forest Park (1372 acres), maintained mainly in a natural, open-country state, is the largest single member of the system. In one end of it was held the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in 1904. Tower Grove Park (277 acres) and the Missouri Botanical Gardens ST LOUIS 25 (45 acres), probably the finest of their kind in the country, were gifts to the city from a public-spirited citizen, Henry Shaw (1800- 1 889), who also endowed the botanical school of Washington University. Carondelet (180 acres), O'Fallon (158 acres) ,and Fairground(i 29 acres, including a 65-acre athletic field) are the finest of the other parks. King's Highway is a boulevard (partly completed in 1910) from the Mississippi on the S. to the Mississippi on the N., crossing the western part of the city. In accord with a general movement in American cities late in the 19th century, St Louis made a beginning in the provision of small " neighbourhood parks," intended primarily to better the lives of the city's poor, and vacation playgrounds for children; and for this purpose five blocks of tenements were condemned by the city. In the different parks and public places are statues of Columbus, Shakespeare (Tower Grove Park) and Humboldt (Tower Grove Park), by Ferdinand von Mueller of Munich; a replica of the Schiller monument at Marbach in Germany, and of Houdon's Washington (Lafayette Park) ; statues of Thomas Hart Benton (Lafayette Park; by Harriet Hosmer), of Francis Preston Blair (W. W. Gardner) and Edward Bates (J. W. McDonald), both in Forest Park, and of General Grant (R. P. Bringhurst) in the City Hall Park; all of these being in bronze. In the cemeteries of the city — of which the largest are Belief on taine (350 acres) and Calvary (415 acres) — there are notable monuments to Henry Shaw, and to Nathaniel Lyon, Sterling Price, Stephen W. Kearny and W. T. Sherman, all closely associated with St Louis or Missouri. There are various lake, river and highland pleasure-resorts near the city; and about 12 m. S. is Jefferson Barracks, a national military post of the first class. The old arsenal within the city, about which centred the opening events of the Civil War in Missouri, has been mainly abandoned, and part of the grounds given to the municipality for a park. The annual fair, or exposition, was held in the autumn of each year — except in war time — from 1855 to 1902, ceasing with the preparations for the World's Fair of 1904. One day of Fair Week (" Big Thursday ") was a city holiday; and one evening of the week was given over after 1878 to a nocturnal illuminated pageant known as the Procession of the Veiled Prophet, with accompaniments in the style of the carnival (Mardi Gras) at New Orleans; this pageant is still continued. Among the educational institutions of the city, Washington University, a largely endowed, non-sectarian, co-educational school opened in 1857, is the most prominent. Under its control are three secondary schools, Smith Academy and the Manual Training School for Boys, and Mary Institute for Girls. The university embraces a department of arts and sciences, which includes a college and a school of engineering and architecture, and special schools of law, medicine (1899), dentistry, fine arts, social economy and botany. Affiliated with the university is the St Louis School of Social Economy, called until 1909 the St Louis School of Philanthropy, and in 1906- 1909 affiliated with the university of Missouri. The Russell Sage Foundation co-operates with this school. In 1909 Washington University had 1045 students. In 1905 the department of arts and sciences and the law school were removed to the outskirts of the city, where a group of buildings of Tudor-Gothic style in red Missouri granite were erected upon grounds, which with about $6,000,000 for buildings and endowment, were given to the univer- sity. St Louis University had its beginnings (1818) as a Latin academy, became a college in 1820, and was incorporated as a university in 1832. One of the leading Jesuit colleges of the United States, it is the parent-school of six other prominent Jesuit colleges in the Middle West. In 1910 it comprised a school of philosophy and science (1832), a divinity school (1834), a medical school (1836), ^ law school (1843), a dental school (1908), a college, three academies and a commercial department; and its enrolment was 1181. It is the third largest, and the Christian Brothers' College (1851), also Roman Catholic, is the fourth largest educational institution in the state. The Christian Brothers' College had in 1910 30 instructors and 500 students, most of whom were in the preparatory department. Besides the Divinity School of St Louis University, there are three theological seminaries, Concordia (Evangelical Lutheran, 1839), Eden Evangelical College (German Evangelical Synod of North America, 1850) and Kennck Theological Seminary (Roman Catholic, 1894). There are two evening law schools, Benton College (1896) and Metropolitan College (1901). The public school system came into national prominence under the administration (1 867-1 880) of William T. Harris, and for many years has been recognized as one of the best in the United States. The first permanent kindergarten in the country in connexion with the public schools was established in St Louis in 1 873 by W. T. Harris (g.».), then superintendent of schools, and Miss Susan Ellen Blow. The first public kindergarten training school was established at the same time. There is a teachers' college in the city school system, and there are special schools for backward children. Several school buildings have been successfully used as civic centres. The city has an excellent educational museum, material from which is avail- able for object lessons in nature study, history, geography, art, &c., in all public schools. In the year 1907-1908 the total receipts for public education were $4,219,000, and the expenditure was $3,789,604. The City Board of Education was chartered in 1897. The German element has lent strength to musical and gymnastic societies. The Museum and School of Fine Arts was established in 1879 as the Art Department of Washington University. In 1908 it first received the proceeds of a city tax of one-fifth mill per dollar, and in 1909 it was reorganized as the City Art Museum. In its building (the " Art Palace," built in 1 903-1904 at a cost of $943,000 for the Louisiana Purchase Exposition ; now owned by the city) in Forest Park are excellent collections (largely loaned) of sculpture and paintings (illustrating particularly the development of American art) and of art objects. The School of Fine Arts, now separate from the museum and a part of Washington University, has classes in painting, drawing, design, illustration, modelling, pottery, book- binding, &c. Among the libraries the greatest collections are those of the Mercantile Library (in 1910, 136,000 volumes and pamphlets), a subscription library founded in 1846, and the public library (1865) — a fine city library since 1894, with 312,000 volumes in 1910 and six branch libraries, the gift of Andrew Carnegie, who also gave the city $500,000 towards the new public library, which was begun in 1909 and cost $1,500,000. Other notable collections are those of the St Louis Academy of Science and of the Missouri Botanical Gardens. There are at least three newspapers of national repute : the Republic, established in 1808 as the Missouri Gazette, and in 1822-1886 called the Missouri Republican; the Globe-Democrat (1852); and the Westliche Post (1857). In trade, industry and wealth St Louis is one of the most substantial cities of the Union. Its growth has been steady; but without such " booms " as have marked the history of many western cities, and especially Chicago, of which St Louis was for several decades the avowed rival. The primacy of the northern city was clear, however, by 1880. St Louis has borne a reputa- tion for conservatism and solidity. Its manufactures aggregate three-fifths the value of the total output of the state. In 1880 their value was $114,333,375, and in 1890 $228,700,000; the value of the factory product was $193,732,788 in 1900, and in 1905 $267,307,038 (increase 1900-1905, 38%). Tobacco goods, malt liquors, boots and shoes and slaughtering and meat-packing products were the leading items in 1905. The packing industry is even more largely developed outside the city limits and across the river in East St Louis. St Louis is the greatest manufacturer of tobacco products among American cities, and probably in the world; the total in 1905 was 8-96% of the total out- put of manufactured tobacco in the United States; and the output of chewing and smoking tobacco and snuff in 1900 constituted 23-5.% and in 1905 23-7% of the product of the country. St Louis is also the foremost producer of white lead, street and railway cars, and wooden ware ; and in addition to these and the items above particularized, has immense manufactories of clothing, coffee and spices (roasted), paints, stoves and furnaces, flour, hardware, drugs and chemicals and clay products. One of its breweries is said to be the largest in the world. Aside from traffic in its own products, the central position of the city in the Mississippi Valley gives it an immense trade in the pro- ducts of that tributary region, among which grains, cotton, tobacco, lumber, live stock and their derived products are the staples. In addition, it is a jobbing centre of immense interests in the distribu- tion of other goods. The greatest lines of wholesale trade are dry goods, millinery and notions; groceries and allied lines; boots and shoes; tobacco; shelf and heavy hardware; furniture; railway supplies; street and railway cars; foundry and allied products; drugs, chemicals and proprietary medicines; beer; wooden-ware; agricultural implements; hides; paints; paint oils and white lead; electrical supplies; stoves, ranges and furnaces; and furs — the value of these different items ranging from 70 to 10 million dollars each. 1 According to the St Louis Board of Trade, St Louis is the largest primary fur market of the world, drawing supplies even from northern Canada. As a wool market Boston alone surpasses it, and as a vehicle market it stands in the second or third place. In the other industries just named, it claims to stand first among the cities of the Union. It is one of the greatest interior cotton markets of the country — drawing its supplies mainly from Arkansas, Texas and Oklahoma — but a large part of its receipts are for shipment on through bills of lading, and are not net receipts handled by its 1 These are arranged in the order shown by the Annual Statement for 1906 reported to the Merchants' Exchange. 26 ST LOUIS own factors. The gross cotton movement continues to increase, but the field of supply has been progressively lessened by the development of Galveston and other ports on the gulf. As a grain and stock market St Louis has felt the competition of Kansas City and St Joseph. River and railway transportation built up in turn the command- ing commercial position of the city. The enormous growth of river traffic in the decade before i860 gave it at the opening of the Civil War an incontestable primacy in the West. In 1010 about twenty independent railway systems, great and small (including two terminal roads within the city), gave outlet and inlet to commerce at St Louis; and of these fifteen are among the greatest systems of the country: the Baltimore & Ohio South- western, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & Alton, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the St Louis & San Francisco, the Illinois Central, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Missouri Pacific, the Pennsylvania, the St Louis South-Western, the Southern, the Wabash, the Louisville & Nashville, the Mobile & Ohio, and the Toledo, St Louis & Western. The construction of the Missouri Pacific Railway system was begun at St Louis in 1850, and various other roads were started in the next two years. For several decades railway develop- ment served only to increase the commercial primacy of the city in the southern Mississippi Valley, but in more recent years the concentration of roads at Kansas City enabled that place to draw from the west and south-west an immense trade once held by St Louis. River freighting is of very slight importance. St Louis is a port of entry for foreign commerce; its imports in 1907 were valued at $7,442,967; in 1909 at $6,362,770. The population of St Louis in 1840 was 16,469; in 1850 it was 77,860 (seventh in size of the cities of the country); in i860, 160,773; in 1870, 310,864 (third in size); in 1880, 350,518; in 1890, 451,770; in 1900, 575,238; and in 1910, 687,029. Since 1890 it has been fourth in population among the cities of the United States. Of the population in 1900 (575,238) 111,356 were foreign-born and 35,516 were negroes. Of the foreign-born in 1900, 58,781 were Germans, 19,421 were Irish, 5800 were English, 4785 Russian. In 1900, 154,746 inhabitants of St Louis were children of German parents. Under the state constitution of 1875 St Louis, as a city of 100,000 inhabitants, was authorized to frame its own charter, and also to separate from St Louis county. These rights were exercised in 1876. The General Assembly of the state holds the same powers over St Louis as over other cities. The electorate may pass upon proposed amendments to the charter at any election, after due precedent publication thereof. The mayor holds office for four years. In 1823 the mayor was first elected by popular vote and the municipal legislature became unicameral. The bicameral system was again adopted in 1839. The municipal assembly consists of a Council of 13 chosen at large for four years — half each two years — and a House of Delegates, 28 in number, chosen by wards for two years. A number of chief executive officers are elected for four years; the mayor and Council appoint others, and the appointment is made at the middle of the mayor's term in order to lessen the immediate influence of municipal patronage upon elections. Single com- missioners control the parks, streets, water service, harbour and wharves, and sewers, and these constitute, with the mayor, a board of public improvement. Under an enabling act of 1907 the municipal assembly in 1909 created a public service com- mission, of three members, appointed by the mayor. The measure of control exercised by the state is important, the governor appointing the excise (liquor-licence) commissioner, the board of election commissioners, the inspector of petroleum and of tobacco, and (since 1861) the police board. St Louis is normally Republican in politics, and Missouri Democratic. Taxes for state and municipal purposes are collected by the city. The school board, as in very few other cities of the country, has independent taxing power. The city owns the steamboat landings and draws a small revenue from their rental. The heaviest expenses are for streets and parks, debt payments, police and education. The bonded debt in 1910 was $27,815,312, and the assessed valuation of property in that year was $550,207,640. The city maintains hospitals, a poor-house, a reformatory work-house, an industrial school for children, and an asylum for the insane. The water-supply of the city is derived from the Mississippi, and is therefore potentially inexhaustible. Settling basins and a coagu- lant chemical plant (1904) are used to purify the water before distribution. After the completion of the Chicago drainage canal the state of Missouri endeavoured to compel its closure, on the ground that it polluted the Mississippi; but it was established to the satisfaction of the Supreme Court of the United States that the back- flush from Lake Michigan had the contrary effect upon the Illinois river, and therefore upon the Mississippi. Except for sediment the water-supply is not impure or objectionable. No public utilities, except the water-works, markets and public grain elevators, are owned by the city. The street railways are controlled — since a state law of 1899 permitted their consolidation — by one corporation, though a one-fare, universal transfer 5-cent rate is in general opera- tion. A single corporation has controlled the gas service from 1846 to 1873 and since 1890, though under no exclusive franchise; and the city has not the right of purchase. St Louis was settled as a trading post in 1764 by Pierre Laclede Liguest (17 24- 1 778), representative of a company to which the French crown had granted a monopoly of the trade of the Missouri river country. When, by the treaty of Paris of 1763, the portion of Louisiana E. of the Mississippi was ceded by France to Great Britain, many of the French inhabitants of the district of the Illinois removed into the portion of Louisiana W. of the river, which had passed in 1762 under Spanish sovereignty; and of this lessened territory of upper Louisiana St Louis became the seat of government. In 1767 it was a log-cabin village of perhaps 500 inhabitants. Spanish rule became an actuality in 1770 and continued until 1804, when it was momentarily sup- planted by French authority— existent theoretically since 1800 — and then, after the Louisiana Purchase, by the sovereignty of the United States. In 1780 the town was attacked by Indian allies of Great Britain. Canadian-French hunters and trappers and boatmen, a few Spaniards and other Europeans, some Indians, more half-breeds, and a considerable body of Americans and negro slaves made up the motley population that became inhabitants of the United States. The fur trade was growing rapidly. Under American rule there was added the trade of a military supply-point for the Great West, and in 1817-1819 steamship traffic was begun with Louisville, New Orleans, and the lower Missouri river. Meanwhile, in 1808, St Louis was incorporated as a town, and in 1823 it became a city. The city charter became effective in March 1823. The early 'thirties marked the beginning of its great prosperity, and the decade 1850-1860 was one of colossal growth, due largely to the river trade. All freights were being moved by steamship as early as 1825. The first railway was begun in 1850. At the opening of the Civil War the commercial position of the city was most commanding. Its prosperity, however, was dependent upon the prosperity of the South, and received a fearful set-back in the war. When the issue of secession or adherence to the Union had been made up in 1861, the outcome in St Louis, where the fate of the state must necessarily be decided, was of national importance. St Louis was headquarters for an army department and con- tained a great national arsenal. The secessionists tried to manoeuvre the state out of the Union by strategy, and to seize the arsenal. The last was prevented by Congressman Francis Preston Blair, Jr., and Captain Nathaniel Lyon, first a sub- ordinate and later commander at the arsenal. The garrison was strengthened; in April the president entrusted Blair and other loyal civilians with power to enlist loyal citizens, and put the city under martial law if necessary; in May ten regiments were ready — made up largely of German-American Republican clubs (" Wide Awakes "), which had been at first purely political, then — when force became necessary to secure election rights to anti-slavery men — semi-military, and which now were quickly made available for war; and on the 10th of May Captain Lyon surrounded and made prisoners a force of secessionists quartered in Camp Jackson on the outskirts of the city. A street riot followed, and 28 persons were killed by the volleys of the military. St Louis was held by the Union forces throughout the war. ST LOUIS— ST LUCIA 27 During a quarter century following 1857 the city was the centre of an idealistic philosophical movement that has had hardly any counterpart in American culture except New England trans- cendentalism. Its founders were William T. Harris (q.v.) and Henry C. Brockmeyer (b. 1828), who was lieutenant-governor of the state in 1876-1880. A. Bronson Alcott was one of the early lecturers to the group which gathered around these two, a group which studied Hegel and Kant, Plato and Aristotle. Brockmeyer published excellent versions of Hegel's Unabridged Logic % Phenomenology and Psychology. Harris became the greatest of American exponents of Hegel. Other members of the group were Thomas Davidson (1840-1900), Adolph E. Kroeger, the translator of Fichte, Anna Callender Brackett (b. 1836), who published in 1886 an English version of Rosenkranz's History of Education, Denton Jaques Snider (b. 1841), whose best work has been on Froebel, and William McKendree Bryant (b. 1843), who wrote Hegel's Philosophy of Art (1879) and Hegel's Educa- tional Ideas (1896). This Philosophical Society published (1867- 1893) at St Louis The Journal of Speculative Philosophy, the first periodical of the sort in English. Since the war the city's history has been signalized chiefly by economic development. A period in this was auspiciously closed in 1904 by the holding of a world's fair to celebrate the centennial of the purchase from France, in 1803, of the Louisiana territory — since then divided into 13 states, and containing in 1900 some 1 2 , 500,000 inhabitants. Preparations for this Louisiana Purchase Exposition began in 1898. It was the largest world's fair held to date, the site covering 1240 acres, of which 250 were under roof. The total cost, apart from individual exhibitions, was about $42,500,000, of which the national government contributed $5,000,000 and the city of St Louis and its citizens $10,000,000. Altogether 12,804,616 paid admissions were collected (total admissions 19,694,855) during the seven months that it was open, and there was a favourable balance at the close of about $1,000,000. Up to 1848 St Louis was controlled in politics almost absolutely by the Whigs; since then it has been more or less evenly con- tested by the Democrats against the Whigs and Republicans. The Republicans now usually have the advantage. As men- tioned before, the state is habitually Democratic; " boss " rule in St Louis was particularly vicious in the late 'nineties, and corruption was the natural result of ring rule — the Democratic bosses have at times had great power — and of the low pay — only $25 monthly — of the city's delegates and councilmen. But the reaction came, and with it a strong movement for independent voting. Fire, floods, epidemics, and wind have repeatedly attacked the city. A great fire in 1849 burned along the levee and adjacent streets, destroying steamers, buildings, and goods worth, by the estimate of the city assessor, more than $6,000,000. Cholera broke out in 1832-1833, 1849-1851, and 1866, causing in three months of 1849 almost 4000 deaths, or the death of a twentieth of all inhabitants. Smallpox raged in 1872-1875. These epidemics probably reflect the one-time lamentable lack of proper sewerage. Great floods occurred in 1785, 1811, 1826, 1844, 1872, 1885 and 1903; those of 1785 and 1844 being the most remarkable. There were tornadoes in 1833, 1852 and 1 871; and in 1896 a cyclone of 20 minutes' duration, accom- panied by fire but followed fortunately by a tremendous rain, destroyed or wrecked 8500 buildings and caused a loss of property valued at more than $10,000,000. East St Louis, a city of St Clair county, Illinois, U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Mississippi, lies opposite St Louis, Missouri. Pop. (1880), 9185; (1890), 15,169; (1900), 29,655, of whom 3920 were foreign born (mostly German and Irish); (1910 census) 58,547. It is one of the great railway centres of the country. Into it enter from the east sixteen lines of railway, which cross to St Louis by the celebrated steel arch bridge and by the Merchants' Bridge. It is also served by three inter- urban electric railways. The site of East St Louis is in the " American Bottom," little above the high-water mark of the river. This " bottom " stretches a long distance up and down the river, with a breadth of 10 or 1 2 m. It is intersected by many sloughs and crescent-shaped lakes which indicate former courses of the river. The manufacturing interests of East St Louis are important, among the manufactories being packing establish- ments, iron and steel works, rolling-mills and foundries, flour- mills, glass works, paint works and wheel works. By far the most important industry is slaughtering and meat packing: both in 1900 and in 1905 East St Louis ranked sixth among the cities of the United States in this industry; its product in 1900 was valued at $27,676,818 (out of a total for all industries of $32,460,957), and in 1905 the product of the slaughtering and meat-packing establishments in and near the limits of East St Louis was valued at $39,972,245, in the same year the total for all industries within the corporate limits being only $37,586,198. The city has a large horse and mule market. East St Louis was laid out about 1818, incorporated as a town in 1859, and chartered as a city in 1865. Consult the Encyclopaedia of the History of St Louis (4 vols., St Louis, 1899); J- T. Scharf, History of St Louis City and County . . . including Biographical Sketches (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1883); E. H. Shepherd, Early History of St Louis and Missouri . . . 1763- 1843 (St Louis, 1870); F. Billon, Annals of St Louis . . . 1804 to 1821 (2 vols., St Louis, 1886-1888); G. Anderson, Story of a Border City during the Civil War (Boston, 1908) ; The Annual Statement of the Trade and Commerce of St Louis . . . reported to the Merchants' Exchange, by its secretary. ST LOUIS, the capital of the French colony of Senegal, West Africa, with a population (1904) of 24,070, or including the suburbs, 28,469. St Louis, known to the natives as N'dar, is 163 m. by rail N.N.E. of Dakar and is situated on, an island 11 J m. above the mouth of the Senegal river, near the right bank, there separated from the sea by a narrow strip of sand called the Langue de Barbarie. This strip of sand is occupied by the villages of N'dar Toute and Guet N'dar. Three bridges connect the town with the villages; and the Pont Faidherbe, 2132 ft. long, affords communication with Bouetville, a suburb on the left bank, and the terminus of the railway to Dakar. The houses of the European quarter have for the most part flat roofs, balconies and terraces. Besides the governor's residence the most prominent buildings are the cathedral, the great mosque, the court-house, the barracks and military offices, and the docks. The round beehive huts of Guet N'dar are mainly inhabited by native fishermen. N'dar Toute consists of villas with gardens, and is a summer watering-place. There is a pleasant public garden, and N'dar Toute is approached by a magnificent alley of palm-trees. The low-lying position of St Louis and the extreme heat render it unhealthy, whilst the sandy nature of the soil causes intense inconvenience. The mouth of the Senegal being obstructed by a shifting bar of sand, the steamships of the great European lines do not come up to St Louis; passengers embark and land at Dakar, on the eastern side of Cape Verde. Ships for St Louis have often to wait outside or inside the bar for days or weeks, and partial unloading is frequently necessary. From July to the end of September — that is during flood-time — the water over the bar is, however, deep enough to enable vessels to reach St Louis without difficulty. St Louis is believed to have been the site of a European settlement since the 15th century, but the present town was founded in 1626 by Dieppe merchants known as the Compagnie normande. It is the oldest colonial establishment in Africa belonging to France (see Senegal). Its modern development dates from 1854. The town, however, did not receive municipal government till 1872. All citizens, irrespective of colour, can vote. From 1895 to 1903 St Louis was not only the capital of Senegal, but the residence of the governor-general of French West Africa. In November of the last- named year the governor-general removed to Dakar, Small forts defend St Louis from the land side — the surrounding country, the Cayor, being inhabited by a warlike race, which previously to the building (1882-1885) of the St Louis-Dakar railway was a continual source of trouble. The town carries on a very active trade with all the countries watered by the Senegal and the middle Niger. St Louis is connected with Brest by a direct cable, and with Cadiz via the Canary Islands. ST LUCIA, the largest of the British Windward Islands, West Indies, in 14 N., 61° W., 24 m. S. of Martinique and 21 m. N.E. of St Vincent. Its area is 233 sq. m., length 42 m., maximum hreadth 12 .to.., and its coast-line is 150 m. long. It is considered one of the loveliest of all the West Indian islands. It is a mass 28 ST MACAIRE— ST MALO of mountains, rising sheer from the water, their summits bathed in perpetual mist. Impenetrable forests alternate with fertile plains, and deep ravines and frowning precipices with beautiful bays and coves. Everywhere there is luxuriant vegetation. Les Pitons (2720 and 2680 ft.) are the chief natural feature — two immense pyramids of rock rising abruptly from the sea, their slopes, inclined at an angle of 60°, being clad on three sides with densest verdure. No connexion has been traced between them and the mountain system of the island. In the S.W. also is the volcano of Soufnere (about 4000 ft.), whose crater is 3 acres in size and covered with sulphur and cinders. The climate is humid, the rain- fall varying from 70 to 120 in. per annum, with an average tempera- ture of 80 ° F. The soil is deep and rich; the main products are sugar, cocoa, logwood, coffee, nutmegs, mace, kola-nuts and vanilla, all of which are exported. Tobacco also is grown, but not for export. The usine or central factory system is established, there being four government sugar-mills. Snakes, formerly prevalent, have been almost exterminated by the introduction of the mongoose. Only about a third of the island is cultivated, the rest being crown land under virgin forest, abounding in timber suitable for the finest cabinet work. The main import trade up to 1 904 was from Great Britain; since then, owing to the increased coal imports from the United States, the imports are chiefly from other countries. The majority of the exports go to the United States and to Canada. In the ten years 1898-1907 the imports averaged £322,000 a year; the exports £195,000 a year. Bunker coal forms a large item both in imports and exports. Coal, sugar, cocoa and logwood form the chief exports. Education is denominational, assisted by government grants. The large majority of the schools are under the control of the Roman Catholics, to whom all the government primary schools were handed over in 1898. There is a government agricultural school. St Lucia is controlled by an administrator (responsible to the governor of the Windward I slands) , assisted by an executive council. The legislature consists of the administrator and a council of nominated members. Revenue and expenditure in the period 1 901-1907 balanced at about £60,000 a year. The law of the island preserves, in a modified form, the laws of the French monarchy. Castries, the capital, on the N.W. coast, has a magnificent land- locked harbour. There is a concrete wharf 650 ft. long with a depth alongside of 27 ft., and a wharf of wood 552 ft. in length. It is the principal coaling station of the British fleet in the West Indies, was strongly fortified, and has been the military headquarters. (The troops were removed and the military works stopped in 1 905.) It is a port of registry, and the facilities it offers as a port of call are widely recognized, the tonnage of ships cleared and entered rising from 1,555,000 in 1898 to 2,627,000 in 1907. Pop. (1901) 7910. Soufriere, in the south, the only other town of any importance, had a population of 2394. The Canbs have disappeared from the island, and the bulk of the inhabitants are negroes. Their language is a French patois, but English is gradually replacing it. There is a small colony of East Indian coolies, and the white inhabitants are mostly Creoles of French descent. The total population of the island (1901) is 49-833- History. — St Lucia is supposed to have been discovered by Columbus in 1502, and to have been named by the Spaniards after the saint on whose day it was discovered. It was inhabited by Caribs, who killed the majority of the first white people (Englishmen) who attempted to settle on the island (1605). For two centuries St Lucia was claimed both by France and by England. In 1627 the famous Carlisle grant included St Lucia among British possessions, while in 1635 the king of France granted it to two of his subjects. In 1638 some 130 English from St Kitts formed a settlement, but in 1641 were killed or driven away by the Caribs. The French in 1650 sent settlers from Martinique who concluded a treaty of peace with the Caribs in 1660. Thomas Warner, natural son of the governor of St Kitts, attacked and overpowered the French settlers in 1663, but the peace of Breda (1667) restored it to France and it became nominally a dependency of Martinique. The British still claimed the island as a dependency of Barbadoes, and in 1722 George I. made a grant of it to the duke of Montague. The year following French troops from Martinique compelled the British settlers to evacuate the island. In 1748 both France and Great Britain recognized the island as " neutral." In 1762 its inhabitants surrendered to Admiral Rodney and General Monckton. By the treaty of Paris (1763), however, the British acknowledged the claims of France, and steps were taken to develop the resources of the island. French planters came from St Vincent and Grenada,cotton and sugar plantations were formed, and in 1772 the island was said to have a population of 15,000, largely slaves. In 1778 it was captured by the British; its harbours were a rendezvous for the British squadrons and Gros Ilet Bay was Rodney's starting-point before his victory over the Comte de Grasse (April 1782). The peace of Versailles (1783) restored St Lucia to France, but in 1 794 it was surrendered to Admiral Jervis (Lord St Vincent). Victor Hugues, a partisan of Robespierre, aided by insurgent slaves, made a strenuous resistance and recovered the island in June 1795. Sir Ralph Abercromby and Sir John Moore, at the head of 12,000 troops, were sent in 1796 to reduce the island, but it was not until 1797 that the revolutionists laid down their arms. By the treaty of Amiens St Lucia was anew declared French. Bonaparte intended to make it the capital of the Antilles, but it once more capitulated to the British (June 1803) and was finally ceded to Great Britain in 1814. In 1834, when the slaves were emanci- pated, there were in St Lucia over 13,000 negro slaves, 2600 free men of colour and 2300 whites. The development of the island — half ruined by the revolutionary war — has been retarded by epidemics of cholera and smallpox, by the decline of the sugar- cane industry and other causes, such as the low level of education. The depression in the sugar trade led to the adoption of cocoa cultivation. Efforts were also made to plant settlers on the crown lands — with a fair amount of success. The colony success- fully surmounted the financial stringency caused by the with- drawal of the imperial troops in 1905. Pigeon Island, formerly an important military port, lies off the N.W. end of St Lucia, by Gros Ilet Bay. See Sir C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography in the British Colonies, vol. ii., " The West Indies " (2nd ed. revised by C. Atchley, Oxford, 1905), and the works there cited; also the annual reports on St Lucia issued by the Colonial Office. ST MACAIRE, a town of south-western France, in the depart- ment of Gironde, on the Garonne, 29 m. S.E. of Bordeaux by rail. Pop. (1906), 2085. St Macaire is important for its medieval remains, which include a triple line of ramparts with old gate- ways. There are also several houses of the 13 th and 14th centuries. The imposing church of St Sauveur (nth to 15th centuries) has a doorway with beautiful 13th-century carving and interesting mural paintings. St Macaire (anc. Ligend) owes its name to the saint whose relics were preserved in the monastery of which the church of St Sauveur is the principal remnant. ST MAIXENT, a town of western France, in the department of Deux-Sevres, on the Sevre Niortaise, 15 m. N.E. ofNiortby rail. Pop. (1906), 4102. The town has a fine abbey church built from the 12th to the 15th century, but in great part destroyed by the Protestants in the 16th century and rebuilt from 1670 to 1682 in the flamboyant Gothic style. The chief parts anterior to this date are the nave, which is Romanesque, and a lofty 15th-century tower over the west front. The crypt contains the tomb of Saint Maxentius, second abbot of the monastery, which was founded about 460. The town has a com- munal college, a chamber of arts and manufactures, and an infantry school for non-commissioned officers preparing for the rank of sub-lieutenant. It was the birthplace of Colonel Denfert- Rochereau, defender of Belfort in 1870-1871, and has a statue to him. The industries include dyeing and the manufacture of hosiery, mustard and plaster. The prosperity of the town was at its height after the promulgation of the edict of Nantes, when it numbered 12,000 inhabitants. ST MALO, a seaport of western France, capital of an arrondisse- ment in thedepartment of llle-et-Vilaine, 51 m.N.N.W. of Rennes by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 8727; commune, 10,647. St Malo is situated on the English Channel on the right bank of the estuary of the Ranee at its mouth. It is a garrison town sur- rounded by ramparts which include portions dating from the 14th, 15th and 1 6th centuries, but as a whole were rebuilt at the end of the 17th century according to Vauban's plans, and restored in the 19th century. The most important of the gates are that of St Vincent and the Grande Porte, defended by two massive 15th-century towers: The granite island on which St Malo stands communicates with the mainland on the north- east by a causeway known as the " Sillon " (furrow), 650 ft. long, and at one time only 46 ft. broad, though now three times that breadth. In the sea round about lie other granite rocks, SAINT-MARC GIRARDIN— SAINT-MARTIN 2 9 which have been turned to account in the defences of the coast ; on the islet of the Grand Bey is the tomb (1848) of Francois Auguste, vicomte de Chateaubriand, a native of the town. The rocks and beach are continually changing their appearance, owing to the violence of the tides; spring-tides sometimes rise 50 ft. above low-water level, and the sea sometimes washes over the ramparts. The harbour of St Malo lies south of the town in the creek separating it from the neighbouring town of St Servan. Including the contiguous and connected basins belonging more especially to St Servan, it comprises an outer basin, a tidal harbour, two wet-docks and an inner reservoir, affording a total length of quayage of over 2 m. The wet-docks have a minimum depth of 13 to 15 ft. on sill, but the tidal harbour is dry at low water. The vessels entered at St Malo-St Servan in 1906 numbered 1004 of 279,217 tons; cleared 1023 of 298,720 tons. The great bulk of trade is with England, the exports comprising large quantities of fruit, dairy-produce, early potatoes and other vegetables and slate. The chief imports are coal and timber. The London and South- Western railway maintains a regular service of steamers between Southampton and St Malo. The port carries on shipbuilding and equips a fleet for the Newfoundland cod-fisheries. The industries also include iron- and copper-founding and the manufacture of portable forges and other iron goods, cement, rope and artificial manures. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce. Communication between the quays of St Malo and St Servan is maintained by a travelling bridge. St Malo is largely frequented for sea-bathing, but not so much as Dinard, on the opposite side of the Ranee. The town presents a tortuous maze of narrow streets and small squares lined with high and sometimes quaint buildings (e.g. the 16th-century house in which Rene Duguay-Trouin was born). Above all rises the stone spire (1859) of the cathedral, a building begun in the 1 2th century but added to and rebuilt at several subsequent periods. The castle (13th cent.), which defends the town towards the " Sillon," is flanked with four towers, one of which, the great keep, is an older and loftier structure, breached in 1378 by the duke of Lancaster. St Malo has statues to Chateaubriand, Duguay-Trouin and the privateer Robert Surcouf (1773-1827), natives of the town. The museum contains remains of the ship " La Petite Hermine," in which Jacques Cartier sailed to the St Lawrence (q.v.), and a natural history collection. In the 6th century the island on which St Malo stands was the retreat of Abbot Aaron, who gave asylum in his monastery to Malo (Maclovius or Malovius), a Cambrian priest, who came hither to escape the episcopal dignity, but afterwards became bishop of Aleth (now St Servan) ; the see was transferred to St Malo only in the 12th century. Henceforth the bishops of St Malo claimed the temporal sovereignty over the town, a claim which was resolutely disputed by the dukes of Brittany. The policy of the citizens themselves, who thus gained substantial powers of self-government, was directed by consistent hostility to England and consequently to the dukes. They took the side of Bishop Josselin de Rohan and his successor in their quarrel with dukes John IV. and John V., and it was not till 1424 that John V., by the agency of Charles VI. of France and with the sanction of the pope, finally established his authority over the town. In 1488 St Malo unsuccessfully resisted the French troops on behalf of the duke. During the troubles of the League the citizens hoped to establish a republican government, and on the nth of March 1590 they exterminated the royal garrison and imprisoned their bishop and the canons. But four years later they surrendered to Henry IV. of France. During the following century the maritime power of St Malo attained some importance. In November 1693 and July 1695 the English vainly bombarded it. The people of St Malo had in the course of a single war captured upwards of 1 500 vessels (several of them laden with gold and other treasure) and burned a considerable number more. Enriched by these successes and by the wealth they drew from the New World, the shipowners of the town not only supplied the king with the means necessary for the famous Rio de Janeiro expedition conducted by Duguay-Trouin in 1711, but also lent him large sums for carrying on the war of the Spanish Succession. In June 1758 the English sent a third expedition against St Malo under the command of Charles Spencer, third duke of Marlborough, and inflicted great loss on the royal shipping in the harbour of St Servan. But another expedi- tion undertaken in the following September received a complete check. In 1778 and during the wars of the Empire the St Malo privateers resumed their activity. In 1789 St Servan was separated from St Malo and in 1801 St Malo lost its bishopric. During the Reign of Terror the town was the scene of sanguinary executions. See M. J. Poulain, Hisloire de Saint-Malo . . . d'apres les docu- ments inedits (2nd ed., Lille, 1887). SAINT-MARC GIRARDIN (1801-1873), French politician and man of letters, whose real name was Marc Girardin, was born in Paris on the 22nd of February 1801. After a brilliant uni- versity career in Paris he began in 1828 to contribute to the Journal des Debats, on the staff of which he remained for nearly half a century. At the accession of Louis Philippe he was appointed professor of history at the Sorbonne and master of requests in the Conseil d'Etat. Soon afterwards he exchanged his chair of history for one of poetry, continuing to contribute political articles to the Debats, and sitting as deputy in the chamber from 1835 to 1848. He was charged in 1833 with a mission to study German methods of education, and issued a report advocating the necessity of newer methods and of technical instruction. In 1844 he was elected a member of the Academy. During the revolution of February 1848 Girardin was for a moment a minister, but after the establishment of the republic he was not re-elected deputy. After the war of 1870-71 he was returned to the Bordeaux assembly by his old department — the Haute Vienne. His Qrleanist tendencies and his objections to the republic were strong, and though he at first supported Thiers, he afterwards became a leader of the opposition to the president. He died, however, on the 1st of April 1873 at Morsang-sur-Seine, before Thiers was actually driven from power. His chief work is his Cours de litter ature dramatique (1 843-1 863), a series of lectures better described by its second title De V usage des passions dans le drame. The author examines the passions, discussing the mode in which they are treated in ancient and modern drama, poetry and romance. The book is really a defence of the ancients against the moderns, and Girardin did not take into account the fact that only the best of ancient literature has come down to us. Against the Romanticists he waged untiring war. Among his other works may be noticed Essais de litter ature (2 vols. 1844), made up chiefly of contributions to the Debats ,- his Notices sur. VAllemagne (1834), and many volumes of collected Souvenirs, Reflexions, &c, on foreign countries and passing events. His latest works of literary importance were La Fontaine et les Fabulistes (1867) and an £tude sur J.-J. Rousseau (1870) which had appeared in the Revue des deux mondes. See Ch. Labitte, " Saint-Marc Girardin," in the Revue des deux mondes (Feb. 1845) ; Tamisier, Saint-Marc Girardin; etude liiteraire (1876); Hatzfield and Meunier, Les Critiques litteraires du XIX" siede (1894). SAINT-MARTIN, LOUIS CLAUDE DE (1743-1803), French philosopher, known as " le philosophe inconnu," the name under which his works were published, was born at Amboise of a poor but noble family, on the 18th of January 1743. By his father's desire he tried first law and then the army as a profession. While in garrison at Bordeaux he came under the influence of Martinez de Pasquales, usually called a Portuguese Jew (although later research has made it probable that he was a Spanish Catholic), who taught a species of mysticism drawn from cabbalistic sources, and endeavoured to found thereon a secret cult with magical or theurgical rites. In 177 1 Saint-Martin left the army to become a preacher of mysticism. His conversational powers made him welcome in Parisian salons, but his zeal led him to England, where he made the acquaintance of William Law (q.v.), the English mystic, to Italy and to Switzerland, as well as to the chief towns of France. At Strassburg in 1788 he met Charlotte de Boecklin, who initiated him into the writings of Jacob Boehme, and inspired in his breast a semi-romantic attachment. His later years were devoted almost entirely to the composition of his chief works and to the translation of those of Boehme. Although he was not subjected to any persecution in consequence of his 3Q ST MARTIN— SAINT MARYS opinions, his property was confiscated after the Revolution because of his social position. He was brought up a strict Catholic, and always remained attached to the church, although his first work, Of Errors and Truth, was placed upon the Index. He died at Aunay, near Paris, on the 23rd of October 1803. His chief works are — Lettre a un ami sur la Revolution Francaise; &lair sur I' association humaine; De V esprit des choses; Ministere de I'homme-esprit. Other treatises appeared in his (Euvres posthumes (1807). Saint-Martin regarded the French Revolution as a sermon in action, if not indeed a Miniature of the last judgment. His ideal society was " a natural and spiritual theocracy," in which God would raise up men of mark and endowment, who would regard themselves strictly as " divine commissioners " to guide the people. All ecclesi- astical organization was to disappear, giving place to a purely spiritual Christianity, based on the assertion of a faculty superior to the reason— moral sense, from which we derive knowledge of God. God exists as an eternal personality, and the creation is an over- flowing of the divine love, which was unable to contain itself. The human soul, the human intellect or spirit, the spirit of the universe, and the elements or matter are the four stages of this divine emana- tion, man being the immediate reflection of God, and nature in turn a reflection of man. Man, however, has fallen from his high estate, and matter is one of the consequences of his fall. But divine love, united to humanity in Christ, will work the final regeneration. See J. B. Gence, Notice biographique (1824); L. I. Moreau, Le Philosophe inconnu (1850); E. M. Caro, Essai sur la vie et la doctrine de Saint-Martin (1852); Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, x.190; A.J. Matter, Saint-Martin, le philosophe inconnu (1862); A. Franck, La Philosophic mystique en France a la fin du dix-huitieme siecle (1866) ; A. E. Waite, The Life of Louis Claude de Saint-Martin (1901). There are English translations of The Ministry of Man the Spirit (1864) and of Select Correspondence (1863) by E. B. Penny. ST MARTIN, an island in the West Indies, about 5 m. S. of the British island of Anguilla in 18 N. and 63 W. It is 38 sq. m. in area and nearly triangular in form, composed of conical hills, culminating in Paradise Peak (1920 ft.). It is the only island in the Antilles owned by two European powers; 17 sq. m. in the N., belonging to France, form a dependency of Guadeloupe, while the rest of the island, belonging to Holland, is a dependency of Curacao. Sugar, formerly its staple, has been succeeded by salt. The chief town of the French area is Marigot, a free port on the W. coast; of the Dutch, Philipsburg, on the S. St Martin was first occupied by French freebooters in 1638, but ten years later the division between France and Holland was peaceably made. The inhabitants, mostly English-speaking negroes, number about 3000 in the French part, and in the Dutch the population in 1908 was 3817. ST MARY (Santa Maria), an island in the Atlantic Ocean, belonging to Portugal and forming part of the Azores (q.v.). Pop. (1900), 6383; area, 40 sq. m. St Mary is the southernmost and easternmost of the Azores, lying south of the larger island of St Michael's, through the medium of which its trade is con- ducted, as it has no good harbours of its own. It produces wheat in abundance, of which a considerable quantity is exported. Various volcanic rocks are the predominant formations, but beds of limestone also occur, giving rise to numerous stalactite grottoes all over the island. The chief town is Villa do Porto (2506). ST MARYLEBONE (commonly called Marylebone), a north- western metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded N. by Hampstead, E. by St Pancrasand Holborn, S. by the City of Westminster, and W. by Paddington. Pop. (1901), 133,301. It is mainly a rich residential quarter; the most fashionable part is found in the south, in the vicinity of Cavendish and Portman Squares, but there are numerous fine houses surrounding Regent's Park and in the north-western district of St John's Wood. Oxford Street, with its handsome shops, bounds the borough on the south, crossing Regent Street at Oxford Circus; Edgware Road on the west; Marylebone Road crosses from east to west, and from this Upper Baker Street gives access to Park, Wellington, and Finchley Roads; and Baker Street leads south- ward. Poor and squalid streets are found, in close proximity to the wealthiest localities, between Marylebone Road and St John's Wood Road, and about High Street in the south, the site of the original village. The formation of the Great Central Railway, the Marylebone terminus of which, in Marylebone Road, was opened in 1899, caused an extensive demolition of streets and houses in the west central district. St Marylebone was in the manor of Tyburn, which takes name from the Tyburn, a stream which flowed south to the Thames through the centre of the present borough. The church was called St Mary at the Bourne. The name Tyburn (q.v.) was notorious chiefly as applied to the gallows which stood near the existing junction of Edgware Road and Oxford Street (Marble Arch). The manor at the Domesday Survey was in the possession of the nunnery at Barking, but the borough includes several estates, such as the manor of Lyllestone in the west, the name of which is preserved in Lisson Grove. From 1738 to 1776 Marylebone Gardens (which had existed under other names from the close of the 17th century) became one of the most favoured evening resorts in London. They extended east of High Street as far as Harley Street, but by 1778 the ground was being built over. Another historic site is Horace Street near Edgware Road, formerly Cato Street, from which the conspiracy which bore that name was directed against the ministry in 1820. The borough includes almost the whole of Regent's Park, with a portion of Primrose Hill north of it. These have altogether an area of 472 acres. The park, originally Marylebone Park, was enclosed by James I., and received its modern name from the Prince Regent, afterwards George IV. It contains the Zoological Gardens, one of the most noteworthy institutions of its kind, attracting numerous visitors to its splendid collections of living animals. Here are also the gardens of the Royal Botanic Society, incorporated in 1839. They are enclosed and beautifully laid out, and contain hot-houses and a museum. Exhibitions are held each year. The Toxophilite Society, founded in 1781, has also occupied grounds here since 1883. The picturesque lake is supplied by the ancient Tyburn. The Regent's Canal skirts the north side of the park. Another famous enclosure is Lord's Cricket Ground, St John's Wood Road. The founder, Thomas Lord (1814), at first established a cricket ground in the present Dorset Square, but it was soon moved here. Lord's, as it is called, is the headquarters of the M.C.C. (Marylebone Cricket Club), the governing body of the game ; here are played the home matches of this club and of the Middlesex County Cricket Club, the Oxford and Cambridge, Eton and Harrow, and other well-known fixtures. The Wallace Art Collection, Hertford House, Manchester Square, was bequeathed by Sir Richard Wallace to the nation on the death of his wife in 1897. The waxwork exhibition named after Madame Tussaud, who founded it in Paris in 1780, occupies large buildings in Marylebone Road. The Parkes Museum of the Sanitary Institute is in Margaret Street. The Queen's Hall, Langham Place, is used for concerts, including a notable annual series of orchestral promenade concerts. StMarylebone contains a great number of hospitals, among which are the Middlesex, Mortimer Street; Throat Hospital and Dental Hospital and School, Great Portland Street; Lying-in and Ophthalmic Hospitals, Maryle- bone Road; Samaritan Hospital for women, Seymour Street ; Con- sumption Hospital, Margaret Street; and the Home for incurable children, St John's Wood Road. There are also several industrial homes. Harley Street, between Marylebone Road and Cavendish Square, is noted as the residence of medical practitioners. Educa- tional institutions include the Trinity and the Victoria Colleges of Music, in Manchester Square and Berners Street respectively; the Bedford College for women, and the Regent's Park Baptist College. The parliamentary borough of Marylebone has east and west divisions, each returning one member. The borough council consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 60 councillors. Area, 1472-8 acres. SAINT MARYS, a city of Auglaize county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Saint Marys river and the Miami & Erie canal, about 85 m. W.N.W. of Columbus. Pop. (1910), 5732. Saint Marys is served by the Lake Erie & W estern > the Western Ohio (electric), and the Toledo & Ohio Central railways. About 1 m. west is a feeding reservoir of the canal covering about 17,600 acres. Saint Marys is in the Ohio oil region. The city occupies the site of a former Shawnee village, in which a trading post was established in 1782 by James Girty, 1 from whom the place was for some years 1 James Girty (1743-1817) was one of the notorious Girty brothers, the sons of Simon Girty (d. 1751), an Irish immigrant. The brothers were taken prisoners by the French and Indian force which in 1756 captured Fort Granville, in what is now Mifflin county, Pennsylvania. James was adopted by the Shawnees and lived among them for three years, after which he acted as an interpreter and trader; he fre- quently accompanied the Indians against the English settlers, and exhibited the greatest ferocity. He conducted a profitable trading business with the Indians at St Marys in 1783-1794, when he with- drew to Canada upon the approach of General Wayne, and again from 1795 until just before theWarof 1812, when he again withdrew to Canada, where he died. His brother Simon (1741-1818), who lived with the Senecas for several years after his capture, was even more bloodthirsty; he served against the Indians in Lord Dunmore's War, and in 1776, during the War of Independence, entered the ST MARY'S LOCH— ST MICHAEL'S 3i called Girty's Town. Fort St Marys was built in 1784 or 1785 by a detachment of General Anthony Wayne's troops, and in 1812 Ft. Barbee was erected at the instance of General W. H. Harrison by Colonel Joshua Barbee. During the War of 181 2 the place was for some time the headquarters of General Harrison's army. St Marys was laid out as a town in 1823, and became a city in 1903 under the general municipal code which came into effect in that year. ST MARY'S LOCH, a fresh-water lake of Selkirkshire, Scotland. It lies in the high land towards the western border, and is visited from Selkirk (16 m. E. by N.) or Moffat (15 m. S.W.). It is 814 ft. above the sea, is from 80 to 90 ft. deep, 3 m. long, about 1 m. wide at its widest, and has a shore-line of 73 m. A narrow isthmus divides its head from the small Loch of the Lowes (about 1 m. long), which is believed to have been once part of it, the difference of level being only r 5 in. St Mary's is emptied by the Yarrow, and its principal feeder is Megget Water, a noted angling stream. It takes its name from St Mary's Kirk, the ruins of which lie near the northern shore. From the 13th century, when the church is first mentioned, till its destruction in 1557, it was variously known as the Forest Kirk (in which William Wallace was elected Warden of Scotland) . St Mary's of Farmaini- shope, an old name of the adjoining lands of Kirkstead, St Mary of the Lowes, and the Kirk of Yarrow. It had been partly restored, but gradually fell into decay, its place being taken by the church of Yarrow farther down the vale. In the graveyard was buried John Grieve (1781-1836), the Edinburgh hatter, a poet of some capacity, patron of James Hogg, the Ettrick Shepherd. At the head of the lake is the celebrated inn opened by Tibbie Shiel (Mrs Richardson, d. 1878), which was visited by many distinguished men of letters. ST MAUR-DES-FOSSES, a south-eastern suburb of Paris, on the right bank of the Marne, 7 m. from the centre of the city. Pop. (1906), 28,016. St Maur and the residential district sur- rounding it cover a peninsula formed by a loop in the Marne, the neck of which is crossed by the canal of St Maur. In the reign of Clovis II. the monastery of Les Fosses was founded; the amplification of the name came when the body of St Maurus was brought there by the monks of St Maur-sur-Loire. About the same time was inaugurated the pilgrimage of Notre-Dame des Miracles, which still takes place annually. In 1465 a treaty of peace, putting an end to the " War of the Public Weal," was concluded between Louis XI. and his revolted barons at St Maur. ST MAUR-SUR-LOIRE, a village of western France in the department of Maine-et-Loire on the Loire about 15 m. below Saumur. Here St Maurus towards the middle of the 6th century founded the first Benedictine monastery in Gaul. About the middle of the 9th century it was reduced to ruins by the Normans; in anticipation of the disaster the relics of the saint were trans- ferred to the abbey of Fosses (afterwards St Maur-des-Fosses: see above). St Maur-sur-Loire was afterwards restored and fortified; the extant remains consist of a part of the church (12th and 17th centuries) and buildings of 'the 17th and 18th centuries. ST MAWES, a small seaport in the St Austell parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, beautifully situated on an arm of Falmouth Harbour. Pop. (1901), 1178. The inlet admits only small vessels to the little harbour, but there is a considerable fishing industry. A large circular castle, vis-a-vis with that, of Pendennis near Falmouth, and dating from the same period (Henry VIII.), guards the entrance. Near the shore of the inlet opposite St Mawes is the small church of St Anthony in Roseland, an excellent example of Early English work, retaining a good Norman doorway. British service as an interpreter, and after the war instigated Indian attacks on the frontier and fought with the Indians against General Arthur St Clair and General Anthony Wayne. Another brother, George Girty (1745-c. 1812), lived among the Delawares for several years, was also a trader and interpreter, and was likewise a renegade. Thomas (1739-1820), though he associated much with the Indians, did not participate in their wars. See W. Butterfield's History of the Girtys (Cincinnati, 1890). The history of St Mawes is simple. The saint of that name is said to have made the creek of the Fal a halting-place in the 5th century. The chapel of St Mawes, pulled down in 18 12, was licensed by the bishop in 1381, and both chapel and village were' situated within the manor of Bogullos, which in the 16th century belonged to the family of Wydeslade. In the 16th century John Leland speaks of the castle as lately begun and describes St Mawes as " a quarter of a mile from the castle, a pretty village or fishertown with a pier called St Mawes and there is a chapel of the saint and his chair of stone and hard by his well." The number of houses half a century later did not exceed twenty, and John Wydeslade, as lord of the manor of Bogullos, owned the village. For the part which he took in the rebellion of 1549 Wydeslade was hanged and his lands forfeited, and in 1562 the manor was granted by Queen Elizabeth to Sir Reginald Mohun of Hall. In the same year St Mawes was incorporated and invested with the right of returning two members to the House of Commons, a privilege which it enjoyed until 1832. In 1607 the portion of the manor of Bogullos which embraced St Mawes was sold by Sir Thomas Arundell, who had married a daughter of Sir William Mohuh, to Thomas Walker, and by the latter it was resold to Sir George Parry, who represented the borough in parliament from 1640 to 1642. Sir George Parry sold St Mawes to John Tredenham, whose sons, Sir William and Sir Joseph, and Sir Joseph's son, John Tredenham, became successively its parliamentary representatives. On the death of the last named St Mawes passed by sale to John Knight, whose widow married Robert Nugent, afterwards Earl Nugent, and until the Reform Act of 1832 the Nugents controlled the elections at St Mawes. The corporation, founded in 1562, which consisted of a mayor, or portreeve, and other officers elected by about twenty free tenants, was dissolved under the Municipal Cor- porations Act in 1835. Its silver mace now belongs to the corporation of Wolverhampton, to whom it passed after the great sale of the effects of the duke of Buckingham at Stowe in 1848, the duke having obtained it as the heir of the Earls Nugent. ST MICHAEL'S (Sao Miguel), the largest island in the Portuguese archipelago of the Azores. Pop. (1900), 121,340; area, 297 sq. m. The east end of St Michael's rises from a head- land 1400 ft. high to the inland peak of Vara (3573 ft.), whence a central range (2000 to 2500 ft.) runs westward, terminating on the south coast in the Serra da Agoa do Pau, about half- way across the island. The range gradually declines in approach- ing its last point, where it is not more than 100 ft. high. The middle part of the island is lower, and more undulating, its western extremity being marked by the conspicuous Serra Gorda (1572 ft.); its shores on both sides are low, broken and rocky. The aspect of the western portion of the island is that of a vast truncated cone, irregularly cut off at an elevation of about 800 ft., and falling on the north, south and west sides' to a perpendicular coast between 300 and 800 ft. high. In the highest parts an undergrowth of shrubs gives the mountains a rich and wooded appearance. Like all volcanic countries, the island has an uneven surface with numerous ravines, and streams of semi-vitrified and scoriaceous lava which resist all atmospheric influences and repel vegetation. Heavy rains falling on the mountains afford a constant supply of water to four lakes at the bottom of extinct craters, to a number of minor reservoirs, and through them, to small rapid streams on all sides. Hot springs abound in many parts, and vapour issues from almost every crevice. But the most remarkable phenomena are the Caldeiras ("Cauldrons"), or Olhos ("Eyes"), i.e. boiling fountains, which rise chiefly from a valley called the Furnas (" Furnaces "), near the western extremity of the island. The water rises in columns about 12 ft. high and dissolves in vapour. The ground in the vicinity is entirely covered with native sulphur, like hoar-frost. At a small distance is the Muddy Crater, 45 ft. in diameter, on a level with the plain. Its contents are in a state of continual and violent ebullition, accompanied with a sound resembling that of a tempestuous ocean. Yet they 32 ST MICHAEL'S MOUNT— ST NECTAIRE never rise above its level, unless occasionally to throw to a small distance a spray of the consistence of melted lead. The Furnas abounds also in hot springs, some of them of a very high tempera- ture. There is almost always, however, a cold spring near the hot one. These have long been visited by sufferers from palsy, rheumatism, scrofula and similar maladies. Bath-rooms and other buildings have been erected. The plains of St Michael's are fertile, producing wheat, barley and Indian corn; vines, oranges and other fruit trees grow luxuriantly on the sides of the mountains. The plants are made to spring even from the interstices of the volcanic rocks, which are sometimes blasted to receive them. Raised in this manner, these fruits are of superior quality; but the expense of such a mode of cultivation necessarily restricts it. The western part of the island yields hemp. The principal town and seaport is Ponta Delgada (q.v.), with '7.675 inhabitants in 1900. The other chief towns are Arrifes (5644), Lagoa (7950), Povoacao (5093), Ribeira Grande (8496) and Villa Franca do Campo (8162). (See also Azores.) ST MICHAEL'S MOUNT, a lofty pyramidal island, exhibiting a curious combination of slate and granite, rising 400 yds. from the shore of Mount's Bay, in Cornwall, England. It is united with Marazion by a natural causeway cast up by the sea, and passable only at low tide. If its identity with the Mictis of Timaeus and the Ictis of Diodorus Siculus be allowed, St Michael's Mount is one of the most historic spots in the west of England. It was possibly held by a body of religious in the Confessor's time and given by Robert, count of Mortain, to Mount St Michael, of which Norman abbey it continued to be a priory until the dissolution of the alien houses by Henry V., when it was given to the abbess and Convent of Syon. It was a resort of pilgrims, whose devotions were encouraged by an in- dulgence granted by Pope Gregory in the nth century. The Mount was captured on behalf of Prince John by Henry Pomeroy in the reign of Richard I. John de Vere, earl of Oxford, seized it and held it during a siege of twenty-three weeks against 6000 of the king's troops in 1473. Perkin Warbeck occupied the Mount in 1497. Humphry Arundell, governor of St Michael's Mount, led the rebellion of 1549. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth it was given to Robert, earl of Salisbury, by whose son it was sold to Sir Francis Basset. Sir Arthur Basset, brother of Sir Francis, held the Mount against the parliament until July 1646. It was sold in 1659 to Colonel John St Aubyn and is now the property of his descendant Lord Levan. The chapel is extra-diocesan and the castle is the residence of Lord St Levan. Many relics, chiefly armour and antique furniture, are preserved in the castle. The chapel of St Michael, a beautiful 15th-century building, has an embattled tower, in one angle of which is a small turret, which served for the guidance of ships. Chapel rock, on the beach, marks the site of a shrine dedicated to the Virgin Mary, where pilgrims paused to worship before ascending the Mount. A few houses are built on the hillside facing Marazion, and a spring supplies them with water. The harbour, widened in 1823 to allow vessels of 500 tons to enter, has a pier dating from the 15th century, and subsequently enlarged and restored. Pop. (1901), in. ST MIHIEL, a town of north-eastern France, in the department of Meuse, on the right bank of the Meuse and the Canal de l'Est, 23 m. S. by E. of Verdun by rail. Pop. (1906) of the town, S943 (not including a large garrison), of the commune, 9661. St Mihiel is famous for its Benedictine abbey of St Michael, founded in 709, to which it owes its name. The abbey buildings (occupied by the municipal offices) date from the end of the 17th century and the beginning of the 1 8th century, and the church from the 1 7th century. The latter contains a wooden carving of the Virgin by the sculptor Ligier Richier, born at St Mihiel in 1506. Other interesting buildings are the church of St Etienne, chiefly in the flamboyant Gothic style, which contains a magnificent Holy Sepulchre by Ligier Richier, and several houses dating from the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries. On the road to Verdun are seven huge rocks, in one of which a sepulchre (18th century), containing a life-sized figure of Christ, has been hollowed. St Mihiel formerly possessed fortifications and two castles which were destroyed in 1635 by the royal troops in the course of a quarrel between Louis XIII. and Charles IV., duke of Lorraine. The town is the seat of a court of assizes, and has the tribunal of first instance belonging to the arrondissement of Commercy and a communal college. ST MORITZ (in Ladin, San Murezzan), the loftiest (6037 ft.) and the most populous village of the Upper Engadine in the Swiss canton of the Grisons. It is built above the north shore of the lake of the same name (formed by the Inn), and is by rail 56 m. from Coire by the Albula railway, or by road 48! m. from Martinsbruck (the last village in the Engadine), or by road 30 m., over the Maloja Pass, from Chiavenna. In 1900 it had a popula- tion of 1603, 475 being German-speaking, 433 Ladin-speaking, and 504 (railway workmen) Italian-speaking, while 837 were Protestants and 743 Catholics. The village is about 1 m. north of the baths, an electric tramway connecting the two. Both are now much frequented by foreign visitors. The baths (chalybeate, sparkling with free carbonic acid) were known and much resorted to in the 16th century, when they were described by Paracelsus; they were visited in 1779 by Archdeacon W. Coxe. They are frequented chiefly by non-English visitors in summer, the English season at St Moritz being mainly the winter, for the sake of skating and tobogganing. (W. A. B. C.) ST NAZAIRE, a town of western France, capital of an arron- dissement in the department of Loire-Inferieure, 40 m. W.N.W. of Nantes by rail and 29 m. by river. Pop. (1906), 30,345. St Nazaire, situated on the right bank of the Loire at its mouth, is a modern town with straight thoroughfares crossing one another at right angles. It possesses nothing of antiquarian interest except a granite dolmen 10 ft. long and 5 ft. wide resting horizontally on two other stones sunk in the soil, above which they rise 6| ft. The only noteworthy building is a modern church in the Gothic style of the 14th century. The harbour, which constitutes the outport of Nantes and is accessible to ships of the largest size, is separated from the estuary by a narrow strip of land, and comprises an outer harbour and entrance, two floating docks (the old dock and the Penhouet dock), three graving docks, and the extensive shipbuilding yards of the Loire Company and of the General Transatlantic Company whose steamers connect St Nazaire with Mexico, the Antilles and the Isthmus of Panama. Ships for the navy and the mercantile marine are built, and there are important steel-works, blast- furnaces, forges, and steam saw-mills. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect, and has a tribunal of first instance, a board of trade- arbitration, an exchange, a chamber of commerce, a communal college, and schools of navigation and industry. Next to British and French, Spanish, Norwegian and Swedish vessels most frequent the port. In the decade 1898-1907 the value of imports greatly fluctuated, being highest in 1898 (£2,800,000) and lowest in 1904 (£1,688,000), the average for each of the ten years being £2,280,000. The value of the exports in the same period varied between £3,724,000 in 1899 and £1,396,000 in 1906, the average being £2,935,200. Imports include coal and patent fuel, iron ore and pyrites, timber, rice and hemp; exports include iron ore, coal and patent fuel, pit wood, sugar, garments and woven goods, preserved fish, and wine and spirits. According to remains discovered on excavating the docks, St Nazaire seems to occupy the site of the ancient Corbilo, placed by Strabo among the more important maritime towns of Gaul. At the close of the 4th century the site of Corbilo was occupied by Saxons, and, their conversion to Christianity being effected one or two hun- dred years later by St Felix of Nantes, the place took the name of St Nazaire. It was still only a little " bourg " of some 3000 in- habitants when under the second empire it was chosen as the site of the new harbour for Nantes, because the ascent of the Loire was becoming more and more difficult. In 1868 the sub-prefecture was transferred to St Nazaire from Savenay. ST NECTAIRE (corrupted into Sennecterre and Senneterre), the name of an estate in Auvergne, France, which gave its name to a feudal house holding distinguished rank in the 13th century. The eldest branch of this family held the marquisate of La Fert6 (q.v.), and produced a heroine of the religious wars of the 1 6th century, Madeleine de St Nectaire, who married Guy de St Exupery, seigneur de Miremont, in 1548, and fought successfully at the head of the Protestants in her territory against the troops of the League. To the same house belonged the branches of the marquises of Chateauneuf, the seigneurs of Brinon-sur-Sauldre ST NEOTS— SAINTON 33 and St Victour, and the seigneurs of Clavelier and Fontenilles, all of which are now extinct. (M. P.*) ST NEOTS (pronounced St Neets), a market town in the southern parliamentary division of Huntingdonshire, England, on the right (east) bank of the Ouse, 51 1 m. N. of London by the Great Northern railway. Pop. of urban district, (1901) 3880. A stone bridge crosses the river, built in 1589 from the ruins of a former priory. The parish church of St Mary is a fine Perpendicular building of the later 15th century. The original oak roof is noteworthy. Among other buildings may be mentioned the Victoria museum (1887), the library and literary institute, and the endowed school (1760). Paper-mills, breweries, floui-mills, and engineering works furnish the chief industries of the town. The name of St Neots is derived from the monastery founded in the adjoining parish of Eynesbury in the reign of King Edgar (967-975). St Neot, a priest of Glastonbury Abbey in Somerset, became a recluse at a place which he named Neotstoke, near Bodmin in Cornwall, where he died about the end of the 9th century. His shrine at Eynesbury being threatened by the incursion of the Danes early in the nth century, the relics were conveyed to Crowland Abbey, in Lincolnshire, of which he became one of the patron saints. But in n 12 the monastery was refounded from that of Bee in Normandy. An Anglo-Saxon enamelled mosaic in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford is supposed to contain a portrait of St Neot. In 1648 a troop of Royalists under the command of Villiers, duke of Buckingham, was routed in St Neots by the Parliamentarians. ST NICOLAS, a town of Belgium in the province of East Flanders, about 12 m. S.W. of Antwerp. Pop. (1904), 32,767. It is the principal town of Waes, formerly a district of bleak and barren downs, but now the most productive part of Belgium. St Nicolas is the centre and distributing point of this district, being an important junction on the direct line from Antwerp to Ghent; it has also many manufactures of its own. The principal church dedicated to St Nicolas was finished in 1696, but the other public buildings are only of the 19th century. ST NICOLAS, or St Nicolas du Port, a town of north-eastern France, in the department of Meurthe-et-Moselle, on the left bank of the Meurthe, 8 m. S.E. of Nancy by rail. Pop. (1906), 4796. The town has a fine Gothic church dating from the end of the 15th and the first half of the 16th century, and possessing a finger-joint of St Nicolas formerly the object of pilgrimages which were themselves the origin of well-known fairs. The latter became less important after 1635, when the Swedes sacked the town. There are important salt- workings in the vicinity; cotton spinning and weaving are carried on. Its port, shared with Varangeville on the opposite side of the river, has an active trade. ST OMER, a town and fortress of northern France, capital of the department of Pas-de-Calais, 42 m. W.N.W. of Lille on the railway to Calais. Pop. (1906), 17,261. At St Omer begins the canalized portion of the Aa, which reaches the sea at Grave- lines, and under its walls it connects with the Neuffoss6 canal, which ends at the Lys. The fortifications were demolished during the last decade of the 19th century and boulevards and new thoroughfares made in their place. There are two harbours outside and one within the city. St Omer has wide streets and spacious squares, but little animation. The old cathedral belongs almost entirely to the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries. A heavy square tower finished in 1499 surmounts the west portal. The church contains interesting paintings, a colossal statue of Christ seated between the Virgin and St John (13th century, originally belonging to the cathedral of Therouanne and presented by the emperor Charles V.), the cenotaph of St Omer (13th century) and numerous ex-votos. The richly decorated chapel in the transept contains a wooden figure of the Virgin (12th century), the object of pilgrimages. Of St Bertin, the church of the abbey (built between 1326 and 1520 on the site of previous churches) where Childeric III. retired to end his days, there remain some arches and a lofty tower, which serve to adorn a public garden, Several other churches or convent chapels are of xxiv. 2 interest, among them St Sepulchre (14th century), which has a beautiful stone spire and stained-glass windows. A fine collection of records, a picture-gallery, and a theatre are all accommodated in the town hall, built of the materials of the abbey of St Bertin. There are several houses of the 16th and 17th centuries; of the latter the finest is the Hotel Colbert, once the royal lodging, and now occupied by an archaeological museum. Among the hospitals the military hospital is of note as occupying the well- known college opened by the English Jesuits in 1592. The old episcopal palace adjoining the cathedral is used as a court-house. The chief statue in the town is that of Jacqueline Robin (see below). St Omer is the seat of a sub-prefect, of a court of assizes, of tribunals of first instance and of commerce, of a chamber of commerce, and of a board of trade arbitration. Besides the lycee, there are schools of music and of art. The industries include the manufacture of linen goods, sugar, soap, tobacco- pipes, and mustard, the distilling of oil and liqueurs, dyeing, salt-refining, malting and brewing. The suburb of Haut Pont to the north of St Omer is inhabited by a special stock, which has remained faithful to the Flemish tongue, its original costume and its peculiar customs, and is distinguished by honesty and industry. The ground which these people cultivate has been reclaimed from the marsh, and the legres (i.e. the square blocks of land) communicate with each other only by boats floated on the ditches and canals that divide them. At the end of the marsh, on the borders of the forest of Clairmarais, are the ruins of the abbey founded in 1140 by Thierry d'Alsace, to which Thomas Becket betook himself in 1165. To the south of St Omer, on a hill commanding the Aa, lies the camp of Helfaut, often called the camp of St Omer. On the Canal de Neuf-Fesse, near the town, is the Ascenseur des Fontinettes, a hydraulic lift enabling canal boats to surmount a difference of level of over 40 ft. Omer, bishop of Therouanne, in the 7th century established the monastery of St Bertin, from which that of Notre-Dame was an offshoot. Rivalry and dissension, which lasted till the Revolution, soon sprang up between the two monasteries, becoming especially virulent when in 1559 St Omer became a bishopric and Notre-Dame was raised to the rank of cathedral. In the 9th century the village which grew up round the mona- steries took the name of St Omer. The Normans laid the place waste about 860 and 880, but ten years later found town and monastery surrounded by walls and safe from their attack. Situated on the borders of territories frequently disputed by French, Flemish, English and Spaniards, St Omer long continued subject to siege and military disaster. In 1071 Philip I. and Count Arnulf III. of Flanders were defeated at St Omer by Robert the Frisian. In n 27 the town received a communal charter from William Clito, count of Flanders. In 1493 it came to the Low Countries as part of the Spanish dominion. The French made futile attempts against it between 1551 and 1596, and again in 1638 (under Richelieu) and 1647. But in 1677, after seventeen days' siege, Louis XIV. forced the town to capitulate; and the peace of Nijmwegen permanently confirmed the con- quest. In 1 71 1 St Omer, on the verge of surrendering to Prince Eugene and the duke of Marlborough, owing to famine, was saved by the daring of Jacqueline Robin, who risked her life in bringing provisions into the place. St Omer ceased to be, a bishopric in 1801. See L. Deschamps de Pas, Hist, de la ville de Saint-Omer (2nd ed., Arras, 1 881). For a full bibliography of other works see U. Chevalier, Repertoire des sources hist, topo-bibliographie (Montbeliard, 1903), ii. 2743 seq. SAINTON, PROSPER PHILIPPE CATHERINE (1813-1890), French violinist, was the son of a merchant at Toulouse, where he was born on the 5th of June 1813. He entered the Paris Conservatoire under Habeneck in 1831, and became professor of the violin in the Conservatoire of Toulouse. In 1844 he made his first appearance in England, at a Philharmonic concert directed by Mendelssohn. Settling in London, he was in 1845 appointed professor at the Royal Academy of Music. In the early organizations for chamber music which culminated in the establishment of the Popular concerts, Sainton bore an important 11 34 SAINTON-DOLBY— ST PAUL part; and when the Royal Italian Opera was started at Covent Garden, he led the orchestra under Costa, with whom he migrated to Her Majesty's Theatre in 1871. From 1848 to 1855 he was leader of the Queen's Band, and in 1862 he conducted the music at the opening of the International Exhibition. In i860, he married the famous contralto singer, Miss Charlotte Dolby (see below). He was leader of the principal provincial festivals for many years, and gave a farewell concert at the Albert Hall in 1883. He died on the 17th of October 1890. His method was sound, his style artistic, and his educational wcrk of great value, the majority of the most successful orchestral violinists having been his pupils. SAINTON-DOLBY, CHARLOTTE HELEN (1821-1885), English contralto singer, was born in London on the 17th of May 1821, studied at the Royal Academy of Music from 1832 to 1837, Crivelli being her principal singing-master. In 1837 she was elected to a king's scholarship, and first appeared at a Phil- harmonic concert in 1841. In October 1845 she sang at the Gewandhaus, Leipzig, through the influence of Mendelssohn, who had been delighted by her singing in St Paul. The contralto music in his Elijah was written for her voice, but she did not appear in that work till the performance at Exeter Hall on the 16th of April 1847. She married M. Sainton in i860, and in 1870 she retired from the career of a public singer, but two years afterwards started a " vocal academy " in London. She made various successful attempts as a composer, and the cantatas " The Legend of St Dorothea" (1876), "The Story of the Faithful Soul "(1879), and " Florimel " (1885), enjoyed considerable success. Her last public appearance was at her husband's farewell concert in June 1883, and she died on the 18th of February 1885. A scholarship in her memory was founded at the Royal Academy of Music. Her voice was of moderate power and of fine quality, but it was her dignified and artistic style that gave her the high place she held for so many years both in oratorio and ballads. SAINTONGE, one of the old provinces of France, of which Saintes (q.v.) was the capital, was bounded on the N.W. by Aunis, on the N.E. by Poitou, on the E. by Angoumois, on the S. by Guienne, and on the W. by Guienne and the Atlantic. It now forms a small portion of the department of Charente and the greater part of that of Charente Inferieure. In the time of Caesar, Saintonge was occupied by the Santones, whose capital was Mediolanum; afterwards it was part of Aquitania Secunda. The civitas Santonum, which formed the bishopric of Saintes, was divided into two pagi: Santonicus (whence Sanctonia, Saintonge) and Al ienensis, later Alniensis (Aunis). Halved by the treaty of 1259, it was wholly ceded to the king of England in 1360, but reconquered by Du Guesclin in 1371. Up to 1789 it was in the same gouvernement with Angoumois, but from a judiciary point of view Saintonge was under the parlement of Bordeaux and Angoumois under that of Paris. See D. Massiou, Histoire politique, civile el religieuse de la Saintonge el de V Aunis (6 vols., 1836-1839; 2nd ed., 1846); P. D. Rainguet, Biographie saintongeaise (1852). See also the publications of the Societe des archives historiques de la Saintonge et de V Aunis (1874 fol.). ST OUEN, an industrial town of northern France, in the department of Seine, on the right bank of the Seine 1 m. N. of the fortifications of Paris. Pop. (1906) 37,673. A chateau of the early 19th century occupies the site of a chateau of the 17th century bought by Madame de Pompadour in 1745, where in 1814 Louis XVIII. signed the declaration promising a con- stitutional charter to France. Previously there existed a chateau built by Charles of Valois in the early years of the 14th century, where King John the Good inaugurated the short-lived order of the Knights of " Notre Dame de la noble maison," called also the " ordre de l'etoile." The industries of St Ouen include metal founding, engineering and machine construction and the manufacture of government uniforms, pianos, chemical products, &c. It has important docks on the Seine and a race-course. ST PANCRAS, a northern metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded E. by Islington, S.E. by Finsbury, S. by Holborn, and W. by St Marylebone and Hampstead, and extend- ing N. to the boundary of the county of London. Pop. (1901) 2 35>3 I 7- I n the south it includes a residential district, contain- ing boarding-houses and private hotels. In the centre are Camden Town and Kentish Town, and in the north, where part of Highgate is included, are numerous villas, in the vicinity of Parliament Hill, adjoining Hampstead Heath. A thorough- fare called successively Tottenham Court Road, Hampstead Road, High Street Camden Town, Kentish Town Road, and Highgate Road, runs from south to north; Euston Road crosses it in the south, and Camden Road and Chalk Farm Road branch from it at Camden Town. Besides the greater part of Parliament Hill (267 acres), purchased for the public use in 1886, the borough includes a small part of Regent's Park (mainly in the borough of St Marylebone) and Waterlow Park (29 acres) on the slope of Highgate Hill. It also contains the termini, King's Cross, St Pancras, and Euston, of the Great Northern, Midland, and London and North Western railways, with extensive goods depdts of these companies. The parish church of St Pancras in the Fields, near Pancras Road, has lost its ancient character owing to reconstruction, though retaining several early monuments. The new church in Euston Road (1822) is a remarkable adaptation of classical models. Among institutions, University College, Gower Street, was founded in 1826, and provides education in all branches common to universities excepting theology. With the department of medicine is con- nected the University College Hospital (1833) opposite the College. There are several other hospitals; among them the Royal Free Hospital (Gray's Inn Road), the North-west London hospital, Kentish Town, and, in Euston Road, the British (Forbes Winslow memorial) hospital for mental disorders, British hospital for skin diseases, and New hospital for women, administered by female physicians. St Katherine's Hospital, a picturesque building overlooking Regent's Park, with a chapel containing some relics of antiquity, was settled" here (1825) on the formation of the St Katherine's Docks near the Tower of London, where it was founded by Queen Matilda in 1 148. Its patronage has always been associated with queens, and here was established the Queen Victoria Home for Nurses of the poor, founded out of the women's gift of money to the Queen at her jubilee (1887). Other institutions are the London School of Medicine for women, the Royal Veterinary College and the Aldenham technical institute. The Passmore Edwards Settle- ment, taking name from its principal benefactor, was founded largely through the instrumentality of Mrs Humphry Ward. Near Regent's Park is Cumberland Market. The parliamentary borough of St Pancras has north, south, east and west divisions, each returning one member. The borough council consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 60 councillors. Area, 2694-4 acres. St Pancras is mentioned in Domesday as belonging to the chapter of St Paul's Cathedral, in which body the lordship of the manors of Cantelows (Kentish Town) and Totenhall (Tottenham Court) was also invested. Camden Town takes name from Baron Camden (d. 1794), lord chancellor under George III. King's Cross was so called from a statue of George IV., erected in 1830, greatly ridiculed and removed in 1845, but an earlier name, Battle Bridge, is tradition- ally derived from the stand of Queen Boadicea against the Romans, or from one of Alfred's contests with the Danes. Somers Town, between King's Cross and Camden Town, was formerly inhabited by refugees from the French Revolution, many of whom were buried in St Pancras churchyard. In the locality of Somers Town there were formerly to be traced earthworks of unknown age, which William Stukeley argued had belonged to a Roman camp of Julius Caesar. Attached to the former manor-house of Totenhall was one of the famous pleasure resorts of the 17th and 18th centuries, and from c. 1760 to the middle of the 19th century the gardens at Bagnigge Wells (King's Cross Road) were greatly favoured; there were here, moreover, medicinal springs. ST PAUL, a volcanic island in the southern Indian Ocean, in 38 42' 50" S., 77 32' 29" E., 60 m. S. of Amsterdam Island, belonging to France. The two islands belong to two separate eruptive areas characterized by quite different products; and the comparative bareness of St Paul contrasts with the dense vegetation of Amsterdam. On the north-east of St Paul, which has an area of 2f sq. m., is a land-locked bay, representing the old crater, with its rim broken down on one side by the sea. ST PAUL 35 The highest ridge of the island is not more than 820 ft. above the sea. On the south-west side the coasts are inaccessible. According to Velain, the island originally rose above the ocean as a mass of rhyolitic trachyte similar to that which still forms the Nine Pin rock to the north of the entrance to the crater. Next followed a period of activity in which basic rocks were produced by submarine eruptions — lavas and scoriae of anorthitic character, palagonitic tuffs, and basaltic ashes; and finally from the crater, which must have been a vast lake of fire like those in the Sandwich Islands, poured forth quiet streams of basaltic lavas which are seen dipping from the centre of the island towards the cliffs at angles of 20 to 30 . The only remain- ing indications of volcanic activity are the warm springs and emanations of carbon dioxide. See C. Velain, Passage de Venus sur le soleil (9 decembre 1874). Expedition francaise aux lies St Paul et Amsterdam (Paris, 1877); Description geologique de la presqu'ile d 'Aden . . . Reunion ... 5/ Paul et Amsterdam (Paris, 1878); and an article in Annates de geographie, 1893. ST PAUL, the capital of Minnesota, U.S.A., and the county- seat of Ramsey county, situated on the Mississippi river, about 2150 m. above its mouth, at the practical head of navigation, just below the Falls of St Anthony. It is about 360 m. N. W. of Chicago, Illinois, and its W. limits directly touch the limits of Minneapolis. Pop. (1880) 41,473; (1890) 133,156; (1900) 163,632, of whom 46,819 were foreign-born (12,935 Germans, 9852 Swedes, 4892 Irish, 3557 English-Canadians, 2900 Norwegians, 2005 English, 1488 Austrians, 1343 Bohemians, 1206 Danes, and 1015 French-Canadians), 100,599 of foreign parentage (i.e. both parents foreign born), and 2263 negroes; (1910 census) 214,744. Land area (1906) 52-28 sq. m. St Paul is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago Great Western, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Northern Pacific, the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie, the Chicago & North-western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the Great Northern, and the Minneapolis & St Louis railways. Five bridges span the Mississippi, the largest of which, known as High Bridge, is 2770 ft. long and 200 ft. high. Four interurban lines connect with Minneapolis. St Paul is attractively situated 670-880 ft. above sea-level, on a series of lofty limestone terraces or bluffs, formerly heavily wooded. It lies on both sides of the river, but the principal part is on the east bank. In its park system the numerous lakes within and near the city have been utilized. Of the parks, Como Park (425 acres; including Lake Como and a fine Japanese garden and a lily pond), and Phalen Park (600 acres, more than 400 of which are water area), are the largest. There are also 47 smaller squares and " neighbourhood parks " aggregating 560 acres. In Indian Park (135 acres), at the crest of the bluffs (Dayton's Bluffs), in the east central part of the city, are burial-mounds of the Sioux. Summit Avenue Boulevard, 200 ft. wide and extending for 25 m. along the heights, is a fine residential street. Boulevards along the bluffs on either side of the river connect with the Minneapolis park system. Harriet Island, in the Mississippi river opposite the business centre of the city, is attractively parked, and on it are public paths. Adjoining the city on the south-west, at the junction of the Minnesota and Mississippi rivers, is the Fort Snelling U.S. Government Military R eservation , with a round stone fort, built in 1 8 20. The principal public building is the State Capitol, completed in 1905. It was designed by Cass Gilbert (b. 1859), is of Minnesota granite and white Georgia marble with a massive central white dome, and has sculptural decorations by D. C. French and interior decora- tions by John La Farge, E. H. Blashfield, Elmer E. Garnsey (b. 1862), and Edward Simmons (b. 1852). Other prominent buildings are the City Hall and Court House, a Gothic greystone structure; the Federal building, of greystone, opposite Rice Park; a Young Men's Christian Association building; the Metropolitan Opera House; the Auditorium, which was built by public subscription; the St Paul armoury (1905), with a drill hall; the Chamber of Commerce; and the Union railway station. Among the principal churches are the Roman Catholic Cathedral, and the People's, the Central Presbyterian, the Park Congre- gational, and the First Baptist churches. The wholesale district is in the lower part of the city near the Union railway station ; the retail shops are mostly in an area bounded by Wabasha, Seventh, Fourth and Roberts streets. St Paul has an excellent public school system, which include. .) in 1909 three high schools, a teachers' training school, a manua training high school, forty-eight grade schools, and a parenta school. Among other educational institutions are the Freemai School; St Paul Academy; Barnard School for Boys; Si Paul College of Law (1900); the College of St Thomas (Romar Catholic, 1885); St Paul Seminary (Roman Catholic, 1894), founded by James J. Hill as the provincial seminary of the ecclesiastical province of St Paul with an endowment of $500,000, 40 acres of land, and a library of 10,000 volumes; Luther Theological Seminary (1885); Hamline University (co-educa- tional; Methodist Episcopal), chartered in 1854, with a medical school in Minneapolis (chartered 1883; part of Hamline since 1895), and having in the college and preparatory school, in 1908- 1909, 17 instructors and 384 students; Macalester College (Presbyterian; co-educational), founded as Baldwin Institute in 1853, reorganized and renamed in 1874 in honour of a bene- factor, Charles Macalester (1798-1873) of Philadelphia; and the School of Agriculture (1888) and the Agricultural Experiment Station (1887) of the University of Minnesota, in St Anthony Park, west of Como Park and south of the fair grounds. Among the libraries are the City Public Library, the State Law Library and the Minnesota Historical Society Library. The Minnesota Historical Society, organized in 1849, nas an archaeological collection in the east wing of the Capitol. In the private residence of James J. Hill is a notable art gallery, containing one of the largest and best collections of the Barbizon School in existence. The principal newspapers are the Dispatch (Independent, 1878) and the Pioneer- Press, the latter established by James M. Goodhue (1800-1852) in 1849. Among the hospitals and charit- able institutions are the City and County, St Joseph's and St Luke's hospitals, all having nurses' training schools; the Swedish Hospital, the Scandinavian Orphan Asylum, the Home, for the Friendless, the Magdalen Home and the Women's Christian Home. Within the city limits (east of Indian Mounds Park) is the Willowbrook (state) Fish Hatchery, second to none in the United States in completeness of equipment; and adjoin- ing the city on the north-west are the extensive grounds (200 acres) and buildings of the State Agricultural Society, where fairs are held annually. Although as a manufacturing city St Paul, not possessing the wonderful water-power of its sister city, does not equal Minneapolis, yet as a commercial and wholesale distributing centre it is in some respects superior, and it is the principal jobbing market of the North-west. Situated at the natural head of navigation on the Mississippi, it has several competing lines of river steamboats in addition to the shipping facilities provided by its railways and the lines of the Minnesota Transfer Co., a belt line with 62 m. of track encircling St Paul and Minne- apolis. St Paul is the port of entry for the Minnesota Customs District, and imports from Canada and from the Orient via the Pacific railways constitute an important factor in its commercial life, its imports and exports were valued at $6,154,289 and $9,909,940 respectively in 1909. Coal and wood, grain, farm produce and dairy products are important exports. St Paul is the principal market in the United States for the furs of the North-west, and there are extensive stock-yards and slaughtering and packing houses in the neighbouring city of South St Paul (pop. in 1910, 4510), St Paul ranks second to Minneapolis among the cities of the state as a manufacturing centre. The total value of its factory products in 1905 was $38,318,704, an increase of 27-5% since 1900. The following were among the largest items: fur goods; printing and publishing — book (especially law-book) and job, newspapers and periodicals; malt liquors; steam-railway car building and repairing; boots and shoes; foundry and machine-shop products; lumber and planing-mill products; men's clothing; tobacco, cigars and cigarettes; and saddlery and harness. 36 ST PAUL'S CATHEDRAL St Paul is governed under a charter of 1900, which may be amended by popular vote on proposals made by a permanent charter commission. The mayor, comptroller and city treasurer are elected for two years. The mayor has the veto power and appoints the members of boards of police, parks, library, fire, water-supply and education. The legislature is bicameral, consisting of an assembly of nine members elected on a general city ticket and a board of aldermen chosen one from each of the twelve wards. The water-supply is pumped through 275 m. of water mains from a group of lakes north of the city, and the system has a capacity of 40,000,000 gallons per day. History. — The earliest recorded visit of a European to the site of St Paul was that of the Jesuit Louis Hennepin in 1680. The traders Pierre Le Sueur and Nicholas Perrot visited the region between 1690 and 1700, and apparently established a temporary trading post somewhere in the neighbourhood. The first man of English descent to record his visit was Jonathan Carver, who, according to his journal, spent some time in the vicinity in 1767-1768. In 1805 Lieut. Zebulon M. Pike con- cluded a treaty with the Sioux. The first steamboat made its way up the river in 1823. The site of St Paul was opened to settlement by the treaty of Prairie du Chien, negotiated by Governor Henry Dodge of Wisconsin with the Chippewas in 1837. Two years later (1839) the first permanent settlement was made by Swiss and Canadian refugees from Lord Selkirk's Red River colony. In 1841 Father Lucien Gaultier erected a log mission chapel, which he named St Paul's; from this the settlement was named St Paul's Landing and finally St Paul. On the erection of Minnesota Territory in 1849, St Paul was incorporated as a village and became the Territorial capital. Its population in 1850 was only n 12. It was chartered as a city in 1854, and continued as the capital of the new state after its admission (1858). The first railway connecting St Paul and Minneapolis was completed in 1862, at which time St Paul's population exceeded 10,000 and in 1869 through railway con- nexion with Chicago was effected. The city of West St Paul was annexed in 1874. The growth of the city had been com- paratively slow until 1870, in which year the population was 20,030; but the rapid railway construction and the settlement and clearing of the Western farm lands increased its commercial and industrial importance as it did that of its sister city, Minne- apolis. In 1884 the city (limits were extended to the Minneapolis line. See F. C. Bliss, St Paul, its Past and Present (St Paul, 1888); C. C. Andrews, History of St Paul, Minnesota (Syracuse, N.Y., 1 890) ; Warner and Foote, History of Ramsey County and the City of St Paul (Minneapolis, 1881) ; C. D. Elfelt, " Early Trade and Traders in St Paul," and A. L. Larpenteur, " Recollections of the City and People of St Paul," both in the Minnesota Historical Society's Collections, vol. ix. (1901). ST PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, the cathedral church of the diocese of London, England, standing in the heart of the City, at the head of Ludgate Hill. (For plan, &c, see Architecture: Renaissance in England.) The name of a bishop of London, Restitutus, is recorded in 314, but his individuality and even his existence are somewhat doubtful, and nothing is known of the existence of a church until Bede's notice that early in the 7th century one was built here by ^Ethelberht of Kent at the instance of the missionary Mellitus, who became bishop. Tradi- tion placed upon the site a Roman temple of Diana. The church was dedicated to St Paul, and, after passing through many vicissitudes, was removed in 1083, when Bishop Maurice, with the countenance of William the Conqueror, undertook the erection of a new cathedral. The building was not pressed forward with vigour, and in 1135 much of it was damaged by fire. The tower was completed in 1221; an Early English choir followed shortly after, and was enlarged after 1255 when Bishop Fulk brought great energy to bear upon the repair and elaboration of the building. At the close of the century the cathedral Was regarded as finished; but a new spire was built early in the 14th century. Much of the Norman work, particu- larly in the nave, had been left untouched by the Early English builders (who in other parts merely encased it), and the cathedral was a magnificent monument of these styles, and of the early Decorated. Perpendicular additions were not extensive, and the cathedral remained with little alteration until 1561, when lightning struck the spire and fired the church. The spire was never rebuilt. In the time of James I. the fabric had so far decayed that the king was prevailed upon to make a personal examination of it, and Inigo Jones was entrusted with the work of restoration. In accordance with the architectural tendencies of his time he added a classical portico to the west front, and made similar alterations to the transepts. Again, however, in 1666 the bad state of the fabric necessitated extensive repair, and Dr (afterwards Sir) Christopher Wren furnished a scheme including a central dome. All his plans were complete in August of that year, but in September the great fire of London almost destroyed the building, and rendered what was left unsafe and beyond restoration. Estimates of the dimensions of the old cathedral differ, Stow making the extreme length 690 ft., but modern investigations give 596 ft. The internal height of the choir was 101 ft., and that of the nave, which was of twelve bays, 93 ft., and the extreme breadth of the building was 104 ft. The summit of the wonderful spire was 489 ft. above the ground. The present building is wider than the old, and its orientation is more northerly, but its northern, eastern and southern extremities approximately correspond with those of old St Paul's, the west front of which, however, with its flanking towers, lay nearly 100 ft. west of Wren's front. It should be noticed that the eastern part of the old cathedral incorporated the original parish church of St Faith after 1255, when part of the new crypt was allotted to the parish in return. Moreover, the ancient church of St Gregory by St Paul actually adjoined the cathedral on the south-west. In the angle west of the south transept lay a cloister, in the midst of which was the octagonal chapter house, dating from 1332. To the north-east of the cathedral stood Paul's Cross, in an open space devoted to public meetings; it included a pulpit, and here religious disputations were held and papal bulls promulgated. In 1643 it was removed, but a new cross, erected under the will of H. C. Richards, K.C., M.P., was unveiled in 1910. The formal provision for the rebuilding of the cathedral was made in 1668, and the foundation stone was laid in 1675. The first service was held in it in 1697, and the last stone was set in place in 1 710. The cost is curiously estimated, but was probably about £850,000, the greater part of which was defrayed by a duty on sea-borne coal. The material is Portland stone. Wren had to face many difficulties. He naturally insisted on the style of the Renaissance, and his first design was for a building in the form of a Greek cross, but the general desire was that at least the ground-plan of the old English cathedrals should be followed, and the form of a Latin cross was forced upon him. He offered various further designs, and one was accepted, but Wren set the broadest construction upon the permission granted him to alter its ornamental details, and luckily so. The extreme length of the building is 513 ft., the breadth across the transepts 248 ft., of the nave 122 ft., of the west front 179 ft. The length of the nave is 223 ft., and of the choir 168 ft., leaving 122 ft. beneath the dome at the crossing. The cross at the top of the lantern above the dome is 363 ft. above the ground. The cathedral is approached on the west from an open pavement, on which stands a statue of Queen Anne. There is also an inscription marking the spot on which Queen Victoria returned thanks on the occasion of her Diamond Jubilee (1897). A broad flight of steps leads up to the west front, of two orders, flanked by towers. In the north tower is a chime of bells ; in the south the clock, with the old great bell (17 16), tolled on the death of certain high personages, and the new great bell, placed in 1882, weighing about 17 tons. The nave is of four bays, with aisles, and chapels of one bay width immediately east of the western towers. The transepts are of two bays, and are entered by north and south porches approached by circular flights of steps. On the pediment of the south porch is sculptured a phoenix with the inscription Resurgam (I shall rise again), in allusion to a famous episode. Wren, planning his site and desiring to mark in the ground the point of the centre of his dome, bade a workman bring a piece of stone for the purpose. He picked up at hazard a fragment of an ancient tombstone bearing this single word, which Wren adopted as a motto. The choir of four bays terminates in an apse, but the rich and lofty modern reredos stands forward, and the apse is thus divided off from the body of the church and forms the Jesus chapel. The choir stalls are a fine example of the work of Grinling Gibbons. The dome is supported by the four vast piers in the angles of the cross, within which are small chambers, and by eight inner piers. The spandrels between the I arches which stand upon these piers are ornamented with mosaics, ST PAUL'S ROCKS— ST PETERSBURG 37 from the designs of G. F. Watts and others, executed by Salviati. Wren had looked forward to a comprehensive scheme of decoration in mosaic. The later extension of this work was entrusted to Sir W. B. Richmond. Above the arches is a circular gallery known as the Whispering Gallery from the fact that a whisper can be easily heard from one side to the other. Above this there are pilasters, with square-headed windows, in three out of every four intervening spaces; and above again, the domed ceiling, ornamented in mono- chrome by Sir James Thornhill immediately after its completion; but the paintings have suffered from the action of the atmosphere and are hardly to be distinguished from below. The inner wall of the dome begins to slope inward from the level of the Whispering Gallery, but this is masked outside by a colonnade, extending up to a point a little above the top of the internal pilasters. From this point upward the dome is of triple construction, consisting of (i) the inner dome of brick, pierced at the top to render the lantern visible from below; (2) a brick cone, the principal member of the structure, bearing the lantern; (3) the dome visible from without, of lead on a wooden frame. The golden gallery at the base of the lantern (top of the outer dome) is about 65 ft. above the top of the inner dome. The monuments in St Paul's are numerous, though not to be compared with those in Westminster Abbey. The most notable is that in the nave to the duke of Wellington (d. 1852) by Alfred Stevens. In the crypt, which extends beneath the entire building, are many tombs and memorials — that of Nelson in the centre beneath the dome, those of many famous artists in the so-called Painters' Corner, and in the south choir aisle that of Wren himself, whose grave is marked only by a plain slab, with the well-known inscription ending Si monumentum requiris, circumspice (" If thou seekest a monument, look about thee "). Above the south-west chapel in the nave is the chapter library, with many interesting printed books, MSS. and drawings relating to the cathedral. For St Paul's School, established by John Colet, dean, and formerly adjacent to the cathedral, see the article on Hammersmith, whither it was subsequently removed. Authorities. — Parentalia or Memoirs (of Sir Christopher Wren), completed by his son Christopher, now published by his Grandson, Stephen Wren (London, 1758); Sir William Dugdale, History of St Paul's (1818); Dean Milman, Annals of St Paul's (1868); William Longman, The Three Cathedrals dedicated to St Paul (1873); Docu- ments illustrating the History of St Paul's (Camden Society, 1880); Rev. W. Sparrow-Simpson, Chapters in the History of Old St Paul's (1881); Gleanings from Old St Paul's (1889); and St Paul's and Old City Life (1894) ; Rev. A. Dimock, St Paul's (in Bell's " Cathedral " series, 1901); Rev. Canon Benham, Old St Paul's (1902). In this last work and elsewhere are shown the valuable drawings of Wen- ceslaus Hollar, showing the old cathedral immediately before the great fire. ST PAUL'S ROCKS, a number of islets in the Atlantic, nearly i° N. of the equator and 540 m. from South America, in 29° 15' \V. The whole space occupied does not exceed 1400 ft. in length by about half as much in breadth. Besides sea-fowl the only land creatures are insects and spiders. Fish are abundant, seven species (one, Holocentrum sancti pauli, peculiar to the locality) being collected by the " Challenger " during a brief stay. Dar- win (On Volcanic Islands) decided that St Paul's Rocks were not of volcanic origin; later investigators maintain that they probably are eruptive. See Reports of the Voyage of H. M.S. Challenger: Narrative of the Cruise, vol. i. ST PETER, a city and the county-seat of Nicollet county, Minnesota, U.S.A., on the Minnesota river, about 75 m. S.W. of Minneapolis. Pop. (1905, state census) 4514 (875 foreign-born); (1910) 4176. It is served by the Chicago & North-Western railway and by steamboat lines on the Minnesota river, which is navigable for light draft steamboats to this point. The neighbouring lakes with their excellent fishing attract many summer visitors. The city has a Carnegie library, and is the seat of the Minnesota Hospital for the Insane (1866), and of Gustavus Adolphus College (Swedish Evangelical Lutheran; co-educa- tional), which was founded in 1862 and has a college, an Academy and School of Pedagogy, a School of Commerce and a School of Music. St Peter is an important market for lumber and grain; it has stone quarries and various manufactures. Settled about 1852, St Peter was incorporated as a village in 1865, and was chartered as a city in 1891. In 1857 the legislature, a short time before its adjournment for the session, passed a bill to remove the capital of Minnesota to St Peter, but the bill was not pre- sented to the governor for his signature within the prescribed time, and when the legislature re-convened a similar bill could not be passed. ST PETER PORT, the chief town of Guernsey, one of the Channel Islands. Pop. (1901) 18,264. It lies picturesquely on a steep slope above its harbour on the east coast of the island. The harbour is enclosed by breakwaters, the southern of which connects with the shore and continues beyond a rocky islet on which stands Castle Cornet. It dates from the 12th century and retains portions of that period. Along the sea-front of the town there extends a broad sea-wall, which continues north- ward nearly as far as the small port of St Sampson's, connected with St Peter Port by an electric tramway. To the south of the town Fort George, with its barracks, stands high above the sea. On the quay there is a bronze statue of Albert, Prince Consort (1862), copied from that on the south side of the Albert Hall, London. St Peter Port was formerly walled, and the sites of the five gates are marked by stones. St Peter's, or the town church, standing low by the side of the quay, was consecrated in 1312, but includes little of the building of that date. It has, however, fine details of the 14th and 15th centuries, and is, as a whole, the most noteworthy ecclesiastical building in the islands. The other principal buildings are the court house, used for the meetings of the royal court and the states, the Elizabeth College for boys, founded by Queen Elizabeth, but occupying a house of the year 1825, and the Victoria Tower, commemorating a visit of Queen Victoria in 1846. Hauteville House, the residence of Victor Hugo from 1856 to 1870, is preserved as he left it, and is open to the public. The harbour is the chief in the island, and a large export trade is carried on especially in vegetables, fruit and flowers. The construction of the harbour was ordered by King Edward I. in 1275. ST PETERSBURG, a government of north-western Russia, at the head of the Gulf of Finland, stretching for 130 m. along its south-east shore and the southern shore of Lake Ladoga, and bordering on Finland, with an area of 17,221 sq. m. It is hilly on the Finland border, but flat and marshy elsewhere, with the exception of a small plateau in the south (Duderhof Hills), 300 to 550 ft. high. It has a damp and cold climate, the average temperatures being: at St Petersburg, for the year 39 F., for January 15 , for July 64°; yearly rainfall, 18-7 in.; at Ser- maks, at the mouth of the Svir on the E. side of Lake Ladoga (6o° 28' N.), for the year 37°, for January 13°, for July 62 ; yearly rainfall, 20-8 in. Numerous parallel ridges of glacier origin intersect the government towards Lake Peipus and north of the Neva. Silurian and Devonian rocks appear in the south, the whole covered by a thick glacial deposit with boulders (bottom moraine) and by thick alluvial deposits in the valley of the Neva. The bays of Kronstadt, Koporya, Luga and Narva afford good anchorage, but the coast is for the most part fringed with reefs and sandbanks. The chief river is the Neva. The feeders of Lake Ladoga — the Volkhov, the Syas, and the Svir, the last two forming part of the system of canals connecting the Neva with the Volga — are important channels of commerce, as also is the Narova. Marshes and forests cover about 45% of the area (70% at the end of the 18th century). The popula- tion, which was 635,780 in 1882, numbered 873,043 in 1897, without the capital and its suburbs ; including the latter it was 2,103,965. Of this latter number 466,750 were women and 160,499 lived in towns. The estimated pop. in 1906 was 2,510,100. The average density was 121 per sq. m. The population is chiefly Russian, with a small admixture of Finns and Germans, and according to religion it is distributed as follows : Greek Orthodox, 78%; Nonconformists, i-6%; Lutherans, 17%; and Roman Catholics, 2-4%. A remarkable feature is the very slow natural increase of the population. During the 25 years 1867 to 1 89 1 the natural increase was only 867. The government is divided into eight districts, the administrative headquarters of which, with their populations in 1897, are: St Petersburg (q.v.), Gdov (2254 inhabitants), Luga (5687), Novaya Ladoga (4144), Peterhof (11,300), Schliisselburg (5285), Tsarskoye Selo (22,353) and Yamburg (4166). Most of the towns are summer resorts for the population of the capital. Till the latter part of the 19th century education stood at a very low level, but progress has since been made, and now three-quarters of all who 38 ST PETERSBURG enter the army from this government are able to read. The zemstvo (provincial council) has organized village libraries and lectures on a wide scale. Many improvements have been made, especially since 1897, in sanitary organization. Generally speaking, agriculture is at a low ebb. The principal crops are cereals (rye, oats and barley), potatoes and green crops, the total area under cultivation being only 13%. These crops, which are often ruined by heavy rains in the late summer, are insufficient for the population. Flax is cultivated to some extent. Nearly 21% of the area consists of meadows and pasture. Dairy -farming is developing. Timber, shipping, stone- quarrying and fishing are important industries; the chief factories are cotton, tobacco, machinery, sugar, rubber and paper mills, chemical works, distilleries, breweries and printing works. , ST PETERSBURG, the capital of the Russian empire, situated at the head of the Gulf of Finland, at the mouth of the Neva, in 59° 56' N., and 30° 20' E., 400 m. from Moscow, 696 m. from Warsaw, 1400 m. from Odessa (via Moscow), and 1390 m. from Astrakhan (also via Moscow). The Neva, before entering the Gulf of Finland, forms a peninsula, on which the main part of St Petersburg stands, and itself subdivides into several branches. The islands so formed are only 10 or n ft. above the average level of the water. Their areas are rapidly increasing, while the banks which continue them seaward are gradually disappearing. The mainland is not much higher than the islands. As the river level rises several feet during westerly gales, extensive portions of the islands and of the mainland are flooded every winter. In 1777, when the Neva rose 10-7 ft., and in 1824, when it rose 13-8 ft., nearly the whole of the city was inundated, and the lower parts were again under water in 1890, 1897 and 1898, when the floods rose 8 ft. A ship canal, completed in 1875-1888 at a cost of £1,057,000, has made the capital a seaport. Be- ginning at Kronstadt j it terminates at Gutuyev Island in a harbour capable of accommodating fifty sea-going ships. It is 23 ft. deep and 175 m. long. The Neva is crossed by three permanent bridges — the Nicholas, the Troitsky or Trinity (1897-1903), and the Alexander or Liteinyi; all three fine specimens of archi- tecture. One other bridge — the Palace — across the Great Neva connects the left bank of the mainland with Vasiiyevskiy or Basil Island; but, being built on boats, it is removed during the autumn and spring. Several wooden or floating bridges connect the islands, while a number of stone bridges span the smaller channels. In winter, when the Neva is covered with ice 2 to 3 ft. thick, temporary roadways for carriages and pedestrians are made across the ice and artificially lighted. In winter, too, thousands of peasants come in from the villages with their small Finnish horses and sledges to ply for hire. The Neva continues frozen for an average of 147 days in the year (25th November to 21st April). It is unnavigable, however, for some time longer on account of the ice from Lake Ladoga, which is sometimes driven by easterly winds into the river at the end of April and beginning of May. The climate of St Petersburg is changeable and unhealthy. Frosts are made much more trying by the wind which accompanies them; and westerly gales in winter bring oceanic moisture and warmth, and melt the snow before and after hard frosts. The summer is hot, but short, lasting barely more than five or six weeks; a hot day, how- ever, is often followed by cold weather: changes of temperature amounting to 35 Fahr. within twenty-four hours are not un- common. In autumn a chilly dampness lasts for several weeks, and in spring cold and wet weather alternates with a few warm days. Mean temperature, Fahr. . Rainfall, inches Prevailing winds .... Average daily range of tempera- ture, Fahr January. i5°-o 0-9 S.W. July. 64°-o 26 W. The Year. 38°-6 18-8 W. 7"-7 Topography. — The greatei part of St Petersburg is situated on the mainland, on the left bank of the Neva, including the best streets, the largest shops, the bazaars and markets, the palaces, cathedrals and theatres, as well as all the railway stations, except that of the Finland railway. From the Liteinyi bridge to that of Nicholas a granite embankment, bordered by palaces and large private houses, lines the left bank of the Neva. About midway, behind a range of fine houses, stands the Admiralty, the very centre of the capital. Formerly a wharf, on which Peter the Great caused his first Baltic ship to be built in 1706, it is now the seat of the ministry of the navy and of the hydrographical department, the new Admiralty building standing farther down the Neva on the same bank. A broad square, partly laid out as a garden (Alexander Garden), surrounds the Admiralty on the west, south and east. To the west, opposite the senate, stands the fine memorial to Peter the Great, erected in 1782, and now backed by the cathedral of St Isaac. A bronze statue, a master- piece by the French sculptor Falconet, represents the founder of the city on horseback, at full gallop, ascending a rock and pointing to the Neva. South of the Admiralty is the ministry of war and to the east the imperial winter palace, the work of Rastrelli (1764), a fine building of mixed style; but its admirable proportions mask its huge dimensions. It communicates by a gallery with the Hermitage Fine Arts Gallery. A broad semi- circular square, adorned by the Alexander I. column (1834), separates the palace from the buildings of the general staff and the foreign ministry. The range of palaces and private houses facing the embankment above the Admiralty is interrupted by the macadamized " Field of Mars," formerly a marsh, but transformed at incredible expense into a parade-ground, and the Lyetniy Sad (summer-garden) of Peter the Great. The Neva embankment is continued to a little below the Nicholas bridge under the name of " English embankment," and farther down by the new Admiralty buildings. The topography of St Petersburg is very simple. Three long streets, the main arteries of the capital, radiate from the Admiralty — the Prospekt Nevskiy(Neva Prospect), the Gorokhovaya, and the Prospekt Voznesenskiy (Ascension Prospect). Three girdles of canals, roughly speaking concentric, intersect these three streets — the Moika, the Catherine and the Fontanka; to these a number of streets run parallel. The Prospekt Nevskiy is a very broad street, running straight east-south-east for 3200 yds. from the Admiralty to the Moscow railway station, and thence 1650 yds. farther, bending a little to the south, until it again reaches the Neva at Kalashnikov Harbour, near the vast com- plex of the Alexander Nevski monastery (1713), the seat of the metropolitan of St Petersburg. The part of the street first mentioned owes its picturesque aspect to its width, its atrractive shops, and still more its animation. But the buildings which border it are architecturally poor. Neither the cathedral of the Virgin of Kazan (an ugly imitation on a small scale of St Peter's in Rome), nor the still uglier Gostiniy Dvor (a two-storied quadrilateral building divided into second-rate shops) , nor the Anichkov Palace (which resembles immense barracks), nor even the Roman Catholic and Dutch churches do anything to embellish it. About midway between the public library and the Anichkov Palace an elegant square hides the old-fashioned Alexandra theatre; nor does a profusely adorned memorial (1873) to Catherine II. beautify it much. The Gorokhovaya is narrow and badly paved, and is shut in between gloomy houses occupied mostly by artizans. The Voznesenskiy Prospekt, on the con- trary, though as narrow as the last, has better houses. On the north, it passes into a series of large squares connected with that in which the monument of Peter the Great stands. One of them is occupied by the cathedral of St Isaac (of Dalmatia), and another by the memorial (1859) to Nicholas I., the gorgeousness and bad taste of which contrast strangely with the simplicity and significance of that of Peter the Great. The general aspect of the cathedral is imposing both without and within; but on the whole this architectural monument, built between 1819 and 1858 according to a plan of Montf errant, under the personal direction of Nicholas I., does not correspond either with its costliness (£2,431,300) or with the efforts put forth for its decoration by the best Russian artists. ST PETERSBURG 39 The eastern extremity of Vasilyevskiy Island is the centre of commercial activity; the stock exchange is situated there as well as the quays and storehouses. The remainder of the island is occupied chiefly by scientific and educational institutions — ■ the academy of science, with a small observatory, the university, the philological institute, the academy of the first corps of cadets, the academy of arts, the marine academy, the mining institute and the central physical observatory, all facing the Neva. Petersburg Island contains the fortress of St Peter and St Paul ( 1 703-1 740), opposite the Winter Palace; but the fortress is now a state prison. A cathedral which stands within its walls is the burial-place of the emperors and the imperial family. The mint and an artillery museum are also situated within the fortress. The remainder of the island is meanly built, and is the refuge of the poorer officials (chinovniks) andof the intellectual proletariat. Its northern part, separated from the main island by a narrow channel, bears the name of Apothecaries' Island, and is occupied by a botanical garden of great scientific value and several fine private gardens and parks. Krestovskiy, Elagin and Kamennyi Islands, as also the opposite (right) bank of the Great Nevka (one of the branches of the Neva) are occupied by public gardens, parks and summer residences. The mainland on the right bank of the Neva above its delta is known as the Viborg Side, and is connected with the main city by the Liteinyi bridge, closely adjoining which are the buildings of the military academy of medicine and spacious hospitals. The small streets (man j' of them unpaved), with numerous wooden houses, are inhabited by students and workmen; farther north are great textile and iron factories. Vast orchards and the yards of the artillery laboratory stretch north-eastwards, while the railway and the high road to Finland, running north, lead to the park of the Forestry Institute. The two villages of Okhta, on the right bank, are suburbs; higher up, on the left bank, are several factories (Alexandrovsk) which formerly belonged to the crown. The true boundary of St Petersburg on the south is the Obvodnyi Canal, running parallel to the three canals already mentioned and forming a sort of base to the Neva peninsula; but numerous orchards, cemeteries and factories, and even unoccupied spaces, are included within the city boundaries in that direction, though they are being rapidly covered with buildings. Except in a few principal streets, which are paved with wood or asphalt, the pavement is usually of granite setts. There are two government dockyards, the most important of which is the new admiralty yard in the centre of the city. At this yard there are three building slips and a large experimental basin, some 400 ft. in length, for trials with models of vessels. The Galerny Island yard is a little lower down the river, and is devoted entirely to construction. There are two building slips for large vessels, besides numerous workshops, storehouses and so forth. The Baltic Yard is near the mouth of the Neva, and was taken over by the ministry of marine in 1894. Since that time the establish- ment has been enlarged, and a new stone building slip, 520 ft. in length, completely housed in, has been finished. Population. — The population of St Petersburg proper at the censuses specified was as follows: — Year. Total. Men. Women. Proportion of Men to every 100 Women. 1869 1881 1890 1897 667,207 861,303 954,400 1,132,677 377.38o 473.229 512,718 616,855 289,827 388,074 441,682 515.822 130 122 116 119 A further increase was revealed by the municipal census of 1900, when the population of the city was 1,248,739, having thus increased 30-9% in ten years. In 1905 the total population was estimated to number 1,429,000. The population of the suburbs was 134,710 in 1897, and 190,635 in 1900. Including its suburbs, St Petersburg is the fifth city of Europe in point of size, coming after London, Paris, Berlin and Vienna. The large proportion of men in its population is due to the fact that great numbers come from other parts of Russia to work during the winter in the textile factories, and during the summer at un- loading the boats. Russians numbered 828,354 in 1897, or 73-1% of the population; Germans 43,798, or 3-9%; Poles 22,307, or i-9%; Finns, 16,731, or 1.5%; and Jews 10,353, or 0-9%. The various religions are represented by 84-9% Orthodox Greeks, 9-9 Protestants, and 3-3 Roman Catholics. The pro- portion of illegitimate children is ten times higher than in the rest of Russia, namely 250 to 286 per thousand births. It is thus nearly the same as in Paris, but lower than in Moscow (292 per thousand) and Vienna (349 per thousand) . The mortality varies very much in different parts of the city — from 12 per thousand in the best situated, the admiralty quarter, to 16 in other central parts, and 25 and 27 in the outlying quarters. The mortality has, however, notably decreased, as it averaged 36 per thousand in the years 1870 to 1874, and only 27 from 1886 to 1895, and 24 in 1897. Infectious diseases, i.e. turberculosis, diphtheria, inflammation of the lungs, typhoid, scarlet fever and measles, are the cause of 37 to 38% of all deaths. The high mortality in certain quarters is largely due to overcrowding and bad water. An interesting feature of the Russian capital is the very high proportion of people living on their own earnings or income (" independent ") as compared with those who live on the earnings or income of some one else (" dependent "). Only a few industrial establishments employ more than twenty workmen, the average being less than ten and the figure seldom falling below five. The large factories are beyond the limits of St Petersburg. Although 36% of the population above six years old are unable to read, the workmen are amongst the most intelligent classes in Russia. Education, Science and Art. — Notwithstanding the hardships and prosecutions to which it is periodically subjected, the university (nearly 4000 students) exercises a pronounced influence en the life of St Petersburg. The medical faculty forms a separate academy, under military jurisdiction, with about 1500 students. There are, moreover, a philological institute, a technological institute, a forestry academy, an engineering academy, two theological academies (Orthodox Greek and Roman Catholic), an academy of arts, five military academies and a high school of law. Higher instruction for women is provided by a medical academy, a free university, four other institutions for higher education, and a school of agriculture. The scientific institutions include an academy of sciences, opened in 1726, which has rendered immense service in the exploration of Russia. The oft-repeated reproach that it keeps its doors shut to Russian savants, while opening them too widely to German ones, is not without foundation. The Pulkovo astronomical observatory, the chief physical (meteorological) observatory (with branches throughout Russia and Siberia), the astronomical observatory at Vilna, the astronomical and magnetical observatory at Peking, and the botanical garden, are all attached to the academy of sciences. The Society of Naturalists and the Physical and Chemical Society have issued most valuable publications. The geological committee is ably pushing forward the geological survey of the country; the Mineralogical Society was founded in 1817. The Geographical Society, with branch societies for West and East Siberia, Caucasus, Orenburg, the north-western and south-western provinces of European Russia, is well known for its valuable work, as is also the Entomological Society. There are four medical societies, and an archaeological society (since 1 846) , an historical society, an economical society, gardening, forestry, technical and navigation societies. The conservatory of music, with a new building (1891-1896), gives superior musical instruction. The Musical Society is worthy of notice. Art, on the other hand, has not freed itself from the old scholastic methods at the academy. Several independent artistic societies seek to remedy this drawback, and are the true cradle of the Russian genre painters. The imperial public library contains valuable collections of books (1,000,000) and MSS. The library of the academy of sciences con- tains more than 500,000 volumes, 13,000 MSS., rich collections of works on oriental languages, and valuable collections of periodical publications from scientific societies throughout the world. The museums of the Russian capital occupy a prominent place among those of Europe. That of the Academy of Sciences, of the Navy, of Industrial Art (1896), of the Mineralogical Society, of the Academy of Arts, the Asiatic museum, the Suvorov museum (1901), with pictures by Vereshchagin, the Zoological museum and several others are of great scientific value. The Hermitage Art Gallery contains a first-rate collection of the Flemish school, some pictures of the Russian school, good specimens of the Italian, Spanish and old French schools, invaluable treasures of Greek and Scythian antiquities, and a good collection of 200,000 engravings. Old Christian and old Russian arts are well represented in the museums of the Academy of Arts. The New Michael Palace was in 1 895-1 898 4.0 SAINT-PIERRE, ABBE DE n converted into a museum of Russian art— the Russian museum is one of the handsomest buildings in the city. In the development of the Russian drama St Petersburg has played a far less important part than Moscow, and the stage there has never reached the same standard of excellence as that of the older capital. On the other hand, St Petersburg is the cradle of Russian opera and Russian music. There are in the city only four theatres of import- ance — all imperial — two for the opera and ballet, one for the native drama, and one for the French and German drama. Industries and Trade.— St Petersburg is much less of a manufactur- ing city than Moscow or Berlin. The period 1880 to 1890 was very critical in the history of the northern capital. With the develop- ment of the railway system the southern and south-western provinces of Russia began to prosper more rapidly than the upper Volga provinces; St Petersburg began to lose its relative importance in favour of the Baltic ports of Riga and Libau, and its rapid growth since the Crimean War seemed in danger of being arrested. The danger, however, passed away, and in the last decade of the 19th century the city continued its advance with renewed vigour. A great influx of functionaries of all sorts, consequent upon the state taking into its hands the administration of the railways, spirits, &c, resulted in the rapid growth of the population, while the introduction of a cheap railway tariff, and the subsidizing and encouraging in other ways of the great industries, attracted to St Petersburg a considerable number of workers, and favoured the growth of its larger industrial establishments. St Petersburg is now one of the foremost industrial provinces in Russia, its yearly returns placing it immediately after Moscow and before Piotrkow, in Poland. The chief factories are cottons and other textiles, metal and machinery works, tobacco, paper, soap and candle factories, breweries, dis- tilleries, sugar refineries, ship-building yards, printing works, potteries, carriage works, pastry and confectionery and chemicals. The export trade of St Petersburg is chiefly in grain (especially rye and oats), flour and bran, oil seeds, oil cakes, naphtha, eggs, flax and timber. It shows very great fluctuations, varying in accordance with the ciops, the range being from £8,000,000 to £10,000,000. The exports are almost entirely to western Europe by sea (from £5,500,000 to £6,5O0,r>x>), and to Finland (£1,500,000 to £3,000,000). The im- ports consist chiefly of coal, metals, building materials, herrings, coffee and tea, better-class timber, raw cotton, wood pulp and cellulose, and manufactured goods, and amount to about £14,000,000 annually. Six railways meet at St Petersburg. Two run westwards along both shores o' the Gulf of Finland to Hangoudd and to Port Baltic respectively; two short lines connect Oranienbaum, opposite Kronstadt and Tsarskoye Selo (with Pavlovsk) with the capital; and three great trunk lines run — south-west to Warsaw (with branches to Riga and Smolensk), south-east to Moscow (with branches to Novgorod and Rybinsk), and east to Vologda, Vyatka and Perm. The Neva is the principal channel for the trade of St Petersburg with the rest of Russia, by means of the Volga and its tributaries. Administration. — The municipal affairs of the city are in the hands of a municipality, elected by three categories of electors, and is practically a department of the chief of the police. The city is under a separate governor-general, whose authority, like that of the chief of police, is unlimited. Environs. — St Petersburg is surrounded by several fine residences, mostly imperial palaces with large and beautiful parks. Tsarskoye Selo, 15 m. to the south-east, and Peterhof, on the Gulf of Finland, are summer residences of the emperor. Pavlovsk, 17 m. S. of the city, has a fine palace and parks, where summer concerts attract thousands of people. There is another imperial palace at Gatchina, 29 m. S. Oranienbaum, 25 m. W. on the south shore of the Gulf of Finland, is a rather neglected place. Pulkovo, on a hill 9 m. S. from St Petersburg, is well known for its observatory ; while several villages north of the capital, such as Pargolovo and Murino, are visited in summer by the less wealthy inhabitants. History. — The region between Lake Ladoga and the Gulf of Finland was inhabited in the 9th century by Finns and some Slavs. Novgorod and Pskov made efforts to secure and maintain dominion over this region, so important for their trade, and in the 13th and 14th centuries they built the forts of Koporya (in the present district of Peterhof), Yam (now Yamburg), and Oryeshek (now Schlusselburg) at the point where the Neva issues from Lake Ladoga. They found, however, powerful opponents in the Swedes, who erected the fort of Landskrona at the junction of the Okhta and the Neva, and in the Livonians, who had their fortress at Narva. Novgorod and Moscow successively were able by continuous fighting to maintain their supremacy over the region south of the Neva throughout the 16th century; but early in the 17th century Moscow was com- pelled to cede it to Sweden, which erected a fortress on the Neva at the mouth of the Okhta. In 1700 Peter the Great began his wars with Sweden. Oryeshek was taken in 1702, and in the following year the Swedish fortress on the Neva. Two months later (29th June 1703) Peter laid the foundations of a cathedral to St Peter and St Paul, and of a fort which received his own name (in its Dutch transcription, "Piterburgh" ). Next year the fort of Kronslott was erected on the island of Kotlin, as also the Admiralty on the Neva, opposite the fortress. The emperor took most severe and almost barbarous measures for increasing his newly founded city, which was built on marshy ground, the buildings resting on piles. Thousands of people from all parts of Russia were removed thither and died in erecting the fortress and building the houses. Under Elizabeth fresh compulsory measures raised the population to 150,000, and this figure was nearly doubled during the reign of Catherine II. (1762-1796). The chief embellishments of St Petersburg were effected during the reigns of Alexander I. (1801-1825) and Nicholas I. (1825- 1855). From the earliest years of Russian history trade had taken this northern direction. Novgorod owed its wealth to this fact; and as far back as the 12th century the Russians had their forts on Lake Ladoga and the Neva. In the 14th and 15th centuries they exchanged their wares with the Danzig merchants at Nu or Nu — now Vasilyevskiy Island. By founding St Petersburg Peter the Great only restored the trade to its old channels. The system of canals for connecting the upper Volga and the Dnieper with the great lakes of the north completed the work; the commercial mouth of the Volga was thus transferred to the Gulf of Finland, and St Petersburg became the export harbour for more than half Russia. Foreigners hastened thither to take possession of the growing export trade, and to this the Russian capital is indebted for its cosmopolitan character. The develop- ment of the railway system and the colonization of southern Russia now operate, however, adversely to St Petersburg, while the rapid increase of population in the Black Sea region is tending to shift the Russian centre of gravity; new centres of commercial, industrial, and intellectual life are being developed at Odessa and Rostov. The revival of Little Russia is another influence operating in the same direction. Since the abolition of serfdom and in consequence of the impulse given to Russian thought by this reform, the provinces are coming more and more to dispute the right of St Petersburg to guide the political life of the country. It has been often said that St Petersburg is the head of Russia and Moscow its heart. The first part at least of this saying is true. In the development of thought and in naturalizing in Russia the results of west European culture and philosophy St Petersburg has played a prominent part. It has helped greatly to familiarize the public with the teachings of west European science and thinking, and to give to Russian literature its liberality of mind and freedom from the trammels of tradition. St Petersburg has no traditions, no history beyond that of the palace conspiracies, and there is nothing in its past to attract the writer or the thinker. But, as new centres of intellectual life and new currents of thought develop again at Moscow and Kiev, or arise anew at Odessa and in the eastern provinces, these places claim the right to their own share in the further development of intellectual life in Russia. (P. A. K., J. T. Be.) SAINT-PIERRE, CHARLES IRENEE CASTEL, (Abbe de (1658-1743), French writer, was born at the chateau de Saint- Pierre-l'Eglise near Cherbourg on the 18th of February 1658. His father was bailli of the Cotentin, and Saint-Pierre was educated by the Jesuits. In Paris he frequented the salons of Madame de la Fayette and of the marquise de Lambert. He was presented to the abbacy of Tiron, and was elected to the Academy in 1695. In the same year he gained a footing at court as almoner to Madame. But in 1718, in consequence of the political offence given by his Discours sur la polysynodie, he was expelled from the Academy. He afterwards founded the club of the Entre sol, an independent society suppressed in 1731. He died in Paris on the 29th of April 1743. Saint-Pierre's works are almost entirely occupied with an acute though generally visionary criticism of politics, law and social institutions. They had a great influence on Rousseau, who left elaborate examinations of some of them, and reproduced SAINT-PIERRE, J. H. B. DE— ST POL-DE-LEON not a few of their ideas in his own work. His Pi-ojet de paix perpituelle, which was destined to exercise considerable influence on the development of the various schemes for securing universal peace which culminated in the Holy Alliance, was published in 1713 at Utrecht, where he was acting as secretary to the French plenipotentiary, the Abbe de Polignac, and his Polysynodie contained severe strictures on the government of Louis XIV., with projects for the administration of France by a system of councils for each department of government. His works include a number of memorials and projects for stopping duelling, equalizing taxation, treating mendicancy, reforming education and spelling, &c. It was not, however, for his suggestions for the reform of the constitution that he was disgraced, but because in the Polysynodie he had refused to Louis XIV. the title of le Grand. Unlike the later reforming abbes of the philosophe period, Saint-Pierre was a man of very unworldly character and quite destitute of the Frondeur spirit. His works were published at Amsterdam in 1738-1740 and his Annates politique* in London in 1757. A discussion of his principles, with a view to securing a just estimation of the high value of his political and economic ideas, is given by S. Siegler Pascal in Un Contemporain egare au XVI II' siecle. Les Projets de I' abbe de Saint- Pierre, 1658-1743 (Paris, 1900). SAINT-PIERRE, JACQUES HENRI BERNARDIN DE (1737- 1814), French man of letters, was born at Havre on the 19th of January 1737. He was educated at Caen and at Rouen, and became an engineer. According to his own account he served in the army, taking part in the Hesse campaign of 1760, but was dismissed for insubordination, and, after quarrelling with his family, was in some difficulty. He appears at Malta, St Petersburg, Warsaw, Dresden, Berlin, holding brief commissions as an engineer and rejoicing in romantic adventures. But he came back to Paris in 1765 poorer than he set out. He came into possession of a small sum at his father's death, and in 1 768 he set out for the Isle of France (Mauritius) with a government commission, and remained there three years, returning home in 1 77 1. These wanderings supplied Bernardin with the whole of his stock-in-trade, for he never again quitted France. On his return from Mauritius he was introduced to D'Alembert and his friends, but he took no great pleasure in the company of any literary man except J. J. Rousseau, of whom in his last years he saw much, and on whom he formed both his character and his style. His Voyage a I' lie de France (2 vols., 1773) gained him a reputation as a champion of innocence and religion, and in consequence, through the exertions of the bishop of Aix, a pension of 1000 livres a year. It is soberest and therefore the least characteristic of his books. The Etudes de la nature (3 vols., 1784) was an attempt to prove the existence of God from the wonders of nature; he set up a philosophy of sentiment to oppose the materializing tendencies of the Encyclopaedists. His masterpiece, Paul et Virginie, appeared in 1789 in a supple- mentary volume of the Etudes, and his second great success, much less sentimental and showing not a little humour, the Chaumiere indienne, not till 1790. In 1792 he married a very young girl, Felicite Didot, who brought him a considerable dowry. For a short time in 1792 he was superintendent of the Jardin des Plantes, and on the suppression of the office received a pension of 3000 livres. In 1795 he became a member of the Institute. After his first wife's death he married in 1800, when he was sixty-three, another young girl, Desiree Pelleport, and is said to have been very happy with her. On the 21st of January 1814 he died at his house at Eragny, near Pontoise. Paul et Virginie has been pronounced gaudy in style and unhealthy in tone. Perhaps Bernardin is not fairly to be judged by this famous story, in which the exuberant sensibility of the time finds equally exuberant expression. His merit lies in his breaking away from the arid vocabulary which more than a century of classical writing has brought upon France, in his genuine preference for the beauties of nature, and in his attempt to describe them faithfully. After Rousseau, and even more than Rousseau, Bernardin was in French literature the apostle of the return to nature, though both in him and his immediate follower Chateaubriand there is still much mannerism and unreality. Aimfe Martin, disciple of Bernardin and the second husband of his second wife, published a complete edition of his works in 18 volumes 41 (Paris, 1818-1820), afterwards increased by seven volumes of correspondence and memoirs (1826). Paul et Virginie, the Chaumiere indienne, &c. have often been separately reprinted. See also Arvede Barin's Bernardin de Saxnt Pierre (1891). ST PIERRE and MIQTJELON, two islands 10 m. off the south coast of Newfoundland, united area about 91 sq. m. Both are rugged masses of granite, with a few small streams and lakes, a thin covering of soil and scanty vegetation. Miquelon, the larger of the two, consists of Great Miquelon and Little Miquelon, or Langlade; previous to 1783 these were separated by a' navigable channel, but they have since become connected by a dangerous mudbank. St Pierre has a sheltered harbour with about 14 ft. of water, and a good roadstead for large vessels. Their importance is due to their proximity to the great Banks, which makes them the centre of the French Atlantic fisheries. These are kept up by an elaborate system of bounties by the French government, which considers them of great importance as training sailors for the navy. Fishing lasts from May till October, and is carried on by nearly five hundred vessels, of which about two-thirds are fitted out from St Pierre, the remainder coming from St Malo, Cancale and other French coast towns. The resident population, which centres in the town of St Pierre, is about 6500, swelled to over 10,000 for a time each year by extra fishing hands from France, but is steadily declining owing to emigration into Canada. Owing to the low rates of duty, vast quantities of goods, especially French wines and liquors, are imported, and smuggled to Newfoundland, the United States and Canada, though of late years this has been checked by a gradual rise in the scale of duties, and by the presence since 1904 of a British consul. St Pierre is connected with Halifax (N.S.) and St Johns (Newfoundland) by a regular packet service, and is a station of the Anglo American Cable Co. and the Compagnie francaise des cdbles tttegraphiques. Excellent facilities for primary and secondary education are given, but the attraction of the fisheries prevents their being fully used. The islands were occupied by the French in 1660, and fortified in 1700. In 1702 they were captured by the British, and held till 1763, when they were given back to France as a fishing station. They are thus the sole remnant of the French colonies in North America. Destroyed by the English in 1778, restored to France in 1783, again captured and depopulated by the English in 1793, recovered by France in 1802 and lost in 1803, the islands have remained in undisputed French possession since 1814 (Treaty of Paris). See Henrique, Les Colonies francaises , t. ii. (Paris, 1889) ; Levasseur, La France, t. ii. (Paris, 1893); L'Annee coloniale, yearly since 1899, contains statistics and a complete bibliography; P. T. McGrath in The New England Magazine (May 1903) describes the daily life of the people. (W. L. G.) ST POL, COUNTS OF. The countship of St Pol-sur-Ternoise in France (department of Pas-de-Calais), belohged in the nth and 1 2th centuries to a family surnamed Candavene. Elizabeth, heiress of this house, carried the countship to her husband, Gaucher de Chatillon, in 1205. By the marriage of Mahaut de Ch&tillon with Guy VI. of Luxemburg, St Pol passed to the house of Luxemburg. It was in possession of Louis of Luxemburg, constable of France, who was beheaded in 1475. The constable's property was confiscated by Louis XL, but was subsequently restored in 1488 to his granddaughters, Marie and Francoise of Luxemburg. Marie (d. 1542) was countess of St Pol, and married Francois de Bourbon, count of Vend6me. Their son, Francois de Bourbon, count of St Pol (1491-1545), was one of the most devoted and courageous generals of Francis I. Marie, daughter of the last-mentioned count, brought the countship of St Pol to the house of Orleans-Longueville. In 1705 Marie of Orleans sold it to Elizabeth of Lorraine-Lillebonne, widow of Louis de Melun, prince of Epinoy, and their daughter married the prince of Roban-Soubise, who thus became count of St Pol. (M. P.*) ST POL-DE-LEON, a town of north-western France, in the department of Finistere, about 1 m. from the shore of the English Channel, and 13J m. N. of Morlaix by the railway to Roscoff. Pop. (1906), town, 3353; commune, 8140. St Pol-de- Leon is a quaint town with several old houses. The cathedral is 42 SAINT PRIEST— ST QUENTIN largely in the Norman Gothic style of the 13th and early 14th centuries. The west front has a projecting portico and two towers 180 ft. high with granite spires. Within the church there are beautifully carved stalls of the 16th century and other works of art. On the right of the high altar is a wooden shrine con- taining the bell of St Pol de Leon, which was said to cure headache and diseases of the ear, and at the side of the main entrance is a huge baptismal font, popularly regarded as the stone coffin of Conan Meriadec, king of the Bretons. Notre Dame de Kreizker, dating mainly from the second half of the 14th century, has a celebrated spire, 252 ft. high, which crowns the central tower. The north porch is a fine specimen of the flamboyant style. In the cemetery, which has a chapel of the 15th century, there are ossuaries of the year 1 500. In the 6th century a Welsh monk, Paul, became bishop of the small town of Leon, and lord of the domain in its vicinity, which passed to his successors and was increased by them. In 1793 the town was the centre of a serious but unsuccessful rising provoked by the recruiting measures of the Convention. SAINT PRIEST, FRANCOIS EMMANUEL GUIGNARD, Chevalier, then Comte de (1735-1821), French statesman, was born at Grenoble on the 12th of March 1735. He was admitted a knight (chevalier) of the Order of Malta at five years of age, and at fifteen entered the army. He left active service in 1763 with the grade of colonel, and for the next four years represented the court of France at Lisbon. He was sent in 1768 to Constanti- nople, where he remained with one short interval till 1785, and married Wilhelmina von Ludolf , daughter of the Neapolitan ambassador. His Mtmoires sur I'ambassade de France en Turquie et le commerce des Francais dans le Levant, prepared during a visit to France, were only published in 1877, when they were edited by C. Schefer. After a few months spent at the court of the Hague, he joined the ministry of Necker as minister without a portfolio, and in Necker's second cabinet in 1789 was secretary of the royal household and minister of the interior. He became a special object of the popular hatred because he was alleged to have replied to women begging for bread, " You had enough while you had only one king; demand bread of your twelve hundred sovereigns." Nevertheless he held office until December 1790. Shortly after his resignation he went to Stockholm, where his brother-in-law was Austrian ambassador. In 1795 he joined the comte de Provence at Verona as minister of the household. He accompanied the exiled court to Blankenburg and Mittau, retiring in 1808 to Switzerland. After vainly seeking permission to return to France he was expelled from Switzerland, and wandered about Europe until the Restoration. Besides the memoirs already mentioned he wrote an Examen des assemblies provinciates (1787). His eldest son, GuillaumeEmmanuel(i776-i8i4), became major- general in the Russian service, and served in the campaigns of Alexander I. against Napoleon. He died at Laon in 1 814. The second, Armand Emmanuel Charles (1782-1863), became civil governor of Odessa, and married Princess Sophie Galitzin. The third, Emmanuel Louis Marie Guignard, vicomte de Saint Priest (1789-1881), was a godson of Marie Antoinette. Like his elder brother he took part in the invasion of France in 18I4. At the Restoration he was attached to the service of the duke of AngoulSme, and during the Hundred Days tried to raise Dauphine in the royal cause. He served with distinction in Spain in 1823, when he was promoted lieutenant-general. After two years at Berlin he became French ambassador at Madrid, where he negotiated in 1828 the settle- ment of the Spanish debt. When the revolution of July compelled his retirement, Frederick VII. made him a grandee of Spain, with the title of duke of Almazan, in recognition of his services. He then joined the circle of the duchess of Berry at Naples, and arranged her escapade in Provence in 1832. Saint Priest was arrested, and was only released after ten months' imprisonment. Having arranged for an asylum in Austria for the duchess, he returned to Paris, where he was one of the leaders of legitimist society until his death, which occurred at Saint Priest, near Lyons, on the 26th of February 1881. Alexis Guignard, comte de Saint Priest (1805-1851), was the son of Armand de Saint Priest and Princess Galitzin. Educated in Russia, he returned to France with his father in 1822, and soon made his mark in literary circles. His most important works were Histoire de la royaule considSree dans ses origines jusqua la formation des principalis monarchies de I'Europe (2 vols., 1842) ; Histoire de la chute des Jesuiles (1844); Histoire de la conquite de Naples (4 vols., 1 847-1 848). He was elected to the Academy in January 1849. Meanwhile he had departed from the legitimist tradition of his family to become a warm friend to the Orleans monarchy, which he served between 1833 and 1838 as ambassador in Brazil, at Lisbon and at Copenhagen. He died, while on a visit to Moscow, on the 29th of September 1 851. SAINT PRIVAT, a village of Lorraine, 7 m. N.W. of.Metz. The village and the slopes to the west played a great part in the battle of Gravelotte (August 18, 1870). (See Metz and Franco-German War.) At St Privat occurred the famous repulse of the Prussian Guard by Marshal Canrobert's corps. ST QUENTIN, a manufacturing town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Aisne, 32 m. N.N.W. of Laon by rail. Pop. (1906) 49,305. The town stands on the right bank of the Somme, at its junction with the St Quentin Canal (which unites the Somme with the Scheldt) and the Ciozat Canal (which unites it with the Oise). The port carries on an active traffic in building materials, coal, timber, iron, sugar and agricultural produce. Built on a slope, with a southern exposure, the town is dominated by the collegiate church of St Quentin, one of the finest Gothic buildings in the north of France, erected during the 12th, 13th, 14th and 15th centuries. The church, which has no west facade, terminates at that end in a tower and portal of Romanesque architecture; it has double transepts. Its length is 436 ft. and the height of the nave 124 ft. The choir (13th century) has a great re- semblance to that of Reims; like the chapels of the apse it is decorated with polychromic paintings. There are remains of a choir-screen of the 14th century. Under the choir is a crypt of the nth century, rebuilt in the 13th century, and containing the tombs of St Quentin (Quintin) and his fellow-martyrs Victoricus and Gentianus. The Champs Elysees, an extensive promenade, lies east of the cathedral. The hotel-de-ville of St Quentin is a splendid building of the 14th, 15th and 1 6th centuries, with a flamboyant facade, adorned with curious sculptures. The council-room is a fine hall with a double wooden ceiling and a huge chimneypiece, partly Gothic partly Renaissance. A monument commemorates the siege of 1557 (see below), and another close to the river the part, played by the town in 1870 and 1871. A building of the 20th century is appropriated to the law court, the learned societies, the museum and the library. St Quentin is the seat of a sub-prefect, of tribunals of first instance and of commerce, and of a board of trade-arbitration, and has an exchange, a chamber of commerce and lycees for both sexes. The town is the centre of an industrial district which manufactures cotton and woollen fabrics. St Quentin produces chiefly pique and window-curtains, and carries on the spinning and preliminary processes and the bleaching and finishing. Other industries are the making of embroideries by machinery and by hand, and the manufacture of iron goods and machinery. Trade is in grain, flax, cotton and wool. St Quentin (anc. Augusta Veromanduorum) stood at the meeting-place of five military roads. In the 3rd century it was the scene of the martyrdom of Gaius Quintinus, who had come thither from Italy as a preacher of Christianity. The date of the foundation of the bishopric is uncertain, but about 532 it was transferred to Noyon. Towards the middle of the 7th century St Eloi (Eligius), bishop of Noyon, established a collegiate chapter at St Quentin's tomb, which became a famous place of pilgrimage. The town thus gained an importance which was increased during the middle ages by the rise of its cloth manu- facture. After it had been thrice ravaged by the Normans, the town was surrounded by walls in 883. It became under Pippin, grandson of Charlemagne, one of the principal domains of the counts of Vermandois, and in 1080 received from Count Herbert IV. a charter which was extended in 1103 and is the earliest of those freely granted to the towns of northern France. From 1420 to 1471 St Quentin was occupied by the Burgundians. In 1557 it was taken by the Spaniards (see below). Philip commemorated the victory over the relieving force under the Constable Montmorency by the foundation of the Escurial. Two years later the town was restored to the French, and in 1560 it was assigned as the dowry of Mary Stuart. The SAINT-REAL— SAINTS, BATTLE OF THE 43 fortifications erected under Louis XIV. were demolished between 1810 and 1820. During the Franco-Prussian War St Quentin repulsed the German attacks of the 8th of October 1870; and in January 1871 it was the centre of the great battle fought by General Faidherbe (below). 1. Battle of 1557. — -An army of Spaniards under Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy, invading France from the Meuse, joined an allied contingent of English troops under the walls of St Quentin, which was then closely besieged. Admiral Coligny threw himself on to the town, and the old Constable Montmorency prepared to relieve it. On St Lawrence's Day, 10th August, the relieving column reached the town without difficulty, but time was wasted in drawing off the garrison, for the pontoons intended to bridge the canal had marched at the tail of the column, and when brought up were mismanaged. The besiegers, recovering from their surprise, formed the plan of cutting off the retreat of the relieving army. Montmorency had thrown out the necessary protective posts, but at the point which the besiegers ehose for their passage the post was composed of poor troops, who fled at the first shot. Thus, while the constable was busy with his boats, the Spanish army filed across the Bridge of Rouvroy, some distance above the town, with impunity, and Mont- morency, in the hope of executing his mission without fighting, refused to allow the cavalry under the due de Nevers to charge them, and miscalculated his time of freedom. The Spaniards, enormously superior in force, cut off and destroyed the French gendarmerie who formed the vanguard of the column, and then headed off the slow-moving infantry south of Essigny-le-Grand. Around the 10,000 French gathered some 40,000 assailants with forty-two guns. The cafinon thinned their ranks, and at last the cavalry broke in and slaughtered them. Yet Coligny gallantly held St Quentin for seventeen days longer, Nevers rallied the remnant of the army andj garrisoning Peronne, Ham and other strong places, entrenched himself in front of Compiegne, and the allies, disheartened by a war of sieges and skirmishes, came to a standstill. Soon afterwards Philip, jealous of the renown of his generals and unwilling to waste his highly trained soldados in ineffective fighting, ordered the army to retreat (17th October), disbanded the temporary regiments and dispersed the permanent corps in winter quarters. 2. The Battle of 1871 was fought between the German I. army under General von Goeben and the French commanded by General Faidherbe. The latter concentrated about St Quentin on the 18th of January, and took up a defensive position on both sides of the Somme Canal. The Germans, though inferior in numbers, were greatly superior in discipline and training, afnd General von Goeben boldly decided to attack both wings of the French together on the 19th. The attack took the customary enveloping form. After several hours' fighting it was brought to a standstill, but Goeben, using his reserves in masterly fashion, drove a wedge into the centre of the French line between the canal and the railway, and followed this up with another blow on the other bank of the canal, along the Ham road. This was the signal for a decisive attack by the whole of the left wing of the Germans, but the French offered strenuous resistance, and it was not until four o'clock that General Faidherbe made up his mind to retreat. By skilful dispositions and orderly movement most of his infantry and all but six of his guns were brought off safely, but a portion of the army was cut off by the victorious left wing of the Germans, and the defeat, the last act in a long-drawn-out struggle, was sufficiently decisive to deny to the defenders any hope of taking the field again without an interval of rest and reorganization. Ten days later the general armistice was signed. SAINT-REAL, CESAR VICHARD DE (1639-1692), French historian, was born in Savoy, but educated in Paris by the Jesuits. Varillas gave him his taste for history and served as his model; he wrote hardly anything but historical novels. The only merit of his Don Carlos (1673) is that of having furnished Schiller with several of the speeches in his drama. In the following year he produced the Conjuration des Espagnols contre la Republique de Venise en 1618, which had a phenomenal success, but is all the same merely a literary pastiche in the style of Sallust. This work and his reputation as a free-thinker brought him to the notice of Hortense Mancini, duchesse de Mazarin, whose reader and friend he became, and who took him with her to England (1675). The authorship of the duchess's Mimoires has been ascribed to him, but without reason. Among his authentic works is included a short treatise De la critique (1691), directed against Andry de Boisregard's Reflexions sur la langue franf,oise. His CEuvres completes were published in 3 volumes (1745); a second edition (1757) reached 8 volumes, but this is due to the inclusion of some works falsely attributed to him. Saint-Real was, in fact, a fashionable writer of his period; the demand for him in the book-market was similar to that for Saint-Evremond, to whom he was inferior. He wrote in an easy and pleasant, but mediocre style. See Pere Lelong; Bibliotheque historique de la France, No. 48, 122; Barolo, Memorie spettanti alia vita di Saint-Real (1780; Saint- Real was an associate of the Academy of Turin) ; Sayous, Histoire de la litterature frangaise & I'etrahger. ST REMY, a town of south-eastern France in the department of Bouches-du-Rhone, 15 m. N.E. of Aries by road. Pop. (1906), town, 3668; commune, 6148. It is prettily situated to the north of the range of hills named the Alpines or Alpilles in a valley of olive trees. The town has a modern church with a lofty 14th-century spire. About a mile to the south are Gallo- Roman relics of the ancient Glanum, destroyed about 480. They comprise a triumphal arch and a fine three-storied mausoleum of uncertain date. Near by is the old priory of St Paul-de-Mausole with an interesting church and cloister of Romanesque architecture. In the vicinity of St Remy there are quarries of building stone, and seed-cultivation is an important industry. ST RIQUIER, a town of northern France, in the department of Somme, 8 m. N.E. of Abbeville by rail. Pop. (1906) 1158. St Riquier (originally Centula) was famous for its abbey, founded about 625 by Riquier (Richarnis), son of the governor of the town. It was enriched by King Dagobert and prospered under the abbacy of Angilbert, son-in-law of Charlemagne. The buildings (18th century) are occupied by an ecclesiastical seminary. The church, a magnificent example of flamboyant Gothic architecture of the 15th and 16th centuries, has a richly sculptured west front surmounted by a square tower. In the interior the fine vaulting, the Renaissance font and carved stalls, and the frescoes in the treasury are especially noteworthy. The treasury, among other valuable relics, possesses a copper cross said to be the work of St Eloi (Eligius). The town has a municipal belfry of the 13th or 14th centuries. In 1536 St Riquier repulsed an attack by the Germans, the women especially distinguishing themselves. In 1544 it was burnt by the English, an event which marks the beginning of its decline. See H6nocque, " Hist, de l'abbaye et de la ville de St Riquier," in Mem. soc. antiq. Picardie. Documents inedits, ix.-xi. (Paris, 1880- tOQQA SAINTS, BATTLE OF THE. This battle is frequently called by the date on which it took place — the 12th of April 1782. The French know it as the battle of Dominica, near the coast of which it was fought. The Saints are small rocky islets in the channel between the islands of Dominica and Guadaloupe in the West Indies. The battle is of exceptional importance in naval history; it was by far the most considerable fought at sea in the American War of Independence, and was to Great Britain of the nature of a deliverance, since it not only saved Jamaica from a formidable attack, but after the disasters in North America went far to restore British prestige. The comte de Grasse,with 33 sail of the line, was at Fort Royal in Martinique. His aim was to effect a combination with a Spanish force from Cuba, and invade Jamaica. A British fleet (36 sail of the line), commanded by Sir George, afterwards Lord Rodney (q.v.), was anchored in Gros Islet Bay, Santa Lucia. On the 8th of April the British lookout frigates reported that the French were at sea, and Rodney immediately sailed in pursuit. Light and variable sea or land breezes made the movements of both fleets uncertain. Some of the ships of each might have a wind, while others were becalmed. On the 9th of April eight ships of the British van, at some distance from the bulk of their fleet, and nearly opposite the mountain called the Morne au Diable in Dominica, were attacked by fifteen of the French. The comte de Grasse, whose own ships were much scattered and partly becalmed, and who moreover was hampered by the transports carrying soldiers and stores, did not press the attack home. His chief wish was to carry his fleet through the channel between Dominica and Guadaloupe, while Rodney was anxious to force a battle. During the night of the nth-i2th the greater part of the French had cleared the channel, but a collision took place between two of their ships by which one was severely damaged. The crippled vessel was seen and pursued by four ships of the 4+ SAINT-SAENS British van. The comte de Grasse recalled all his vessels, and bore down towards the British. Rodney ordered the last of his ships to lead into action, the others following her in succession, and the detached ships falling in behind as they returned from the pursuit. The two fleets in line of battle passed one another, the French steering in a southerly, the British in a northerly direction. Both were going very slowly. Fire was opened about 8 o'clock, and by 10 o'clock the leading British ship had passed the last of the French. While the action was in progress, one of the variable winds of the coast began to blow from the south, while the northern extremities of the fleets were in an easterly breeze. Confusion was produced in both forces, and a great gap was created in the French line just ahead of the " Formidable" (ioo), Rodney's flagship. The captain of the fleet, Sir Charles Douglas, called his attention to the opening, and urged him to steer through it. The fighting instructions then in force made it incumbent on an admiral to preserve the order in which he began the action unchanged. Rodney hesitated to depart from the traditional order, but after a few moments of doubt accepted the suggestion. The " Formidable " was steered through the opening, followed by six of those immediately behind her. The ships towards the rear passed through the disordered French in the smoke, which was very thick, without knowing what they had done till they were beyond the enemy. About i o'clock the British had all either gone beyond the French or were to the east of them. The French were broken into three bodies, and were completely disordered. The comte de Grasse, in his flagship the " Ville de Paris," with five other vessels, was isolated from his van and rear. Rodney directed his attack on these six vessels, which were taken after a very gallant resistance. It was the general belief of the fleet that many more would have been captured if Rodney had pursued more vigorously, but he was content with the prizes he had taken. Two more of the French were captured by Sir Samuel Hood, afterwards Lord Hood, in the Mona Passage on the 19th of April. See Beatson, Naval and Military Memoirs (London, 1804), vol. 5; and a careful analysis from the French side by Chevalier, Histoire de la marine francaise pendant la gtierre de Vindependance americaine (Paris, 1877). (D. H.) SAINT-SAENS, CHARLES CAMILLE (1835- ), French composer, was born in Paris on the 3rd of October 1835. After having as a child taken lessons on the piano, and learned the elements of composition, he entered the Paris Conservatoire in the organ class, then presided over by Eugene Benoist, obtaining the second prize in 1849, an d the first two years later. For a short time he studied composition under Halevy, and in 1852, and again in 1864, competed without success for the Grand Prix de Rome. Notwithstanding these unaccountable failures, Saint- Saens worked indefatigably. In 1853, when only eighteen, he was appointed organist at the Church of St Merry, and from 1861 to 1877 was organist at the Madeleine, in succession to Lefebure-Wely. An overture entitled " Spartacus," which has remained unpublished, was crowned at a competition instituted in 1863 by the Soci6te Sainte Cecile of Bordeaux. The greatest triumph of his early career was, however, attained in 1867, when the prize was unanimously awarded to him for his cantata " Les Noces de Promethee " in the competition organized during the International Exhibition of that year — a prize competed for by over two hundred musicians. Though he had acquired a great name as a pianist, and had made successful concert tours through Europe, he had not succeeded in reaching the ears of the larger public by the produc- tion of an opera, which in France counts for more than anything else. After the tragic events of 1870, when Saint-Saens did his duty as a patriot by serving in the National Guard, the oppor- tunity at last offered itself, and a one-act opera from his pen, La Princesse jaune, with words by Louis Gallet, was produced at the Opera Comique with moderate success on the 12th of June 1872. Le Timbre d'argent, a four-act opera performed at the Theatre Lyrique in 1877, was scarcely more successful. In the meanwhile his " symphonic poems" " Le Rouet d'Omphale," " Danse Macabre," " Phaeton " and " La Jeunesse d'Hercule " obtained for him a world-wide celebrity. These admirable examples of " programme music " count among his best known works. At last, through the influence of Liszt, his Biblical opera Samson et Dalila was brought out at Weimar in 1877. This work, gener- ally accepted as his operatic masterpiece, had been begun as far back as 1869, and an act had been heard at one of Colonne's concerts in 1875. Notwithstanding its great success at Weimar, its first performance on French soil took place at Rouen in 1890. The following year it was given in Paris at the Eden Theatre, and finally in 1892 was produced at the Grand Opera, where it has remained one of the most attractive works of the repertoire. Its Biblical subject stood in the way of its being performed on the London stage until 1909, when it was given at Covent Garden with great success. None of his works is better calculated to exemplify the dual tendencies of his style. The first act, with its somewhat formal choruses, suggests the influence of Bach and Handel, and is treated rather in the manner of an oratorio. The more dramatic portions of the opera are not uninfluenced by Meyerbeer, while in the mellifluous strains allotted to the temptress there are occasional suggestions of Gounod. Of Wagner there is but little trace, save in the fact that the com- poser has divided his work into scenes, thus avoiding the old- fashioned denominations of " air,' 1 duet, : trio," &c. The score, however, is not devoid of individuality. The influences mentioned above, possibly excepting that of Bach in the earlier scenes, are rather of a superficial nature, for Saint-Saens has undoubtedly a style of his own. It is a composite style, certainly, and all the materials that go towards forming it may not be absolutely his; that is, the eclecticism of his mind may lead him at one moment to adopt an archaic form of expression, at another to employ the current musical language of his day, and sometimes to blend the two. It is perhaps in the latter case that he shows most individuality; for although his works may denote the varied influences of such totally dissimilar masters as Bach, Beethoven, Liszt and Gounod, he ever contrives to put in some- thing of his own. After the production of Samson el Dalila Saint-Saens stood at the parting of the ways — looked at askance by the reactionary section of the French musicians, and suspected of harbouring subversive Wagnerian ideas, but ready to be welcomed by the progressive party. Both sides were doomed to disappointment, for in his subsequent operas Saint-Saens attempted to effect a compromise between the older and the newer forms of opera. He had already entertained the idea of utilizing the history of France for operatic purposes. The first and only result of this project has been Etienne Marcel, an opera produced at Lyons in 1879. Although of unequal merit, owing partly to its want of unity of style, this work contains much music of an attractive kind, and scarcely deserves the neglect into which it has fallen. Forsaking the history of France he now composed his opera Henry VIII., produced at the Paris Grand Opera in 1883. The librettists had concocted a piece that was sufficiently well knit and abounded in dramatic contrasts. While adhering to his system of compromise by retaining certain conventional operatic features, Saint-Saens had in this instance advanced somewhat by employing leit motivs in a more rigorous fashion than hitherto, although he had not gone so far as to discard airs cut after the old pattern, duets and quartets. Henry VIII., which was given at Covent Garden in 1898, occupies an honourable place among the composer's works. Proserpine, a lyrical drama produced at the Paris Opera Comique in 1887, achieved a succes d'estime and no more. A not much better fate befell Ascanio, an opera founded on Paul Meurice's drama Benvenuto Cellini, and brought out at the Grand Opera in 1890. Phryne", however, a two-act trifle of a light description, produced at the Opera Comique in 1893, met with success. In 1895 Fridigonde, an opera begun by Ernest Guiraud and completed by Saint-Saens, was produced in Paris. The " lyrical drama " Les Barbares, given at the Grand Opera in 1901, was received with marked favour. Saint-Saens worked successfully in every field of his art. Besides the operas above alluded to, he composed the following oratorios SAINTSBURY— SAINT-SIMON, COMTE DE 45 and cantatas: "Oratorio de Noel," " Les Noces de Promeithee," Psalm " Coeli enarrant," " Le Deluge," " La Lyre et la harpe "; three symphonies; four symphonic poems (" Le Rouet d'Omphale," "Phaeton," " Danse Macabre," "La Jeunesse d'Hercule'); five pianoforte concertos; three violin concertos; two suites, marches, and other works for orchestra; the ballet Zavotte; music to the drama Dejanire, given at the open-air theatre of Beziers; a quintet for piano and strings, a quartet for piano and strings, two trios for piano and strings, a string quartet, a septet, violoncello sonata, two violin sonatas; a Mass, a Requiem, besides a quantity of piano and organ music, and many songs, duets and choruses. He also published three books, entitled Harmonie et melodie, Portraits et souvenirs, and Problemes et mystkres, besides a volume of poems, Rimes familieres. The honorary degree of Doctorof Music was conferred upon himby Cambridge University in 1893. SAINTSBURY, GEORGE EDWARD BATEMAN (1845- ), English man of letters, was born at Southampton on the 23 rd of October 1845. He was educated at King's College School, London, and at Merton College, Oxford (B.A., 1868), and spent six years in Guernsey as senior classical master of Elizabeth College. From 1874 to 1876 he was headmaster of the Elgin Educational Institute. He began his literary career in 1875 as a critic for the Academy, and for ten years was actively engaged in journalism, becoming an important member of the staff of the Saturday Review. Some of the critical essays contributed to the literary journals were afterwards collected in his Essays in English Literature, 1780-1860 (2 vols., 1890-1895), Essays on French Novelists (1891), Miscellaneous Essays (1892), Corrected Impres- sions (1895). His first book, A Primer of French Literature (1880), and his Short History of French Literature (1882; 6th ed., Oxford, 1901), were followed by a series of editions of French classics and of books and articles on the history of French litera- ture, which made him the most prominent English authority on the subject. His studies in English literature were no less comprehensive, and included the valuable revision of Sir Walter Scott's edition of Dryden's Works (Edinburgh, 18 vols., 1882- 1893), Dryden (1881) in the " English Men of Letters " series, History of Elizabethan Literature (1887), History of Nineteenth Century Literature (1896), A Short History of English Literature (1898, 3rd ed. 1903), an edition of the Minor Caroline Poets of the Caroline Period (2 vols., 1905-1906), a collection of rare poems of great value, and editions of English classics. He edited the series of " Periods of European Literature," contributing the volumes on The Flourishing of Romance and the Rise of Allegory (1897), and The Earlier Renaissance (1901). In 1895 he became professor of rhetoric and English literature at Edinburgh univer- sity, and subsequently produced two of his most important works, A History of Criticism (3 vols., 1900-1904), with the companion volume Loci Criiici, Passages Illustrative of Critical Theory and Practice (Boston, U.S.A., and London, 1903), and A History of English Prosody from the 12th Century to the Present Day (i., 1906; ii., 1908; iii., 1910); also The Later Nineteenth Century (1909). ST SERVAN, a town of western France, in the department of Ille-et-Vilaine, on the right bank of the Ranee, south of St Malo, from which it is separated by the Anse des Sablons, a creek 1 m. wide (see St Malo). Pop. (1906) 9765. It is not enclosed by walls, and with its new nouses, straight wide streets and numerous gardens forms a contrast to its neighbour. North of the town there is a wet-dock, 27 acres in extent, forming part of the harbour of St Malo. The creek on which it opens is dry at low water, but at high water is 30 to 40 ft. deep. The dock is used chiefly by coasting and fishing vessels, a fleet starting annually for the Newfoundland cod-fisheries. Two other ports on the Ranee, south-west of the town at the foot of the tower of Solidor, are of small importance. This stronghold, erected towards the close of the 14th century by John IV., duke of Brittany, for the purpose of contesting the claims to the temporal sovereignty of the town of Josselin de Rohan, bishop of St Malo, consists of three distinct towers formed into a triangle by loop- holed and machicolated curtains. To the west St Servan termi- nates in a peninsula on which stands the " cit6," inhabited by work-people, and the "fort de la cite"; near by is a modern chapel which has replaced the cathedral of St Peter of Aleth, the seat of a bishopric from the 6th to the 12th century. The parish church is modern (1742-1842). St Servan has a com- munal college. It carries on steam-sawing, boat-building, rope- making and the manufacture of ship's biscuits. The " Cite " occupies the site of the city of Aleth, which at the close of the Roman empire supplanted Corseul as the capital of the Curiosolites. Aleth was a bulwark of Druidism in those regions and was not Christianized till the 6th century, when St Malo became its first bishop. On the removal of the bishopric to St Malo Aleth declined and was almost destroyed by St Louis in 1235; the houses that remained standing became the nucleus of a new community, originating from St Malo, which placed itself under the patronage of St Servan, apostle of the Orkneys. It was not till the Revolution that St Servan became a separate commune from St Malo with a municipality and police of its own. ST SEVER, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Landes, 11 m. S.S.W. of Mont de Marsan on the Southern railway between that town and Bayonne. Pop. (1906) town, 2508; commune, 4644. St Sever stands on an eminence on the left bank of the Adour in the district of the Chalosse. Its streets, bordered in places by old houses, are narrow and winding. The promenade of Morlanne laid out on the site of a Roman camp called Palestrion com- mands a fine view of the Adour and the pine forests of the Landes. The church of St Sever, a Romanesque building of the 1 2th century, with seven apses, once belonged to the Bene- dictine abbey founded in the 10th century. The public in- stitutions of the town include the sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first instance, and a practical school of agriculture and viticulture which occupies a former Dominican convent. There is trade in the agricultural products of the Chalosse, especially geese. SAINT-SIMON, CLAUDE DE ROUVROY, Due de (1607- 1693), French courtier, was born in August 1607, being the second son of Louis de Rouvroi, seigneur du Plessis (d. 1643), who had been a warm supporter of Henry of Guise and the League. With his elder brother he entered the service of Louis XIII. as a page and found instant favour with the king. Named first equerry in March 1627 he became in less than three years captain of the chateaux of St Germain and Versailles, master of the hounds, first gentleman of the bed-chamber, royal councillor and governor of Meulan and of Blaye. On the fall of La Rochelle he received lands in the vicinity valued at 80,000 livres. About three years later his seigniory of Saint-Simon in Vermandois was erected into a duchy, and he was created a peer of France. He was at first on good terms with Richelieu and was of service on the Day of Dupes (nth of November 1630). Having suffered disgrace for taking the part of his uncle, the baron of Saint- Leger, after the capture of Catelet (15th of August 1636), he retired to Blaye. He fought in the campaigns of 1638 and 1639, and after the death of Richelieu returned to court, where he was coldly received by the king (18th of February 1643). Thence- forth, with the exception of siding with Conde during the Fronde, he took small part in politics. He died in Paris on the 3rd of May 1693. By his first wife, Diane de Budos de Portes, a relative of Conde, whom he married in 1644 and who died in 1670, he had three daughters. By his second wife, Charlotte de l'Aubespine, whom he married in 1672, he had a son Louis, the " author of the memoirs " (see below). SAINT-SIMON, CLAUDE HENRI DE ROUVROY, Comte de (1760-1825), the founder of French socialism, was born in Paris on the 17th of October 1760. He belonged to a younger branch of the family of the due de Saint-Simon (above). His education was directed by D'Alembert. At the age of nineteen he assisted the American colonies in their revolt against Britain. From his youth Saint-Simon felt the promptings of an eager ambition. His valet had orders to awake him every morning with the words, " Remember, monsieur le comte, that you have great things to do." Among his early schemes was one to unite the Atlantic and the Pacific by a canal, and another to construct a canal from Madrid to the sea. Although he was imprisoned in the Luxem'bourg during the Terror, he took no part of any importance in the Revolution, but profited by it to amass a little fortune by land speculation — not on any selfish account, however, as he said, but to facilitate his future projects. 4 6 SAINT-SIMON, COMTE DE Accordingly, when he was nearly forty years of age he went through a varied course of study and experiment, in order to enlarge and clarify his view of things. One of these experiments was an unhappy marriage — undertaken merely that he might have a salon — which, after a year's duration, was dissolved by mutual consent. The result of his experiments was that he found himself completely impoverished, and lived in penury for the remainder of his life. The first of his numerous writings, Lellres d'un habitant de Geneve, appeared in 1802; but his early writings were mostly scientific and political. In 1817 he began in a treatise entitled L' Industrie to propound his socialistic views, which he further developed in L'Organisateur (1810), a periodical on which Augustin Thierry and Auguste Comte collaborated. The first number caused a sensation, but it brought few converts. In 1821 appeared Du systeme industriel, and in 1823-1824 Catechisme des industriels. The last and most im- portant expression of his views is the Nouveau Christianisme (1825), which he left unfinished. For many years before his death in 1825 (at Paris on the 19th of May), Saint-Simon had been reduced to the greatest straits. He was obliged to accept a laborious post, working nine hours a day for £40 a year, to live on the generosity of a former valet, and finally to solicit a small pension from his family. In 1823 he attempted suicide in despair. It was not till very late in his career that he attached to himself a few ardent disciples. As a thinker Saint-Simon was entirely deficient in system, clearness and consecutive strength. But his great influence on modern thought is undeniable, both as the historic founder of French socialism and as suggesting much of what was after- wards elaborated into Comtism. Apart from the details of his socialistic teaching, which are vague and unsystematic, we find that the ideas of Saint-Simon as to the reconstruction of society are very simple. His opinions were conditioned by the French Revolution and by the feudal and military system still prevalent in France. In opposition to the destructive liberalism of the Revolution he insisted on the necessity of a new and positive reorganization of society. So far was he from advocating fresh social revolt that he appealed to Louis XVIII. to inaugurate the new order of things. In opposition, however, to the feudal and military system, the former aspect of which had been strengthened by the restoration, he advocated an arrangement by which the industrial chiefs should control society. In place of the medieval church the spiritual direction of society should fall to the men of science. What Saint-Simon desired, therefore, was an industrialist state directed by modern science in which universal association should suppress war. In short, the men who are fitted to organize society for productive labour are entitled to bear rule in it. The social aim is to produce things useful to life. The contrast between labour and capital so much emphasized by later socialism is not present to Saint-Simon, but it is assumed that the industrial chiefs, to whom the control of production is to be committed, shall rule in the interest of society. Later on the cause of the poor receives greater atten- tion, till in his greatest work, The New Christianity, it takes the form of a religion. It was this development of his teaching that occasioned his final quarrel with Comte. Previous to the publication of the Nouveau Christianisme, Saint-Simon had not concerned himself with theology. Here he starts from a belief in God, and his object in the treatise is to reduce Christianity to its simple and essential elements. He does this by clearing it of the dogmas and other excrescences and defects which have gathered round the Catholic and Protestant forms of it. He propounds as the comprehensive formula of the new Christianity this precept — " The whole of society ought to strive towards the amelioration of the moral and physical existence of the poorest class; society ought to organize itself in the way best adapted for attaining this end." This principle became the watchword of the entire school of Saint-Simon. During his lifetime the views of Saint-Simon had very little influence; and he left only a few devoted disciples, who continued to advocate the doctrines of their master, whom they revered as a prophet. Of these the most important were Olinde Rodrigues, the favoured disciple of Saint-Simon, and Barthelemy Prosper Enfantin (q.v.), who together had received Saint-Simon's last instructions. Their first step was to establish a journal, Le Producteur, but it was discontinued in 1826. The sect, however, had begun to grow, and before the end of 1828, had meetings not only in Paris but in many provincial towns. An important departure was made in 1828 by Amand Bazard, who gave a " complete exposition of the Saint-Simonian faith " in a long course of lectures at Paris, which were well attended. His Exposition de la doctrine de St Simon (2 vols., 1828-1830), which is by far the best account of it, won more adherents. The second volume was chiefly by Enfantin, who along with Bazard stood at the head of the society, but who was superior in meta- physical power, and was prone to push his deductions to extremities. The revolution of July (1830) brought a new freedom to the socialist reformers. A proclamation was issued demanding the community of goods, the abolition of the right of inheritance, and the enfranchisement of women. Early next year the school obtained possession of the Globe through Pierre Leroux (q.v.), who had joined the school, which now numbered some of the ablest and most promising young men of France, many of the pupils of the Ecole Polytechnique having caught its enthusiasm. The members formed themselves into an association arranged in three grades, and constituting a society or family, which lived out of a common purse in the Rue Monsigny. Before long, however, dissensions began to arise in the sect. Bazard, a man of logical and more solid temperament, could no longer work in harmony with" Enfantin, who desired to establish an arrogant and fantastic sacerdotalism with lax notions as to marriage and the relation of the sexes. After a time Bazard seceded and many of the strongest supporters of the school followed his example. A series of extravagant entertainments given by the society during the winter of 1832 reduced its financial resources and greatly discredited it in character. They finally removed to Menilmontant, to a property of Enfantin, where they lived in a communistic society, distinguished by a peculiar dress. Shortly after the chiefs were tried and condemned for proceedings prejudicial to the social order; and the sect was entirely broken up (1832). Many of its members became famous as engineers, economists, and men of business. In the school of Saint-Simon we find a great advance on the vague and confused views of the master. In the philosophy of history they recognize epochs of two kinds, the critical or negative and the organic or constructive. The former, in which philosophy is the dominating force, is characterized by war, egotism and anarchy ; the latter, which is controlled by religion, is marked by the spirit of obedience, devotion, association. The two spirits of antagonism and association are the two great social principles, and on the degree of prevalence of the two depends the character of an epoch. The spirit of association, however, tends more and more to prevail over its opponent, extending from the family to the city, from the city to the nation, and from the nation to the federation. This principle of association is to be the keynote of the social development of the future. Under the present system the industrial chief exploits the proletariat, the members of which, though nominally free, must accept his terms under pain of starvation. The only remedy for this is the abolition of the law of inheritance, and the union of all the instruments of labour in a social fund, which shall be exploited by association. Society thus becomes sole proprietor, intrusting to social groups and social functionaries the management of the various properties. The right of succession is transferred from the family to the state. The school of Saint-Simon insists strongly on the claims of merit ; they advocate a social hierarchy in which each man shall be placed according to his capacity and rewarded according to his works. This is, indeed, a most special and pronounced feature of the Saint-Simon socialism, whose theory of government is a kind of spiritual or scientific autocracy, degenerating into the fantastic sacerdotalism of Enfantin. With regard to the family and the relation of the sexes the school of Saint- Simon advocated the complete emancipation of woman and her entire equality with man. The " social individual " is man and woman, who are associated in the exercise of the triple function of religion, the state and the family. In its official declarations the school maintained the sanctity of the Christian law of marriage. Connected with these doctrines was their famous theory of the " rehabilitation of the flesh," deduced from the philosophic theory of the school, which was a species of Pantheism, though they repudiated the name. On this theory they rejected the dualism so much emphasized by Catholic Christianity in its penances and mortifications, and held that the body should be restored to its SAINT-SIMON, DUC DE 47 due place of honour. It is a vague principle, of which the ethical character depends on the interpretation ; and it was variously inter- preted in the school of Saint-Simon. It was certainly immoral as held by Enfantin, by whom it was developed into a kind of sensual mysticism, a system of free love with a religious sanction. An excellent edition of the works of Saint-Simon and Enfantin was published by the survivors of the sect (47 vols., Paris, 1865- 1878). See, in addition to the works cited above, L. Reybaud, Etudes sur les reformateurs contemporains (7th edition, Paris, 1864) ; Paul Janet, Saint-Simon el le Saint-Simonisme (Paris, 1878); A. J. Booth, Saint-Simon and Saint- Simonism (London, 1871); Georges Weill, Un Precurseur du socialisme, Saint-Simon el son ceuvre (Paris, 1894), and a history of the £cole Saint- Simonienne, by the same author (1896); G. Dumas, Psychologie de deux messies positivistes St Simon et Comle (1905); E. Levasseur's Etudes sociates sous la Restauration, contains a good section on Saint-Simon. (T. K.;J.T. S.*) SAINT-SIMON, LOUIS DE ROUVROY, Due de (1675-1755), French soldier, diplomatist and writer of memoirs, was born at Versailles on the 16th of January 1675. The peerage granted to his father, Claude de St Simon (q.v.), is the central fact in his history. The French peerage under the old regime was a very peculiar thing, difficult to comprehend at all, but quite certain to be miscomprehended if any analogy of the English -peerage is imported into the consideration. No two things could be more different in France than ennobling a man and making him a peer. No one was made a peer who was not ennobled, but men of the noblest blood in France and representing their houses might not be, and in most cases were not, peers. Derived at least traditionally and imaginatively from the douze pairs of Charlemagne, the peers were supposed to represent the chosen of the noblesse, and gradually, in an indefinite and constantly disputed fashion, became associated with the parlement of Paris as a quasi-legislative (or at least law-registering) and directly judicial body. But the peerage was further complicated by the fact that not persons but the holders of certain fiefs were made peers. Strictly speaking, neither Saint-Simon nor any one else in the same case was made a peer, but his estate was raised to the rank of a duchS pairie or a comle pairie as the case might be. Still the peers were in a way a standing committee repre- sentative of the entire body of nobles, and it was Saint-Simon's lifelong ideal, and at times his practical effort to convert them into a sort of great council of the nation. His mother, Charlotte de l'Aubespine, belonged to a family not of the oldest nobility but one which had been distinguished in the public service at least since the time of Francis I. Her son Louis was well educated, to a great extent by herself, and he hadTiad for godfather and godmother Louis XIV. and the queen. After some tuition by the Jesuits (especially by Sanadon, the editor of Horace), he joined the mousquetaires gris in 1692. He was present at the siege of Namur, and the battle of Neer- winden. But it was at this very time that he chose to begin the crusade of his life by instigating, if not bringing, an action on the part ot the peers of France against Luxembourg, his victorious general, on a point of precedence. He fought, how- ever, another campaign or two (not under Luxembourg), and in 1695 married Gabrielle de Durfort, daughter of the marechal de Lorges, under whom he latterly served. He seems to have regarded her with a respect and affection not very usual between husband and wife at the time; and she sometimes succeeded in modifying his aristocratic ideas. But as he did not receive the promotion he desired he flung up his commission in 1702. Louis took a dislike to him, and it was with difficulty that he was able to keep a footing at court. He was, however, intensely interested in all the transactions of Versailles, and by dint of a most heterogeneous collection of instruments, ranging from dukes to servants, he managed to obtain the extraordinary secret information which he has handed down. His own part appears to have been entirely subordinate. He was appointed ambassador to Rome in 1705, but the appointment was cancelled before he started. At last he attached himself to the duke of Orleans and, though this was hardly likely to conciliate Louis's goodwill to him, it gave him at least the status of belonging to a definite party, and it eventually placed him in the position of tried friend to the acting chief of the state. He was able, moreover, to combine attachment to the duke of Burgundy with that to the duke of Orleans. Both attachments were no doubt all the more sincere because of his undying hatred to " the bastards," that is to say, the illegitimate sons of Louis XIV. It does not appear that this hatred was founded on moral reasons or on any real fear that these bastards would be intruded into the succession. The true cause of his wrath was that they had precedence of the peers. The death of Louis seemed to give Saint-Simon a chance of realizing his hopes. The duke of Orleans was at once acknowledged regent, and Saint-Simon was of the council of regency. But no steps were taken to carry out his favourite vision of a France ruled by the nobles for its good, and he had little real influence with the regent. He was indeed gratified by the degradation of " the bastards," and in 1721 he was appointed ambassador to Spain to arrange for the marriage (not destined to take place) of Louis XV. and the infanta. His visit was splendid; he received the grandeeship, and, though he also caught the smallpox, he was quite satisfied with the business. After his return he had little to do with public affairs. His own account of the cessation of his intimacy with Orleans and Dubois, the latter of whom had never been his friend, is, like his own account of some other events of his life, obscure and rather suspicious. But there can be little doubt that he was practically ousted by the favourite. He survived for more than thirty years; but little is known of his life. His wife died in 1743, his eldest son a little later; he had other family troubles, and he was loaded with debt. When he died, at Paris on the 2nd of March 1755, he had almost entirely outlived his own generation (among whom he had been one of the youngest) and the prosperity of his house, though not its notoriety. This last was in strange fashion revived by a distant relative born five years after his own death, Claude Henri, comte de Saint-Simon (q.v.). It will have been observed that the actual events of Saint-Simon's life, long as it was and high as was his position, are neither numerous nor noteworthy. He is, however, an almost unique example of a man who has acquired great literary fame entirely by posthumous publications. He was an indefatigable writer, and he began very early to set down in black and white all the gossip he collected, all his interminable legal disputes of precedence, and a vast mass of unclassified and almost unclassifiable matter. Most of his manu- scripts came into the possession of the government, and it was long before their contents were published in anything like fulness. Partly in the form of notes on Dangeau's Journal, partly in that of original and independent memoirs, partly in scattered and multi- farious tracts and disquisitions, he had committed to paper an immense amount of matter. But the mere mass of these productions is their least noteworthy feature, or rather it is most remarkable as contrasting with their character and style. Saint-Simon, though careless and sometimes even ungrammatical, ranks among the most striking memoir-writers of France, the country richest in memoirs of any in the world. His pettiness, his absolute injustice to his private enemies and to those who espoused public parties with which he did not agree, the bitterness which allows him to give favourable portraits of hardly any one, his omnivorous appetite for gossip, his lack of proportion and perspective, are all lost sight of in admiration of his extraordinary genius for historical narrative and character- drawing of a certain sort. He has been compared to Tacitus, and for once the comparison is just. In the midst of his enormous mass of writing phrases scarcely inferior to the Roman's occur frequently, and here and there are passages of sustained description equal, for intense concentration of light and life, to those of Tacitus or of any other historian. As may be expected from the vast extent of his work, it is in the highest degree unequal. But he is at the same time not a writer who can be " sampled " easily, inasmuch'as his most characteristic phrases sometimes occur in the midst of long stretches of quite uninteresting matter. A few critical studies of him, especially those of Sainte-Beuve, are the basis of much, if not most, that has been written about him. Yet no one is so little to be taken at second-hand. Even his most famous passages, such as the account of the death of the dauphin or of the Bed of Justice where his enemy the duke of Maine was degraded, will not give a fair idea of his talent. These are his gallery pieces, his great " machines," as French art slang calls them. Much more noteworthy as well as more frequent are the sudden touches which he gives. The bishops are " cuistres violets " ; M. de Caumartin " porte sous son manteau toute ■ la fatuity que M. de Villeroy etale sur son baudrier"; another politician has a " mine de chat facheV' In short, the interest of the Memoirs, independent of the large addition of positive knowledge which they make, is one of constant surprise at the novel and adroit use of word and phrase. Some of Macaulay's most brilliant portraits 48 ST THOMAS and sketches of incident are adapted and sometimes almost literally translated from Saint-Simon. The first edition of Saint-Simon (some scattered pieces may have been printed before) appeared in 1788. It was a mere selection in three volumes and was much cut down before it was allowed to appear. Next year four more volumes made their appearance, and in 1 79 1 a new edition, still further increased. The whole, or rather not the whole, was printed in 1 829-1 830 and reprinted some ten years later. The real creator of Saint-Simon, as far as a full and exact text is concerned, was M. Cheruel, whose edition in 20 volumes dates from 1856, and was reissued again revised in 1872. So immense, however, is the mass of Saint-Simon's MSS. that still another recension was given by M. de Boislisle in 1882, with M. Cheruel's assistance, while a newer edition, yet once more revised from the MS., was begun in 1904. It must, however, be admitted that the matter other than the Memoirs is of altogether inferior interest and may be pretty safely neglected by any one but professed anti- quarian and historical students. For criticism on Saint-Simon there is nothing better than Sainte-Beuve's two sketches in the 3rd and 15th volumes of the Causeries du lundi. The latter was written to accompany M. Cheruel's first edition. In English by far the most accurate treatment is in a Lothian prize essay by E. Cannan (Oxford and London, 1885). (G. Sa.) ST THOMAS, an incorporated city and port of entry of Ontario, Canada, capital of Elgin county, on Kettle creek, 13 m. S. of London and 8 m. N. of Lake Erie. Pop. (1901) 11,485. It is an important station on the Grand Trunk, Michigan Central, Lake Erie & Detroit River, and Canadian Pacific railways. It has numerous schools, a collegiate institute, and Alma ladies' college. The Michigan Central railway shops, car-wheel foundry, flour, flax and planing mills are the principal industries. ST THOMAS (Sao Thome), a volcanic island in the Gulf of Guinea immediately north of the equator (o° 23' N.) and in 6° 40' E. With the island of Principe (Prince's Island), it forms the Portuguese province of St Thomas. From the Gabun, the nearest point of the mainland of Africa, St Thomas is distant 166 m., and from Cameroon 297 m. The extreme length of the island is 32 m. the breadth W. to E. 21 m.; the area is about 400 sq. m. From the coast the land rises towards lofty verdant mountains (St Thomas over 7000 ft.). At least a hundred streams, great and small, descend the mountain-sides through deep-cut ravines, many of them forming beautiful waterfalls, such as those of Blu-blu on the Agua Grande. The island during its occupation by the Netherlands acquired the name of " The Dutchman's Churchyard," and the death- rate is still very high. Malaria is common in the lower regions, but the unhealthiness of the island is largely due to the absence of hygienic precautions. During the dry season (June to September) the temperature ranges in the lower parts between 66-2° and 8o-6° F., and in the higher parts between 57/2° and 68°; in the rainy season it ranges between 69-8° and 89-6 in the lower parts, and between 64-4° and 8o-6° in the higher parts. On Coffee Mount (2265 ft.) the mean of ten years was 68-9°, the maximum 90-5° and the minimum 47-3°. The heat is tempered by the equatorial ocean current. The rainfall is very heavy save on the north coast. The ■ soil is exceedingly fertile and a considerable area is densely forested. Among the products are oranges, lemons, figs, mangoes, and in the lower districts the vine, pineapple, guava and banana. The first object of European cultivation was sugar, and to this the island owed its prosperity in the 1 6th century;, sugar has been displaced by coffee and, principally, cocoa, introduced in 1795 and 1822 respectively. In 1907 the export of cocoa (including that from Principe) was over 24,000 tons, about a sixth of the world's supply. The cocoa zone lies between 650 and 2000 ft. above the sea. Vanilla and cinchona bark both succeed well, the latter at altitudes of from 1800 to 3300 ft. Rubber, quinine, cinnamon, camphor and the kola-nut are also produced, but since 1890 — when the production was under 3000 tons — cocoa has been almost exclusively grown. About 175 sq. m. were in 1910 under cultivation. The value of the imports was £175,000 in 1896 and £708,000 in 1908; that of the exports was £398,000 in 1896 and £1,760,000 in 1908. The shipping trade (190 vessels of 490,000 tons in 1908) is chiefly in the hands of the Portu- guese. The revenue (1909-1910) was about £195,000, the expendi- ture £162,000. At the census of 1900 the inhabitants were returned at 37,776, of whom 1012 were whites (mainly Portuguese). The town of St Thomas, capital and chief port of the province, residence of the governor and of the Curador (the legal guardian of the servicaes, i.e. labourers), is situated on Chaves Bay on the N.E. coast. It is the starting-point of a railway 9 m. long, which connects with the Decauville railways on the cocoa estates. The inhabitants, apart from the Europeans, consist (1) of descendants of the original settlers, who were convicts from Portugal, slaves and others from Brazil and negroes from the Gabun and other parts of the Guinea coast. They number about 8000, are a brown-skinned, indolent race, and occupy rather than cultivate about one-eighth of the island. They are known as " natives " and use a Negro-Portuguese " lingua de S ThomeV' (2) On the south-west coast are Angolares — some 3000 in number — descendants of two hundred Angola slaves wrecked at Sete Pedras in 1544. They retain their Bunda speech and customs, and are expert fishermen and canoemen. (3) Contract labourers from Cape Verde, Kabinda, &c, and Angola. These form the bulk of the population. In 1891, before the great development of the cocoa industry, the population was only 22.000. 1 St Thomas was discovered on the 21st of December 1470 by the Portuguese navigators Joao de Santarem and Pero de Escobar, who in the beginning of the following year discovered Annobom (" Good Year "). They found St Thomas uninhabited. The first attempts at colonization were Joao de Paiva's in 1485; but nothing permanent was accomplished till 1493, when a body of criminals and of young Jews taken from their parents to be baptized were sent to the island, and the present capital was founded by Alvaro de Carminha. In the middle of the 16th century there were over 80 sugar mills on the island, which then had a population of 50,000; but in 1567 the settlement was attacked by the French, and in 1574 the Angolares began raids which only ended with their subjugation in 1693. In 1595 there was a slave revolt; and from 1641 to 1644 the Dutch, who had plundered the capital in 1600, held possession of the island. The French did great damage in 1709; the sugar trade had passed to Brazil and internal anarchy reduced St Thomas to a deplorable state. It was not until the later hall of the 19th century that prosperity began to return. The greatly increased demand for cocoa which arose in the last decade of the century led to the establishment of many additional plantations, and a very profitable industry was developed. Planters, however, were handicapped by the scarcity of labour, for though a number of Cape Verde islanders, Krumen and Kabindas sought employment on short-term agreements, the " natives " would not work. The difficulty was met by the recruitment of indentured natives from Angola, as many as 6000 being brought over in one year. The mortality among these labourers was great, but they were very well treated on the plantations. No provision was, however, made for their repa- triation, while the great majority were brought by force from remote parts of Central Africa and had no idea of the character of the agreement into which they were compelled to enter. From time to time governors of Angola endeavoured to remedy the abuses of the system, which both in Portugal and Great Britain was denounced as indistinguishable from slavery, not- withstanding that slavery had been legally abolished in the Portuguese dominions in 1878. In March 1909 certain firms, British and German, as the result of investigations made in Angola and St Thomas, refused any longer to import cocoa from St Thomas or Principe Islands unless the recruitment of labourers for the plantations was made voluntary. Repre- sentations to Portugal were made by the British government, and the Lisbon authorities stopped recruitment entirely from July 1909 to February 1910, when it was resumed under new regulations. British consular agents were stationed in Angola and St Thomas to watch the working of these regulations. (See statement by Sir E. Grey reported in The Times, July 2nd, 1910). As one means of obviating the difficulties encountered in Angola the recruitment of labourers from Mozambique was begun in 1908, the men going out on a yearly contract. Principe Island lies 00 m. N.E. of St Thomas, has an area of 42 sq. m. and is also of volcanic origin. Pop. (1900) 4327. The tsetse fly (which is not found in St Thomas) infests the wooded part of the island, and through it sleeping sickness has been spread among the inhabitants. The principal industry is the cultivation of cocoa. The chief settlement is St Antonio. See A. Negreiros, Historia ethnographica da Ilha de S ThomS (Lisbon, 1895) and lie de San ThomS (Paris, 1901); C. Gravier " Mission scientifique a l'ile de San Thom6 " Nouv. Arch. Miss. Scient. t. xv. (Paris, 1907) ; A. Pinto de Miranda Guedes, " Viagao em S Thome 1 " in B.S.G. Lisboa (1902) pp. 299-357; E. de Campos 1 According to Aug, Chevalier (in O. Occidenle, May 20th, 1910) the population of St Thomas and Principe combined in Dec. 1909 was 68,221, the " natives " being given at over 23,000. ST THOMAS— ST VINCENT, EARL OF 49 " S. Thome " B.S.G. Lisbon (1908), pp. 1 13-134; W. A. Cadbury, | Labour in Portuguese West Africa (2nd ed., London, 1910) ; A ilha de S Thome (Lisbon, 1907) ; The Boa Entrada Plantations (Edinburgh, 1907) ; and British Consular reports. ST THOMAS, an island in the Danish West Indies. It belongs to the Virgin Island group, and lies 40 m. E. of Porto Rico, in 18 20' N. and 64° 55' W. Pop. (1901) 11,012, mostly negroes. It is 13 m long, varies in width from 1 m. to 4 m. and has an area of 33 m. It consists of a single mountain ridge, the peaks of a submerged range, culminating in West Mountain (1555 ft.). St Thomas stands on a prolongation of the range which supports the Greater Antilles, and is built up of much disintegrated eruptive rock (porphyry and granite) The climate is tropical, varying in temperature between 70 F. and 8o° F., modified, however, by the sea breezes. The average yearly rainfall is about 45 in., earthquakes are not unknown, and hurricanes at times sweep over the island. The only town, Charlotte Amalie (pop. 8540), lies in the centre of the S coast, at the head of one of the finest harbours in the West Indies. This consists of an almost land- locked basin, about f m. across, varying in depth from 27 to 36 ft., and entered by a narrow channel only 300 yds. wide. It is equipped with a floating dock, which can accommodate ships up to 3000 tons, a patent slip for smaller vessels and a repairing yard. Danish is the official language, but English predominates, while French, Spanish and Dutch are also spoken. St Thomas was once the greatest distributing centre in the West Indies, but the introduction of steamships and cables led to its decline, and the removal of the Royal Mail Steamship Company's headquarters to Barbados in 1885 was the final blow. The pro- duction of sugar, which decayed gradually after the abolition of slavery, is practically extinct. Aloes, fibrous plants and fruit are grown. St Thomas is the seat of government for the Danish West Indies (St Thomas, St John and St Croix), a crown colony administered by a governor, who is assisted by a colonial council. The governor resides for half the year in St Thomas, and in St Croix for the rest. The chief importance of St Thomas lies in the fact that it is a coaling station for ships plying to and from the West Indies. The island was discovered by Columbus in 1493, and first colonized by the Dutch in 1657. After their departure in 1667 the island came into the hands of the British, and it was held by them till 167 1, when it passed into the hands of the Danish West India Company, which was succeeded in 1685 by the so-called Brandenburg Company, the shareholders of which were mainly Dutch. The king of Denmark having taken over the island in 1754, declared it a free port, and during the European wars of the 18th century the neutrality of Denmark gave a great impetus to the trade of St Thomas. It was during this period that the distributing trade of the island grew up. It was held by the British in 1801 and again from 1807 to 181 5, during which it was the great rendezvous of British merchant vessels waiting for convoy. In 1867, when the islands were governed at a loss to the mother country, a treaty was concluded under which the United States agreed to buy them for 7! million dollars, but, although the suggestion first emanated from the United States, its Senate refused to ratify the treaty. In 1902 another treaty of cession was signed by which the United States was to buy the islands for 5 million dollars, but the Danish parliament rejected it. The importance of the islands to the United States consists in their suitability as a West Indian naval base. ST TROND, a town of Belgium in the province of Limburg about 18 m. N.W. of Liege. Pop. (1904) 15,116. It occupies an important strategical position with regard to the N.E. frontier of Belgium, and General Brialmont recommended its fortifica- tion. In the middle ages it was a fortified town belonging to the bishops of Liege, and Charles the Bold captured it in 1467. In 1566 the Assembly of Compromise met at St Trond. SAINT-VICTOR, PAUL BINS, Comte de (1827-1881), known as Paul de Saint- Victor, French author, was born in Paris on the nth of July 1827. His father Jacques B. M. Bins, comte de Saint-Victor (1772-1858), is remembered by his poem L'Espirance, and by an excellent verse translation of Anacreon. Saint- Victor, who ceased to use the title of count as being out of keeping with his democratic principles, began as a dramatic critic on the Pays in 1851, and in 1885 he succeeded Theophile Gautier on the Presse. In 1866 he migrated to the Libertg, and in 1869 joined the staff of the Moniteur universel. In 1870, during the last days of the second empire, he was made inspector- general of fine arts. Almost all Saint- Victor's work consists of articles, the best known being the collection entitled Hommes et dieux (1867). His death interrupted the publication of Les Deux Masques, in which the author intended to survey the whole dramatic literature of ancient and modern times. Saint- Victor's critical faculty was considerable, though rather one- sided. He owed a good deal to Theophile Gautier, but he carried ornateness to a pitch far beyond Gautier's. Saint- Victor died in Paris on the 9th of July 1881. See also Deljant, Paul de Saint-Victor (1887). ST VINCENT, JOHN JERVIS, Earl of (1735-1823), British admiral, was the second son of Swynfen Jervis, solicitor to the admiralty, and treasurer of Greenwich hospital. He was born at Meaford in Staffordshire on the 9th of January 1735, and entered the navy on the 4th of January 1749. He became lieutenant on the 19th of February 1755, and served in that rank till 1759, taking part in the conquest of Quebec. He was made commander of the " Scorpion " sloop in 1759, and post- captain in 1 760. During the peace he commanded the " Alarm " 32 in the Mediterranean, and when he was put on half pay he travelled widely in Europe, taking professional notes everywhere. While the War of American Independence lasted, he commanded the " Fourroyant " (80) in the Channel, taking part in the battle of Ushant on the 27th of July 1778 (see Keppel, Viscount) and in the various reliefs of Gibraltar. His most signal service was the capture of the French " Pegase " (74) after a long chase on the 19th of April 1782, for which he was made K.B. In 1783 he entered parliament as member for Launceston, and in the general election of 1 784 as member for Yarmouth. In politics he was a strong Whig. On the 24th of September 1 787 he attained flag rank, and was promoted vice-admiral in 1793. From 1793 till 1795 he was in the West Indies co-operating with the army in the conquest of the French islands. On his return he was promoted admiral. In November 1.795 he took command in the Mediterranean, where he maintained the blockade of Toulon, and aided the allies of Great Britain in Italy. But in 1796 a great change was produced by the progress of the French armies on shore and the alliance of Spain with France. The occupation of Italy by the French armies closed all the ports to his ships, and Malta was not yet in the possession of Great Britain. Then the addition of the Spanish fleet to the French altered the balance of strength in the Mediterranean. The Spaniards were very inefficient, and Jervis would have held his ground, if one of his subordinates had not taken the extraordinary course of returning to England, because he thought that the dangerous state of the country required that all its forces should be concentrated at home. He was therefore obliged to act on the instructions sent to him ( and to retire to the Atlantic, with- drawing the garrisons from Corsica and other places. His headquarters were now on the coast of Portugal, and his chief duty was to watch the Spanish fleet at Cadiz. On the 14th of February 1797 he gained a most complete victory against heavy odds (see St Vincent, Battle of). The determination to fight, and the admirable discipline of his squadron, which was very largely the fruit of his own care in preparation, supply the best proof that he was a commander of a high order. For this victory, which came at a very critical time, he was made an earl and was granted a pension of £3000. His qualities as a disciplinarian were soon to be put to a severe test. In 1797 the grievances of the sailors, which were of old standing, and had led to many mutinies of single ships, came to a head in the great general mutinies at Spithead and the Nore. Similar movements took place on the coast of Ireland and at the Cape of Good Hope (see the article Navy: History). The spirit spread to the fleet under St Vincent, and there was an undoubted danger that some outbreak would take place in his command. The 5° ST VINCENT— ST VINCENT, BATTLE OF peril was averted by his foresight and severity. He had always I taken great care of the health of his men, and was as strict with the officers as with sailors. It must in justice be added that he was peculiarly fitted for the work. We have ample evidence from his contemporaries that he found a pleasure in insulting officers whom he disliked, as well as in hanging and flogging those of his men who offended him. He carried his strictness with his officers to an extent which aroused the actual hatred of many among them, and exasperated Sir John Orde (1751- 1824) into challenging him to fight a duel. Yet he cannot be denied the honour of having raised the discipline of the navy to a higher level than it had reached before; he was always ready to promote good officers, and the efficiency of the squadron with which Nelson won the battle of the Nile was largely due to him. His health broke down under the strain of long cruising, and in June 1799 he resigned his command. When the earl's health was restored in the following year he took the command of the Channel fleet, into which he introduced his own rigid system of discipline to the bitter anger of the captains. But his method was fully justified by the fact that he was able to maintain the blockade of Brest for 121 days with his fleet. In 1801 he became first lord and held the office till Pitt returned to power in 1803. His administration is famous in the history of the navy, for he now applied himself to the very necessary task of reforming the corruptions of the dockyaids. Naturally he was fiercely attacked in and out of parliament. His peremptory character led him to do the right thing with the maximum of dictation at Whitehall as on the quarter-deck of his flagship. He also gave an opening to his critics by devoting himself so wholly to the reform of the dockyards that he neglected the preparation of the fleet for war. He would not recognize the possibility that the peace of Amiens would not last. Pitt made himself the mouthpiece of St Vincent's enemies, mainly because he considered him as a dangerous member of the party which was weakening the position of England in the face of Napoleon. When Pitt's second ministry was formed in 1803, St Vincent refused to take the command of the Channel fleet at his request. After Pitt's death he resumed the duty with the temporary rank of admiral of the fleet in 1806, but held it only till the following year. After 1810 he retired to his house at Rochetts in Essex. The rank of admiral of the fleet was conferred on him in 1821 on the coronation of George IV., and he died on the 14th of March 1823. Lord St Vincent married his cousin Martha Parker, who died childless in 1 8 1 6. There is a monument to the earl in St Paul's Cathedral, and portraits of him at different periods of his life are numerous. The earldom granted to Jervis became extinct on his death, but a viscounty, created for him in 1 801, passed by special remainder to Edward Jervis Ricketts (1767-1857), the second son of his sister Mary who had married William Henry Ricketts, of Longwood, Hampshire. The 2nd viscount took the name of Jervis, and the title is still held by his descendants. See Life by J. S. Tucker (2 vols.), whose father had been the admiral's secretary (marred by excessive eulogy). The life by Captain Brenton is rather inaccurate.. The Naval Career of Admiral John Markham contains an account of the reforms in the navy. His administrations produced a swarm of pamphlets. Many mentions of him will be found in the correspondence of Nelson. (D. H.) ST VINCENT, one of the British Windward Islands in the West Indies, lying about 13 15' N., 6i° 10' W., west of Barbados andsouth of St Lucia. It is about 18 m.long by n in extreme width, and has an area of 140 sq. m. A range of volcanic hills forms the backbone of the island; their slopes and spurs are beautifully wooded, and the valleys between the spurs are fertile and picturesque. The culminating point is the volcano called the Soufriere (3500 ft.) in the north, the disastrous eruption of which in May 1902 devastated the most fertile portion of the island, a comparatively level tract lying to the north, called the Carib Country (see below). The climate of St Vincent is fairly healthy and in winter very pleasant; the average annual rainfall exceeds 100 in., and the temperature ranges from 88° F. in August to 66° in December and January. Hurricanes are not uncommon. The capital of the island is Kingstown, beautifully situated on the south-west coast near the foot of Mount St Andrew (2600 ft.). The population of the island in 1891 was 41,054 (2445 white, 7554 coloured, 31,055 black); in 1906 it was estimated at 44,000. There were about 3300 East Indian coolies, a large number of whom were introduced in 1861 and following years, but on the expiry of their indentures mostly returned home; there were also a few Caribs of mixed blood, the majority of the aboriginal Caribs having been deported to British Honduras in 1797. Kingstown has a population of about 4000. The principal products of the island are sugar (but the sugar-industry has here, as elsewhere, undergone various vicissitudes), arrowroot and rum; and the cultivation of Sea Island cotton, introduced about 1903, has been successfully de- veloped by the government, which established a ginnery at Kings- town. Other articles of export are cacao, cotton, spices, fruit, vegetables, live stock and poultry. The average annual value of exports in 1896-1906 was £63,157 (in 1903-1904, the year following that of the great eruption.it was £38,174, and in 1905-1906 it was £53. 7 8 ) and of imports, £80,467. In 1905-1906 the value of im- ports from the United Kingdom was £25,471, and that of exports to the United Kingdom £24,405. The present constitution dates from 1877, when the legislative council, consisting of four official and four nominated unofficial members, was formed. In 1899 an important scheme was entered upon, by means of a grant of £15,000 from the Imperial treasury, for settling the labouring population, distressed by the failures of the sugar industry, in the position of peasant proprietors. Estates were acquired from private owners for this purpose, and besides this a number of small holdings on crown lands (which are situated mainly in the high-lying central parts of the island) have been sold. Educa- tion is carried on in 27 state-aided schools, and there are at Kings- town a grammar school and an agricultural school. The Anglican, Wesleyan and Roman Catholic churches are well represented, and there are some Presbyterians. St Vincent is generally stated to have been discovered on St Vincent's day, the 22nd of January 1498 by Columbus. Its Carib inhabitants, however, remained undisturbed for many years. In 1627 Charles I. granted the island to the earl of Carlisle; in 1672 it was re-granted to Lord Willoughby, having been previously (1660) declared neutral. In 1722 a further grant of the island was made, to the duke of Montague, and now for the first time a serious effort at colonization was made, but the French insisted on the maintenance of neutrality, and this was confirmed by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). In 1762, however, General Monckton captured the island; the treaty of Paris in 1763 confirmed the British possession, and settlement proceeded in spite of the refusal of the Caribs to admit British sovereignty. Recourse was had to arms, and in 1773 a treaty was concluded with them, when they were granted lands in the north of the island as a reserve. In 1779 the island was sur- rendered to the French, but it was restored to Britain by the treaty of Versailles (1783). In 1795 the Caribs rose, assisted by the French, and were only put down after considerable fighting by Sir Ralph Abercromby in 1796, after which the majority of them were deported. The emancipation of negro slaves in the island took place in 1838; in 1846 the first Portu- guese labourers were introduced, and in 1861 the first East Indian coolies. St Vincent suffered from a terrific hurricane in 1780, and the Soufriere was in eruption in 1821. Severe distress was occasioned by the hurricane of the nth of September 1898, from which the island had not recovered when it was visited by the eruption of the Soufriere in 1902. This eruption was synchronous with that of Mont Pele in Martinique (q.v.). There had been signs of activity, since February 1901, but the most serious eruption took place on the 6th/7th of May 1902. There were earthquakes in the following July, and further eruptions on the 3rd of September and the 15th of October, and on the 22nd of March 1903. Many sugar and arrowroot plantations were totally destroyed, and the loss of life was estimated at 2000. A Mansion House Fund was at once started in London for the relief of the sufferers, and subscriptions were sent from all parts of the civilized world, and notably from the United States. ST VINCENT, BATTLE OF, fought on the 14th of February 1797, between the British and Spanish fleets, the most famous and important of many encounters which have taken place at the same spot. The battle of 1797 is of peculiar significance in British naval history, not only because it came at a vital moment, ST VITUS'S DANCE 5 1 but because it first revealed the full capacity of Nelson, which was well known in the navy, to all his countrymen. In the course of 1796 the Spanish government had made the disastrous alliance with the French republic, which reduced its country to the level of a pawn in the game against England. The Spanish fleet, which was in a complete state of neglect, was forced to sea. It consisted of 27 sail of the line under the command of Don Jose de Cordoba — fine ships, but manned in haste by drafts of soldiers, and of landsmen forced on board by the press. Even the flagships had only about eighty sailors each in their crews. Don Jose de C6rdoba, who had gone out with no definite aim, was in reality drifting about with his unmanageable ships in two confused divisions separated from one another, in light winds from the W. and W.S.W., at a distance of from 25 to 30 m. S.W. of the Cape. While in this position he was sighted by Sir John Jervis, of whose nearness to himself he was ignorant, and who had sailed from Lisbon to attack him with only 15 sail of the line. Jervis knew the inefficient condition of the Spaniards, and was aware that the general condition of the war called for vigorous exertions. He did not hesitate to give battle in spite of the numerical superiority of his opponent. Six of the Spanish ships were to the south of him, separated by a long interval from the others which were to the south west. The British squadron was formed into a single line ahead, and was steered to pass between the two divisions of the Spaniards. The six vessels were thus cut off. A feeble attempt was made by them to molest the British, but being now to leeward as Jervis passed to the west of them, and being unable to face the rapid and well directed fire to which they were exposed, they sheered off. One only ran down the British line, and passing to the stern of the last ship succeeded in joining the bulk of her fleet to windward. As the British line passed through the gap between the Spanish divisions the ships were tacked in succession to meet the wind- ward portion of the enemy. If this movement had been carried out fully, all the British ships would have gone through the gap and the Spaniards to windward would have been able to steer unimpeded to the north, and perhaps to avoid being brought to a close general action. Their chance of escape was baffled by the independence and promptitude of Nelson. His ship, the " Captain " (74), was the third from the end of the British line. Without waiting for orders he made a sweep to the west, threw himself across the bows of the Spaniards. His movement was seen and approved by Jervis, who then ordered the other ships in his rear to follow Nelson's example. The British force was thrown bodily on the enemy. As the Spanish crews were too utterly unpractised to handle their ships, and could not carry out the orders of their officers which they did not understand, their ships were soon driven into a herd, and fell on board of one another. Their incompetence as gunners enabled the " Captain " to assail their flagship, the huge " Santisima Trinidad " (130), with comparative impunity. The " San Josef " (112), and the " San Nicolas " (80), which fell aboard of one another, were both carried by boarding by the " Captain." Four Spanish ships, the " Salvador del Mundo " and " San Josef " (112), the " San Nicolas " (80), and the " San Isidro " (74), were taken. The " Santisima Trinidad " is said to have struck, but she was not taken possession of. By about half-past three the Spaniards were fairly beaten. More prizes might have been taken, but Sir John Jervis put a stop to the action to secure the four which had surrendered. The Spaniards were allowed to retreat to Cadiz. Sir John Jervis was made Earl St Vincent (g.v.) for his victory. The battle, which revealed the worthlessness of the Spanish navy, relieved the British government from a load of anxiety, and may be said to have marked the complete predominance of its fleet on the sea. Authorities. — A very interesting account of the battle of Cape St Vincent, A Narrative of the Proceedings of the British Fleet, &c. (London, 1797), illustrated by plans, was published immediately afterwards by Colonel Drinkwater Bethune, author of the History of the Siege of Gibraltar, who was an eyewitness from the " Lively " frigate. See also James's Naval History (London, 1837); and Captain Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power on the French Revolution and Empire (London, 1892). (D. H.) ST VITUS'S DANCE, 1 or Chorea, a disorder of the nervous system occurring for the most part in children, and characterized mainly by involuntary jerking movements of the muscles throughout almost the entire body (see Neuropathology). Among the predisposing causes age is important, chorea being essentially an ailment of childhood and particularly during the period of the second dentition between the ages of nine and twelve. It is not often seen in very young children nor after puberty; but there are many exceptions. It is twice as frequent with girls as with boys. Hereditary predisposition to nervous troubles is apt to find expression in this malady, especially if the general health becomes lowered. Of exciting causes strong emotions, such as fright, ill-usage or hardship of any kind, insufficient feeding, overwork or anxiety, are among the most common; while, again, some distant source of irritation, such as teething or intestinal worms, appears capable of giving rise to an attack. It is an occasional but rare complication of pregnancy. The connexion of chorea with rheumatism is now universally recog- nized, and is shown not merely by its frequent occurrence before, after or during the course of attacks of rheumatic fever in young persons, but even independently of this by the liability of the heart to suffer in a similar way in the two diseases. Poynton and Paine have demonstrated a diplococcus, which they regard as the specific micro-organism of rheumatism, and which has been found in the lymph spaces in the cortex in chorea. An attempt has recently been made to demonstrate the infectious nature of the chorea. The symptoms of St Vitus's dance sometimes develop suddenly as the result of fright, but much more frequently they come on insidiously. They are usually preceded by changes in disposition, the child becoming sad, irritable and emotional, while at the same time the general health is somewhat impaired. The first thing indicative of the disease is a certain awkwardness or fidgetiness of manner together with restlessness. In walking, too, slight dragging of one limb may be noticed. The convulsive muscular movements usually first show themselves in one part, such as an arm or a leg, and in some instances they may remain localized to that limited extent, while in all cases there is a tend- ency for the disorderly symptoms to be more marked on one side than on the other. When fully developed the phenomena of the disease are very characteristic. The child when standing or sitting is never still, but is constantly changing the position of the body or limbs or the facial expression in consequence of the sudden and incoordinate action of muscles or groups of them. These symptoms are aggravated when purposive move- ments are attempted or when the child is watched. Speech is affected both from the incoordinate movements of the tongue and from phonation sometimes taking place during an act of inspiration. The taking of food becomes a matter of difficulty, since much of it is lost in the attempts to convey it to the mouth, while swallowing is also interfered with owing to the' irregular action of the pharyngeal muscles. When the tongue is protruded it comes out in a jerky manner and is immediately withdrawn, the jaws at the same time closing suddenly and sometimes with considerable force. In locomotion the muscles of the limbs act incoordinately and there is a marked alteration of the gait, which is now halting and now leaping, and the child may be tripped by one limb being suddenly jerked in front of the other. In short, the whole muscular system is deranged in its operations, and the term " insanity of the muscles " not inaptly expresses the condition, for they no longer act in harmony or with purpose, but seem, as Trousseau expresses it, each to have a will of its own. The muscles of organic life (involuntary muscles) appear scarcely, 1 This name was originally employed in connexion with those remarkable epidemic outbursts of combined mental and physical excitement which for a time prevailed among the inhabitants of some parts of Germany in the middle ages. It is stated that sufferers from this dancing mania were wont to resort to the chapels of St Vitus (more than one in Swabia), the saint being believed to possess the power of curing them. The transference of the name to the disease now under consideration was a manifest error, but so closely has the association now become that the original application of the term hat. been comparatively obscured. 52 SAINT- WANDRILLE— SAISSET, B. if at all, affected in this disease, as, for example, the heart, the rhythmic movements of which are not as a rule impaired. But the heart may suffer in other ways, especially from inflammatory conditions similar to those which attend upon rheumatism and which frequently lay the foundation of permanent heart-disease. In severe cases of St Vitus's dance the child comes to present a distressing appearance, and the physical health declines. Usually, however, there is a remission of the symptoms during sleep. The mental condition of the patient is more or less affected, as shown in emotional tendencies, irritability and a somewhat fatuous expression and bearing, but this change is in general of transient character and ceases with convalescence. This disease occasionally assumes a very acute and aggravated form, in which the disorderly movements are so violent as to render the patient liable to be injured, and to necessitate forcible control of the limbs, or the employment of anaesthetics to produce unconsciousness. Such cases are of very grave character, if, as is common, they are accompanied with sleeplessness, and they may prove rapidly fatal by exhaustion. In the great majority of cases, however, complete recovery is to be anticipated sooner or later, the symptoms usually continuing for from one to two months, or even sometimes much longer. The remedies proposed have been innumerable, but it is doubtful whether any of them has much control over the disease, which under suitable hygienic conditions tends to recover of itself. These conditions, however, are all-important, and embrace the proper feeding of the child with nutritious light diet, the absence of all sources of excitement and annoyance, and the rectification of any causes of irritation and of irregularities in the general health. For a time, and especially if the symptoms are severe, confinement to the house or even to bed may be necessary, but as soon as possible the child should be taken out into the open air and gently exercised by walking. Ruhrah, recognizing the importance of rest, recom- mends a modified Weir-Mitchell treatment. Of medicinal remedies the mst serviceable appear to be zinc, arsenic and iron, especially the last two, which act as tonics to the system and improve the condition of the blood. In view of the connexion of chorea with rheumatism, Koplik and Dr D. B. Lees recommend salicylate of soda in large doses. Recently ergot, hot packs and mcnobromate of camphor have found advocates, while cessation of the movements has followed, the application of an ether spray to the spine twice daily. As sedatives in cases of sleeplessness, bromide of potassium and chloral are of use. In long-continued cases of the disease much benefit will be obtained by a change of air as well as by the employ- ment of moderate gymnastic exercises. The employment of massage and of electricity is also likely to be beneficial. After recovery the general health of the child should for a long time receive attention, and care should be taken to guard against excitement, excessive study or any exhausting condition, physical or mental, from the fact that the disease is apt to recur, and that other nervous disorders still more serious may be developed from it. In the rare instances of the acute form of this malady, where the convulsive movements are unceasing and violent, the only measures available are the use of chloral or chloroform inhalation to produce insensibility and muscular relaxation, but the effect is only palliative. SAINT-WANDRILLE, a village of north-western France, in the department of Seine-Inferieure, 28 m. W.N.W. of Rouen by rail. It is celebrated for the ruins of its Benedictine abbey. The abbey church belongs to the 13th and 14th centuries; portions of the nave walls supported by flying buttresses are standing, and the windows and vaulting of the side aisles are in fair preservation. The church communicates with a cloister, from which an interesting door of the Renaissance period opens into the refectory. Beside this entrance is a richly ornamented lavabo of the Renaissance period. The refectory is a room over 100 ft. long, lighted by graceful windows of the same period. The abbey was founded in the 7th century by St Wandrille, aided by the donations of Clovis II. It soon became renowned for learning and piety. In the 13th century it was burnt down, and the rebuilding was not completed till the beginning of the 16th century. Later in the same century it was practically destroyed by the Huguenots, and again the restoration was not finished for more than a hundred years. The demolition of the church was begun at the time of the Revolution, but proceeded slowly and in 1832 was entirely stopped. SAINT YON, a family of Parisian butchers in the 14th and 15th century. Guillaume de Saint Yon is cited as the richest butcher of the Grande Boucherie in the 14th century. The family played an important r61e during the quarrels of the Armagnacs and Burgundians. They were among the leaders of the Cabochian revolution of 1413. Driven out by the Armagnacs, they recovered their influence after the return of the Burgundians to Paris in 141 8, but had to flee again in 1436 when the constable, Arthur, earl of Richmond, took the city. Gamier de Saint Yon was ichevin of Paris in 1413 and 1419; Jean de Saint Yon, his brother, was valet de ckambre of the dauphin Louis, son of King Charles VI. Both were in the service of the king of England during the English domination. Richard de Saint Yon was master of the butchers of the Grande Boucherie in 1460. See A. Langnon, Paris pendant la domination anglaise (Paris, 1878) ; A. Colville, Les Cabochiens el Vordonnance de 1413. ST YRIEIX, a town of west central France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Haute-Vienne, on the left bank of the Loue, 26 m. S. of Limoges on the railway to Brive. Pop. (1906) town 3604, commune 7916. The town possesses a church in the early Gothic style known as Le Moutier, dating from the 12th and 13th centuries, and a tower of the 12th century which is a relic of its fortifications. Its quarries of kaolin discovered in 1765 were the first known in France. The town owes its name to Aredius (popularly St Yrieix) who in the 6th century founded a monastery to which its origin was due. SAIS (Egyptian Sai), an ancient city of the Egyptian Delta, lying westward of the Thermuthiac or Sebennytic branch of the Nile. It was Capital of the 5th nome of Lower Egypt and must have been important from remote times. In the 8th century B.C. Sais held the hegemony of the Western Delta, while Bubastite families ruled in the east and the kings of Ethiopia in Upper Egypt. The Ethiopians found their most vigorous opponents in the Saite princes Tefnachthus and his son Bocchoris " the Wise " of the XXIVth Dynasty. After reigning six years the latter is said to have been burnt alive by Sabacon, the founder of the Ethiopian XXVth Dynasty. At the time when invasions by the Assyrians drove out the Ethiopian Taracus again and again, the chief of the twenty princes to whom Esarhaddon and Assur-bani-pal successively entrusted the government was Niku, king of Sais and Memphis. His son Psammetichus (q.v.) was the fdunder of the XXVI th Dynasty. Although the main seat of government was at Memphis, Sais remained the royal residence throughout this flourishing dynasty. Neith, the goddess of Sais, was identified with Athena, and Osiris was worshipped there in a great festival. The brick enclosure wall of the temple is still plainly visible near the little village of Sa el hagar (Sa of stone) on the east bank of the Rosetta branch, but the royal tombs and other monuments of Sais, some of which were described by Herodotus, and its inscribed records, have all gone. Only crude brick ruins and rubbish heaps remain on the site, but a few relics conveyed to Alexandria and Europe in the Roman age have come down to our day, notably the inscribed statue of a priest of Neith who was high in favour with Psam- metichus III., Cambyses and Darius. Bronze figures of deities are now the most interesting objects to be found at Sa el hagar. (F. Ll. G.) SAISSET, BERNARD (d. c. 1314), French bishop, was abbot of Saint Antonin de Pamiers in 1268. Boniface VIII., detaching the city of Pamiers from the diocese of Toulouse in 1295, made it the seat of a new bishopric and appointed Saisset to the see. Of a headstrong temperament, Saisset as abbot energetically sustained the struggle with the counts of Foix, begun two centuries before, for the lordship of the city of Pamiers, which had been shared between the counts and abbots by the feudal contract of pariage. The struggle ended in 1297 by an agree- ment between the two parties as to their common rights, and when the pope raised the excommunication incurred by the count, Saisset absolved him in the refectory of the Dominican monastery in Pamiers (1300). Saisset is, however, famous in French history for his opposition to King Philip IV. As an ardent Languedocian he hated the French, and spoke openly of the king in disrespectful terms. But when he tried to organize a general rising of the south, he was denounced to the king, perhaps by his old enemies the count of Foix and the bishop of Toulouse. Philip IV. charged Richard Leneveu, archdeacon of Auge in the diocese of Lisieux, and SAISSET, E. E.— SAKE 53 Jean de Picquigni, vidame of Amiens, to make an investigation, which lasted several months. Saisset was on the point of escaping to Rome when the vidame of Amiens surprised him by night in his episcopal palace. He was brought to Senlis, and on the 24th of October 1301 appeared before Philip and his court. The chancellor, Pierre Flotte, charged him with high treason, and he was placed in the keeping of the archbishop of Narbonne, his metropolitan. Philip IV. tried to obtain from the pope the canonical degradation of Saisset. Boniface VIII., instead, ordered the king in December 1301 to free the bishop, in order that he might go to Rome to justify himself. At the same time, he sent the famous bulls Salvator mundi, a sort of repetition of Clericis laicos, and Ausculla fili, which opened a new stage of the quarrel between the pope and king. In the heat of the new struggle Saisset was forgotten. He had been turned over in February 1302 into the keeping of Jacques des Normands, the papal legate, and was ordered to leave the kingdom at once. He lived at Rome until after the incident at Anagni. In 1308 the king pardoned him, and restored him to his see. He died, still bishop of Pamiers, about 1314. There is no proof for the legend that Bernard Saisset earned Philip IV. 's hatred in 1 300-1 301 by boldly sustaining the pope's demand for the liberation of the count of Flanders, and by publicly proclaiming the doctrine of papal supremacy. See Dom Vaissete, Histoire generate de Languedoc, ed. Privat, t. ix. pp. 216-310; Histoire litteraire de la France, t. xxvi. pp. 540-547; E. de RoziSre, Le Passage de Pamiers, in Bibliotheque de l'Ecole des Chartes (1871) ; Ch. V. Langlois in Lavisse's Histoire de France, t. i£I. . pt. ii., pp. 142-146. SAISSET, EMILE EDMOND (1814-1863), French philosopher, was born at Montpellier on the 16th of September 1814, and died at Paris on the 17th of December 1863. He studied philosophy in the school of Cousin, and carried on the eclectic tradition of his master along with Ravaisson and Jules Simon. He was professor of philosophy at Caen, at the Ecole Normale in Paris and later at the Sorbonne. His chief works are a monograph on Aenesidemus the Sceptic (1840); Le Scepticisme: Mnesidkme, Pascal, Kant (1845); a trans- lation of Spinoza (1843); Precurseurs et disciples de _ Descartes (1862); Discours de la philosophie de Leibnitz (1857) — a work which had great influence on the progress of thought in France; Essai de philosophie religieuse (1859) ; Critique et histoire de la philosophie{i86^). SAKA, or Shaka, the name of one or more tribes which invaded India from Central Asia. The word is used loosely, especially by Hindu authors, to designate all the tribes which from time to time invaded India from the north, much as all the tribes who invaded China are indiscriminately termed Tatars. Used more accurately, it denotes the tribe which invaded India 130-140 B.C. They are the Sacae and Sakai of classical authors and the Se of the Chinese, which may represent an original Sek or Sok. The Chinese annalists state that they were a pastoral people who lived in the neighbourhood of the modern Kashgar. About 160 B.C. they were driven southward by the advance of the Yue-Chi from the east. One portion appears to have settled in western Afghanistan, hence called Sakasthana, in modern Persian Sejistan. The other section occupied the Punjab and possessed themselves of the territory which the Graeco-Bactrian kings had acquired in India, that is Sind, Gujarat and Malwa. The rulers of these provinces bore the title of Satrap (Kshatrapa or Chhatrapa) and were apparently subordinate to a king who ruled over the valley of Kabul and the Punjab. In 57 B.C. the Sakas were attacked simultaneously by Parthians from the west and by the Malava clans from the east and their power was destroyed. It should be added that what we know of Saka history is mostly derived from coins and inscriptions which admit ,of various interpretations and that scholars are by no means agreed as to names and. dates. In any case their power, if it lasted so long, must have been swept away by the Kushan conquest of Northern India. Nothing is known of the language or race of the Sakas. Like most of the invaders of India at this period they adopted Buddhism, at least partially. They can be traced to the neigh- bourhood of Kashgar, but not like the Yue-Chi to the frontiers of China. They may have been Turanians akin to that tribe. or they may have been Iranians akin to the Iranian element in Transoxiana and the districts south of the Pamirs. They cannot be the same as the Scythians of Europe, though the name and original nomadic life are points in common. See Vincent Smith, Early History of India (1908) ; O. Franke, Beitrdge aus chinesischen Quellen zur Kenntnis der Turkvolker und Skythen (1904) ; P. Gardner, Coins of Greek and Scythian Kings in India (1886); and various articles by Vincent Smith, Fleet, Cunningham, A Stein, Sylvain Levi and others in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Journal asiatique, Indian Antiquary, Zeitsch. der Deutschen Morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, &c. (C. El.) SAKAI, an aboriginal people of the Malay peninsula found chiefly in south Perak, Selangor and Pahang. Representatives are widely scattered among Malayan villages, but these are so crossed with the Malays as to be no longer typical. An attempt has been made to identify the Sakai with the Mon-Annam group of races, i.e. the tribes which till 600 years ago possessed what is now Siam, and some of whom still occupy Pegu and Cambodia. Professor Virchow suggested that the Sakai belong to what he calls the Dravido-Australian race, the chief representatives of which he finds in the Veddahs of Ceylon, the civilized Tamils of south India and the aborigines of Australia. In essential characteristics of hair and head there is a remarkable agreement. The difficulty in accepting the theory is in the colour of the skin, • which among the Sakais is often a light shade of yellowish brown, whereas among Tamils black is the prevailing colour. Vijchow meets this by pointing out that Sinhalese, though admittedly Aryans, are often so dark as to be practically black. The Sakais are, however, it is now generally held, kinsmen of their Negrito neighbours, the Semangs (q.v.), and are, like the latter, dwarfish, seldom exceeding 4 ft. 9 in. Their skins are usually a darkish brown, but showing a reddish tinge about the breast and extremities. The head is long, and the hair a black brown, rather wavy then woolly. The face inclines to be long, and would be hatchet-shaped but for the breadth of the cheek bones. The chin is long and pointed, the forehead high and flat, the brows often beetling. The nose is small, slightly tilted or rounded off at the tip, but broad and with deep-set nostrils. The beard is usually scanty. The arm-stretch is almost always greater than their height. Their food is varied; the wilder tribes living on jungle fruits and game they hunt with the blow- pipe, while the more civilized grow yams, sweet potatoes, maize, sugar cane, rice and tapioca. The Sakai blow-pipe is a tube 6 to 8 ft. long formed of a single joint of a rare species of bamboo (Bambusa Wrayi). This tube is inserted into another for protec- tion. The darts are made of fine slivers from the mid-rib of the leaf of certain palms, and are about the size of a knitting needle. The point is usually coated with poison compounded from the sap of the Upas tree (Antiaris toxicaria) and of a species of strychnos. Each dart is carried in a separate reed, thirty to fifty of these latter being rolled up and carried in a bamboo quiver. The Sakais can kill at thirty paces with these blow-pipes. They are nomads, building mere leaf-shelters in or under the trees. Their dress is of bark-cloth and they scar their faces, as do the Semangs. They are skilful in mat-making and basket- work, but they have no kind of weaving or pottery. They are musical, using a rough lute of bamboo and a nose-flute, and they sing well in chorus. They have in common with the Semangs curious marriage ceremonies. The dead are slung from a pole and carried to a distant spot in the jungle. Here, wrapped in new bark-cloth, the body is buried in a shallow trench, the clothes worn by the deceased being burned in a fire lighted near, the grave. When filled up, rice is sown on the grave and watered, and some herbs and bananas are planted round it for the soul to feed on. Afterwards a three-cornered hutch, not unlike a doll's-house but mounted on high piles, is built at the foot, in which the soul may live. This soul-house is about ij ft. high, is thatched with leaves and has a ladder by which the soul can climb in. SAK£, the national beverage of Japan. In character it stands midway between beer and wine. It is made chiefly from rice (see Brewing). Sake contains 12 to 15% of alcohol and about 3% of solid matter (extractives), 0-3% of lactic 54 SAKHALIN— SALA acid, a small quantity of volatile acid, 0-5 % of sugar and o-8 % of glycerin. There are about 20,000 sake breweries in Japan, and the annual output is about 150 million gallons. Sake is a yellowish-white liquid, its flavour somewhat resembling that of madeira or sherry. It is warmed prior to consumption, as the flavour is thereby improved and it is rendered more digestible. The name is said to be derived from the town of Osaka which, from time immemorial, has been famous for its sake. According to Morewood it is probable that the wine called " sack " in England derived its name from the Japanese liquor, being introduced by Spanish and Portuguese traders (see Wine). SAKHALIN, or Saghalien, a large elongated island in the North Pacific, lying between 45 57' and 54° 24' N., off the coast of the Russian Maritime Province in East Siberia, divided between the Russian and Japanese empires. Its proper Ainu name, Karafuto or Karaftu, has been restored to the island by the Japanese since 1905. Sakhalin is separated from the mainland by the narrow and shallow Strait of Tartary or Mamiya Strait, which often freezes in winter in its narrower part, and from Yezo (Japan) by the Strait of La Perouse. The island is 600 m. long, and 16 to 105 broad, with an area of 24,560 sq. m. Its orography and geological structure are imperfectly known. Two, or perhaps three, parallel ranges of mountains traverse it from north to south, reaching 2000 to 5000 ft. (Mt. Ichara, 4860 ft.) high, with two or more wide depressions, not exceeding 600 ft. above the sea. Crystalline rocks crop out at several capes; Cretaceous lime- stones, containing an abundant and specific fauna of gigantic ammonites, occur at Dui on the west coast, and Tertiary conglomer- ates, sandstones, marls and clays, folded by subsequent upheavals, in many parts of the island. The clays, which contain layers of good coal and an abundant fossil vegetation, show that during the Miocene period Sakhalin formed part of a continent which com- prised north Asia, Alaska and Japan, and enjoyed a comparatively warm climate. The Pliocene deposits contain a mollusc fauna more arctic than that which exists at the present time, indicating probably that the connexion between the Pacific and Arctic Oceans was broader than it is now. Only two rivers are worthy of mention. The Tym, 250 m. long and navigable by rafts and light boats for 50 m., flows north and north-east with numerous rapids and shallows, and enters the Sea of Okhotsk. The Poronai flows south-south-east to the Gulf of Patience or Shichiro Bay, on the south-east coast. Three other small streams enter the wide semicircular Gulf of Aniva or Higashifushimi Bay at the southern extremity of the island. Owing to the influence of the raw, foggy Sea of Okhotsk, the climate is very cold. At Dui the average yearly temperature is only 33-o°Fahr. (January 3-4°; July 6l-o°), 35-0° at Kusunai and 37-6° at Aniva (January, 9-5; July, 6o-2°). At Alexandrovsk near Dui the annual range is from 81 in July to -38° in January, while at Rykovsk in the interior the minimum is -49° Fahr. The rainfall averages 22J in. Thick clouds for the most part shut out the sun; while the cold current from the Sea of Okhotsk, aided by north-east winds, brings immense ice-floes to the east coast in summer. The whole of the island is covered with dense forests, mostly coniferous. The Ayan spruce (Abies ayanensis), the Sakhalin fir (Abies sachalensis) and the Daurian larch are the chief trees; on the upper parts of the mountains are the Siberian rampant cedar (Cembra pumila) and the Kurilian bamboo (Arundinaria kurilense). Birch, both European and Kamchatkan (Betula alba and B. Ermani), elder, poplar, elm, wild cherry (Prunus padus), Taxus baccata and several willows are mixed with the conifers; while farther south the maple, mountain ash and oak, as also the Japanese Panax ricinifolium, the Amur cork (Philodendron amurense), the spindle tree (Euonymus macropterus) and the vine (Vitis thunbergii) make their appearance. The under- woods abound in berry-bearing plants (e.g. cloudberry, cranberry, crowberry, red whortleberry), berried elder (Sambucus racemosa), wild raspberry and Spiraea. Bears, foxes, otters and sables are numerous, as also the reindeer in the north, and the musk deer, hares, squirrels, rats and mice everywhere. The avi-fauna is the common Siberian, and the rivers swarm with fish, especially species of salmon (Oncorhynchus). Numerous whales visit the sea-coast. Sea-lions, seals and dolphins are a source of profit. Sakhalin was inhabited in the Neolithic Stone Age. Flint implements, exactly like those of Siberia and Russia, have been found at Dui and Kusunai in great numbers, as well as polished stone hatchets, like the European ones, primitive pottery with decorations like those of Olonets and stone weights for nets. Afterwards a population to whom bronze was known left traces in earthen walls and kitchen-middens on the Bay of Aniva. The native inhabitants consist of some 2000 Gilyaks, 1300 Ainus, with 750 Orochons, 200 Tunguses and Some Yakuts. The Gilyaks in the north support themselves by fishing and hunting. The Ainus inhabit the south part of the island. There are also 32,000 Russians, of whom over 22,150 are convicts. A little coal is mined and some rye, wheat, oats, barley and vegetables are grown, although the period during which vegetation can grow averages less than 100 days. Fishing is actively prosecuted, especially by the Japanese in the south. History. — Sakhalin, which was under Chinese dominion until the 19th century, became known to Europeans from the travels of Martin Gerritz de Vries in the 17th century, and still better from those of La Perouse (1787) and Krusenstern (1805). Both, however, regarded it as a peninsula, and were unaware of the existence of the Strait of Tartary, which was discovered in 1809 by a Japanese, Mamiya Rinzo. The Russian navigator Nevelskoi in 1849 definitively established the existence and navigability of this strait. The Russians made their first permanent settle- ment on Sakhalin in 1857; but the southern part of the island was held by the Japanese until 1875, when they ceded it to Russia. By the treaty of Portsmouth (U.S.A.) of 1905 the southern part of the island below 50 N. was re-ceded to Japan, the Russians retaining the other three-fifths of the area. See C. H. Hawes, In the Uttermost East (London, 1903). (PA. K.; J. T. Be.) SAKI, the native name of a group of tropical American monkeys nearly allied to those known as uakaris (see Uakari), with which they agree in the forward inclination of the lower incisor teeth, the depth of the hinder part of the lower jaw, and the non-prehensile tail. The sakis, which form the genus Pithecia, are specially characterized by their long and generally bushy tails, distinct whiskers and beard, and the usually elon- gated hair on the crown of the head, which may either radiate from a point in the centre, or be divided by a median parting. They are very delicate animals, difficult to keep in confinement, and in that state exhibiting a gentle disposition, and being normally silent (see Primates). SAKURA-JIMA, a Japanese island, oval in shape and measur- ing 7 m.by 5 m., lying in the northern part of the Bay of Kagoshima (31 40' N., 130° 35' E.). It has a volcano 3743 ft. high (of which an eruption was recorded in 1779), and is celebrated for its hot springs, its oranges and its giant radishes (daikon), which some- times weigh as much as 70 lb. SALA, GEORGE AUGUSTUS HENRY (1828-1895), English journalist, was born in London, on the 24th of November 1828. His father, Augustus John James Sala (1792-1828), was the son of Claudio Sebastiano Sala, an Italian, who came to London to arrange ballets at the theatres; his mother, Henrietta Simon (1789-1860), was an actress and teacher of singing. Sala was at school in Paris and studied drawing in London. In his earlier years he did odd jobs in scene-painting and book illustration. He wrote a tragedy in French, Fredigonde, before he was ten years old, and in 1851 attracted the attention of Charles Dickens, who published articles and stories by him in Household Words and All the Year Round, and in 1856 sent him to Russia as a special correspondent. About the same time he got to know Edmund Yates, with whom, in his earlier years, he was constantly connected in his journalistic ventures. From i860 to 1886, over his own initials, he wrote " Echoes of the Week " for the Illustrated London News. Afterwards they were continued in a syndicate of weekly newspapers almost to his death. Thackeray, when editor of the Cornhill, published articles by him on Hogarth in i860, which were issued in volume form in 1866. In i860 he started Temple Bar, which he edited till 1866 when the magazine was taken over by Messrs Bentley. Mean- while he had become in 1857 a contributor to the London Daily Telegraph, and it was in this capacity that he did his most, characteristic work, whether as a foreign correspondent in all parts of the world, or as a writer of leaders or special articles. His literary style was highly coloured, bombastic, egotistic and full of turgid periphrases, but his articles were invariably full of interesting matter and helped to make the reputation of the paper. He collected a large library and had an elaborate system of commonplace-books, so that he could bring into his articles enough show or reality of special information to make SALAAM— SALADIN 55 excellent reading for a not very critical public; he had an extraordinary faculty for never saying the same thing twice in the same way. He earned a large income from the Telegraph and other sources, but he never could keep his money. In 1863 he started on his first tour as special foreign correspondent to his paper. He spent the year 1864 in America and published a Diary of the war. Expeditions to Algiers, to Italy during Garibaldi's 1866 campaign, to Metz during the Franco-German war, to Spain in 1875 at the end of the Carlist war, were among his early journalistic enterprises, the long list of which closed with his journey through America and Australia in 1885. In 1892, when his reputation was at its height, he started a weekly paper called Sala's Journal, but it was a disastrous failure; and in 1895 he had to sell his library of 13,000 volumes. Lord Rosebery gave him a civil list pension of £100 a year, but he was a broken-down man, and he died at Brighton on the 8th of December 1895. Sala published many volumes of fiction, travels and essays, and edited various other works, but his metier was that of ephemeral journalism. See The Life and Adventures of George Augustus Sala, written by himself (2 vols., 1895). SALAAM (Arab, salam, "peace"), the Oriental term for a salutation. The word is used for any act of salutation, as of an ambassador to a monarch, and so in a secondary sense of a compliment. Properly it is the oral salutation of Mahommedans to each other; but it has acquired the special meaning of an act of obeisance. SALAD (Med. Lat. salata, salted, pickled, salare, to sprinkle with salt), a dish, originally dressed with salt, of green uncooked herbs, such as lettuce, endive, mustard, cress, &c, usually served with a flavouring of onion, garlic or leeks, and with a dressing of vinegar, oil, mustard, pepper and salt, or with a cream, for which there are many receipts; hard-boiled eggs, radishes and cucumber are also added. SALADE, Sallet or Salet, a head-piece introduced in the early 15th century replacing the heavy helmet. Its essential features are its smooth rounded surface, like an inverted bowl, and its long projecting neck guard. Usually there was no movable vizor, but the front fixed part covered most of the face, a slit being left for the eyes. The word is said to come through the Old Fr. from the Span, celada, Ital. celata, Lat. caelata, sc. cassis, engraved helmet, caelare, to engrave, chase (see Helmet). SALADIN (Arab. Sala-ud-din, " Honouring the Faith") (1138- 1193), first Ayyubite sultan of Egypt, was born at Tekrit in 1 138. The brilliance of his career was only made possible by the condition of the East in the 1 2th century. Such authority as remained to the orthodox caliph of Bagdad (see Caliphate) or the heretical Fatimites (q.v.) of Cairo was exercised by their viziers. The Seljukian empire had, after 1076, been divided and subdivided among Turkish atabegs. The Latin kingdom of Jerusalem had existed since 1089 only because it was a united force in the midst of disintegration. Gradually, however, Christian enthusiasm had aroused a counter enthusiasm among the Moslems. Zengi, atabeg of Mosul, had inaugurated the sacred war by his campaigns in Syria (1137-1146). Nur-ed-din, his son, had continued his work by further conquests in Syria and Damascus, by the organization of his conquered lands, and, in 1157, by " publishing everywhere the Holy War." The opportunity of Saladin lay therefore in the fact that his lifetime covers the period when there was a conscious demand for political union in the defence of the Mahommedan faith. By race Saladin was a Kurd of Armenia. His father, Ayyub (Job), and his uncle Shirkuh, sons of a certain Shadhy of Ajdanakan near Dawin, were both generals in Zengi's army. In 1139 Ayyub received Baalbek from Zengi, in 1146 he moved, on Zengi's death, to the court of Damascus. In 1154 his influence secured Damascus to Nur-ed-din and he was made governor. Saladin was therefore educated in the most famous centre of Moslem learning, and represented the best traditions of Moslem culture. His career falls into three parts, his conquests in Egypt 1164- 1174, the annexation of Syria 1174-1187, and lastly the destruc- tion of the Latin kingdom and subsequent campaigns against the Christians, 1187-1192. The conquest of Egypt was essential to Nur-ed-din. It was a menace to his empire on the south, the occasional ally of the Franks and the home of the unorthodox caliphs. His pretext was the plea of an exiled vizier, and Shirkuh was ordered to Egypt in n 64, taking Saladin as his lieutenant. The Christians under Count Amalric immediately intervened and the four expeditions which ensued in 1164, 1167, 1 168 and 1 169 were duels between Christians and Saracens. They resulted in heavy Christian losses, the death of Shirkuh and the appointment of Saladin as vizir. His relations towards the unorthodox caliph Nur-ed-din were marked by extraordinary tact. In 1 171 on the death of the Fatimite caliph he was powerful enough to substitute the name of the orthodox caliph in all Egyptian mosques. The Mahommedan religion was thus united against Christianity. To Nur-ed-din he was invari- ably submissive, but from the vigour which he employed in adding to the fortifications of Cairo and the haste with which he retreated from an attack on Montreal (n 71) and Kerak (n 73) it is clear that he feared his lord's jealousy. In 1 1 74 Nur-ed-din died, and the period of Saladin 's conquests in Syria begins. Nur-ed-din's vassals rebelled against his youthful heir, es-Salih, and Saladin came north, nominally to his assistance. In n 74 he entered Damascus, Emesa and Hamah; in 1175 Baalbek and the towns round Aleppo. The next step was political independence. He suppressed the name of es-Salih in prayers and on the coinage, and was formally declared sultan by the caliph 1175. In n 76 he conquered Saif-ud-din of Mosul beyond the Euphrates and was recognized as sovereign by the princes of northern Syria". In n 77 he returned by Damascus to Cairo, which he enriched with colleges, a citadel and an aqueduct. From n 77 to 1180 he made war on the Christians from Egypt, and in 1180 reduced the sultan of Konia to sub- mission. From 1 181-1 183 he was chiefly occupied in Syria. In 1 183 he induced the atabeg Imad-ud-din to exchange Aleppo for the insignificant Sinjar and in 1186 received the homage of the atabeg of Mosul. The last independent vassal was thus subdued and the Latin kingdom enclosed on every side by a hostile empire. In 1 187 a four years' truce was broken by the brilliant brigand Renaud de Chatillon and thus began Saladin's third period of conquest. In May he cut to pieces a small body of Templars and Hospitallers at Tiberias, and, on July 4th, inflicted a crushing defeat upon the united Christian army at Hittin. He then overran Palestine, on September 20th besieged Jerusalem and on October 2nd, after chivalrous clemency to the Christian inhabitants, crowned his victories by entering and purifying the Holy City. In the kingdom only Tyre was left to the Christians. Probably Saladin made his worst strategical error in neglect- ing to conquer it before winter. The Christians had thus a stronghold whence their remnant marched to attack Acre in June 1 189. Saladin immediately surrounded the Christian army and thus began the famous two years' siege. Saladin's lack of a fleet enabled the Christians to receive reinforcements and thus recover from their defeats by land. On the 8th of June 1191 Richard of England arrived, and on the 1 2th of July Acre capitulated without Saladin's permission. Richard followed up his victory by an admirably ordered march down the coast to Jaffa and a great victory at Arsuf. During 1 191 and 1 192 there were four small campaigns in southern Palestine when Richard circled round Beitnuba and Ascalon with Jerusalem as objective. In January 1 192 he acknowledged his impotence by renouncing Jerusalem to fortify Ascalon. Negotiations for peace accompanied these demonstrations, which showed that Saladin was master of the situation. Though in July Richard secured two brilliant victories at Jaffa, the treaty made on the 2nd of September was a triumph for Saladin. Only the coast line was left to the Latin kingdom, with a free passage to Jerusalem; and Ascalon was demolished. The union of the Mahommedan East had beyond question dealt the death-blow to the Latin kingdom. Richard returned to Europe, and Saladin returned to Damascus, where on the 4th of March 1193, 5* SALAMANCA after a few days' illness, he died. He was buried in Damascus and mourned by the whole East. The character of Saladin and of his work is singularly vivid. In many ways he was a typical Mahommedan, fiercely hostile towards unbelievers — " Let us purge the air of the air they breathe " was his aim for the demons cf the Cross, — intensely devout and regular in prayers and fasting. He showed the pride of race in the declaration that ' ' God reserved this triumph for the Ayyubites before all others. ' ' His generosity and hospitality were proved in his gifts to Richard and his treatment of captives. He had the Oriental's power of endurance, alternating with violent and emotional courage. Other virtues were all his own, his extreme gentleness, his love for children, his flawless honesty, his invariable kindliness, his chivalry to women and the weak. Above all he typifies the Mahommedan's utter self- surrender to a sacred cause. His achievements were the inevitable expression of his character. He was not a statesman, for he left no constitution or code to the East; his empire was divided among his relatives on his death. As a strategist, though of great ability, he cannot be compared to Richard. As a general, he never organized an army. " My troops will do nothing," he confessed, " save when I ride at their head and review them. ' His fame lives in Eastern history as the conqueror who stemmed the tide of Western conquest on the East, and turned it definitely from East to West, as the hero who momentarily united the unruly East, and as the saint who realized in his personality the highest virtues and ideals of Mahommedanism. Authorities. — The contemporary Arabian authorities are to be found in Michaud's Recueil des historiens des Croisades (Paris. 1876). This contains the work of Baha-ud-din (1 145-1234), diplomatist, and secretary of Saladin, the general history of Ibn-Athir (1160- 1233), the eulogist of the atabegs of Mosul but the unwilling admirer of Saladin, and parts of the general history of Abulfeda. The biography of the poet Osema ibn Murkidh (1095-1188), edited by Derenbourg (Paris, 1886), gives an invaluable picture of Eastern life. Later Arabian authorities are Ibn Khallikan (1211-1282) and Abu- Shama (born 1267). Of Christian authorities the following are important, the history of William of Tyre (1137-1185), the Itiner- arium peregrinorum, probably the Latin version of the Carmen Ambrosii (ed. by Stubbs, " Rolls " series, London, 1864), and the Chronique d'outremer, or the French translation of William of Tyre's history and its continuation by Ernoul, the squire of Balian, seigneur of Ibelin, 1228. The best modern authority is Stanley Lane-Poole's Saladin (" Heroes of the Nations " series, London, 1903). See also the bibliography to Crusades. (W. F. K.) SALAMANCA, a frontier province of eastern Spain, formed in 1833 out of the southern part of the ancient kingdom of Leon, and bounded on the N. by Zamora and Valladolid, E. by Avila, S. by Caceres and W. by Portugal. Pop. (1900) 320,765; area, 4829 sq. m. Salamanca belongs almost entirely to the basin of the Duero (Portuguese Douro, q.v.), its principal rivers being the Tormes, which follows the general slope of the province towards the north-west, and after a course of 135 m. flows into the Duero, which forms part of the north-west boundary; the Yeltes and the Agueda, also tributaries of the Duero; and the Alagon, an affluent of the Tagus. The northern part of the province is flat, and at its lowest point (on the Duero) is 488 ft. above sea- level. The southern border is partly defined along the crests of the Credos and Gata ranges, but the highest point is La Alberca (5692 ft.) in the Sierra de Pena Francia, which rises a little farther north. The rainfall is irregular; but where it is plentiful the soil is productive and there are good harvests of wine, oil, hemp, and cereals of all kinds. Forests of oak, pine, beech and chestnut cover a wide area in the south and south-west; and timber is sent in large quantities to other parts of Spain. Sheep and cattle also find good pasturage, and out of the forty-nine Spanish provinces only Badajoz, Caceres and Teruel have a larger number of live stock. Gold is found in the streams, and iron, lead, copper, zinc, coal and rock crystal in the hills, but the mines are only partially developed, and it is doubtful if the deposits would repay exploitation on a larger scale. The manu- factures of the province are few and mostly of a low class, in- tended for home consumption, such as frieze, coarse cloth, hats and pottery. The capital, Salamanca (pop. 1900, 25,690), and the town of Ciudad Rodrigo (8930) are described in separate articles. Bejar (9488) is the only other town of more than 5000 inhabitants. The railways from Zamora, Medina, Plasencia and Penaranda converge upon the capital, whence two lines go west- ward into Portugal — one via Barca d'Alva to Oporto, the other via Villar Formoso to Guarda. Few Spanish provinces lose so small a number of emigrants, and the population tends gradually to increase. See also Leon. SALAMANCA (anc. Salmantica or Elmantica) , the capital of the Spanish province of Salamanca, on the right bank of the river Tormes, 2648 ft. above sea-level and 172 m. by rail N.W. of Madrid. Pop. (1000) 25,690. Salamanca is the centre of a network of railways which radiate N. to Zamora, N.E. to Medina, E. to Penaranda, S. to Plasencia, W.S.W. to Guarda in Portugal, and W. to Oporto in Portugal. The river is here crossed by a bridge 500 ft. long built on twenty-six arches, fifteen of which are of Roman origin, while the remainder date from the 16th century. The city is still much the same in outward appearance as when its tortuous streets were thronged with students. The university was naturally the chief source of wealth to the town, the popula- tion of which in the 16th century numbered 50,000, 10,000 of whom were students. Its decay of course reacted on the towns- folk, but it fortunately also arrested the process of modernization. The ravages of war alone have wrought serious damage, for the French in their defensive operations in 1811-1812 almost destroyed the western quarter. The ruins still remain, and give an air of desolation which is not borne out by the real condition of the inhabitants, however poverty-stricken they may appear. Side by side with the remains of a great past are the modern buildings: two theatres, a casino, bull-ring, town hall and electric light factory. The magnificent Plaza Mayor, built by Andres Garcia de Quifiones at the beginning of the 18th century, and capable of holding 20,000 people to witness a bull-fight, is one of the finest squares in Europe. It is surrounded by an arcade of ninety arches on Corinthian columns, one side of the square being occupied by the municipal buildings. The decora- tions of the facades are in the Renaissance style, and the plaza as a whole is a fine sample of Plateresque architecture. The University. — Salamanca is still rich in educational estab- lishments. It still keeps up its university, with the separate faculties of letters, philosophy, sciences, law and medicine; its university and provincial public library, with 80,000 volumes and 1000 MSS.; its Irish college, provincial institute, superior normal school, ecclesiastical seminary (founded in 1 7 78) , economic and other learned societies, and very many charitable founda- tions. The city has still its 25 parishes, 25 colleges, and as many more or less ruinous converits, and 10 yet flourishing religious houses. The university, the oldest in the Peninsula, was founded about 1230 by Alphonso IX. of Leon, and refounded in 1242 by St Ferdinand of Castile. Under the patronage of the learned Alphonso X. its wealth and reputation greatly increased (1252- 1282), and its schools of canon law and civil law attracted students even from Paris and Bologna. In the 15th and 16th centuries it was renowned throughout Europe. Here Columbus, to whom a statue was erected in 1891, lectured on his discoveries, and here the Copernican system was taught long before it had won general acceptance. But soon after 1550 a period of decline set in. The university statutes were remodelled in 1757, but financial troubles and the incessant wars which checked almost every reform in Spain prevented any recovery up to 1857, when a fresh reorganization was effected. At the beginning of the 20th century the number of students was about 1200, and the number of professors 19 — fewer than in any other Spanish university. Principal Buildings. — The chief objects of interest in the city are the old and new cathedrals. The old cathedral is a cruciform building of the 12th century, begun by Bishop Jeronimo, the con- fessor of the Cid (q.v.). Its style of architecture is that Late Roman- esque which prevailed in the south of France, but the builder showed much originality in the construction of the dome, which covers the crossing of the nave and transepts. The inner dome is made to spring, not from immediately above the arches, but from a higher stage of a double arcade pierced with windows. The thrust of the vaulting is borne by four massive pinnacles, and over the inner dome is an outer pointed one covered with tiles. The whole forms a most effective and graceful group. On the vault of the apse is a fresco of Our Lord in Judgment by the Italian painter Nicolas Florentino (15th century). The reredos, which has the peculiarity of fitting the curve of the apse, contains fifty-five panels with paintings mostly by the same artist. There are many fine monuments in the south transept and cloister chapels. An adjoining building, the Capilla de Talavera, is used as a chapel for service according to the Mozarabic rite, which SALAMANCA 57 is celebrated there six times a year. On the north of and adjoining the old church stands the new cathedral, built from designs by Juan Gil de Ontafion. Though begun in 1509 the work of construction made little progress until 1513, when it was entrusted to Ontafion under Bishop Francisco de Bobadilla; though not finished till 1734, it is a notable example of the late Gothic and Plateresque styles. Its length is 340 ft. and its breadth 160 ft. The interior is fairly Gothic in character, but on the outside the Renaissance spirit shows itself more clearly, and is fully developed in the dome. Every- where the attempt at mere novelty or richness results in feebleness. The main arch of the great portal consists of a simple trefoil, but the label above takes an ogee line, and the inner arches are elliptical. Above the doors are bas-reliefs, foliage, &c, which in exuberance of design and quality of workmanship are good examples of the latest efforts of Spanish Gothic. The church contains paintings by J. F. de Navarrete (1526-1579) and L. de Morales (c, 1509-1586), and some overrated statues by Juan de Juni (16th cent jry). The treasury is very rich, .nd amongst other articles possesses a custodia which is a masterpiece of goldsmith's work, and a bronze crucifix of undoubted jiuthenticity, which was borne before the Cid in battle. The great bell weighs over 23 tons. Of the university buildings the facade of the library is a peculiarly rich example of late 15th-century Gothic. The cloisters are light and elegant; the grand staircase ascending from them has a fine balustrade of foliage andfigures. The Colegio de Nobles Irlandeses, formerly Colegio de Santiago Apostol, was built in 1521 from designs by Pedro de Ibarra. The double arcaded cloister is a fine piece of work of the best period of the Renaissance. The Jesuit College is an immense and ugly Renaissance building begun in 1614 by Juan Gomez de Mora.. The Colegio Viejo, also called San Bartolome, was rebuilt in the 18th century, and now serves as the governor's palace. The convent of Santo Domingo, sometimes called San Esteban, shows a mixture of styles from the 13th century onwards. The church is Gothic with a Plateresque facade of great lightness and delicacy. It is of purer design than that of the cathe- dral ; nevertheless it shows the tendency of the period. The reredos, one of the finest Renaissance works in Spain, contains statues by Salvador Carmona, and a curious bronze statuette of the Virgin and Child on a throne of champleve enamel of the 12th century. The chapter-house, built by Juan Moreno in 1637, and the staircase and sacristy are good examples of later work. The convent of the Augustinas Recoletas, begun by Fontana in 1616, is in better taste than any other Renaissance building in the city. The church is rich in marble fittings and contains several fine pictures of the Neapolitan school, especially the Conception by J. Ribera (1588-1656) over the altar. The convent of the Espirita Santo has a good door by A. Berruguete (c. 1480-1561). There is also a rather effective portal to the convent of Las Duefias. The church of S. Marcos is a curious circular building with three eastern apses; and the churches of S. Martin and S. Matteo have good early doorways. Many of the private houses are untouched examples of the domestic architecture of the prosperous times in which they were built. Such are the Casa de las Conchas, the finest example of its period in Spain; the Casa de la Sal, with a magnificent courtyard and sculptured gallery; and the palaces of Maldonado, Monterey and Espinosa. In the middle ages the trade of Salamanca was not insignificant, and the stamped leather-work produced there is still sought after. Its manufactures are now of little consequence, and consist of china, cloth and leather. The transport trade is, however, of more import- ance, and shows signs of increasing, as a result of the extension of railway communication between 1875 and 1900. During this period the population increased by nearly 7000. History. — The town was of importance as early as 222 B.C., when it was captured by Hannibal from the Vettones; and it afterwards became under the Romans the ninth station on the Via Lata from Merida to Saragossa. It passed successively under the rule of the Goths and the Moors, till the latter were finally driven out about 1055. About 1100 many foreign settlers were induced by Alphonso VI. to establish themselves in the district, and the city was enlarged and adorned by Count Ray- mond of Burgundy and his wife, the Princess Urraca. The Fuero de Salamanca, a celebrated code of civil law, probably dates from about 1200. Thenceforward, until the second half of the 1 6th century, the prosperity of the university rendered the city one of the most important in Spain. But in 1593 the establishment of an independent bishopric at Valladolid (then the seat of the court), which had previously been subject to the see of Salamanca, dealt a serious blow to the prestige of the city; and its commerce was shattered by the expulsion of the Moriscos in 1610 and the wars of the 18th and 19th centuries. See Villar y Macias, Historia de Salamanca (3 vols., Salamanca, 1887) ; H. Rashdall, Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, vol. ii. pt. 1. (London, 1895); Lapunya, La Universidad de Salamanca y la cidlura espanola en el siglo XII J. (Paris, 1900). (K. G. J.) Battle of Salamanca, 1812. (For the operations which preceded this battle see Peninsular War.) On the 22nd of July 1812 the Allied army under Wellington (about 46,000 with 60 guns) was drawn up south of Salamanca, the left resting on the river Tormes at Santa Marta, with a division under Pakenham and some cavalry on the north bank at Cabrerizos ; the right near the village of Arapiles and two hills of that name. Wellington's object was to cover Salamanca and guard his communications through Ciudad Rodrigo with Portugal. The French under Marshal Marmont (about 42,000 with 70 guns) were collecting towards Wellington's right, stretching southwards from Calvariza de Ariba. The country generally is undulating, but crossed by some marked ridges and streams. Until the morning of the battle it had been uncertain whether Marmont wished to reach Salamanca by the right or left bank of the Tormes, or to gain the Ciudad Rodrigo road, but Wellington now felt that the latter was his real objective. At daylight there was a rush by both armies for the two commanding hills of the Arapiles; the Allies gained the northern (since termed the " English "), and the French the southern (since termed the " French ") Arapiles. While Marmont was closing up his forces, a complete change of position was carried out by Wellington. Pakenham was directed to march through Salamanca, crossing the Tormes, and move under cover to a wood near Aldea Tejada, while Wellington, holding the village of Arapiles and the northern hill, took up a line with four infantry divisions, a Portuguese brigade (Bradford), a strong force of cavalry, and Don Carlos's Spanish brigade, under cover of a ridge between Arapiles and Aldea Tejada. By noon his old right had become his left, and he was nearer to the Ciudad Rodrigo road, flanking Marmont should he move towards it. Salamanca, Battle of SALAMANCA July xznd, 18x2 English Miles - a 1 2 3 _^ French r*ff Aldea Lcnguk^ Emery Walker sc. Redrawn from Maj.-Gen. C. W. Robinson's Wellington's Campaigns, by permission of Hugh Rees, Ltd. It was not Wellington's wish {Despatches, July 21, 1812) to fight a battle " unless under very advantageous circumstances." He knew that large reinforcements were nearing the French, and, having determined to fall back towards Portugal, he began to pass his baggage along the Ciudad Rodrigo road. Marmont, about 2 p.m., seeing the dust of his baggage column, ignorant of his true position, and anxious to intercept his retreat, ordered two divisions under Maucune, the leading one of which became afterwards Thomieres', 1 to push westward, while he himself attacked Arapiles. Maucune moved off, flanked by some cavalry and fifty guns, leaving a gap between him and the rest of the French. Wellington instantly took advantage of this. Directing Pakenham to attack the head of the leading French division, and a Portuguese brigade (Pack) to occupy the enemy by assaulting the south (or French) Arapiles, he prepared to bear down in strength upon Maucune's right flank. The French attack upon Arapiles was after hard fighting repulsed ; and, at about 5 p.m., Maucune's fori a, when in confusion from the fierce attack of Pakenham and Wellington in front and flank and suffering severely, was suddenly trampled down " with a terrible clamour and dis- turbance " (Napier) by an irresistible charge of LeMarchant's and Anson's cavalry under Sir Stapleton Cotton. This counterstroke decided the battle, Marmont's left wing being completely broken. The French made a gallant but fruitless effort to retrieve the day, and repulsed Pack's attack upon the French Arapiles; but, as the light waned, Clausel, Marmont being wounded, drew off the French army towards Alba de Tormes and retired to Valladolid. Bot> armies lost heavily, the Allies about 6000, the French some 15,000 men, 12 guns 2 eagles and several standards. The rout would have been even more thorough had not the castle and ford at Alba de 1 Some authorities differ as to this (see The Salamanca Campaign, by Captain A. H. Marindin, 1906, appendix, pp. 51-59). S» SALAMANCA— SALAMIS Torrnes been evacuated by its Spanish garrison without Wellington's knowledge. Salamanca was a brilliant victory, and followed as it was by the capture of Madrid, it severely shook the French domination in Spain. (C. W. R.) SALAMANCA, a village in Cattaraugus county, New York, U.S.A., in the township of Salamanca, about 52 m. S. by E. of Buffalo. Pop. (1900), 4251, of whom 789 were foreign- born; (1910, census), 5792. Salamanca is served by the Erie, the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg and the Pennsylvania railways, and by interurban electric lines connecting with Olean, N. Y., Bradford, Pennsylvania, and Little Valley (pop in 1910, 1368), the county-seat, about 8 m. N. The village is built on both sides of the Allegany river. The agricultural and industrial development of the region has been retarded by its being within the Allegany Indian Reservation (allotted originally to the Seneca Indians by the Big Tree Treaty of 1 798 and still including the valley of the Allegany river for several miles above and below Salamanca) ; but land is now held under a 99 year lease authorized by Congress in 1892. The village is a railway centre and division terminal, and has repair shops of the Erie and the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg railways. The first settlement in the district (which was included within the " Holland Purchase" of 1792-1793) was made in 1815 near the site of West Salamanca (pop. in 1910, 530), i§ m. W. of Salamanca, and in the same township. Salamanca (until 1873 known as East Salamanca) was incorporated in 1879, taking its name from the township, which was erected in 1854 as Buck Tooth Township and in 1862 was renamed in honour of a Spanish banker who was a large stockholder of the Atlantic & Great Western railway, built through the township this year, and later merged with the Erie railway. See History of Cattaraugus County, New York (Philadelphia, Pa., 1879). SALAMANDER. Salamanders in the restricted sense (genus Salamandra of N. Laurenti) are close allies of the newts, but of exclusively terrestrial habits, indicated by the shape of the tail, which is not distinctly compressed. The genus is restricted in its habitat to the western parts of the Palaearctic region and represented by four species only: the spotted salamander, 5. maculosa, the well-known black and yellow creature inhabiting Central and Southern Europe, North-West Africa and South- western Asia; the black salamander, S. atra, restricted to the Alps; 5. caucasica from the Caucasus, and 5. luschani from Asia Minor. Salamanders, far from being able to withstand the action of fire, as was believed by the ancients, are only found in damp places, and emerge in misty weather only or after thunderstorms, when they may appear in enormous numbers in localities where at other times their presence would not be suspected. They are usually much dreaded by country people, and Although they are quite harmless to man, the large glands which are disposed very regularly on their smooth, shiny bodies, secrete a very active, milky poison which protects them from the attacks of many enemies. The breeding habits of the two well-known European species are highly interesting. They pair on land, the male clasping the female at the arms, and the impregnation is internal. Long after pairing the female gives birth to living young. 5. maculosa, which fives in plains or at low altitudes (up to 3000 ft.), deposits her young, ten to fifty in number, in the water, in springs or cool rivulets, and these young at birth are of small size, provided with external gills and four limbs, in every way similar to advanced newt larvae. S. atra, on the other hand, inhabits the Alps between 2000 and 9000 ft. altitude. Localities at such altitudes not being, as a rule, suitable for larval life in the water, the young are retained in the uterus, until the completion of the metamorphosis. Only two young, rarely three or four, are born, and they may measure as much as 50 mm. at birth, the mother measuring only 120. The uterine eggs are large and numerous, as in S. maculosa, but as a rule only one fully develops in each uterus, the embryo being nourished on the yolk of the other eggs, which more or less dissolve to form a large mass of nutrient matter. The embryo passes through three stages — (1) still en- closed within the egg and living on its own yolk; (2) free, within the vitelline mass, which is directly swallowed by the mouth; (3) there is no more vitelline mass, but the embryo is possessed of long ex- ternal gills, which serve for an exchange of nutritive fluid through the maternal uterus, these gills functioning in the same way as the chorionic villi of the mammalian egg. Embryos in the second stage, if artificially released from the uterus, are able to live in water, in the same way as similarly developed larvae of S. maculosa. But the uterine gills soon wither and are shed, and are replaced by other gills differing in no respect from those of its congener. Authorities. — -Marie von Chauvin, Zeitschr. Wiss. Zool. xxix. (1877), P- 3 2 4> P- Kammerer, Arch. f. Entwickel. xvii. (1904), p. 1 ; Mme. Phisalix-Picot, Recherches embryologiques, histologiqu.es et physiologiques sur les glandes & venin de la salamandre terrestre (Paris, 1900, 8vo). SALAMIS, an island of Greece in the Saronic Gulf of the Aegean Sea, extending along the coasts of Attica and Megaris, and enclosing the Bay of Eleusis between two narrow straits on the W. and S. Its area is 36 sq. m., its greatest length in any direction 10 m.; its extremely irregular shape gives rise to the modern popular name KouXXoDpi, i.e. baker's crescent. In Homer Salamis was the home of the Aeginetan prince Telamon and his sons Ajax and Teucer, and this tradition is confirmed by the position of the ancient capital of the island opposite Aegina. It subsequently passed into the hands of the Megarians, but was wrested from them about 600 B.C. by the Athenians under Solon (q.v.) and definitely awarded to Athens by Sparta's arbitration. Though Attic tradition claimed Salamis as an ancient possession the island was not strictly Athenian territory; a 6th-century inscription shows that it was treated either as a cleruchy or as a privileged foreign dependency. The town of Salamis was removed to an inlet of the E. coast opposite Attica. In 480 Salamis became the base of the allied Greek fleet after the retreat from Artemisium, while the Persians took their station along the Attic coast off Phalerum. Through the stratagem of the Athenian Themistocles the Greeks were enclosed in the straits by the enemy, who had wheeled by night across the entrance of the E. channel and detached a squadron to block the W. outlet. The Greeks had thus no resource but to fight, while the Persians could not utilize their superior numbers, and as they advanced into the narrow neck of the east strait were thrown into confusion. The allies, among whom the Athenians and Aeginetans were conspicuous, seized this opportunity to make a vigorous attack which probably broke the enemy's line. After waging a losing fight for several hours the Persians retreated with the loss of 200 sail and of an entire corps landed on the islet of Psyttaleia in the channel; the Greeks lost only 40 ships out of more than 300. During the Peloponnesian War Salamis served as a repository for the country stock of Attica. About 350 Salamis obtained the right of issuing copper coins. In 318 Cassander placed in it a Macedonian garrison which was finally withdrawn through the advocacy of the Achaean states- man Aratus (232). The Athenians thereupon supplanted the inhabitants by a cleruchy of their own citizens. By the 2nd century a.d. the settlement had fallen into decay. In modern times Salamis, which is chiefly peopled by Albanians, has regained importance through the transference of the naval arsenal to Ambelaki near the site of the ancient capital. Excavations in this region have revealed large numbers of late Mycenaean tombs. Authorities. — Strabo pp. 383, 393-394; Pausanias i. 35-36; Plutarch, Solon, 8-10; Aeschylus, Persae, 337-471; Herodotus viiL 40-95; Diodorus xi. 15-19; Plutarch, Themistocles, 11-15; W. Goodwin, Papers of the American School of Classical Studies ap Athens, I. p. 237 ff. (Boston, 1885); G. B. Grundy, Great Persian War (London, 1901), ch. ix. ; B. V. Head, Historia numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 328-329; A. Wilhelm in Athenische Mitteilungen (1898), pp. 466-486; W. Judeich, ibid.(l8gg), pp. 321-338; C. Horner, Quaestiones Salaminiae (Basle, 1901); H. Raase, Die Schlacht bei Salamis (Rostock, 1904) ; R. W. Macan, Appendix to Herodotus vii.-ix. (London, 1908) ; J. Beloch in Klio (1908). (M. O. B. C.) SALAMIS, the principal city of ancient Cyprus, situated on the east coast a little north of the river Pedias (Pediaeus). It had a good harbour, well situated for commerce with Phoenicia, Egypt and Cilicia, which was replaced in medieval times by Famagusta (Ammochostos), and is wholly silted now. Its trade was mainly in corn, wine and oil from the midland plain (Mesaoria) , and in salt from the neighbouring lagoons. Tradition- ally, Salamis was founded after the Trojan War (c. 1180 B.C.) by Teucer from Salamis, the island off Attica, but there was an important Mycenaean colony somewhat earlier. The spoils of its tombs excavated in 1896 are in the British Museum. SAL AMMONIAC— SALARIA, VIA 59 A king Kisu of Silna (Salamis) is mentioned in a list of tributaries of Assur-bani-pal of Assyria in 668 B.C., and Assyrian influence is marked in the fine terra-cotta figures from a shrine at Toumba excavated in 1890-189 1. The revolts of Greek Cyprus against Persia in 500 B.C., 386-380 B.C. and 352 B.C. were led respectively by kings Onesilaus, Evagoras (q.v.) and Pnytagoras, who seem to have been the principal Hellenic power in the island. In 306 Demetrius Poliorcetes won a great naval victory here over Ptolemy I. of Egypt. Under Egyptian and Roman administration Salamis flourished greatly, though under the Ptolemaic priest-kings and under Rome the seat of government was at New Paphos (see Paphos). But it was greatly damaged in the Jewish revolt of A.D. 116-117; it also suffered repeatedly from earthquakes, and was wholly rebuilt by Constantius II. under the name Constantia. There was a large Jewish colony in Ptolemaic and early Roman times, and a Christian community founded by Paul and Barnabas in A.D. 45-46. Barnabas was himself a Cypriote, and his reputed tomb, discovered in A.D. 477, is still shown, a little inland, near the monastery of Ai Barnaba. St Epiphanius was archbishop a.d. 367-402. The Greek city was destroyed by the Arabs under the Caliph Moawiya in 647, and does not seem to have revived. In later times the site was plundered for the building of Famagusta; it is now covered by sandhills, and its plan is imperfectly known. The market-place and a few public buildings were excavated in 1890-1891, but nothing of importance was found. See W. H. Engel, Kypros (Berlin, 1841 ; classical allusions) ; J. A. R. Munro and H. A. Tubbs, Journ. Hellenic Studies, xii. 59 ff., 298 ff. (site and monuments) ; British Museum, Excavations in Cyprus (London, 1900; Mycenaean tombs); G. F. Hill, Brit. Mus. Cat. Coins of Cyprus (London, 1904; coins). (J. L. M.) SAL AMMONIAC, 1 or Ammonium Chloride, NH4CI, the earliest known salt of ammonia (q.v.), was formerly much used in dyeing and metallurgic operations. The name Hammoniacus sal occurs in Pliny (Nat. Hist. xxxi. 39), who relates that it was applied to a kind of fossil salt found below the sand, in a district of Cyrenaica. The general opinion is, that the sal ammoniac of the ancients was the same as that of the moderns ; but the imperfect description of Pliny is far from being conclusive. The native sal ammoniac of Bucharia, described by Model and Karsten, and analysed by M. H. Klaproth, has no resemblance to the salt described by Pliny. The same remark applies to the sal ammoniac of volcanoes. Dioscorides (v. 126), in mentioning sal ammoniac, makes use of a phrase quite irreconcilable with the description of Pliny, and rather applicable to rock-salt than to our sal ammoniac. Sal ammoniac, he says, is peculiarly prized if it can be easily split into rectangular fragments. Finally, we have no proof whatever that sal ammoniac occurs at present, either near the temple ot Jupiter Ammon, or in any part of Cyrenaica. Hence we conclude that the term sal ammoniac was applied as indefinitely by the ancients as most of their other chemical terms. It may have been given to the same salt which is known to the moderns by that appellation, but was not confined to it. In any case there can be no doubt that it was well known to the alchemists as early as the 13th century. Albertus Magnus, in his treatise De alchy-mia, informs us that there were two kinds of sal ammoniac, a natural and an artificial. The natural was sometimes white, and sometimes red; the artificial was more useful to the chemist. He does not tell us how it was prepared, but he describes the method of subliming it, which can leave no doubt that it was real sal ammoniac. In the Opera mineralia of Isaac Hollandus the elder, there is likewise a description of the mode of subliming sal ammoniac. Basil Valentine, in his Currus triumphalis antimonii, describes some of the peculiar properties of sal ammoniac in, if possible, a still less equivocal manner. Egypt is the country where sal ammoniac was first manu- factured, and from which Europe for many years was supplied with it. This commerce was first carried on by the Venetians, and afterwards by the Dutch. Nothing was known about the method employed by the Egyptians till the year 1719. In 1716 C. J. Geoffroy read a paper to the French Academy, showing that sal ammoniac must be formed by sublimation; but his opinion was opposed so violently by W. Homberg and N. Lemery, that the paper was not printed. In 1719 D. Lemaire, the French consul at Cairo, sent the Academy an account of the mode of manufacturing sal ammoniac in Egypt. The salt, it appeared, was obtained by simple sublimation from soot. In the year 1760 Linnaeus communicated to the Royal Society a correct detail of the whole process, which he had received from Dr F. Hasselquist, who had travelled in that country as a 1 Some derive the name sal ammoniac from Jupiter Ammon, near whose temple it is alleged to have been found; others, from a district of Cyrenaica called Ammonia. Pliny's derivation is from the sand (S/u/ttos) in which it occurred. naturalist {Phil. Trans., 1760, p. 504). The dung of black cattle, horses, sheep, goats, &c, which contains sal ammoniac ready formed, is collected during the first four months of the year, when the animals feed on the spring grass, a kind of clover. It is dried, and sold to the common people as fuel. The soot from this fuel is carefully collected and sold to the sal ammoniac makers, who work only during the months of March and April, for it is only at that season of the year that the dung is fit for their purpose. The composition of this salt seems to have been first discovered by J. P. Tournefort in 1700. The experiments of C. J. Geoffroy in 1716 and 1723 were still more decisive, and those of H. L. Duhamel de Monceau, in 1735, left no doubt upon the subject. Dr Thomson first pointed out a process by synthesis, which has the advantage of being very simple, and at the same time rigidly accurate, resulting from his observation that when hydrochloric acid gas and ammonia gas are brought in contact with each other, they always combine in equal volumes. The first attempt to manufacture sal ammoniac in Europe was made, about the beginning of the 18th century, by Mr Goodwin, a chemist of London, who appears to have used the mother ley of common salt and putrid urine as ingredients. The first successful manufacture of sal ammoniac in Great Britain was established in Edinburgh about the year 1760. It was first manufactured in France about the same time by A. Baume. Manufactories of it were afterwards established in Germany, Holland and Flanders. It is now obtained from the ammoniacal liquor of gas works by distilling the liquor with milk of lime and passing the ammonia so obtained into hydrochloric acid. The solution of ammonium chloride so obtained is evaporated and the crude ammonium chloride purified by sublimation. The subliming apparatus consists of two parts: (1) a hemispherical stoneware basin placed within a close- fitting iron one, or an enamelled iron basin, and (2) a hemispherical lead or stoneware lid, or dome, cemented on the top of the basin to prevent leakage. The dome has a small aperture in the top which remains open to preclude accumulation of pressure. The carefully dried crystallized salt is pressed into the basin, and, after the lid, has been fitted on, is exposed to a long-lasting moderate heat. The salt volatilizes (mostly in the form of a mixed vapour of the two components, which reunite on cooling), and condenses in the dome in the form of a characteristically fibrous and tough crust. The pure salt has a sharp saline taste and is readily soluble in water. It readily volatilizes, and if moisture be rigorously excluded, it does not dissociate, but in the presence of mere traces of water it dissociates into ammonia and hydrochloric acid (H. B. Baker, Journ. Chent. Soc, 1895, 65, p. 612). ' Sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride, British and United States pharmacopoeiae) as used in medicine is a white crystalline odourless powder having a saline taste. It is soluble in I in 3 of cold water and in I in 50 of 90 % alcohol. It is incompatible with carbonates of the alkalis. The dose is 5 to 20 grs. Ammonium chloride has a different action and therapeutic use from the rest of the ammonium salts. It possesses only slight influence over the heart and respiration, but it has a specific effect on mucous membranes as the elimination of the drug takes place largely through the lungs, where it aids in loosening bronchial secretions. This action renders it of the utmost value in bronchitis and pneumonia with associated bronchitis. The drug may be given in a mixture with glycerine or liquorice to cover the disagreeable taste or it may be used in a spray by means of an atomizer. The inhalation of the fumes of nascent ammonium chloride by filling the room with the gas has been recommended in foetid bronchitis. Though ammonium chloride has certain irritant properties which may disorder the stomach, yet if its mucous mem- brane be depressed and atonic the drug may improve its condition, and it has been used with success in gastric and intestinal catarrhs of a subacute type and is given in doses of 10 grains half an hour before meals in painful dyspepsia due to hyperacidity. It is also an intestinal and hepatic stimulant and a feeble diuretic and dia- phoretic, and has been considered a specific in some forms of neuralgia. SALARIA, VIA, an ancient highroad of Italy, which ran from Rome by Reate and Asculum to Castrum Truentinum (Porto d'Ascoli) on the Adriatic coast, a distance of 151 m. Its first portion must be of early origin, and was the route by which the Sabines came ;to fetch salt from the marshes at the mouth of the Tiber. Of its course through the Apennines considerable remains exist. 6o SALAR JUNG, SIR— SALE, G. See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, iii. 3-38 ; N. Persichetti, Viaggio archeologico sulla Via Sal-aria net Circondario di Cittaducale (Rome, 1893) ; and in Romische Mitteilungen (1903), 276 seq. SALAR JUNG, SIR (1829-1883), Indian statesman of Hyderabad, born in 1829, descendant of a family which had held various appointments, first under the Adil Shahi kings of Bijapur, then under the Delhi emperors and lastly under the Nizams. While he was known to the British as Sir Salar Jung, his personal name was Mir Turab Ali, he was styled by native officials of Hyderabad the Mukhtaru '1-Mulk, and was referred to by the general public as the Nawab Sahib. He succeeded his uncle Suraju '1-Mulk as prime minister in 1853. The condition of the Hyderabad state was at that time a scandal to the rest of India. Salar Jung began by infusing a measure of discipline into the Arab mercenaries, the more valuable part of the Nizam's army, and employing them against the rapacious nobles and bands of robbers who had annihilated the trade of the country. He then constituted courts of justice at Hyderabad, organized the police force, constructed and repaired irrigation works, and established schools. On the outbreak of the Mutiny he supported the British, and although unable to hinder an attack on the residency, he warned the British minister that it was in comtemplation. The attack was repulsed; the Hyderabad contingent remained loyal, and their loyalty served to ensure the tranquillity of the Deccan. Salar Jung took advantage of the preoccupation of the British government with the Mutiny to push his reforms more boldly, and when the Calcutta authorities were again atliberty to consider the condition of affairs his work had been carried far towards completion. During the lifetime of the Nizam Afzulu'd-dowla, Salar Jung was considerably hampered by his master's jealous supervision. When Mir Mahbub Ali, however, succeeded his father in 1869, Salar Jung, at the instance of the British govern- ment, was associated in the regency with the principal noble of the state, the Shamsu '1-Umara or Amir Kabir, and enjoyed an increased authority. In 1876 he visited England with the object of obtaining the restoration of Berar. Although he was un- successful, his personal merits met with full recognition. He died of cholera at Hyderabad on the 8th of February 1883. He was created G. C.S.I, on the 28th of May 1870, and received the honorary degree of D.C.L. from the University of Oxford on the 21st of June 1876. His grandson enjoyed an estate of i486 sq. m., yielding an income of nearly £60,000. See Memoirs of Sir Salar Jung, by his private secretary, Syed Hossain Bilgrami, 1883. SALARY, a payment for services rendered, usually a stipulated sum paid monthly, quarterly, half-yearly or yearly, and for a permanent or lengthy term of employment. It is generally contrasted with " wages," a term applied to weekly or daily payment for manual services. As laid down by Bowen, L. J., In re Shine (1892)) 1 Q.B. 529, " Salary means a definite payment for personal services under some contract and computed by time." The Latin salarium meant originally salt money (Lat. sal, salt), i.e. the sum paid to soldiers for salt. In post-Augustan Latin the word was applied to any allowance, pension or stipend. SALAS, or San Martin de Salas, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Oviedo; on the road from Tineo to Grado, and on a small sub-tributary of the river Narcea. Pop. (1900), 17,147. The official total of the inhabitants includes not only the actual residents in the town, but also the population of the district of Salas, a mountainous region in which coal-mining and agriculture are the principal industries. The products of this region are sent for export to Cudillero, a small harbour on the Bay of Biscay. SALAS BARBADILLO, ALONSO JER6NIM0 DE (c. 1580- 1635), Spanish novelist and playwright, born at Madrid about 1580, and educated at Alcala de Henares and Valladolid. His first work, La Patrona de Madrid restituida (1609), is a dull devout poem, which forms a strange prelude to La Hija de Celestina (161 2), a malicious transcription of picaresque scenes reprinted under the title of La Ingeniosa Elena. This was followed by a series of similar tales and plays, the best of which are El Cavallero puntual (1614), La Casa de placer honesto (1620), Don Diego de Noche (1623) and a most sparkling satirical volume of character-sketches, El Curioso y iabio Alexandro (1634). He died in poverty at Madrid on the 10th of July 1635. Some oi his works were translated into English and French, and Scarron's Hypocrites is based on La Ingeniosa Elena; he deserved the vogue which he enjoyed till late in the 17th century, for his satirical humour, versatile invention and pointed style are an effective combination. SALDANHA BAY, an inlet on the south-western coast of South Africa, 63 m. by sea N. by W. of Cape Town, forming a land-locked harbour. The northern part of the inlet is known as Hoetjes Bay. It has accommodation for a large fleet with deep water close inshore, but the arid nature of the country caused it to be neglected by the early navigators, and with the growth of Cape Town Saldanha Bay was rarely visited. Considerable deposits of freestone in the neighbourhood attracted attention during the later 19th century. • Proposals were also made to create a port which could be supplied by water from the Berg river, 20 m. distant. From Kalabas Kraal on the Cape Town- Clanwilliam railway, a narrow gauge line runs via Hopefield to Hoetjes Bay — 126 m. from Cape Town. Saldanha Bay is so named after Antonio de Saldanha, captain of a vessel in Albuquerque's fleet which visited South Africa in 1503. The name was first given to Table Bay, where Saldanha's ship cast anchor. On Table Bay being given its present name (1601) the older appellation was transferred to the bay now called after Saldanha. In 1 781 a British squadron under Commodore George Johnstone I 73 I ~ l 7^7) seized six Dutch East Indiamen, which, fearing an attack on Cape Town, had taken refuge in Saldanha Bay. This was the only achievement, so far as South Africa was concerned, of the expedition despatched to seize Cape Town during the war of 1781- 1783. SALDERN, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH VON (1719-1785), Prussian soldier and military writer, entered the army in 1735, and (on account of his great stature) was transferred to the Guards in 1739. As one of Frederick's aides-de : camp he was the first to discover the approach of Neipperg's Austrians at Mollwitz. He commanded a guard battalion at Leuthen, again distinguished himself at Hochkirch and was promoted major- general. In 1760 at Liegnitz Frederick gave him four hours in which to collect, arrange and despatch the spoils of the battle, 6000 prisoners, 100 wagons, 82 guns and 5000 muskets. His complete success made him a marked man even in Frederick's army. At Torgau, Saldern and Mollendorf (q.v.) with their brigades converted a lost battle into a great victory by their desperate assault on the Siptitz Heights. The manoeuvring skill, as well as the iron resolution, of the attack, has excited the wonder of modern critics, and after Torgau Saldern was accounted the " completest general of infantry alive " (Carlyle). In the following winter, however, being ordered by Frederick to sack Hubertusburg, Saldern refused on the ground of conscience. Nothing was left for him but to retire, but Frederick was well aware that he needed Saldern's experience and organizing ability, and after the peace the general was at once made inspector of the troops at Magdeburg. In 1766 he became lieutenant- general. The remainder of his life was spent in the study of military sciences in which he became a pedant of the most pronounced type. In one of his works he discussed at great length the question between 76 and 75 paces to the minute as the proper cadence of infantry. There can be no question that " Saldern-tactics " were the most extreme form of pedantry to which troops were ever subjected, and contributed powerfully to the disaster of Jena in 1806. His works included Taktik der Infanterie (Dresden, 1784) and Taktische Grundsatze (Dresden, 1786), and were the basis of the British " Dundas " drill-book. See Kuster, Charakterzilge des Generalleutenants von Saldern (Berlin, 1792). SALE, GEORGE (c. 1697-1736), English orientalist, was the son of a London merchant. In 1720 he was admitted a student of the Inner Temple, but subsequently practised as a solicitor. Having studied Arabic for some time in England, he became, in 1726, one of the correctors of the Arabic version of the New Testament, begun in 1720 by the Society for Promoting Christian .Knowledge, and subsequently took the principal part in the SALE, SIR R. H.— SALEM 6 1 work. He made an extremely paraphrastic, but, for his time, admirable English translation of the Koran (1734 and often reprinted), and had a European reputation as an orientalist. He died on the 13th of November 1736. His collection of oriental manuscripts is now in the Bodleian library, Oxford. SALE, SIR ROBERT HENRY (1782-1845), British soldier, entered the 36th Foot in 1795, and went to India in 1798, as a lieutenant of the 12th Foot. His regiment formed part of Baird's brigade of Harris's army operating against Tippoo Sahib, and Sale was present at Mallavelly (Mallawalli) and Seringapatam, subsequently serving under Colonel Arthur Wellesley in the campaign against Dhundia. A little later the 1 2th was employed in the difficult and laborious attack on Paichi Raja. Promoted captain in 1806, Sale was engaged in 1808-1809 against the Raja of Travancore, and was at the two actions of Quilon, the storm of Travancore lines and the battle of Killianore. In 1810 he accompanied the expedition to Mauritius, and in 1813 obtained his majority. After some years he became major in the 13th, with which regiment he was for the rest of his life associated. In the Burmese War he led the 13th in all the actions up to the capture of Rangoon, in one of which he killed the enemy's leader in single combat. In the concluding operations of the war, being now lieutenant-colonel, he commanded a brigade, and at Malown (1826) he was severely wounded. For these services he received the C.B. In 1838, on the outbreak of the Afghan War, Brevet-Colonel Sale was assigned to the command of the 1 st Bengal brigade of the army assembling on the Indus. His column arrived at Kandahar in April 1839, and in May it occupied the Herat plain. The Kandahar force next set out on its march to Kabul, and a month later Ghazni was stormed, Sale in person leading the storming column and distinguishing himself in single combat. The place was well provisioned, and on its supplies the army finished its march to Kabul easily. For his services Sale was made K.C.B. and received the local rank of major-general, as well as the Shah's order of the Duranee Empire. He was left, as second-in-command, with the army of occupation, and in the interval between the two wars conducted several small campaigns ending with the action of Parwan which led directly to the surrender of Dost Mahommed. By this time the army had settled down to the quiet life of canton- ments, and Lady Sale and her daughter came to Kabul. But the policy of the Indian government in stopping the subsidy to the frontier tribes roused them into hostility, and Sale's brigade received orders to clear the line of communication to Peshawar. After severe fighting Sale entered Jalalabad on the 12th of November 1841. Ten days previously he had received news of the murder of Sir Alexander Burnes, along with orders to return with all speed to Kabul. These orders he, for various reasons, decided to ignore; suppressing his personal desire to return to protect his wife and family, he gave orders to push on, and on occupying Jalalabad at once set about making the old and half- ruined fortress fit to stand a siege. There followed a close and severe investment rather than a siege, and the garrison's sorties were made usually with the object of obtaining supplies. At last Pollock and the relieving army appeared, only to find that the garrison had on the 7th of April 1842 relieved itself by a brilliant and completely successful attack on Akbar's lines. Sir Robert Sale received the G.C.B.; a medal was struck for all ranks of defenders, and salutes fired at every large canton- ment in India. Pollock and Sale after a time took the offensive, and after the victory of Haft Kotal, Sale's division encamped at Kabul again. At the end of the war Sale received the thanks of parliament. In 1845, as quartermaster-general to Sir H. Gough's army, Sale again took the field. At Moodkee (Mudki) he was mortally wounded, and he died on the 21st of December 1845. His wife, who shared with him the dangers and hardships of the Afghan war, was amongst Akbar's captives. Amongst the few possessions she was able to keep from Afghan plunderers was her diary (Journal of the Disasters in Afghanistan, London, 1843). See Gleig, Sale's Brigade in Afghanistan (London, 1846); Kaye, Lives of Indian O/fcers (London, 1867); W. Sale, Defence of Jellalabad (London, 1846) ; Regimental History of the 13th Light Infantrv. SALE, a town of Tanjil county, Victoria, Australia, the principal centre in the agricultural Gippsland district, on the river Thomson, 127^ m. by rail E.S.E. of Melbourne. Pop. (i90i),3462. It is the seat of the Anglican bishop of Gippsland, and contains the cathedral of the Roman Catholic bishop of Sale. Attached to its mechanics' institute are schools of mines, art and technology, and a fine free library. The finest buildings, excluding a number of handsome churches, are the Victoria Hall and the convent of Notre Dame de Sion. The Agricultural Society has excellent show grounds, in which meetings are annually held. Sale is the head of the Gippsland lakes naviga- tion, the shipping being brought from the lakes to the town by canal. Daily communication is maintained with Cunningham at the lakes' entrance, and ocean-going steamers ply frequently between Sale and Melbourne. SALE, an urban district in the Altrincham parliamentary division of Cheshire, England, 5 m. S.W. of Manchester. Pop. (1901), 12,088. It is served by the Manchester, South Junction & Altrincham and the London & North-Western railways, and the Cheshire Lines, and has become a large residential suburb of Manchester. At the beginning of the 19th century the greater part of the township was still waste and unenclosed. There are numerous handsome villas. Market gardening is carried on in the neighbourhood ; and there are large botanical gardens. SALEM, a city and district of British India, in the Madras presidency. The city is on both banks of the river Tirumani- muttar, 3 m. from a station on the Madras railway, 206 m. S.W. of Madras city. Pop. (1901), 70,621. There is a considerable weaving industry and some manufacture of cutlery. Its situa- tion in a green valley between the Shevaroy and Jarugumalai hills is picturesque. The District of Salem has an area of 7530 sq. m. Except towards the south it is hilly, with extensive plains- lying between the several ranges. It consists of three distinct tracts, formerly known as the Talaghat, the Baramahal and the Balaghat. The Talaghat is situated below the Eastern Ghats on the level of the Carnatic generally; the Baramahal includes the whole face of the Ghats and a wide piece of country at their base; and the Balaghat is situated above the Ghats on the tableland of Mysore. The western part of the district is mountainous. Amongst the chief ranges (5000-6000 ft.) are the Shevaroys, the Kalrayans, the Melagiris, the Kollimalais, the Pachamalais and the Yelagiris. The chief rivers are the Cauvery with its numerous tributaries, and the Ponniar and Palar; the last, however, only flows through a few miles of the north-western corner of the district. The forests are of considerable value. The geological structure of the district is mostly gneissic, with a few irruptive rocks in the form of trap dikes and granite veins. Magnetic iron ore is common in the hill regions, and corundum and chromate of iron are also obtainable. The qualities of the soil differ very much ; in the country immediately surrounding the town of Salem a thin layer of calcareous and red loam generally prevails, through which quartz rocks appear on the surface in many places. The climate, owing to the great difference of elevation, varies considerably ; on the hills it is cool and bracing, and for a great part of the year very salubrious; the annual rainfall averages about 32 in. The population in 1901 was 2,204,974, showing an increase of 1 2 % in the decade. The principal crops are millets,, rice, other food grains and oil-seeds, with a little cotton, indigo and tobacco. Coffee is grown on the Shevaroy hills. The chief irrigation work is the Barur tank system. Salem suffered severely from the famine of 1877-1878. The Madras railway runs through the district, with two narrow-gauge branches. The chief industry is cotton-weaving, and there is some manufacture of steel from magnetic iron ore. There are many saltpetre refineries, but no large industries. The district was acquired partly by the treaty of peace with Tippoo Sultan in 1792 and partly by the partition treaty of Mysore in 1799. By the former the Talaghat and Baramahal were ceded, and by the latter the Balaghat or what is now the Hosur taluk. SALEM, a city and one of the county-seats (Lawrence is the other) of Essex county, Massachusetts, about 15 m. N.E. of Boston. Pop. (1900), 35,956, of whom 10,902 were foreign-born (including 4003 French Canadians, 3476 Irish, and 1585 English 62 SaLEM Canadians), 23,038 were of foreign parentage (one or the other parent foreign-born) and 156 were negroes; (1910), 43,697. Area, 8-2 sq. m. Salem is served by the Boston & Maine and by interurban electric railways westward to Peabody, Danvers and Lawrence, eastward to Beverly, and southward to Marblehead, Swampscott, Lynn and Boston. It occupies a peninsula projecting toward the north-east, a small island (Winter Island) connected with the neck of the peninsula (Salem Neck) by a causeway, and some land on the mainland. Salem has many historical and literary landmarks. There are three court-houses, one of granite (1839-1841) with great monolithic Corinthian pillars, another (1862), adjoining it, of brick, and a third (1908-1909) of granite, for the probate court. The City Hall was built in 1837, and enlarged in 1876. The Custom House (1818-1819) is described in the introduction to Hawthorne's Scarlet Letter, and in it Hawthorne worked as surveyor of the port in 1845-1849. The public library building (1888) was given to the city by the heirs of Captain John Bertram. The Essex Institute (1848) is housed in a brick building (1851) with freestone trimmings and in old Plummer Hall (1857); its museum contains some old furniture and a collection of portraits ; it has an excellent library and publishes quarterly (1859 sqq.) Historical Collections. The Peabody Academy of Science, founded by the gift in 1867 of $140,000 from George Peabody and incorporated in 1868, is established in the East India Marine Hall (1824), bought for this Eurpose from the Salem East India Marine Society. The Marine ociety was organized in 1799, its membership being limited to " persons who have actually navigated the seas beyond the Cape of Good Hope or Cape Horn, as masters or supercargoes of vessels belonging to Salem " ; it assists the widows and children of members. Its museum, like the ethnological and natural history collection of the Essex Institute, was bought by the Peabody Academy of Science, whose museum now includes Essex county collections (natural history, mineralogy, botany, prehistoric relics, &c), type collections of minerals and fossils; implements, dress, &c. of primitive peoples, especially rich in objects from Malaysia, Japan and the South Seas; and portraits and relics of famous Salem merchants, with models and pictures of Salem merchant vessels. The Salem Athenaeum (1810), the successor of a Social Library (1760) and a Philosophical Library (1781) is housed in Plummer Hall (1908), a building in the southern Colonial style, named in honour of a benefactor of the Athenaeum, Caroline Plummer (d. 1855), who endowed the Plummer Professorship of Christian Morals at Harvard. Some of the old houses were built by ship-owners before the War of Independence, and more were built during the first years of the 19th century when Salem privateersmen made so many fortunes. Many of the finest old houses are of the gambrel type ; and there are many beautiful doorways, doorheads and other details. Nathaniel Hawthorne's birthplace was built before 1692; another house — now recon- structed and used as a social settlement — is pointed out as the original " house of seven gables." The Corwin or "Witch" house, so called from a tradition that Jonathan Corwin, one of the judges in the witchcraft trials, held preliminary examinations of witches here, is said to have been the property of Roger Williams. The Pickering house, built before 1660, was the homestead of Timothy Pickering and of other members of that family. Among the other buildings and institutions are Hamilton Hall (1805); the Franklin Building (1861) of the Salem Marine Society; a large armoury; a state normal school (1854); an orphan asylum (1871), under the Sisters of the Grey Nuns ; the Association for the Relief of Aged and Destitute Women (i860), occupying a fine old brick house formerly the home of Benjamin W. Crowninshield (1772-1851), a member of the national House of Representatives in 1824-1831 and Secretary of the Navy in 1814; the Bertram Home for Aged Men (1877) in a house built in 1806-1807; the Plummer Farm School for Boys (incorporated 1855, opened 1870), another charity of Caroline Plummer, on Winter Island; the City Almshouse (1816) and the City Insane Asylum (1884) on Salem Neck; a home for girls (1876); the Fraternity (1869), a club-house for boys; the Marine Society Bethel and the Salem Seamen's Betlrel; the Seamen's Orphan and Children's Friend Society (1839); an Associated Charities (1901), and the Salem Hospital (1873). Among the Church organizations are: the First (Unitarian; originally Trinitarian Congregational), which dates from 1629 and was the first Congregational church organized in America ; the Second or East Church (Unitarian) organized in 1718; the North Church (Unitarian), which separated from the First in 1772; the Third or Tabernacle (Congregational), organized in 1735 from the First Church; the South (Congregational), which separated from the Third in 1774; several Baptist churches; a Quaker society, with a brick_ meeting-house (1832); St Peter's, the oldest Episcopalian church in Salem, with a building of English Gothic erected in 1833, and Grace Church (1858). Washington Square or the Common (8 acres) is in the centre of the city. The Willows is a 30-acre park on the Neck shore, and in North Salem is Liberty Hill, another park. On a bluff projecting into South river is the old " Burying Point," set apart in 1637, and the oldest cemetery in the city; its oldest stone is dated 1673; here are buried Governor Simon Bradstreet, Chief-Justice Benjamin Lynde (1666-1745) and Judge John Hathorne (1641-1717) of the witch- craft court. The Broad Street Burial Ground was laid out in 1655. On Salem Neck is Fort Lee and on Winter Island is Fort Pickering (on the site of a fort built in 1643), near which is the Winter Island Lighthouse. The main trade of Salem is along the coast, principally in the transhipment of coal; and the historic Crowninshield's or India wharf is now a great coal pocket. The harbour is not deep enough for ocean-going vessels, and manufacturing is the most important industry. In 1905 the total value of the factory products Was $12,202,217 (13.9% more than in 1900), and the principal manu- factures were boots and shoes and leather. The largest single establishment is the Naumkeag Steam Cotton Company, which has 2800 looms and about 1500 mill-hands. Another large factory is that of the silversmiths, Daniel Low & Co. History. — Salem was settled in 1626 by Roger Conant (1593- 1679) and a company of " planters," who in 1624 (under the Sheffield patent of 1623 for a settlement on the north shore of Massachusetts Bay) had attempted a plantation at Cape Ann, whither John Lyford and others had previously come from Plymouth through " dissatisfaction with the extreme separation from the English church." Conant was not a separatist, and the Salem settlement was a commercial venture, partly agri- cultural and partly to provide a wintering place for Banks fishermen so that they might more quickly make their spring catch. Cape Ann was too bleak, but Naumkeag was a " pleasant and fruitful neck of land," which they named Salem in June 1629, probably in allusion to Psalm lxxvi. 2. In 1628 a patent for the territory was granted by the New England Council to the Dorchester Company, in which the Rev. John White of Dor- chester, England, was conspicuous, and which in the same year sent out a small company under John Endecott as governor. Under the charter for the Colony of Massachusetts Bay (1629), which superseded the Dorchester Company patent, Endecott continued as governor until the arrival in 1630 of John Winthrop, who soon removed the seat of government from Salem first to Charlestown and then to Boston. In July or August 1629 the first Congregational Church (see Congrega- tionalism, § American) in America was organized here; its "teacher" in 1631 and 1633 and its pastor in 1634-1635 was Roger Williams, a close friend of Governor Endecott and always popular in Salem, who in 1635 Aed thence to Rhode Island to escape arrest by the officials of Massachusetts Bay. In 1686, fearing that they might be dispossessed by a new charter, the people of Salem for £20 secured a deed from the Indians to the land they then held. Although not strictly Puritan the character of Salem was not essentially different from that of the other Massachusetts towns. The witchcraft delusion of 1692 centred about Salem Village, now in the township of Danvers, but then a part of Salem. Ten girls, aged nine to seventeen years, two of them house servants, met during the winter of 1691-1692 in the home of Samuel Parris, pastor of the Salem Village church, and after learning palmistry and various " magic " tricks from Parris's West Indian slave, Tituba, and influenced doubtless by current talk about witches, accused Tituba and two old women of bewitching them. The excitement spread rapidly, many more were accused, and, within four months, hundreds were arrested, and many were tried before commissioners of oyer and terminer (appointed On the 27th of May 1692, including Samuel Sewall, q.v., of Boston, and three inhabitants of Salem, one being Jonathan Corwin); nineteen were hanged, 1 and one was pressed to death in September for refusing to plead when he was accused. All these trials were conducted in accordance with the English law of the time; there had been an execution for witchcraft at Charlestown in 1648; there was a case in Boston in 1655; in J 68o a woman of Newbury was condemned to death for witchcraft but was reprieved by Governor Simon Bradstreet; in England and Scotland there were many executions long after the Salem delusion died out. The reaction came suddenly in Salem, and in May 1693 Governor William Phips ordered 1 There is nothing but tradition to identify the place of execution with what is now called Gallows Hill, between Salem and Peabody. SALEM— SALE OF GOODS 63 :he release from prison of all then held on the charge of witchcraft. Salem was an important port after 1670, especially in the India trade, and Salem privateers did great damage in the Seven Years' War, in the War of Independence (when 158 Salem privateers took 445 prizes), and in the War of 1812. On this foreign trade and these rich periods of privateering the prosperity of the place up to the middle of the 19th century was built. The First Provincial Assembly of Massachusetts met in Salem in 1774. On the 20th of February 1775 at the North Bridge (between the present Salem and Danvers) the first armed resist- ance was offered to the royal troops, when Colonel Leslie with the 64th regiment, sent to find cannon hidden in the Salem " North Fields," was held in check by the townspeople. Salem was the birthplace of Nathaniel Hawthorne, W. H. Prescott, Nathaniel Bowditch, Jones Very and W. W. Story. Marblehead was separated from Salem township in 1040-, Beverly in 1668, a part of Middleton in '1728, and the district of Danvers in 1752. Salem was chartered as a city in 1836. See Charles S. Osgood and Henry M . Batchelder, Historical Sketch of Salem, 1626-187Q (Salem, 1879); Joseph B. Felt, Annals of Salem (ibid., 1827; 2nd ed., 2 vols., 1845-1849); Charles W. Upham, Salem Witchcraft (2 vols., Boston, 1867); H. B. Adams, Village Communities of Cape Ann and Salem (Baltimore, 1883); Eleanor Putnam (the pen-name of Mrs Arlo Bates), OldSalem (Boston, 1886); C. H. Webber and W. S. Nevins, Old Naumkeag (Salem, 1877) ; R. D. Paine, Ships and Sailors of Old Salem (New York, 1909) , and Visitor's Guide to Salem (Salem, 1902) published by the Essex Institute. SALEM, a city and the county-seat of Salem county, New Jersey, U.S.A., in the S.W. part of the state, on Salem Creek, about 38 m. S.W. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1900), 581 1, of whom 263 were foreign-born and 809 were negroes; (1910 U.S. census), 6614. It is served by the West Jersey & Seashore railroad, and has steamer connexion with Philadelphia. Among its institutions is the John Tyler Library, established as Salem Library in 1804 and said to be the third oldest public library in the state. In Finn's Point National Cemetery, about 4 m. N. of Salem, there are buried some 2460 Confederate soldiers, who died during the Civil War while prisoners of war at Fort Delaware, on an island in Delaware river nearly opposite the mouth of Salem Creek. Salem lies in a rich agricultural region. Among the city's manufactures are canned fruits and vegetables, condiments, glass-ware, brass and iron-work, hosiery, linoleum and oil-cloth. Near the present site in 1643 colonists from Sweden built Fort Elfsborg; but the Swedish settlers in 1655 submitted to the Dutch at New Amsterdam, and the latter in turn surrendered to the English in 1664. In 1675 John Fenwicke, an English Quaker, entered the Delaware river and founded the first permanent English settlement on the Delaware (which he called Salem). After purchasing lands from the Indians, Fenwicke attempted to maintain an independent government, but in 1682 he submitted to the authority of the proprietors of West Jersey. During the War of Independence Salem was plundered on the 17th of March 1778 by British troops under Colonel Charles Mawhood, and on the following day a portion of these troops fought a sharp but indecisive engagement at Quinton's Bridge, 3 m. S. of the town, with American militia under Colonel Benjamin Holmes. Salem was incorporated as a town in 1695, and was chartered as a city in 1858. SALEM, a city of Columbiana county, Ohio, U.S.A., 67 m. N.W. of Pittsburg and about the same distance S.E. of Cleveland. Pop. (1900), 7582, including 667 foreign-born and 227 negroes; ( 1 9 1 o) 8943 . Salem is served by the Pennsylvania (the Pittsburg, Fort Wayne & Chicago division) and the Youngstown & Ohio River railways, and by an interurban electric line to Canton. The city has a Carnegie library (1896), two beautiful cemeteries, a park, and a Home for Aged Women. It is situated in a fine agricultural region; coal is mined in the vicinity; natural gas is obtained in abundance; and the city has various manu- factures. It was settled by Friends in 1806, incorporated as a town in 1830 and as a village in 1852, and chartered as a city in 1887. For several years preceding the Civil War it was a station on the " underground railway " and the headquarters of " the Western Anti-Slavery Society," which published here the Anti- Slavery Bugle. SALEM, the capital of Oregon, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Marion county, on the east bank of the Willamette river, 52 m. S.S.W. of Portland. Pop. (1900), '4258, including 522 foreign- born; (1910) 14,094. It is served by the Southern Pacific railway, by the Oregon Electric line (to Portland), and by a steamship line to Portland. The city is in the centre of the Willamette Valley, a rich farming and fruit-growing country. It has wide, well- shaded streets, and two public parks. Among the public buildings and institutions are the State Capitol, the State Library, a city public library, the county court-house, the Federal building, the state penitentiary and several charitable institutions. Salem is the seat of Willamette University (Methodist Episcopal, 1844), an outgrowth of the mission work of the Methodist Episcopal church begun in 1834 about 10 m. below the site of the present city; of the Academy of the Sacred Heart (Roman Catholic, i860) and of two business colleges. Immediately north of the city at Chemawa is the Salem (non-reservation) government school for Indians, with an excellently equipped hospital. Water power is derived (in part, by an 18 m. canal) from the Santiam, an affluent of the Willamette river. The city is a market for the produce of the Willamette Valley. The settlement here, gathering about the Methodist mission and school, began to grow in the decade 1840-1850. Salem was chartered as a city in 1853, and in i860 was made the capital of the state. It grew rapidly after 1900, and its territory was increased in 1903. SALEM, a town and the county-seat (since 1838) of Roanoke county, Virginia, U.S.A., on the Roanoke river, about 60 m. W. by S. of Lynchburg. Pop. (1900), 3412, including 798 negroes; (1910) 3849. It is served by the Norfolk & Western and the Virginian railways, and has electric railway connexion with Roanoke, about 6 m. E. The town is a summer resort about 1000 ft. above the sea, surrounded by the Alleghany and Blue Ridge mountains. There are chalybeate and sulphur springs in the vicinity. Salem is the seat of a Lutheran Orphan Home (1888), of the Baptist Orphanage of Virginia (1892) and of Roanoke College (co-educational; Lutheran; chartered, 1853). The town is in a dairying, agricultural and fruit-growing region. The Roanoke river provides water-power. The water supply is obtained from a spring within the town limits, from which there flows about 576,000 gallons a day, and from an artesian well. This part of Roanoke county was granted in 1767 to General Andrew Lewis, to whom there is a monument in East Hill Cemetery, where he is buried. Salem, laid out in 1802, was incorporated as a town in 1813. SALE OF GOODS. Sale (O.Eng. sola, sellan, syllan, to hand over, deliver) is commonly defined as the transfer of property from one person to another for a price. This definition requires some consideration in order to appreciate its full scope., The law of sale is usually treated as a branch of the law of contract, because sale is effected by contract. Thus Pothier entitles his classical treatise on the subject, Traite du contrat de vente, and the Indian Contract Act (ix. of 1872) devotes a chapter to the sale of goods. But a completed contract of sale is something more. It is a contract plus a transfer of property. An agreement to sell or buy a thing, or, as lawyers call it, an executory contract of sale, is a contract pure and simple. A purely personal bond arises thereby between seller and buyer. But a complete or executed contract of sale effects a transfer of ownership with all the advantages and risks incident thereto. By an agreement to sell a. jus in personam is created; by a sale a, jus in rem is trans- ferred. The essence of sale is the transfer of property for a price. If there be no agreement for a price, express or implied, the transaction is gift, not sale, and is regulated by its own peculiar rules and considerations. So, too, if commodity be exchanged for commodity, the transaction is called barter and not sale, and the rules relating to sales do not apply in their entirety. Again, a contract of sale must comtemplate an absolute transier of the property in the thing sold or agreed to be sold. A mortgage may be in the form of a conditional sale, but English law regards the 6 4 SALE OF GOODS The Code of 1893. substance and not the form of the transaction. If in substance the object of the transaction is to secure the repayment of a debt, and not to transfer the absolute property in the thing sold, the law at once annexes to the transaction the complex consequences which attach to a mortgage. So, too, it is not always easy to distinguish a contract for the sale of an article from a contract for the supply of work and materials. If a man orders a set of false teeth from a dentist the contract is one of sale, but if he employs a dentist to stop one of his teeth with gold the contract is for the supply of work and materials. The distinction is of practical importance, because very different rules of law apply to the two classes of contract. The property which may be the subject of sale may be either movable or immovable, tangible or intangible. The present article relates only to the sale of goods — that is to say, tangible movable property. By the laws of all nations the alienation of land or real property is, on grounds of public policy, subject to special regulations. It is obvious that the assignment of " things in action," such as debts, contracts and negotiable instruments, must be governed by very different principles from those which regulate the transfer of goods, when the object sold can be transferred into the physical possession of the transferee. In 1847, when Mr Justice Story wrote his work on the sale of personal property, the law of sale was still in process of development. Many rules were still unsettled, especially the rules re- lating to implied conditions and warranties. But for several years the main principles have been well settled. In 1891 the subject seemed ripe for codification, and Lord Herschell introduced a codifying bill which two years later passed into law as the Sale of Goods Act, 1893 (56 & 57 Vict. c. 71). Sale is a consen- sual contract. The parties to the contract may supplement it with any stipulations or conditions they may see fit to agree to. The code in no wise seeks to fetter this discretion. It lays down a few positive rules — such, for instance, as that which reproduces the 17th section of the Statute of Frauds. But the main object of the act is to provide clear rules for those cases where the parties have either formed no intention or have failed to express it. When parties enter into a contract they contemplate its smooth performance, and they seldom provide for contingencies which may interrupt that performance — such as the insolvency of the buyer or the destruction of the thing sold before it is delivered. It is the province of the code to provide for these contingencies, leaving the parties free to modify by express stipulation the provisions imported by law. When the code was in contemplation the case of Scotland gave rise to difficulty. Scottish law varies widely from English. To speak broadly, the Scottish law of sale differs from the English by adhering to the rules of Roman law, while the English common law has worked out rules of its own. Where two countries are so closely connected in business as Scotland and England, it is obviously inconvenient that their laws relating to commercial matters should differ. The Mercantile Law Commission of 1855 reported on this question, and recommended that on certain points the Scottish rule should be adopted in England, while on other points the English rule should be adopted in Scotland. The recommendations of the Commission were partially and rather capriciously adopted in the English and Scottish Mercantile Law Amendment Acts of 1 856. Certain rules were enacted for England which resembled but did not really reproduce the Scottish law, while other rules were enacted for Scotland which resembled but did not really reproduce the English law. There the matter rested for many years. The Codifying Bill of 1891 applied only "to England, but on the advice of Lord Watson it was extended to Scotland. As the English and Irish laws of sale were the same, the case of Ireland gave rise to no difficulty, and the act now applies to the whole of the United Kingdom. As regards England and Ireland very little change in the law has been effected. As regards Scotland the process of assimilation has been carried further, but has not been completed. In a few cases the Scottish rule has been saved or re- enacted, in a few other cases it has been modified, while on other points, where the laws were dissimilar, the English rules have been adopted. Now that the law has been codified, an analysis of the law resolves itself into an epitome of the main provisions of the statute. The act is divided into six parts, the first dealing with the formation of the contract, the second with the effects of the contract, the third with the performance of the contract, the fourth with the rights of an unpaid seller against the goods, and the fifth with remedies for breach of contract, the sixth part is supplemental. The 1st section, which ftiay be regarded as the keystone of the act, is in the following terms: "A contract of sale of goods is a contract whereby the seller transfers or agrees to transfer the property in goods to the buyer lot a money consideration called the price. A contract of sale may be absolute or conditional. When under a contract of sale the property in the goods is transferred from the seller to the buyer the contract is called a ' sale,' but when the transfer of the property in the goods is to take place at a future time or subject to some condition thereafter to be fulfilled the contract is called an ' agree- ment to sell.' An agreement to sell becomes a sale when the time elapses or the conditions are fulfilled subject to which the property in the goods is to be transferred." This section clearly enunciates the consensual nature of the contract, and this is confirmed by section 55, which provides that " where any right, duty or liability would arise under a contract of sale by implication of law," it may be negatived or varied by express agreement, or by the course of dealing between the parties, or by usage, if the usage be such as to bind both parties to the contract. The next question is who can sell and buy. The act is framed on the plan that if the law of contract were codified, this act would form a chapter in the code. The question of capacity is therefore referred to the general law, but a special provision is inserted (section 2) relating to the supply of necessaries to infants and other persons who are incompetent to contract. Though an infant cannot contract he must live, and he can only get goods by paying for them. The law, therefore, provides that he is liable to pay a reasonable price for necessaries supplied to him, and it defines necessaries as " goods suitable to the condition in life of such minor or other person, and to his actual requirements at the time of the sale and delivery." The 4th section of the act reproduces the famous 17th section of the Statute of Frauds, which was an act " for the prevention of frauds and perjuries." The object of that statute Was to prevent people from setting up bogus contracts of sale by requiring material evidence of the contract. The section provides that " a contract tor the sale of any goods of the value of ten pounds or upwards shall not be enforceable by action unless the buyer shall accept part of the goods so sold, and actually receive the same, or give something in earnest to bind the contract, or in part payment, or unless some note or memorandum in writing of the contract be made and signed by the party to be charged, or his agent in that behalf." It is a much disputed question whether this enactment has done more good or harm. It has defeated many an honest claim, though it may have prevented many a dishonest one from being put forward. When judges and juries have been satisfied of the bona fides of a contract which does not appear to satisfy the statute, they have done their best to get round it. Every expression in the section has been the subject of numerous judicial decisions, which ran into almost impossible refinements, and illustrate the maxim that hard cases make bad law. It is to be noted that Scotland is excluded from the operation of section 4. The Statute of Frauds has never been applied to Scotland; and Scotsmen appear never to have felt the want of it. As regards the subject-matter of the contract, the act provides that it may consist either of existing goods or " future goods " — that is to say, goods to be manufactured or acquired by the seller after the making of the contract (§ §). Suppose that a man goes into a gunsmith's shop and says, " This gun suits me, and if you will make or get me another like it I will buy the pair." This is a good contract, and no question as to its validity would be likely to occur to the lay mind. But lawyers have seriously raised the question, whether there could be a valid contract of sale when the subject-matter of the contract was not in existence at the time when the contract was made. The price is an essential element in a contract of sale. It may be either fixed by the contract itself, or left to be determined in some manner thereby agreed upon, e.g. by the award of a third party. But there are many cases in which the parties intend to effect a sale, and yet say nothing about the price. Suppose that a man goes into a hotel and orders dinner without asking the price. How is it to be fixed ? The law steps in and says that, in the absence of any agree- ment, a reasonable price must be paid (§ 8). This prevents ex- tortion on the part of the seller, and unreasonableness or fraud on the part of the buyer. The next question dealt with is the difficult one of conditions and warranties (§§ 10 and 11). The parties may insert what stipulations they like in a contract of sale, but the law has to interpret them. The term" warranty "has a peculiar and technical Warr anty. meaning in the law of sale. It denotes a stipulation which the law regards as collateral to the main purpose of the contract. A breach, therefore, does not entitle the buyer to reject the goods, but only to claim damages. Suppose that a man buys a particular horse, which is warranted quiet to ride and drive. If the horse turns out to be vicious, the buyer's only remedy is to claim damages, unless he has expressly reserved a right to return it. But if, instead of buying a particular horse, a man applies to a dealer to supply him with a quiet horse, and the dealer supplies him with a vicious one, the stipulation is a condition. The buyer can either return the horse, or keep it and claim damages. Of course the right of rejection must be exercised within a reasonable time. In Scotland no distinction has been drawn between conditions and warranties, an3 the act preserves the Scottish rule by providing that, in Scotland, " failure by the seller to perform any material part of a contract of sale " entitles the buyer either to reject the goods within a reasonable time after delivery, or to retain them and claim compensation (§11 (2)). In England it is a very common trick for the buyer to keep the goods, and then set up in reduction of the price that they are of inferior quality to what was ordered. To discourage this practice in Scotland the act provides that, in that country, the court may require the buyer who alleges a breach of contract to bring the agreed price into court SALE OF GOODS 65 pending the decision of the case (§ 59). It seems a pity that this sensible rule was not extended to England. In early English law caveat emptor was the general rule, and it was one well suited to primitive times. Men either bought their goods in the open market-place, or from their neighbours, and buyer and seller contracted on a footing ol equality. Now the complexity of modern commerce, the division of labour and the increase of technical skill, have altogether altered the state of affairs. The buyer is more and more driven to rely on the honesty, skill and judgment of the seller or manufacturer. Modern law has recognized this, and protects the buyer by implying various conditions and warranties in contracts of sale, which may be summarized as follows: First, there is an implied undertaking on the part of the seller that he has a right to sell the goods (§ 12). Secondly, if goods be ordered by description, they must correspond with that description (§ 13). This, of course, is a universal rule — ■ Si aes pro auro veneat, non valet. Thirdly, there is the case of manufacturers or sellers who deal in particular classes of goods. They naturally have better means of judging of their merchandise than the outside public, and the buyer is entitled within limits to rely on their skill or judgment. A tea merchant or grocer knows more about tea than his customers can, and so does a gun- smith about guns. In such cases, if the buyer makes known to the seller the particular purpose for which the goods are required, there is an implied condition that the goods are reasonably fit for it, and if no particular purpose be indicated there is an implied condition that the goods supplied are of merchantable quality (§ 14). Fourthly, in the case of a sale by sample, there is " an implied condition that the bulk shall correspond with the sample in quality," and that the buyer shall have a reasonable opportunity of comparing the bulk with the sample (§ 15). The main object of sale is the transfer of ownership from seller to buyer, and it is often both a difficult and an important matter to determine the precise moment at which the change of Effects of owners hip is effected. According to Roman law, which is Contract. gt jjj ^ f oun Ca, a reaction which serves to distinguish it from the isomeric meta- and para-hydroxybenzoic acids. It yields both esters and ethers since it is an acid and also a phenol. Methyl Salicylate, C6H4(OH)-C0 2 CH 3 , found in oil of wintergreen, in the oil of Viola tricolor and in the root of varieties of Polygala, is a pleasant-smelling liquid which boils at 222 ° C. On passing dry ammonia into the boiling ester, it gives salicylamide and dimethylam- ine. When boiled with aniline it gives methylaniline and phenol. Ethyl salicylate, C6H 4 (OH)-C0 2 C 2 H6, is obtained by boiling salicylic acid with alcohol and a little sulphuric acid, or by dropping an alco- holic solution of salicylic acid into /3-naphthalene sulphonic acid at a temperature of 140-150 C. (German Patent 76,574). It is a pleasant- smelling liquid which boils at 233° C. It is practically unchanged when boiled with aniline. Phenyl salicylate, CjH^OIiO-C-OaCeHs, or salol, is obtained by heating salicylic acid, phenol and phosphorus oxychloride to 120-125° C.; by heating salicylic acid to 210° C. ; or by heating salicyl metaphosphoric acid and phenol to 140-150 C. (German Patent 85,565). It crystallizes in rhombic plates which melt at 42 C. and boil at 172 C. (12 mm.). Its sodium salt is transformed into the isomeric C6H 4 (OC 6 H 5 ) C0 2 Na when heated to 300 . When heated in air for many hours it decomposes, yielding carbon dioxide, phenol and xanthone. Acetyl- salicylic acid (salacetic acid), C«H4(OCOCH S )'C0 2 H, is obtained by the action of acetyl chloride on the acid or its sodium salt (K. Kraut, Ann ., 1869, 150, p. 9). It crystallizes in needles and melts at 132 C. (with decom- position). Hydrolysis with baryta water gives acetic and salicylic acids. It is used in medicine under the names aspirin, acetysal, aletodin, saletin, xaxa s &c. It has the same action as salicylic acid and salicylates, but is said to be much freer from objectionable secondary effects. Salicylo- salicylic acid 0-(C 6 H 4 C0 2 H) 2 is obtained by continued heating of salicylic acid and acetyl chloride to 130- 140° C. It is an amorphous yellow mass which is easily soluble in alcohol. Applications. — The addition of a little of the acid to glue renders it more tenacious; skins to be used for making leather do not undergo decomposition if steeped in a dilute solution; butter containing a small quantity of it may be kept sweet for months even in the hottest weather. It also prevents the mouldiness of preserved fruits and has been found useful in the manufacture of vinegar. The use of salicylic acid as a food preservative, was, however, condemned in the findings of the commission appointed by the government of the United States of America, in 1904. Medicine. — The pharmacopeial dose of the acid is 5-20 grains, but it is so unrelated to experience and practice that it may be ignored. The British Pharmacopeia contains only one prepara- tion, an ointment containing one part of acid to 49 of white paraffin ointment. Salicylic acid is now never given internally, being replaced by its sodium salt, which is much cheaper, more soluble and less irritating to mucous membranes. The salt has a sweet, mawkish taste. Salicylic acid and salicin (q.v.) share the properties common to the group of aromatic acids, which, as a group, are antiseptic without being toxic to man — a property practically unique ; are unstable in the body ; are antipyretic and analgesic ; and diminish the excretion of urea by the kidneys. As an antiseptic salicylic acid is somewhat less powerful than carbolic acid, but its insolubility renders it un- suitable for general use. It is much more powerful than carbolic acid in its inhibitory action upon unorganized ferments such as pepsin or ptyalin. Salicyclic acid is not absorbed by the skin, but it rapidly kills the cells of the epidermis, without affecting the im- mediately subjacent cells of the dermis (" true skin "). It has a very useful local anhidrotic action. Salicylic acid is a powerful irritant when inhaled or swallowed in a concentrated form, and even when much diluted it causes pain, nausea and vomiting. When salicin is taken internally no irritant action occurs, nor is there any antisepsis. Whatever drug of this group be taken, the product absorbed by the blood is almost entirely sodium salicylate. When the salt is taken by the mouth, absorption is extremely rapid, the salt being present in the peripheral blood within ten minutes. Sodium salicylate circulates in the blood unchanged, decom- position occurring in the kidney, and probably in tissues suffering from the Diplococcus rheumaticus of Poynton and Paine. It used to be stated that these drugs are marked cardiac depressants; and the heart being invariably implicated in rheumatic fever, it is supposed that these drugs must be given with great caution. It has now been established that, provided the kidneys be healthy, natural salicylic acid, sodium salicylate prepared from the natural acid, and salicin, are not cardiac depressants. Of the two latter, 300 grains may be given in a dose and i| oz. in twenty-four hours, without any toxic symptoms. The artificial acid and its salt contain ortho-, para- and meta-cresotic acids, which are cardiac depressants. The vegetable product — which is extremely expensive — must be prescribed or the synthetic product guaranteed " physiologically pure," i.e. tested upon animals and found to have no toxic properties. Salicylates are the next safest to quinine of all antipyretics, whilst being much more powerful in all febrile states except malaria. Sodium sali- cylate escapes from the blood mainly by the kidneys, in the secretion of which sodium salicylate and salicyluric acid can be detected within fifteen minutes of its administration. After large doses haematuria has been observed in a few cases. The rapid excretion by the kidneys is one of the cardinal conditions of safety, and also necessitates the very frequent administration of the drug. Therapeutics. — Salicylic acid is used externally for the removal of corns and similar epidermic thickenings. It causes some pain, so that a sedative should be added. A common formula has 1 1 parts of the acid, 3 of extract of Indian hemp, and 86 of collodion. There is probably no better remedy for corns. Perspiration of the feet cannot be attacked locally with more success than by a powder consisting of salicylic acid, starch and chalk. These drugs are specific for acute rheumatism (rheumatic fever). The drug is not a true specific, as quinine is for malaria , since it rarely, if ever, prevents the cardiac damage usually done by rheu- matic fever; but it entirely removes the agonizing pain, shortly after its administration, and, an hour or two later, brings down the temperature to normal. In thirty-six hours no symptoms are left. If the drug be now discontinued, they will return in over 90% of cases. In acute gonorrhoeal arthritis, simulating rheumatic fever, salicylates are useless. They may thus afford a means of diagnosis. In rheumatic hyperpyrexia, where the poison has attacked the central nervous system, salicylates almost always fail. The mode of their administration in rheumatic fever is of the utmost importance. At first 20 grains of sodium salicylate should be given every hour: the interval being doubled as soon as the pain disappears, and extended to three hours when the temperature becomes normal. The patient should continue to take about 100 grains a day for at least a fortnight after he is apparently convalescent, otherwise a recrudescence is very probable. Salicylate of soda may occasionally be of use in cases of gallstone, owing to its action on the bile. It often relieves neuralgia, especially when combined with caffeine and quinine. Salicylism, or salicylic poisoning, occurs in a good many cases of the use of these drugs. Provided the kidneys be healthy, the symptoms may be ignored. If nephritis be present, it may be seriously aggravated, and the drug must therefore be withheld. The headache, deafness, ringing in the ears and even delirium of salicylism, are practically identical with the symptoms of cinchonism. The drug must be at once withheld if haemorrhages (subcutaneous, retinal, &c.) are observed. As in the case of quinine, the administra- tion of small doses of hydrobromic acid often relieve the milder symptoms. SALIERI, ANTONIO (1750-1825), Italian composer, was born at Legnano, on the 19th of August 1750. His father was a mer- chant who died a bankrupt. Through the family of Mocenigo he obtained free admission to the choir school of St Mark's, Venice. In 1766 he was taken to Vienna by F. L. Gassmann, who introduced him to the emperor Joseph. His first opera, Le Donne letterate, was produced at the Burg-Theater in 1770. Others followed in rapid succession, and his Armida (1771) was a triumphant success. On Gassmann's death in 1774, he became Kapellmeister and, on the death of Bonno in 1788, Hof kapellmeister. He held his offices for fifty years, though he made frequent visits to Italy and Paris, and composed music for many European theatres. His chefd'xuvre was Tarare (afterwards called Axur, re d'Ormus), a work which was preferred by the public of Vienna to Mozart's Don Giovanni. It was first produced at Vienna on the 8th of June 1787, and was revived at Leipzig in 1846, though only for a single representation. His last opera was Die Neger, produced in 1804. After this he devoted himself to the composition of church music, for which he had a very decided talent. Salieri lived on friendly terms with Haydn, but was a bitter enemy to Mozart, whose death he was suspected of having produced by poison; but no evidence was ever forthcoming to give colour to the accusation. He retired from office on his full salary in 1824, and died at Vienna on the 7th of May 1825. Salieri gave lessons in composition to Cherubini and to Beethoven, who dedicated to him his " Three Sonatas for Pianoforte and Violin," Op. 12. See also Albert von Hermann, Antonio Salieri, eine Sludie (1897); J. F. Edler von Mosel, Uber das Leben und die Werke des Antonio Salieri (Vienna, 1827). SALII, the " dancers," an old Italian priesthood, said to have been instituted by Numa for the service of Mars, although later tradition derived them from Greece. They were originally twelve in number, called Salii Palatini to distinguish them from SALIMBENE— SALISBURY, EARLS OF 7i a second college of twelve, Salii Agonales or Collini, said to have been added by Tullus Hostilius; the Palatini were consecrated to Mars, the Collini to Quirinus. All the members were patricians, vacancies being rilled by co-optation from young men whose parents were both living; membership was for life, subject to certain exceptions. The officials of the college were the magister, the praesul, and the vates (the leaders in dance and song). Each college had the care of twelve sacred shields called ancilia. According to the story, during the reign of Numa a small oval shield fell from heaven, and Numa, in order to prevent its being stolen, had eleven others made exactly like it. They were the work of a smith named Mamurius Veturius, probably identical with the god Mamers (Mars) himself. These twelve shields (amongst which was the original one) were in charge of the Salii Palatini. The greater part of March (the birth-month of Mars), beginning from the 1st, on which day the ancile was said to have fallen from heaven and the campaigning season began, was devoted to various ceremonies con- nected with the Salii. On the 1st, they marched in procession through the city, dressed in an embroidered tunic, a brazen breast- plate and a peaked cap ; each carried a sword by his side and a short staff in his right hand, with which the shield, borne on the left arm, was struck from time to time. A halt was made at the altars and temples, where the Salii, singing a special chant, danced a war dance. Every day the procession stopped at certain stations (mansiones), where the shields were deposited for the night, and the Salii partook of a banquet (see Horace, Odes, i. 37. 2). On the next day the pre- cession passed on to another mansio; this continued till the 24th, when the shields were replaced in their sacrarium. During this period the Salii took part in certain other festivities: the Equirria (Ecurria) on the 14th, a chariot race in honour of Mars on the Campus Martius (in later times called Mamuralia, in honour of Mamurius), at which a skin was beaten with staves in imitation of hammering ; the Quinquatrus on the 19th, a one-day festival, at which the shields were cleansed; the Tubilustrium on the 23rd, when the trumpets of the priests were purified. On the 19th of October, at the Armi- lustrium or purification of arms, the ancilia were again brought out and then put away for the winter. The old chant of the Salii, called axamenta, was written in the old Saturnian metre, in language so archaic that even the priests themselves could hardly understand it. . See Quintilian, Instit. i. 6. 40; also J. Wordsworth, Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin (1874). The best account of the Salii generally will be found in Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung, iii. (1885) pp. 427-438. SALIMBENE, Or more usually Salimbene or Parma (1221- c. 1290), the name taken by the Italian writer, Ognibene di Guido di Adamo. The son of a crusader, Gui di Adamo, and born at Parma on the 9th of October 1221, Ognibene entered the order of the Minorites in 1238, and was known as brother Salimbene. He passed some years in Pisa and other Italian towns; then in 1247 he was sent to Lyons, and from Lyons he went to Paris, returning through France to Genoa, where he became a priest in 1249. From 1249 to 1256 he resided at Ferrara, engaged in writing and in copying manuscripts, but later he found time to move from place to place. His concluding years were mainly spent in monastic retirement in Italy, and he died soon after 1 288. Salimbene was acquainted with many of the important personages of his day, including the emperor Frederick II., the French king St Louis and Pope Innocent IV. ; and his Chronicon, written after 1281, is a work of unusual value. This covers the period 1 167-1287. Salimbene is a very discursive and a very personal writer, but he gives a remarkably vivid picture of life in France and Italy during the 13th century. The manuscript of the chronicle was found during the 1 8th century, and passed into the Vatican library, where it now remains. The part of the Chronicon dealing with the period between 1212 and 1287 was edited by A. Bertani and published at Parma in 1857. This edition, however, is very defective, but an excellent and more complete one has been edited by O. Holder- Egger, and is printed in Band xxxii. of the Monumenta Cermaniae historica. Scriptores (Hanover, 1905). See U. Balzani, Le Croniche italiane nel medio evo (Milan, 1884); L. Cl&lat, De fratre Salimbene et de ejus chronicae auctoritate (Paris, 1878); E. Michael, Salimbene und seine Chronik (Innsbruck, 1889); A. Molinier, Les Sources de Vhistoire de France, tome iii. (1903) ; D. W. Duthie, The Case of Sir John Fastolf and other Historical Studies (1907); G. G. Coulton, From St Francis to Dante (1906). SALINA, a city and the county-seat of Saline county, Kansas, U.S.A., on the Smoky Hill river, near the mouth of the Saline river, about 100 m. W. of Topeka. Pop. (1905) 7829; (1910) 9688. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Missouri Pacific and the Union Pacific railways. Salina has a Carnegie library, and is the seat of Kansas Wesleyan University (Methodist Episcopal; chartered in 1885, opened in 1886) and of St John's Military School (Protestant Episcopal) . The city is the see of a Protestant Episcopal bishop. Salina is the central market of a fertile farming region. Power is furnished by the river, and among the manu- factures are flour, agricultural implements, foundry products and carriages. The first settlement on the site of Salina was made in 1857. Its first railway, the Union Pacific, came through in 1867. Salina was first chartered as a city in 1870. SALINA CRUZ, a seaport of Mexico, in the state of Oaxaca, at the southern terminus of the Tehuantepec National Railway. It is situated near the mouth of the Tehuantepec river, on the open coast of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and has no natural harbour. There was only a small Indian village here before Salina Cruz was chosen as the Pacific terminus of the railway. Since then a modern town has been laid out and built on adjacent higher ground. The new port was opened to traffic in 1907 and in 1909 its population was largely composed of labourers. A costly artificial harbour has been built by the Mexican govern- ment to accommodate the traffic of the Tehuantepec railway. It is formed by the construction of two breakwaters, the western 3260 ft. and the eastern 1900 ft. long, which curve toward each other at their outer extremities and leave an entrance 635 ft. wide. The enclosed space is divided into an outer and inner harbour by a double line of quays wide enough to carry six great warehouses with electric cranes on both sides and a number of railway tracks. Connected with the new port works is one of the largest dry docks in the world — 610 ft. long and 89 ft. wide, with a depth of 28 ft. on its sill at low water. The works were planned to handle an immense volume of transcontinental freight, and before they were finished four steamship lines had arranged regular calls at Salina Cruz; this number has since been largely increased. SALINS, a town of eastern France, in the department of Jura, on a branch line of the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 4293. Salins is situated in the narrow valley of the Furieuse, between two fortified hills, while to the north rises Mont Poupet (2798 ft.). The town possesses an interesting Romanesque church (which has been well restored) and an hotel de ville of the 18th century. A Jesuit chapel of the 17th century contains a library (established in 1 593) and a museum. Salins owes its name to its saline waters, used for bathing and drinking. There are also salt workings and gypsum deposits. The territory of Salins, which was enfeoffed in the 10th century by the abbey of Saint Maurice in Valais to the counts of Macon, remained in possession of their descendants till 11 75. Maurette de Salins, heiress of this dynasty, left the lordship to the house of Vienne, and her granddaughter sold it in 1225 to Hugh IV., duke of Burgundy, whoceded it in 1237 to John of Chalon (d.1267) in exchange for the countship of Chalon-sur-Sa6ne. John's descendants — counts and dukes of Burgundy, emperors and kings of the house of Austria — bore the title of sire de Salins. In 1477 Salins was taken by the French and temporarily made the seat of the parlement of Franche- Comti by Louis XI. In 1668 and 1674 it was retaken by the French and thenceforward remained in their power. In 1825 the town was almost destroyed by fire. In 1871 it successfully resisted the German troops. SALISBURY, EARLS OF. The title of earl of Salisbury was first created about 1149, when it was conferred on Patrick de Salisbury (sometimes from an early date called in error Patrick Devereux), a descendant of Edward de Salisbury, mentioned in Domesday as vicecomes of Wiltshire. His granddaughter Isabella became countess of Salisbury suo jure on the death of her father, William the 2nd earl, without male heirs, in 1196, and the title was assumed by her husband, William de Longespee (d. 1226), illegitimate son of King Henry II. possibly by Rosamond Clifford (" The fair Rosamond "). Isabella survived her husband, and outlived both her son and grandson, both called Sir William de Longespee, and on her death in 1261 her great-granddaughter Margaret (d. 1310), wife of Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, probably became suo jure countess of Salisbury; she transmitted the title to her daughter Alice, who married Thomas Plantagenet, earl of Lancaster. Lancaster having been attainted and beheaded in 1322, the countess made a surrender of her lands 72 SALISBURY, 3RD MARQUESS OF and titles to Edward II., the earldom thus lapsing to the crown. The earldom of Salisbury was granted in 1337 by Edward III. to William de Montacute, Lord Montacute (1301-1344), in whose family it remained till 1400, when John, 3rd earl of this line, was attainted and his titles forfeited. His son Thomas (1388- 1428) was restored in blood in 1421; and Thomas's daughter and heiress, Alice, married Sir Richard Neville (1400-1460), a younger son of Ralph Neville, 1st earl of Westmorland and a grandson of John of Gaunt, who sat in parliament in right of his wife as earl of Salisbury; he was succeeded by his son Richard, on whose death without male issue in 147 1 the earldom fell into abeyance. George Plantagenet, duke of Clarence, brother of Edward IV., who married Richard's daughter and co-heiress, Isabel, became by a separate creation earl of Salisbury in 1472, but by his attainder in 1478 this title was forfeited, and immedi- ately afterwards was granted to Edward Plantagenet, eldest son of Richard duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard III., on whose death in 1484 it became extinct. Richard III.'s queen, Anne, was a sister of the above-mentioned Isabel, duchess of Clarence, and co-heiress with her of Richard Neville, earl of Salisbury. On the death of Queen Anne in 1485 the abeyance of the older creation terminated, Edward Plantagenet, eldest son of George duke of Clarence by Isabel Neville, becoming earl of Salisbury as successor to his mother's right. He was attainted in 1504, five years after his execution, but the earldom then forfeited was restored to his sister Margaret (1474-1541), widow of Sir Richard Pole, in 1513- This lady was also attainted, with forfeiture of her titles, in 1539. Sir Robert Cecil, second son of the 1st Lord Burghley (q.v.), was created earl of Salisbury (1605), having no connexion in blood with the former holders of the title. (See Salisbury, Robert Cecil, ist Earl or.) In his family the earldom has remained till the present day, the 7th earl of the line having been created marquess of Salisbury in 1789. See G. E. C, Complete Peerage, vol. vii. (1896). SALISBURY, ROBERT ARTHUR TALBOT GASCOYNE- CECIL, 3RD Marquess or (1830-1903), British statesman, second son of James, 2nd marquess, by his first wife, Frances Mary Gascoyne, was born at Hatfield on the 3rd of February 1830, and was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, where he took his degree in 1850. At Oxford he was an active member of the Union Debating Society. The first, few years after leaving the university were spent by Lord Robert Cecil (as he then was) in travel, as far afield as New Zealand; but in 1853 he was returned unopposed to the House of Commons as Conservative member for Stamford, being elected in the same year a fellow of All Souls. He made his maiden speech in Parliament on the 7th of April 1854, in opposition to Lord John Russell's Oxford University Bill. The speech was marked by scepticism as to the utility of reforms, and Lord Robert prophesied that if the wishes of founders were disregarded, nobody would in future care to found anything. In 1857 he Burly appeared as the author of his first Bill — for establishing years in the voting-paper system at parliamentary elections ; and in the same year he married Georgina Caroline, daughter of Sir Edward Holt Alderson, a baron of the Court of Exchequer, a large share of whose great intellectual abilities she inherited. Lord Robert Cecil continued to be active not only in politics, but, for several years, in journalism, the income he earned by his pen being then a matter of pecuniary importance to him. One of his contemporaries at Oxford had been Thomas Hamber of Oriel, who became editor of the Standard, and during these years Cecil was an occasional contributor of " leaders " to that paper. He also contributed to the Saturday Review, founded in 1855 by his brother-in-law Beresford Hope, and edited by his friend Douglas Cook; not infrequently he wrote for the Quarterly (where, in 1867, he was to publish his famous article on "the Conservative Surrender"); and in 1858 he contributed to Oxford Essays a paper on " The Theories of Parliamentary Reform," giving expression to the more intellectual and aristocratic antagonism to doctrinaire Liberal views on the Parlia- ment subject, while admitting the existence of many anomalies in the existing electoral system. In February of the next year, when Disraeli introduced his Reform Bill with its " fancy franchises," the member for Stamford was prominent among its critics from the Tory point of view. During the seven years that followed Lord Robert was always ready to defend the Church, or the higher interests of Conservatism and property; and his speeches then, not less than later, showed a caustic quality and a tendency to what became known as " blazing indiscretions." For example, when the repeal of the paper duty was being discussed in 1861, he asked whether it " could be maintained that a person of any education could learn anything worth knowing from a penny paper " — a question the answer to which has been given by the powerful, highly organized, and admirable Conservative penny press of a subsequent day. A little later he declared the proceed- ings of the Government " more worthy of an attorney than of a statesman"; and on being rebuked, apologized — to the attorneys. He also charged Lord John Russell with adopting " a sort of tariff of insolence " in his dealings with foreign Powers, strong and weak. It was not, however, till the death of Palmerston and the removal of Lord John Russell to the House of Lords had brought Gladstone to the front that Lord Robert Cecil — who became Lord Cranborne by the death of his elder „* ni f* er . brother on the 14th of June 1865 — began to be accepted the as a politician of the first rank. His emergence Franchise coincided with the opening of the new area in British « ,ues "°» ; politics, ushered in by the practical steps taken to u on jggz. extend the parliamentary franchise. On the 12th of March 1866 Gladstone brought forward his measure to establish a £7 franchise in boroughs and a £14 franchise in counties, which were calculated to add 400,000 voters to the existing lists. Lord Cranborne met the Bill with a persistent opposition, his rigorous logic and merciless hostility to clap-trap tending strongly to reinforce the impassioned eloquence of Robert Lowe. But though he attacked the Government Bill both in principle and detail, he did not absolutely commit himself to a position of hostility to Reform of every kind; and on the .defeat of Glad- stone's Ministry no surprise was expressed at his joining the Cabinet of Lord Derby as secretary of state for India, even when it became known that a settlement of the Reform question was part of the Tory programme. The early months of the new Government's tenure were marked by the incident of the Hyde Park riots; and if there had been members of the Cabinet and party who believed up to that time that the Reform question was not urgent the action of the Reform League and the London populace forced them to a different conclusion. On the nth of February Disraeli informed the House of Commons that the Government intended to ask its assent to a series of thirteen resolutions; but when, on the 26th of February, the Liberal leaders demanded that the Government should produce a Bill, Disraeli at once consented to do so. The introduction of a Bill was, however, delayed by the resignation of Lord Cranborne, General Peel and Lord Carnarvon. The Cabinet had been considering two alternative measures, widely different in kind and extent, and the final decision between the two was taken in ten minutes (whence the nickname of the " Ten Minutes Bill ") at an informal gathering of the Cabinet held just before Derby was engaged to address a general meeting of the party. At a Cabinet council held on the 23rd of February measure A had been agreed upon, the three doubtful ministers having been persuaded that the checks and safeguards provided were sufficient ; in the interval between Saturday and Monday they had come to the conclusion that the checks were inadequate; on Monday morning they had gone to Lord Derby and told him so; at two o'clock the rest of the Cabinet, hastily summoned, had been informed of the new situation, and had there and then, before the meeting at half-past two, agreed, in order to retain their three colleagues, to throw over measure A, and to present measure B to the country as the fruit of their matured and unanimous wisdom. Derby at the meeting, and Disraeli a few hours later in the House of Commons, explained their new SALISBURY, 3RD MARQUESS OF 73 measure — a measure based upon a £6 franchise; but their own side did not like it, the Opposition were furious, and the moral sense of the country was revolted by the undisguised adoption of almost the very Bill which the Conservatives had refused to accept from their opponents only a year before. The result was that the Government reverted to measure A, and the three ministers again handed in their resignations. In the debate on the third reading of the Bill, when its passage through the House of Commons without a division was assured, Lord Cranborne showed with caustic rhetoric how the " precautions, guarantees, and securities " with which the Bill had bristled on its second reading had been dropped one after another at the bidding of Gladstone. In countries where politics are conducted on any other than the give-and-take principles in vogue in England, such a breach as that which occurred in 1867 between Lord Cranborne * e . and his former colleagues, especially Disraeli, would Lords. have been beyond repair. But Cranborne, though an aristocrat both by birth and by conviction, was not impracticable; moreover, Disraeli, who had himself risen to eminence through invective, admired rather than resented that gift in others; and their common opposition to Gladstone was certain to reunite the two colleagues. In the session of 1868 Gladstone announced that he meant to take up the Irish question, and to deal especially with the celebrated " Upas tree," of which the first branch was the Established Church. By way of giving full notice to the electorate, he brought in a series of resolutions on this question; and though the attitude adopted' by the official Conservatives towards them was not one of serious antagonism, Lord Cranborne vigorously attacked them. This was his last speech in the House of Commons, for on the 1 2th of April his father died, and he became 3rd marquess of Salisbury. In the House of Lords the new Lord Salisbury's style of eloquence — terse, incisive and wholly free from false ornament — found an even more appreciative audience than it had met with in the House of Commons. The questions with which he was first called upon to deal were questions in which his interest was keen — the recommendations of the Ritual Commission and, some time later, the Irish Church Suspensory Bill. Lord Salisbury's argu- ment was that the last session of an expiring parliament was not the time in which so grave a matter as the Irish Church Establishment should be judged or prejudged; that a Suspensory Bill involved the question of disestablishment; and that such a principle could not be accepted by the Lords until the country had pronounced decisively in its favour. Even then there were those who raised the cry that the only business of the House of Lords was to register the decisions of the Commons, and that if they refused to do so it was at their peril. Lord Salisbury met this cry boldly and firmly: — " When the opinion of your countrymen has declared itself, and you see that their convictions — their firm, deliberate, sustained convic- tions — are in favour of any course, I do not for a moment deny that it is your duty to yield." In the very next session Lord Salisbury was called upon to put his view into practice, and his influence went far to persuade the peers to pass the Irish Church Disestablishment Bill. In his opinion the general election of the autumn of 1868 had been fought on this question; his friends had lost, and there was nothing for them to do but to bow to the necessities of the situa- tion. The story of his conduct in the matter has been told in some fulness in the Life of Archbishop Tait, with whom Salisbury acted, and who throughout those critical weeks played a most important part as mediator between the two extreme parties — ■ those of Lord Cairns (representing Ulster) and Gladstone. October 1869 saw the death of the old Lord Derby, who was still the titular leader of his party; and he was succeeded as leader of the House of Lords by Cairns. For the dignified post of chancellor of the university of Oxford Convocation unanimously chose as Derby's successor the marquess of Salisbury. Derby had translated the Iliad very well, but his successor was far more able to sympathize with the academic mind and temper. He • was at heart a student, and found his best satisfaction in scientific research and in scientific speculation; while still a young man he had made useful contributions to the investigation of the flora of Hertfordshire, and at Hatfield he had his own laboratory, where he was able to satisfy his interest in chemical and electrical research. As regards his connexion with Oxford may be men- tioned in particular his appointment, in 1877, of a second University Commission, and his appearance, in September 1894, in the Sheldonian Theatre as president of the British Association. It is not necessary to dwell at any length upon the part taken by Lord Salisbury between 1869 and 1873 in respect of the other great political measures of Gladstone's Government — the Irish Land Act, the Act Abolishing Purchase in ^ S uf eH t the Army, Forster's Education Act, &c. Nor does oti874. his attitude towards the Franco-German War of 1870- 71 call for any remark; a British leader of Opposition is bound, even more than a minister, to preserve a discreet silence on such occasions. But early in 1874 came the dissolution, suddenly announced in Gladstone's famous Greenwich letter, with the promise of the abolition of the income-tax. For the first time since 1841 the Conservatives found themselves in office with a large majority in the House of Commons. In Disraeli's new Cabinet in 1874 Salisbury accepted his old position at the India Office, The first task with which the new secretary of state had to deal was one of those periodical famines which are the great scourge of India; he supported the action of Lord Northbrook, the viceroy, and refused to interfere with private trade by prohibiting the export of grain. This attitude was amply justified, and Lord Salisbury presently declared that the action of the Government had given so much confidence to private traders that, by their means, " grain was pouring into the dis- tressed districts at a greater rate than that which was being carried by the public agency,- the amount reaching nearly 2000 tons a day." The Public Worship Regulation Bill of 1874 was the occasion of a famous passage of arms between Salisbury and his chief. The Commons had inserted an amendment which, on consideration by the Lords, Salisbury opposed, with the remark that it was not for the peers to attend to the " bluster " of the lower House merely because a small majority there had passed the amendment. The new clause was accordingly rejected, and the Commons eventually accepted the situation; but Disraeli, banteringly criticizing Salisbury's use of the word " bluster," alluded to him as " a man who does not measure his phrases. He is one who is a great master of gibes and flouts and jeers." From the middle of 1876 the Government was occupied with foreign affairs. In regard to the stages of Eastern fever through which the nation passed between the occurrence of the Bulgarian " atrocities " and the signature of T ^ e the Treaty of Berlin, the part played by Salisbury question. was considerable. The excesses of the Bashi-Bazouks took place in the early summer of 1876, and were recorded in long and highly-coloured despatches to English newspapers; presently there followed Gladstone's pamphlet on Bulgarian Horrors, his speech on Blackheath and his enunciation of a " bag-and-baggage " policy towards Turkey. The autumn went by, Servia and Montenegro declared war upon Turkey and were in imminent danger of something like extinction. On the 31st of October Russia demanded an armistice, which Turkey granted; and Great Britain immediately proposed a conference at Constantinople, at which the powers should endeavour to make arrangements with Turkey for a genera) pacification of her provinces and of the inflammable communities adjoining. At this conference Great Britain was represented by Lord Salisbury. It met early in December, taking for its basis the British terms, namely, the status quo ante in Servia and Montenegro; a self-denying ordinance on the part of all the powers; and the independence and territorial integrity of the Ottoman empire, together with large administrative reforms assured by guarantees. General Ignatieff , the Russian ambassador, was effusively friendly with the British envoy; but though the philo-Turkish party in England professed themselves scandalized, Salisbury made no improper concessions to Russia, and departed in no way from the agreed policy of the British 74 SALISBURY, 3RD MARQUESS OF Cabinet. On the 20th of January the conference broke up, Turkey having declared its recommendations inadmissible; and Europe withdrew to await the inevitable declaration of war. Very early in the course of that war the intentions of Great Britain were clearly indicated in a despatch of Lord Derby to the British representative at St Petersburg, which announced that so long as the struggle concerned Turkish interests alone Great Britain would be neutral, but that such matters as Egypt, the Suez Canal, the regulations affecting the passage of the Dardanelles, and the possession of Constantinople itself would be regarded as matters to which she could not be indifferent. For some nine months none of these British interests appeared to be threatened, nor had Lord Salisbury's own department to concern itself very directly with the progress of the belligerents. Once or twice, indeed, the Indian secretary committed himself to statements which laid him open to a good deal of attack, as when he rebuked an alarmist by bidding him study the Central Asian question " in large maps. " But with the advance of Russia through Bulgaria and across the Balkans, British anxiety grew. In mid-December explanations were asked from the Russian Government as to their intentions with regard to Constantinople. On the 23rd of January the Cabinet ordered the fleet to sail to the Dardanelles. Lord Carnarvon resigned, and Lord Derby handed in his resignation, but withdrew it. The Treaty of San Stefano was signed on the 3rd of March; and three weeks later, when its full text became known, the Succeeds Cabinet decided upon measures which finally induced Lord Derby Lord Derby, at the end of the month, to retire from a u, F ? l ? lga the Foreign Office, his place being immediately filled by Lord Salisbury. The new foreign secretary at once issued the famous " Salisbury circular " to the British representatives abroad, which appeared in the newspapers on the 2nd of April. This elaborate and dignified State paper was at once a clear exposition of British policy, and practically an invitation to Russia to reopen the negotiations for a European congress. These negotiations, indeed, had been proceeding for several weeks past; but Russia having declared that she would only discuss such points as she pleased, the British Cabinet had withdrawn, and the matter for the time was at an end. The bulk of the document consisted of an examination of the Treaty of San Stefano and its probable effects, Lord Salisbury justifying such an examination on the ground that as the position of Turkey and the other countries affected had been settled by Europe in the Treaty of Paris in 1856, the powers which signed that treaty had the right and the duty to see that no modifications of it should be made without their consent. The effect of the circular was great and immediate. At home the Conservatives were encouraged, and many moderate Liberals rallied to the Eastern policy of the Govern- ment. Abroad it seemed as if the era of divided councils was over, and the Russian Government promptly recognized that the circular meant either a congress or war with Great Britain. For the latter alternative it was by no means prepared, and very soon negotiations were reopened, which led to the meeting of the congress at Berlin on the 13th of June. The history of that famous gathering and of its results is narrated under Europe. Lord Beaconsfield on two or three subsequent occasions referred to the important part that his colleague had played in the negotiations, and he was not using merely the language of politeness. Rumours had appeared in the London press as to a supposed Anglo-Russian agreement that had been signed between Salisbury and the Russian ambassador, Count Shuvaloff, and these rumours or statements were described by the foreign secretary in the House of Lords, just before he left for Berlin, as " wholly unauthentic." But on the 14th of June what purported to be the full text of the agreement was published by the Globe newspaper through a certain Charles Marvin, at that time employed in occasional transcribing work at the Foreign Office, and afterwards known by some strongly anti-Russian books on the Central Asian question. Besides the general inconvenience of the disclosure, the agreement, which stipulated that Batum and Kars might At Berlin Congress. be annexed by Russia, made it impossible for the congress to insist upon Russia entirely withdrawing her claim to Batum, though at the time of the meeting of the congress it was known to some of the negotiators that she was not unwilling to do so. In one respect Salisbury's action at the congress was unsuccessful. Much as he disliked Gladstone's sentimentalism, he was not without a certain sentimentalism of his own, and at the Berlin Congress this took the form of an unexpected and, as it happened, useless pushing of the claims of Greece. But in the main Salisbury must be held to deserve, almost equally with his great colleague, the credit for the Berlin settlement. Great, however, as was the work done at Berlin, and marked the relief to all Europe which was caused by the signing of the treaty, much work, and of no pleasant kind, remained for the British Foreign Office and for the Indian Government before the Beaconsfield parliament ended and the Government had to render up its accounts to the nation. Russia, foreseeing a possible war with Great Britain, had during the spring of 1878 redoubled her activity in Central Asia, and, almost at the very time that the treaty was being signed, her mission was received at Kabul by the Amir Sher Ali. Out of the Amir's refusal to receive a counterbalancing British mission there grew the Afghan War; and though he had ceased to control the India Office, Salisbury was naturally held responsible for some of the preliminary steps which, in the judgment of the Opposition, had led to these hostilities. But the Liberals entirely failed to fix upon Salisbury the blame for a series of events which was generally seen to be inevitable. A defence of the foreign policy of the Government during the year which followed the Berlin Treaty was made by Salisbury in a speech at Manchester (October 1879), which had a great effect throughout Europe. In it he justified the occupation of Cyprus, and approved the beginnings of a league of central Europe for preserving peace. In the spring of 1880 the general election overthrew Beacons- field's Government and replaced Gladstone in power, and the country entered upon five eventful years, which were Leader to see the consolidation of the Parnellite party, the of Con- reign of outrage in Ireland, disasters in Zululand and aervative the Transvaal, war in Egypt, a succession of costly y ' mistakes in the Sudan, and the final collapse of Gladstone's Government on a trifling Budget question. The defeat of 1880 greatly depressed Beaconsfield, who till then had really believed in that " hyperborean " theory upon which he had acted in 1867 — the theory that beyond and below the region of democratic storm and violence was to be found a region of peaceful conser- vatism and of a dislike of change. After the rude awakening of April 1880 Beaconsfield seems to have lost heart and hope, and to have ceased to believe that wealth, birth and education would count for much in future in England. Salisbury, who on Beacons- field's death a year later was chosen, after the claims of Cairns had been withdrawn, as leader of the Conservative peers (Sir Stafford Northcote continuing to lead the Opposition in the lower House), was not so disposed to counsels of despair. After the Conservative reaction had come in 1886, he was often taunted with pessimism as regards the results, and he certainly spoke on more than one occasion in a way which appeared to justify the caricatures which appeared of him in the Radical press in his character of Hamlet; but in the days of Liberal ascendancy Salisbury was confident that the tide would turn. We may pass briefly over the years of Opposition between 1880 and 1885; the only policy that could then wisely be followed by the Con- servative leaders was that of giving their opponents sufficient rope. In 1884 a new Reform Bill was introduced, extending household suffrage to the counties; this was met in the Lords by a resolution, moved by Cairns, that the peers could not pass it unaccompanied by a Redistribution Bill. The Government, therefore, withdrew their measure. In the summer and autumn there was a good deal of agitation ; but in November a redistribu- tion scheme was settled between the leaders of both parties, and the Bill passed. When, in the summer of 1885, Gladstone resigned, it became necessary for the country to know whether Salisbury or Northcote was the real Conservative leader; and SALISBURY, 3 rd MARQUESS OF 75 the Queen settled the matter by at once sending for Lord Salis- bury, who became prime minister for the first time in 1885. The " Forwards " among the Conservatives, headed by Lord Randolph Churchill, brought so much pressure to bear that Northcote was induced to enter the House of Lords Minister as ear " °* Iddesleigh, while Sir Michael Hicks Beach 18CS. w as made leader of the House of Commons, Loid Randolph Churchill secretary for India, and Mr Arthur Balfour president of the Local Government Board. The new Government had only to prepare for the general election in the autumn. The ministerial programme was put forward by Salisbury on the 7th of October in an important speech addressed to the Union of Conservative Associations assembled at Newport, in Monmouthshire; and in this he outlined large reforms in local government, poured scorn upon Mr Chamberlain's Radical policy of " three acres and a cow," but promised cheap land transfer, and opposed the disestablishment of the Church as a matter of life or death to the Conservative party. In this Lord Salisbury was declaring war against what seemed to be the danger should Mr Chamberlain's " unauthorized programme " succeed; while the comparative slightness of his references to Ireland showed that he had no more suspicion than anybody else of the event which was about to change the whole face of British politics, to break up the Liberal party and to change the most formidable of the advanced Radicals into an ally and a colleague. The general election took place, and there were returned to parliament 335 Liberals, 249 Conservatives and 86 Home Rulers; so that if the last two parties had combined, they would have exactly tied with the Liberals. The Conservative Government met parliament, and after a short time were put into a minority of 79 on a Radical land motion, brought in by Mr Chamberlain's henchman, Mr Jesse Collings. Mr Gladstone's Unionism: return to office, and his announcement of a Bill giving PHme a separate parliament to Ireland, were quickly followed Minister, by the secession of the Unionist Liberals; the defeat of 1886. t Vj e -gjrj. an a pp ea j t0 tne country; and the return of the Unionist party to power with a majority of 118. Salisbury at once offered to make way for Lord Hartington, but the suggestion that the latter should form a Government was declined; and the Conservatives took office alone, with an Irish policy which might be summed up, perhaps, in Salisbury's words as " twenty years of resolute government." For a few months, until just before his sudden death on the 12th of January 1887, Lord Iddesleigh was foreign secretary; but Salisbury, who meantime had held the post of lord privy seal, then returned to the Foreign Office. Meanwhile the increasing friction between him and Lord Randolph Churchill, who, amid many qualms on the part of more old-fashioned Conservatives, had become chancellor of the exchequer and leader of the House of Commons, had led to the latter's resignation, which, to his own surprise, was accepted; and from that date Salisbury's effective primacy in his own party was unchallenged. Only the general lines of Salisbury's later political career need here be sketched. As a consequence of the practical 1886-1902. mon opoly of political power enjoyed by the Unionist party after the Liberal disruption of 1886 — for even in the years 1892-1895 the situation was dominated by the permanent Unionist majority in the House of Lords — Salisbury's position became unique. These were the long-looked-for days of Conservative reaction, of which he had never despaired. The situation was complicated, so far as Salisbury personally was concerned, by the coalition with the Liberal Unionists, which was confirmed in 1895 by the inclusion of the duke of Devonshire, Mr Chamberlain, and other Liberal Unionists in the Cabinet. But though it appeared anomalous that old antagonists like Lord Salisbury and Mr Chamberlain should be working together in the same ministry, the prime minister's position was such that he could disregard a superficial criticism which paid too little heed to his political faculty and his patriotic regard for the requirements of the situation. Moreover, the practical work of reconciling Conservative traditions with domestic reform depended rather on Salisbury's nephew, Mr Balfour, who led the House of Commons, than on Salisbury, who devoted himself almost entirely to foreign affairs. The new Conservative move- ment, moreover, in the country at large, was, in any case, of a more constructive type than Salisbury himself was best fitted to lead, and he was not the real source of the political inspiration even of the Conservative wing of the Unionist party during this period. He began to stand to some extent outside party and above it, a moderator with a keenly analytic and rather sceptical mind, but still the recognized representative of the British empire in the councils of the world, and the trusted adviser of his sovereign. Though himself the last man to be selected as the type of a democratic politician— for his references to extensions of popular government, even when made by his own party, were full of mild contempt — Salisbury gradually acquired a higher place in public opinion than that occupied by any contemporary statesman. His speeches — which, though carelessly composed, continued to blaze on occasion with their old fire and their some- what mordant cynicism— were weightier in tone, and became European events. Without the genius of Disraeli or the personal magnetism of Gladstone, he yet inspired the British public with a quiet confidence that under him things would not go far wrong, and that he would not act rashly or unworthily of his country. Even political opponents came to look on his cautious and balanced conservatism, and his intellectual aloofness from interested motives or vulgar ambition, as standing between them and something more distasteful. Moreover, in the matter of foreign affairs his weight was supreme. He had lived to become, as was indeed generally recognized, the most experienced working diplomatist in Europe. His position in this respect was shown in nothing better than in his superiority to criticism. In foreign affairs many among his own party regarded him as too much inclined to " split the difference " and to make " grace- ful concessions " — as in the case of the cession of Heligoland to Germany — in which it was complained that Great Britain got the worst of the bargain. But though occasionally, as in the with- drawal of British ships from Port Arthur in 1898, such Criticism became acute, the plain fact of the preservation of European peace, often in difficult circumstances, reconciled the public to his conduct of affairs. His patience frequently justified itself, notably in the case of British relations with the United States, which were for a moment threatened by President Cleveland's message concerning Venezuela in 1895. And though his loyalty to the European Concert in connexion with Turkey's dealings with Armenia and Crete in 1895-1898 proved irritatingly in- effectual — the pace of the concert, as Lord Salisbury explained, being rather like that of a steam-roller — no alternative policy could be contemplated as feasible in any other statesman's hands. Salisbury's personal view of the new situation created by the methods of the sultan of Turkey was indicated not only by a solemn and unusual public warning addressed to the sultan in a speech at Brighton, but also by his famous remark that in the Crimean War Great Britain had " put her money on the wrong horse. " Among his most important strokes of diplomacy was the Anglo-German agreement of 1890, delimiting the British and German spheres of influence in Africa. The South African question from 1896 onwards was a matter for the Colonial Office, and Salisbury left it in Mr Chamberlain's hands. A peer premier must inevitably leave many of the real problems of democratic government to his colleagues in the House of Commons. In the Upper House Lord Salisbury was paramount. Yet while vigorously opposing the Radical agitation for the abolition of the House of Lords, he never interposed a -non possumus to schemes of reform. He was always willing to consider plans for its improvement, and in May 1888 himself introduced a bill for reforming it and creating life peers; but he warned reformers that the only result must be to make the House stronger. To abolish it, on the other hand, would be to take away a necessary safeguard for protecting " Philip drunk " by an appeal to " Philip sober. "■ Lord Salisbury suffered a severe loss by the death in 1900 of his wife, whose influence with her husband had been great, as her devotion had been unswerving. Her protracted illness was 7 6 SALISBURY, ist EARL OF one among several causes, including his own occasional ill-health, which after 1895 made him leave as much as possible of the work of political leadership to his principal colleagues — Mr Arthur Balfour more than once acting as foreign secretary for several weeks while his uncle stayed abroad. But for some years it was felt that his attempt to be both prime minister and foreign secretary was a mistake; and after the election of 1900 Salisbury handed over the seals of the foreign office to Lord Lansdowne, remaining himself at the head of the government as lord privy seal. In 1902, upon the conclusion of peace in South Africa, he felt that the time had come to retire from office altogether; and on the nth of July his resignation was accepted by the king, and he was succeeded as prime minister by Mr Arthur Balfour. From this moment he remained in the political background, and his ill-health gradually increased. He died at Hatfield on the 22nd of August 1903, and was succeeded in the marquessate by his eldest son Lord Cranborne (b. 1861), who entered the house of commons for the Darwen division of Lancashire (1885- 1892) and since 1893 had been member for Rochester. The new marquess had been under-secretary for foreign affairs since 1900, and in October 1903 he became lord privy seal in Mr Balfour's ministry. Of the other four sons, Lord Hugh Cecil (b. 1869) became a prominent figure in parliament as Conserva- tive member for Greenwich (1895-1906), first as an ardent and eloquent High Churchman in connexion with the debates on education, &c, and then as one of the leaders of the Free-Trade Unionists opposing Mr Chamberlain; and his elder brother Lord Robert Cecil (b. 1864), who had at first devoted himself to the bar and become a K.C., entered parliament in 1906 for Maryle- bone, holding views in sympathy with those of Lord Hugh, who had been defeated through the opposition of a Tariff Reform Unionist in a triangular contest at Greenwich, which gave the victory to the Radical candidate. In the elections of January 1910 Lord Robert Cecil resigned his candidature for Marylebone, owing to the strong opposition of the Tariff Reformers, which threatened to divide the party and lose the seat; he stood for Blackburn as a Unionist Free Trader and was defeated. On the other hand Lord Hugh Cecil was returned for Oxford University in place of the Rt. Hon. J. G. Talbot. Lord Hugh's candidature, which was announced in 1909 simultaneously with the resignation of the sitting member, was opposed by many who disagreed with his fiscal views and his attitude on Church questions; but it was found that he had the support of the great majority of the electors, and he was ultimately returned un- opposed. ( H. Ch. ) SALISBURY, ROBERT CECIL, ist Earl of (c. 1565-1612), English lord treasurer, the exact year of whose birth is unrecorded, was the youngest son of William Cecil, ist Lord Burghley, and of his second wife Mildred, daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke, of Gidea Hall in Essex. He was educated in his father's house and at Cambridge University. In 1584 he was sent to France, and was returned the same year to parliament, and again in 1586, as member for Westminster. In 1588 he accompanied Lord Derby in his mission to the Netherlands to negotiate peace with Spain,and sat in the parliament of 1588, and in the assemblies of 1593, 1597 and 1601 for Hertfordshire. About 1589 he appears to have entered upon the duties of secretary of state, though he did not receive the official appointment till 1596. On the 20th of May 1 591 he was knighted, and in August sworn of the privy council. In 1597 he was made chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and in 1598 despatched on a mission to Henry IV. of France, to prevent the impending alliance between that country and Spain. The next year he succeeded his father as master of the court of wards. On Lord Burghley's death on the 4th of August both Essex and Bacon desired to succeed him in the supreme direction of affairs, but the queen preferred the son of her last great minister. On Essex's disgrace, consequent on his sudden and unauthorized abandonment of his command in Ireland, Cecil's conduct was worthy of high praise. " By employing his credit with Her Majesty in behalf of the Earl," wrote John Petit (June 14, 1600), " he has gained great credit to himself both at home and abroad." At this period began Cecil's secret correspondence with James in Scotland. Hitherto Cecil's enemies had persuaded James that the secretary was unfavourable to his claims to the English throne. An under- standing was now effected by which Cecil was able to assure James of his succession, ensure his own power and predominance in the new reign against Sir Walter Raleigh and other competitors, and secure the tranquillity of the last years of Elizabeth, the conditions demanded by him being that all attempts of James to obtain parliamentary recognition of his title should cease, that an absolute respect should be paid to the queen's feelings, and that the communications should remain a profound secret. Writing later in the reign of James, Cecil says: " If Her Majesty had known all I did, how well these (? she) should have known the innocency and constancy of my present faith, yet her age and orbity, joined to the jealousy of her sex, might have moved her to think ill of that which helped to preserve her." x Such was the nature of these secret communications, which, while they aimed at securing for Cecil a fresh lease of power in the new reign, conferred undoubted advantages on the country. Owing to Cecil's action, on the death of Elizabeth on the 24th of March 1603, James was proclaimed king, and took possession of the throne without opposition. Cecil was continued in his office, was created Baron Cecil of Essendon in Rutlandshire on the 13th of May, Viscount Cranborne on the 20th of August 1604, and earl of Salisbury on the 4th of May 1605. He was elected chancellor of the University of Cambridge in February 1601, and obtained the Garter in May 1606. Meanwhile Cecil's success had completed the discontent of Raleigh, who, exasperated at his dismissal from the captaincy of the guard, became involved — whether innocently or not is uncertain — in the treasonable conspiracy known as the " Bye Plot." Cecil took a leading part in his trial in July 1603, and, though probably convinced of his guilt, endeavoured to ensure him a fair trial and rebuked the attorney-general, Sir Edward Coke, for his harshness towards the prisoner. On the 6th of May 1608 the office of lord treasurer was added to Salisbury's other appointments, and the whole conduct of public affairs was placed solely in his hands. His real policy is not always easy to distinguish, for the king con- stantly interfered, and Cecil, far from holding any absolute or continuous control, was often not even an adviser but merely a follower, simulating approval of schemes opposed to his real judgment. In foreign affairs his aim was to preserve the balance of power between France and Spain, and to secure the independ- ence of the Netherlands from either state. He also hoped, like his father, to make England the head of the Protestant alliance abroad; and his last energies were expended in effecting the marriage in 161 2 of the princess Elizabeth, James's daughter, with the Elector Palatine. He was in favour of peace, preoccupied with the state of the finances at home and the decreasing revenue, and, though sharing Raleigh's dislike of Spain, was instrumental in making the treaty with that power in 1604. In June 1607 he promised the support of the government to the merchants who complained of Spanish ill-usage, but declared that the commons must not meddle with questions of peace and war. In 161 1 he disapproved of the proposed marriage between the prince of Wales and the Infanta. His bias against Spain and his fidelity to the national interests render, therefore, his accept- ance of a pension from Spain a surprising incident in his career. At the conclusion of the peace in 1604 the sum Cecil received was £1000, which was raised the following year to £1500; while in 1609 he demanded an augmentation and to be paid for each piece of information separately. If, as has been stated, 2 he received a pension also from France, it is not improbable that, like his contemporary Bacon, who accepted presents from suitors on both sides and still gave an independent decree, Cecil may have maintained a freedom from corrupting influences, while his acceptance of money as the price of information concerning the intentions of the government may have formed 1 Correspondence of King James VI. of Scotland with Sir R. Cecil, ed. by J. Bruce (Camden Soc, 1861), p. xl. 2 Gardiner, History of England, i. 214. SALISBURY, ist EARL OF 77 part of a general policy of cultivating good relations with the two great rivals of England (one advantage of which was the communication of plots formed against the government), and of maintaining the balance of power between them. It is difficult, however, in the absence of complete information, to understand the exact nature and signification of these strange relations. As lord treasurer Salisbury showed considerable financial ability. During the year preceding his acceptance of that office the expenditure had risen to £500,000, leaving, with an ordinary revenue of about £320,000 and the subsidies voted by parliament, a yearly deficit of £73,000. Lord Salisbury took advantage of the decision by the judges in the court of exchequer in Bates's case in favour of the king's right to levy impositions; and (on the 28th of July 1608) imposed new duties on articles of luxury and those of foreign manufacture which competed with English goods, while lowering the dues on currants and tobacco. By this measure, and by a more careful collection, the ordinary income was raised to £460,000, while £700,000 was paid off the debt, leaving at the beginning of 1610 the sum of £300,000. This was a substantial reform, and if, as has been stated, the " total result of Salisbury's financial administration " was " the halving of the debt at the cost of doubling the deficiency," l the failure to secure a permanent improvement must be ascribed to the extravagance of James, who, disregarding his minister's entreaties and advice, continued to exceed his income by £149,000. But a want of statesmanship had been shown by Salisbury in forcing the king's legal right to levy impositions against the remonstrances of the parliament. In the " great contract," the scheme now put forward by Salisbury for settling the finances, his lack of political wisdom was still more apparent. The Commons were to guarantee a fixed annual subsidy, on condition of the abandonment of impositions and of the redress of grievances by the king. An unworthy and undignified system of higgling and haggling was initiated between the crown and the parlia- ment. Salisbury could only attribute the miscarriage of his scheme to the fact " that God did not bless it." But Bacon regarded it with severe disapproval, and in the parliament of 1613, after the treasurer's death, he begged the king to abandon these humiliating and dangerous bargainings, " that your majesty do for this parliament put off the person of a merchant and contractor and rest upon the person of a king." In fact, the vicious principle was introduced that a redress of grievances could only be obtained by a payment of subsidies. The identity of interests between the crown and the nation which had made the reign of Elizabeth so glorious, and which she herself had consummated on the occasion of her last public appearance by a free and voluntary concession of these same impositions, was now destroyed, and a divergence of interests, made patent by vulgar bargaining, was substituted which stimulated the disastrous struggle between sovereign and people, and paralysed the national development for two generations. This was scarcely a time to expect any favours for the Roman Catholics, but Salisbury, while fearing that the Roman Church in England would become a danger to the state, had always been averse from prosecution for religijn, and he attempted to dis- tinguish between the large body of law-abiding and loyal Roman Catholics and those connected with plots and intrigues against the throne and government, making the offer in October 1607 that if the pope would excommunicate those that rebelled against the king and oblige them to defend him against invasion, the fines for recusancy would be remitted and they would be allowed to keep priests in their houses. This was a fair measure of toleration. His want of true statesmanship was shown with regard to the Protestant Nonconformists, towards whom his attitude was identical with that afterwards maintained by Laud, and the same ideal pursued, namely that of material and outward conformity, Salisbury employing almost the same words as the archbishop later, that " unity in belief cannot be preserved unless it is to be found in worship." 2 Bacon's disparaging estimate of his cousin and rival was 1 Spedding, Life and Letters of Bacon, iv. 276. 1 Gardiner, History of England, i. 199. probably tinged with some personal animus,- and instigated by the hope of recommending himself to James as his successor; but there is little doubt that his acute and penetrating description of Salisbury to James as one " fit to prevent things from growing worse but not fit to make them better," as one " greater in operatione than in opere," is a true one. 3 Elsewhere Bacon accuses him " of an artificial animating of the negative " — in modern language, of official obstruction and " red tape." But in one instance at least, when he advised James not to press forward too hastily the union of England and Scotland, a measure which especially appealed to Bacon's imagination and was ardently desired by him, Salisbury showed a prudence and judgment superior to his illustrious critic. It can scarcely be denied that he rendered substantial services to the state in times of great difficulty and perplexity, and these services would probably have been greater and more permanent had he served a better king and in more propitious times. Both Elizabeth and James found a security in Salisbury's calm good sense, safe, orderly official mind and practical experience of business, of which there was no guarantee in the restlessness of Essex, the enterprise of Raleigh or the speculation of Bacon. On the other hand, he was neither guided nor inspired by any great principle or ideal, he contributed nothing towards the settlement of the great national problems, and he precipitated by his ill-advised action the disastrous struggle between crown and parliament. Lord Salisbury died on the 24th of May 16 12, at the parsonage house at Marlborough, while returning to London from taking the waters at Bath. During his long political career he had amassed a large fortune, besides inheriting a considerable portion of Lord Burghley's landed estate. In 1607 he exchanged, at the king's request, his estate of Theobalds in Hertfordshire for Hatfield. Here he built the magnificent house of which he himself conceived the plans and the design, but which he did not live to inhabit, its completion almost coinciding with his death. In person and figure he was in strange contrast with his rivals at court, being diminutive in stature, ill-formed and weak in health. Elizabeth styled him her pygmy; his enemies delighted in vilifying his "wry neck," "crooked back" and "splayfoot," andin Bacon's essay on " Deformity," it was said, " the world takes notice that he paints out his little cousin to the life." 4 Molin, the Venetian ambassador in England, gives a similar description of his person, but adds that he had "a noble countenance and features." 6 Lord Salisbury wrote The State and Dignitie of a Secretaire of Estate's Place (publ. 1642, reprinted in Harleian Miscellany, ii. and Somers Tracts (1809), v.; see also Harleian MSS. 305 and 354), and An Answer to Certain Scandalous Papers scattered abroad under Colour of a Catholick Admonition (1606), justifying his attitude towards recusants after the discovery of the Gun- powder Plot (Harl. Misc. ii.; Somers Tracts, v.). He married Elizabeth, daughter of William Brooke, 5th Baron Cobham, by whom, besides one daughter, he had William (1591-1668), his successor as 2nd earl. No complete life of Robert Cecil has been attempted, but the materials for it are very extensive, including Hist. MSS. Comm. Series, Marquis of Salisbury's MSS. (superseding former reports in the series), from which MSS. selections were published in 1740 by S. Haynes, by Wm. Murdin in 1759, by John Bruce, in The Corre- spondence of King James VI. with Sir Robert Cecil, in 1 86 1 (Camden Society), and by Ed. Lodge, in Illustrations of English History , in 1838. The 2nd earl of Salisbury, who sided with the parliament during the Civil War and represented his party in negotiations with the king at Uxbridge and at Newport, was succeeded by his grandson James (1648-1683) as 3rd earl. James's descendant, James, the 7th earl (1 748-1823), who was lord chamberlain of the royal household from 1783 to 1804, was created marquess of Salisbury in 1789. His son and successor, James Brownlow William, the 2nd marquess (1791-1868), married Frances Mary, daughter of Bamber Gascoyne of Childwall Hall, Lancashire, and took the name of Gascoyne before that of Cecil. He was lord privy seal in 1852 and lord president of the council in 1858- 1859; his son and heir was the famous prime minister. 3 Spedding, Life and Letters of Bacon, iv. 278 note, 279. 4 Chamberlain to Carleton, Birch's Court of King James, i. 214. 6 Col. of Slate Papers: Venetian, x. 515. 7« SALISBURY, 4 th EARL OF— SALISBURY SALISBURY, THOMAS DE MONTACUTE, 4 th Earl oe (1388-1428), was son of John, the third earl, who was executed in 1400 as a supporter of Richard II. Thomas was granted part of his father's estates and summoned to parliament in 1409, though not fully restored till 1421. He was present throughout the campaign of Agincourt in 141 5, and at the naval engagement before Harfleur in 1416. In the expedition of 1417-18 he served with increasing distinction, and especially at the siege of Rouen. During the spring of 1419 he held an independent command, capturing Fecamp, Honfleur and other towns, was appointed lieutenant-general of Normandy, and created earl of Perche. In 1420 he was in chief command in Maine, and defeated the Marechal de Rieux near Le Mans. When Henry V. went home next year Salisbury remained in France as the chief lieutenant of Thomas, duke of Clarence. The duke, through his own rash- ness, was defeated at Bauge on the 21st of March 1421. Salisbury came up with the archers too late to retrieve the day,but recovered the bodies of the dead, and by a skilful retreat averted further disaster. He soon gathered a fresh force, and in June was able to report to the king " this part of your land stood in good plight never so well as now." (Foedera, x. 131). Salisbury's success in Maine marked him out as John of Bedford's chief lieutenant in the war after Henry's death. In 1423 he was appointed governor of Champagne, and by his dash and vigour secured one of the chief victories of the war at Cravant on the 30th of July. Subsequent operations completed the conquest of Champagne, and left Salisbury free to join Bedford at Verneuil. There on the 17th of August, 1424, it was his "judgment and valour " that won the day. During the next fhree years Salisbury was employed on the Norman border and in Maine. After a year's visit to England he returned to the chief command in the field in July, 1428. Against the judgment of Bedford he determined to make Orleans his principal objective, and began the siege on the 1 2th of October. Prosecuting it with his wonted vigour he stormed Tourelles, the castle which protected the southern end of the bridge across the Loire, on the 24th of October. Three days later whilst surveying the city from a window in Tourelles he was wounded by a cannon-shot, and died on the 3rd of November 1428. Salisbury was the most skilful soldier on the English side after the death of Henry V. Though employed on diplomatic missions both by Henry V. and Bedford, he took no part in politics save for a momentary support of Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, during his visit to England in 1427-1428. He was a patron of John Lydgate, who presented to him his book The Pilgrim (now Harley MS. 4826, with a miniature of Salisbury, engraved in Strutt's Regal Antiquities). By his first wife Eleanor Holand, daughter of Thomas, earl of Kent, Salisbury had an only daughter Alice, in her right earl of Salisbury, who married Richard Neville, and was mother of Warwick the King- maker. His second wife Alice was grand-daughter of Geoffrey Chaucer, and after his death married William de la Pole, duke of Suffolk. The chief accounts of Salisbury's campaigns are to be found in the Gesta Henrici Quinti, edited by B. Williams for the Eng. Hist. Soc. (London, 1850) in the Vita Henrici Quinti (erroneously attributed to Thomas of Elmham), edited by T. Hearne (Oxford, 1727); the Chronique of E. de Monstrelet, edited by L. D. d'Arcq (Paris, 1857- 1862) ; the Chrtmiques of Jehan de Waurin, edited by W. and E. L. C. P. Hardy (London, 1864-1891); and the Chronique de la Pucelle of G. Cousinot, edited by Vaflet de Viriville (Paris, 1859). For modern accounts see Sir J. H. Ramsay, Lancaster and York (Oxford, 1892); and C. Oman, Political History of England, 1377- 1485 (London, 1906). (C. L. K.) SALISBURY, WILLIAM L0N6SW0RD (or Longespee), Earl of (d. 1226), was an illegitimate son of Henry II. In 1 1 98 he received from King Richard I. the hand of Isabella, or Ela (d. 1261), daughter and heiress of William, earl of Salisbury, and was granted this title with the lands of the earldom. He held many high offices under John, and commanded a section of the English forces at Bouvines (1214), when he was made a prisoner. He remained faithful to the royal house except for a few months in 1216, when John's cause seemed hopelessly lost. He was also a supporter of Hubert de Burgh. In 1225 he went on an expedition to Gascony, being wrecked on the Isle of Re on the return voyage. The hardships of this adventure undermined his health, and he died at Salisbury on the 7th of March 1226, and was buried in the cathedral there. The eldest of Longsword's four sons, William (6.1212-1250) did not receive his father's earldom, although he is often called earl of Salisbury. In 1247 he led the English crusaders to join the French at Damietta and was killed in battle with the Saracens in February 1250. SALISBURY, a township of Litchfield county, in the north- western corner of Connecticut, U.S.A. Pop. (1910) 3322. Area, about 58 sq. m. Salisbury is served by the Central New England, and the New York, New Haven & Hartford railways. In the township are several villages, including Salisbury, Lakeville, Lime Rock, Chapinville and Ore Hill. Much of the township is hilly, and Bear Mountain (2355 ft.), near the Massachusetts line, is the highest elevation in the state. The Housatonic river forms the eastern boundary. The township is a summer resort. In it are the Scoville Memorial Library (about 8000 volumes in 1910); the Hotchkiss preparatory school (opened in 1892, for boys); the Salisbury School (Protestant Episcopal, for boys), removed to Salisbury from Staten Island in 1901 and formerly St Austin's school; the Taconic School (1896, for girls); and the Connecticut School for Imbeciles (established as a private institution in 1858). Among the manufactures are charcoal, pig-iron, car wheels and general castings at Lime Rock, cutlery at Lakeville, and knife-handles and rubber brushes at Salisbury. The iron mines are among the oldest in the country; mining began probably as early as 1731. The first settlement within the township was made in 1720 by Dutchmen and Englishmen, who in 17 19 had bought from the Indians a tract of land along the Housatonic, called " Weatogue " — an Indian word said to mean " the wigwam place." In 1732 the township was surveyed with its present boundaries, and in 1738 the land (exclusive of that held under previous grants) was auctioned by the state at Hartford. In that year the present name was adopted, and in 1741 the township was incorporated. See Malcolm D. Rudd, An Historical Sketch of Salisbury, Con- necticut (New York, 1899); and Ellen S. Bartlett, " Salisbury," in The Connecticut Quarterly, vol. iv. No. 4, pp. 345 sqq. (Hartford, Conn., 1898). SALISBURY, a city and municipal and parliamentary borough, and the county town of Wiltshire, England, 83J m. W. by S. of London, on the London and South- Western and Great Western railways. Pop. (1901) 17,117. Its situation is beautiful. Viewed from the hills which surround it the city is seen to lie among flat meadows mainly on the north bank of the river Avon, which is here joined by four tributaries. The magnificent cathedral stands close to the river, on the south side of the city, the streets of which are in part laid out in squares called the " Chequers." To the north rises the bare upland of Salisbury Plain. The cathedral church of St Mary is an unsurpassed example of Early English architecture, begun and completed, save its spire and a few details, within one brief period (1220-1266). There is atradi- tion, supported by probability, that Elias de Derham, canon of the cathedral (d. 1245), was the principal architect. He was at Salisbury in 1220-1229, and had previously taken part in the erection of the shrine of Thomas a Becket at Canterbury. The building is 473 ft. in extreme length, the length of the nave being 229 ft. 6 in., the choir 151 ft., and the lady chapel 68 ft. 6 in. The width of the nave is 82 ft. and the height 84 ft. The spire, the highest in England, measures 404 ft. (For plan, see Architecture : Romanesque and Gothic in England.) The cathedral, standing in a broad grassy close, consists of a nave of ten bays, with aisles and a lofty north porch, main transepts with eastern aisles, choir with aisles, lesser transepts, presbytery and lady chapel. The two upper storeys of the tower and the spire above are early Decorated. The west front, the last portion of the original building completed, bears in its rich orna- mentation signs of the transition to the Decorated style. The perfect uniformity of the building is no less remarkable within than without. The frequent use of Purbeck marble for shafts contrasts beautifully with the delicate grey freestone which is the principal building material. In the nave is a series of monuments of much interest, which ■ were placed here by James Wyatt, who, in an unhappy restoration of the cathedral (1782-1791), destroyed many magnificent stained-glass windows which had escaped the Reformation, and also removed two Perpendicular chapels and the detached belfry which stood to the north-west of the cathedral. One of the memorials is a SALISBURY 79 small figure of a bishop in robes. This was long connected with the ceremony of the " boy bishop," which, as practised both here and elsewhere until its suppression by Queen Elizabeth, consisted in the election of a choir-boy as " bishop ' during the period between St Nicholas' and Holy Innocents' Days. The figure was supposed to represent a boy who died during his tenancy of the office. But such small figures occur elsewhere, and have been supposed to mark the separate burial-place of the heart. The lady chapel is the earliest part of the original building, as the west end is the latest. The cloisters, south of the church, were built directly after its completion. The chapter-house is of the time of Edward I., a very fine octagonal example, with a remarkable series of contemporary sculptures. The library contains many valuable MSS. and ancient printed books. The diocese covers nearly the whole of Dorsetshire, the greater part of Wiltshire and very small portions of Berkshire, Hampshire, Somersetshire and Devonshire. ' There are three ancient parish churches: St Martin's, with square tower and spire, and possessing a Norman font and Early English portions in the choir; St Thomas's (of Canterbury), founded in 1240 as a chapel to the cathedral, and rebuilt in the 15th century; and St Edmund's, founded as the collegiate church of secular canons in 1268, but subsequently rebuilt in the Perpendicular period. The residence of the college of secular priests is occupied by the modern ecclesiastical college of St Edmund's, founded in 1873. St John's chapel, founded by Bishop Robert Bingham in the 13th century, is occupied by a dwelling-house. There is a beautiful chapel attached to the St Nicholas hospital. The poultry cross, or high cross, an open hexagon with six arches and a central pillar, was erected by Lord Montacute before 1335.' In the market-place is Marochetti's statue to Sidney Herbert, Lord Herbert of Lea. The modern public buildings include the court-house, market, corn exchange and theatre. A park was laid out in 1887 to commemorate the jubilee of Queen Victoria, and in the same year a statue was erected to Henry Fawcett, the economist, who was born at Salisbury. Among remaining specimens of ancient domestic architecture may be mentioned the banqueting-hall of John Halle, wool merchant, built about 1470; and Audley House, belonging also to the 15th century, and repaired in 1881 as a diocesan church house. There are a large number of educational and other charities, including the bishop's grammar school, Queen Elizabeth's grammar school, the St Nicholas hospital and Trinity hospital, founded by Agnes Bottenham in 1379. Brew- ing, tanning, carpet-making and the manufacture of hardware and of boots and shoes are carried on, and there is a considerable agricul- tural trade. The city is governed by a mayor, 7 aldermen and 21 councillors. Area, 1710 acres. History. — The neighbourhood of Salisbury is rich in anti- quities. The famous megalithic remains of Stonehenge (g.v.) are not far distant. From Milford Hill and Fisherton Sarum. many prehistoric relics have been brought to the fine Blackmore Museum in the city. But the site most intimately associated with Salisbury is that of Old Sarum, the history of which forms the preface to that of the modern city. This is a desolate place, lying a short distance north of Salisbury, with a huge mound guarded by a fosse and earthworks. The summit is hollowed out like a crater, its rim surmounted by a rampart so deeply cut away that its inner side rises like a sheer wall of chalk 100 ft. high. Old Sarum was probably one of the chief fortresses of the early Britons and was known to the Romans as Sorbiodunum. Cerdic, founder of the West Saxon kingdom, fixed his seat there in the beginning of the 6th century. Alfred strengthened the castle, and it was selected by Edgar as a place of national assembly to devise means of checking the Danes. Under Edward the Confessor it possessed a mint. The ecclesiastical importance of Old Sarum begins with the establishment of a nunnery by Edward the Confessor. Early in the 8th century Wiltshire had been divided between the new diocese of Sherborne a'nd that of Winchester. About 920 a bishopric had been created at Rams- bury, east of Savernake Forest; to this Sherborne was joined in 1058 and in 1075/6 Old Sarum became the seat of a bishopric, transferred hither from Sherborne. Osmund, the second bishop, revised the form of communion service in general use, compiling a missal which forms the groundwork of the celebrated " Sarum Use." The "Sarum Breviary" was printed at Venice in 1483, and upon this, the most widely prevalent of English liturgies, the prayer-books of Edward VI. were mainly based. Osmund also built a cathedral, in the form of a plain cross, and this was traceable in the very dry summer of 1834. Old Sarum could have afforded little room for a cathedral, bishop's palace, garrison and townsfolk. The priests complained of their bleak New Saram. and waterless abode, and still more of its transference to the keeping of lay castellans. Soldiers and priests were at perpetual feud ; and after a licence had been granted by Pope Honorius III., it was decided to move down into the fertile Avon valley. In 1 102 the notorious bishop, Roger Poore, by virtue of his office of sheriff, obtained custody of the castle and the grant of a comprehensive charter from Henry I. which confirmed and extended the possessions of the ecclesiastical establishment, annexed new benefactions and granted perpetual freedom in markets and fairs from all tolls and customs. This was confirmed by Henry II., John, and Henry III. With the building of New Sarum in the 13th century and the transference to it of the see, Old Sarum lapsed to the crown. It has since changed hands several times, and under James I. formed part of the property of the earldom of Salisbury. By the 16th century it was almost entirely in ruins, and in 1608 it was ordered that the town walls should be entirely demolished. The borough returned two members to parliament from 1295 until 1832 when it was de- prived of representation by the Reform Act, the privilege of election being vested in the proprietors of certain free burgage tenures. In the 14th century the town appears to have been divided into aldermanries, the will of one John atte Stone, dated 1361, including a bequest of land within the aldermanry of Newton. In 1 102 Henry I. granted a yearly fair for seven days, on August 14 and for three days before and after. Henry III. granted another fair for three days from June 28, and Richard II. for eight days from September 30. The new city, under the name of New Sarum (New Saresbury, Salisbury) immediately began to spring up round the cathedral close. A charter of Henry III. in 1227 recites the removal from Old Sarum, the king's ratification and his laying the foundation-stone of the church. It then grants and confirms to the bishops, canons and citizens, all liberties and free customs previously enjoyed, and declares New Sarum to be a free city and to constitute forever part of the bishop's demesne. During the three following centuries periodical disputes arose between the bishop and the town, ending generally in the complete submission of the latter. One of these resulted in 1472 in the grant of a new charter by Edward IV. empowering the bishop to enforce the regular election of a mayor, and to make laws for governing the town. In 1611 the city obtained a charter of incorporation from James I. under the title of " mayor and commonalty " of the city of New Sarum, the governing body to consist of a mayor, recorder and twenty- four aldermen, with power to make by-laws. This charter was renewed by Charles I. and confirmed by Cromwell in 1656. The latter recites that since the deprivation of archbishops and bishops, by parliament, the mayor and commonalty have bought certain possessions of the late bishop of New Sarum, together with fairs and markets. These it confirms, constitutes the town a city and county, subjects the close to its jurisdiction and invests the bailiff with the powers of a sheriff. In 1659 with the restoration of the bishops, the ancient charter of the city was revived and that of 1656 cancelled. In 1684 during the friction between Charles II. and the towns, Salisbury surrendered its charter voluntarily. Four years later in 1688 James II. restored to all cities their ancient charters, and the bishop continued to hold New Sarum as his demesne until 1835. The Municipal Corporations Act of that year reported that Salisbury was still governed under the charter of 161 1, as modified by later ones of Charles II., James II. and Anne. In 1 221 Henry III. granted the bishop a fair for two days from August 14, which in 1227 was prolonged to eight days. Two general fairs were obtained from Cromwell in 1656, on the Tuesday before Whit-Sunday and on the Tuesday in the second week before Michaelmas. In 1792 the fairs were held on the Tuesday after January 6, on the Tuesday and Wednesday after March 2 5, on Whit-Monday, on the second Tuesday in September, on the second Tuesday after October 10, and on the Tuesday before Christmas Day; in 1888 on July 15 and October 18; and now on the Tuesdays after January 6 and October 10. A large pleasure-fair was held until recently on Whit-Monday and 8o SALISBURY— SALLUST Tuesday, but in 1885 this was reported as of bad character and it is now discontinued. A grant of a weekly market on Tuesday was obtained from Henry III. in 1227. In 1240 this privilege was being abused, a daily market being held, which was finally prohibited in 1361. In 13 16 a market on Saturday was granted by Edward II. and in 1656 another on every second Tuesday by Cromwell. In 1769 a wholesale cloth market was appointed to be held yearly on August 24. In 1888 and 1891 the market days were Tuesday and Saturday. A great corn market is now held every Tuesday, a cattle market on alternate Tuesdays, and a cheese market on the second Thursday in the month. Salisbury returned two members to parliament until 1885 when the number was reduced to one. As early as 1334 the town took part in foreign trade and was renowned for its breweries and woollen manufactories, and the latter industry continued until the 17th century, but has now entirely declined. Commercial activity gave rise to numerous confraternities amongst the various trades, such as those of the tailors, weavers and cutlers. The majority originated under Edward IV., though the most ancient — that of the tailors — was said to have been formed under Henry VI. and still existed in 1835. The manufacture of cutlery, once a flourishing industry, is now decayed. See Victoria County History. Wiltshire; Sir R. C. Hoare, History of New Sarum (1843) ; and History of Old Sarum (1843). SALISBURY, a town and the county-seat of Wicomico county, Maryland, U.S.A., on the Wicomico river, about 23 m. from its mouth. Pop. (1900) 4277, including 1006 negroes; (1910) 6690. It is served by the Baltimore, Chesapeake & Atlantic (which has shops here), and the New York, Philadelphia & Norfolk railways, and by steamers on the Wicomico river, which has a channel 9 ft. deep; Salisbury is the head of navigation. Grain, vegetables and lumber are shipped along the coast. Salisbury was founded in 1732, organized as a town in 1812, and incorporated in 1854 and again in 1888. SALISBURY, a city and the county-seat of Rowan county, North Carolina, U.S.A., about 120 m. W. by S. of Raleigh. Pop. (1890) 4418; (1900) 6277 (2408 negroes); (1910) 7153. Salisbury is served by the Southern railway, which has repair shops here. It is the seat • of Livingstone College (African Methodist Episcopal, removed from Concord to Salisbury in 1882, chartered 1885). There is a national cemetery here, in which 12,147 Federal soldiers are buried. The city has various manufactures and is the trade centre of the surrounding farming country. Salisbury was founded about 1753, was first incorpo- rated as a town in 1755 and first chartered as a city in 1770. During the Civil War there was a Confederate military prison here. On the 12th of April 1865 the main body of General George Stoneman's cavalry encountered near Salisbury a force of about 3000 Confederates under General William M. Gardner, and captured 1364 prisoners and 14 pieces of artillery. SALISHAN, the name of a linguistic family of North American Indian tribes, the more important of which are the Salish (Flat- heads), Bellacoola, Clallam, Colville, Kalispel, Lummi, Nisqually, Okinagan, Puyallup, Quinault, Sanpoil, Shushwap, Skokomish, Songeesh, Spokan and Tulalip. They number about 20,000, and live in the southern part of British Columbia, the coast of Oregon, and the north-west of Washington, Montana and Idaho. SALLI (Sid), a seaport on the Atlantic coast of Morocco, on the north side of the Bu Ragrag opposite Rabat (q.v). Pop. about 30,000. The shrine of Sidi Abd Allah Hasun in Salli is so sacred as to close the street in which it stands to any but Moslems. Outside the town walls there is no security for life or property. A bar at the mouth of the river excludes vessels of more than two hundred tons; steamers lie outside, communi- cating with the port by lighters of native build manned by descendants of the pirates known as "Salli Rovers." (See Barbary Pirates.) SALLO, DENIS DE, Sieur de la Coudraye [pseudonym Sieur d' Hidonville] (1626-1669), French writer, and founder of the first French literary and scientific journal, was born at Paris in 1626. In 1665 he published the first number of the Journal des savants. The Journal, under his direction, was suppressed after the thirteenth number, but was revived shortly afterwards. He died in Paris on the 14th of May 1669. SALLUST [Gaius Sallustius Crispus] (86-34 B.C.), Roman historian, belonging to a well-known plebeian family, was born at Amiternum in the country of the Sabines. After an ill-spent youth he entered public life, and was elected tribune of the people in 52, the year in which Clodius was killed in a street brawl by the followers of Milo. ■ Sallust was opposed to Milo and to Pompey's party and to the old aristocracy of Rome. From the first he was a decided partisan of Caesar, to whom he owed such political advancement as he attained. In 50 he was removed from the senate by the censor Appius Claudius Pulcher on the ground of gross immorality, the real reason probably being his friendship for Caesar. In the following year, no doubt through Caesar's influence, he was reinstated and appointed quaestor. In 46 he was praetor, and accompanied Caesar in his African campaign, which ended in the decisive defeat of the remains of the Pompeian party at Thapsus. As a reward for his services, Sallust was appointed governor of the province of Numidia. In this capacity he was guilty of such oppression and extortion that only the influence of Caesar enabled him to escape condemnation. On his return to Rome he purchased and laid out in great splendour the famous gardens on the Quirinal known as the Horti Sallustiani. He now retired from public life and devoted himself to historical literature. His account of the Catiline conspiracy (De conjuratione Catilinae or Bellum Catilinarium) and of the Jugurthine War (Bellum Jugurthinum) have come down to us complete, together with fragments of his larger and most important work (Hisloriae), a history of Rome from 78—67, intended as a continuation of L. Cornelius Sisenna's work. The Catiline Conspiracy (his first published work) contains the history of the memorable year 63. Sallust adopts the usually accepted view of Catiline, and describes him as the deliberate foe of law, order and morality, without attempting to give any adequate explanation of his views and intentions. Catiline, it must be remembered, had supported the party of Sulla, to which Sallust was opposed. There may be truth in Mommsen's suggestion that he was particularly anxious to clear his patron Caesar of all complicity in the conspiracy. Anyhow, the subject gave him the opportunity of showing off his rhetoric at the expense of the old Roman aristocracy, whose degeneracy he delighted to paint in the blackest colours. On the whole, he is not unfair towards Cicero. His Jugurthine War, again, though a valuable and interesting monograph, is not a satisfactory performance. We may assume that he had collected materials and put together notes for it during his governor- ship of Numidia. Here, too, he dwells upon the feebleness of the senate and aristocracy*'too often in a tiresome, moralizing and philosophizing vein, but as a military history the work is unsatisfactory in the matter of geographical and chronological details. The extant fragments of the Histories (some discovered in 1886) are enough to show the political partisan, who took a keen pleasure in describing the reaction against the dictator's policy and legislation after his death. The loss of the work is to be regretted, as it must have thrown much light on a very eventful period, embracing the war against Sertorius, the campaigns of Lucullus against Mithradates of Pontus, and the victories of the great Pompey in the East. Two letters (Duae epistolae de republica ordinanda), letters of political counsel and advice addressed to Caesar, and an attack upon Cicero (Invectiva or Declamatio in Ciceronem), frequently attributed to Sallust, are probably the work of a rhetorician of the first century A.D., also the author of a counter-invective by Cicero. Sallust is highly spoken of by Tacitus (Annals, iii. 30); and Quintilian (ii. 5, x. 1), who regards him as superior to Livy, does not hesitate to put him on a level with Thucydides On the whole the verdict of antiquity was favourable to Sallust as an historian. He struck out for himself practically a new line in literature, his predecessors having been little better than mere dry-as-dust chroniclers, whereas he endeavoured to explain the connexion and meaning of events, and was a successful delineator of character. The contrast between his early life SALMASIUS— SALMERON Y ALFONSO 81 and the high moral tone adopted by him in his writings was frequently made a subject of reproach against him; but there is no reason why he should not have reformed. In any case, his knowledge of his own former weaknesses may have led him to take a pessimistic view of the morality of his fellow-men, and to judge them severely. His model was Thucydides, whom he imitated in his truthfulness and impartiality, in the introduction of philosophizing reflections and speeches, and in the brevity of his style, sometimes bordering upon obscurity. His fondness for old words and phrases, in which he imitated his contemporary Cato, was ridiculed as an affectation; but it was just this affectation and his rhetorical exaggerations that made Sallust a favourite author in the 2nd century a.d. and later. Editions and translations in various languages are numerous. Editio princeps (1470); (text) R. Dietsch (1874); H. Jordan (1887); A. Eussner (1887); (text and notes) F. D. Gerlach (1823- 1831); F. Kritz (1828-1853; ed. minor, 1856); C. H. Frotscher (1830); C. Merivale (1852); F. Jacobs, H. Wirz (1894); G. Long, revised by J. G. Frazer, with chief fragments of Histories (1884); W. W. Capes (1884); English translation by A. W. Pollard (1882). There are many separate editions of the Catilina and Jugurtha, chiefly for school use. The fragments have been edited by F. Kritz (1853) and B. Maurenbrecher (1891-1893); and there is an Italian translation (with notes) of the supposititious letters by G. Vittori (1897). On Sallust generally J. W. Lobell's Zur Beurtheilung des S. (18 1 8) should still be consulted; there are also treatises by T. Vogel (1857) and M. Jager (1879 and 1884), T. Rambeau (1879); L. Constans, De sermone Sallustiano (1880); P. Bellezza, Dei fonti e dell' autorila storica di Sallusiio (1891); and special lexicon by O. Eichert (1885). The sections in Teuffel-Schwabe's History of Roman Literature are full of information ; see also bibliography of Sallust for 1 878-1 898 by B. Maurenbrecher in C. Bursian, Jahres- bericht uber die Fortschritle der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft (1900). SALMASIUS, CLAUDIUS, the Latinized name of Claude Saumaise (1588-1653), French classical scholar, born at Semur- en-Auxois in Burgundy on the 15th of April 1588. His father, a counsellor of the parlement of Dijon, sent him, at the age of sixteen, to Paris, where he became intimate with Casaubon. He proceeded in 1606 to the university of Heidelberg, where he devoted himself to the classics. Here he embraced Protestantism, the religion of his mother; and his first publication (1608) was an edition of a work by NilusCabasilas, archbishop of Thessalonica, in the 14th century, against the primacy of the pope {De primatu Papae), and of a similar tract by the Cala- brian monk Barlaam (d. c. 1348). In 1609 he brought out an edition of Florus. He then returned to Burgundy, ana 1 qualified for the succession to his father's post, which he eventually lost on account of his religion. In 1620 he published Casaubon's notes on the Augustan History, with copious additions of his own. In 1623 he married Anne Mercier, a Protestant lady of a distinguished family; the union was by no means a happy one, his wife being represented as a second Xanthippe. In 1629 Salmasius produced his magnum opus as a critic, his commentary on Solinus's Polyhistor, or rather on Pliny, to whom Solinus is indebted for the most important part of his work. Greatly as this commentary may have been overrated by his con- temporaries, it is a monument of learning and industry. Salmasius learned Arabic to qualify himself for the botanical part of his task. After declining overtures from Oxford, Padua and Bologna, in 1631 he accepted the professorship formerly held by Joseph Scaliger at Leiden. Although the appointment in many ways suited him, he found the climate trying; and he was persistently attacked by a jealous clique, led by Daniel Heinsius, who as university librarian refused him access to the books he wished to consult. Shortly after his removal to Holland, he composed at the request of Prince Frederick of Nassau, his treatise on the military system of the Romans (De re militari Romanorum), which was not published until 1657. Other works followed, mostly philological, but including a denuncia- tion of wigs and hair-powder, and a vindication of moderate and lawful interest for money, which, although it drew down upon him many expostulations from lawyers and theologians, induced the Dutch Church to admit money-lenders to the sacrament. His treatise De primatu Papae (1645), accompanying a republication of the tract of Nilus Cabasilas, excited a warm controversy in France, but the government declined to suppress it. In November 1649 appeared the work by which Salmasius is best remembered, his Defensio regia pro Carolo I. His advice had already been sought on English and Scottish affairs, and, inclining to Presbyterianism or a modified Episcopacy, he had written against the Independents. It does not appear by whose influence he was induced to undertake the Defensio regia, but Charles II. defrayed the expense of printing, and presented the author with £100. The first edition was anonymous, but the author was universally known. A French translation which speedily appeared under the name of Claude Le Gros was the work of Salmasius himself. This celebrated work, in our day principally famous for the reply it provoked from Milton, even in its own time added little to the reputation of the author. His reply to Milton, which he left unfinished at his death, and which was published by his son in 1660, is insipid as well as abusive. Until the appearance of Milton's rejoinder in March 1651 the effect of the Defensio was no doubt considerable ; and it probably helped to procure him the flattering invitation from Queen Christina which induced him to visit Sweden in 1650. Christina loaded him with gifts and distinctions, but upon the appearance of Milton's book was unable to conceal her conviction that he had been worsted by his antagonist. Milton, addressing Christina herself, ascribes Salmasius's withdrawal from Sweden in 1651 to mortification at this affront, but this appears to be negatived by the warmth of Christina's subsequent letters and her pressing invitation to return. The claims of the university of Leiden and dread of a second Swedish winter seem fully adequate motives. Nor is there any foundation for the belief that Milton's invectives hastened his death, which took place on the 3rd of September 1653, from an injudicious use of the Spa waters. As a commentator and verbal critic, Salmasius is entitled to very high rank. His notes on the Augustan History and Solinus display not only massive erudition but massive good sense as well; his perception of the meaning of his author is commonly very acute, arid his corrections of the text are frequently highly felicitous. His manly independence was shown in many circumstances, and the bias of his mind was liberal and sensible. He was accused of sour- ness of temper; but the charge, if it had any foundation, is extenu- ated by the wretched condition of his health. The life of Salmasius was written at great length by Philibert de la Mare, counsellor of the parlement of Dijon, who inherited his MSS. from his son. Papillon says that this biography left nothing to desire, but it has never been printed. It was, however, used by Papillon himself, whose account of Salmasius in hisBibliotheque des auteurs de Bourgogne (Dijon, 1745) is by far the best extant, and con- tains an exhaustive list of his works, both printed and in MS. There is an Uoge by A. Clement prefixed to his edition of Salmasius's Letters (Leiden, 1656), and another by C. B. Morisot, inserted in his own Letters (Dijon, 1656). See also E. Haag, La France protestante, (ix. 149-173); and, for the Defensio regia, G. Masson's Life of Milton. SALMERON Y ALFONSO, NICOLAS (1838-1908), Spanish statesman, was born at Alhama la Seca in the province of Almeria, on the 10th of April 1838. He was educated at Granada and became assistant professor of literature and philosophy at Madrid. The last years of the reign of Isabella II. were times of growing discontent with her bad government and with the monarchy. Salmeron joined the small party who advocated the establishment of a republic. He was director of the Opposi- tion paper La Discusion, and co-operated with Don Emilio Castelar on La Democracia. In 1865 he was named one of the members of the directing committee of the Republican party. In 1867 he was imprisoned with other suspects. When the revolution of September 1868 broke out, he was at Almeria recovering from a serious illness. Salmeron was elected to the Cortes in 1871, and though he did not belong to the Socialist party, defended its right to toleration. When Don Amadeo of Savoy resigned the Spanish crown on the nth of February 1873 Salmeron was naturally marked out to be a leader of the party which endeavoured to establish a republic in Spain. After serving as minister of justice in the Figueras cabinet, he was chosen president of the Cortes, and then, on the 1 8th of July 1873, president of the republic, in succession to Pi Margall. He became president at a time when the Federalist party had thrown all the south of Spain into anarchy. Salmeron was compelled to use the troops to restore order. When, however, he found that the generals insisted on executing rebels taken in arms, he resigned on the ground that he was opposed to capital punishment (7th September). He resumed his seat as president of the Cortes on the 8th of September. His successor, Castelar, was compelled to restore order by drastic means. Salmeron took part in the attack made on him in the Cortes on the 3rd of January 1874, which provoked the generals into closing the 82 SALMON, G.— SALMON AND SALMONIDAE chamber and establishing a provisional military government. Salmeron went into exile and remained abroad till 1881, when he was recalled by Sagasta. In 1886 he was elected to the Cortes as Progressive deputy for Madrid, and unsuccessfully endeavoured to combine the jarring republican factions into a party of practical moderate views. On the 18th of April 1907 he was shot at, but not wounded, in the streets of Barcelona by a member of the more extreme Republican party. He died at Pau on the 21st of September 1908. SALMON, GEORGE (1819-1904), British mathematician and divine, was born in Dublin on the 25th of September 1819 and educated at Trinity College in that city. Having become senior moderator in mathematics and a fellow of Trinity, he took holy orders, and was appointed regius professor of divinity in Dublin University in 1866, a position which he retained until 1888, when he was chosen provost of Trinity College. He was provost until his death on the 22nd of January 1904. As a mathematician Salmon was a fellow of the Royal Society, and was president of the mathematical and physical section of the British Association in 1878. He was a D.C.L. of Oxford and an LL.D. of Cambridge. His published mathematical works include: Analytic Geometry of Three Dimensions (1862), Treatise on Conic Sections (4th ed., 1863) and Treatise on the Higher Plane Curves (2nd ed., 1873); these books are of the highest value, and have been translated into several languages. As a theologian he wrote Historical Introduction to the Study of the New Testament (1885), The Infallibility of the Church (1888), Non-Miraculous Christianity (1881) and The Reign of Law (1873). SALMON and SALMONIDAE. 1 The Salmonidae are an im- portant family of fishes belonging to the Malacopterygian Teleosteans, characterized as follows: Margin of the upper jaw formed by the premaxillaries and the maxillaries — supra- occipital in contact with the frontals, but frequently overlapped by the parietals, which may meet in a sagittal suture; opercular bones all well developed. Ribs sessile, parapophyses very short or absent; epineurals, sometimes also epipleurals, present. Post-temporal forked, the upper branch attached to the epiotic, the lower to the opisthotic; postclavicle, as usual, applied to the inner side of the clavicle. A small adipose dorsal fin. Air-bladder usually present, large. Oviducts rudimentary or absent, the ova falling into the cavity of the abdomen before extrusion. The Salmonidae are very closely related to the Clupeidae, or herring family, from which they are principally distinguished by the position of the postclavicle and by the presence of a rayless fin on the back, at a considerable distance from the true or rayed dorsal fin ; this so-called adipose fin is an easy recogni- tion-mark of this family, so far as British waters are concerned, for, if it is present in several other families, these have no repre- sentatives in the area occupied by the fresh-water salmonids, with the exception of the North American Siluridae and Percop- sidae, which are readily distinguished by the pungent spine or spines which precede the rays of the first dorsal fin. The imper- fect condition of the oviducts, quite exceptional among fishes, owing to which the large ripe eggs may be easily squeezed out of the abdomen, is a feature of great practical importance, since it renders artificial impregnation particularly easy, and to it is due the fact that the species of Salmo have always occupied the first place in the annals of fish-culture. The Salmonidae inhabit mostly the temperate and arctic zones of the northern hemisphere, and this is the case with all fresh- water' forms, with one exception, Retropinna, a smelt-like fish from the coasts and rivers of New Zealand. A few deep-sea forms {Argentina, Microstoma, Nansenia, Bathylagus) are known from the Arctic ocean, the Mediterranean and the Antarctic ocean, down to 2000 fathoms. The question has been discussed whether the salmonids, so many of which live in the sea, but resort to rivers for breeding purposes, were originally marine or fresh-water. The balance of opinion is in favour of the former hypothesis, which is supported by the fact that the overwhelm- ing majority of the members of the suborder of which the salmonids form part permanently inhabit the sea. The clupeids, 1 The Latin name salmo possibly means literally " the leaper," from satire, to leap, jump. for instance, which are their nearest allies, are certainly oi marine origin, as proved by their abundance in Cretaceous seas, yet a few, like the shads, ascend' rivers to spawn, in the same way as the salmon does, without this ever having been adduced as evidence in favour of a fresh-water origin of the genus Clupea to which they belong. No remains older than Miocene (Osmerus, Prothymailus, Thaumaturus) are certainly referable to this family, the various Cretaceous forms originally referred to it, such as Osmeroides and Pachyrhizodus, being now placed with the Elopidae. There is probably no other group of fishes to which so much attention has been paid as to the Salmonidae, and the species have been unduly multiplied by some writers. Perhaps not more than 80 should be regarded as valid, but some of them fall into a number of local forms which are distinguished as varieties or subspecies by some authors, whilst others would assign them full specific rank. These differences of opinion prevail whether we deal with Salmo proper or with Coregonus. Classification. — The recent genera may be arranged in five groups : The first, which includes Salmo, Brachymystax, Stenodus, Coregonus, Phylogephyra and Thymallus, has 8 to 20 branchiostegal rays, 9 to 13 rays in the ventral fin, the pyloric appendages more or less numerous (17 to 200) and breeding takes place in fresh water. The second group, with the single genus Argentina, is, like the follow- ing, marine, and is characterized by 6 branchiostegal rays, II to 14 ventral rays, the stomach caecal, with pyloric appendages in moderate numbers (12 to 20). The third group, genera Osmerus, Thaleichthys , Mallotus, Plecoglossus, Hypomesus, has 6 to 10 branchiostegal rays, 6 to 8 ventral rays, the stomach caecal, with pyloric appendages few (2 to 11) or rather numerous. The fourth group, genera Microstoma, Nansenia, Bathylagus, deep-sea forms with the branchiostegal rays reduced to 3 or 4, ventral rays 8 to 10, the stomach caecal and pyloric appendages absent ; whilst the fifth group, with the genera Retropinna and Salanx, is distinguished from the preceding in having no air-bladder, branchiostegal rays 3 to 6, ventral rays 6 or 7, stomach siphonal and pyloric appendages absent. The genus Salmo, the most important from the economical and sporting points of view, is characterized by small smooth scales, which at certain seasons may become embedded in the slimy skin, a moderately high dorsal fin with 10 to 12 well-developed rays, and a large mouth provided with strong teeth, which are present not only in the jaws and on the palate, but also on the tongue ; the maxillary or posterior bone of the upper jaw extends to below or beyond the eye. Young specimens (see Parr) are marked with dark vertical bars on the sides (parr-marks) , which in some trout are retained throughout life, and have the caudal fin more or less deeply forked or marginate, the form of the fin changing with the age and sexual development of the fish. Adult males have the jaws more produced in front than females, and both snout and chin may become curved and hooked. As pointed out by A. Gunther, who was the first to make a profound study of the members of this genus, and especially of the British forms, there is probably no other group of fishes which offers so many difficulties to the ichthyologist with regard to the distinction of species, as well as to certain points in their life-history, the almost infinite variations which they undergo being dependent on age, sex and sexual development, food and the properties of the water. The difficulties in their study have rather been increased by the excessive multiplication of so-called specific forms. Opinions also vary as to the importance to be attached to the characters which serve to group the principal species into natural divisions. Whilst A. Gunther admitted two genera, Salmo and Oncorhynchus, D. S. Jordan and B. W. Evermann go so far as to recognize five, Oncorhynchus, Salmo, Hucho, Cristivomer and Salvelinus. The latter arrangement is certainly the more logical, the difference between the first genus and the second being of rather less importance than that between the second and the third. However, considering the slightness of the distinctive characters on which these divisions are based, and the complete passage which obtains between them, the writer of this article thinks it best to maintain the genus Salmo in the wide sense, whilst retaining the divisions as subordinate divisions or sub-genera, with the following definitions : — Oncorhynchus (Pacific salmon). — Vomer flat, toothed along the shaft, at least in the young; anal fin with 12 to 17 well-developed rays. Salmo (true salmon and trout). — Vomer flat, toothed along the shaft, at least in the young; anal fin with 8 to 12 well-developed rays. Salvelinus (char). — Vomer boat-shaped, the shaft strongly de- pressed behind the head, which alone is toothed, the teeth forming an isolated fascicle; anal fin with 8 to 10 welUdeveloped rays. Hucho (huchens). — Vomer as in the preceding, but teeth forming a single arched transverse series continuous with the palatine teeth; anal fin with 8 to 10 well-developed rays. The salmon itself (Salmo salar), the type of the family, is a large fish, attaining a length of 4 or 5 ft., and living partly in the SALMON AND SALMONIDAE 83 sea, partly in fresh water, breeding in the latter. Fish which thus ascend rivers to spawn are called " anadromous." It may be briefly defined as of silvery coloration, with small black spots usually confined to the side above the lateral line, with the teeth on the shaft of the vomer disappearing in the adult, with 18 to 22 gill-rakers on the first branchial arch, with 11 or 12 well- developed rays in the dorsal fin, no to 125 scales in the lateral line, and n or 12 (exceptionally 13) between the latter and the posterior border of the adipose fin. The young, called "parr" or "samlet," characterized by a smaller mouth, the maxillary bone not extending much beyond the vertical of the centre of the eye, the presence of an alternating double or zigzag series of teeth on the shaft of the vomer, the presence of dark vertical bars on the sides of the body, together with more or less numerous small red spots, is hatched in the spring, and usually remains for about two years in the rivers, descending at the third spring to the sea, where it is known as "smolt." In the sea it soon assumes a more uniform silvery coloration and from this state, or " grilse," develops its sexual organs and re-enters rivers to breed, after which operation, much emaciated and unwholesome as food, it is known as " kelt," and returns to the sea to recuperate. It has now been ascertained by the investigations instituted in Norway by K. Dahl that the smolts, immediately after leaving the rivers, make for the open sea, and do not return to the coast until they have reached the grilse stage. Thus specimens measuring between 8 and 18 in. hardly ever fall into the hands of the angler. The salmon inhabits the North Atlantic and its tributary waters. It is known to extend as far north as Scandinavia, Lapland, Iceland, Greenland and Labrador, and as far south as the north-west of Spain and the state of Connecticut. It ascends the Rhine as far as Basel. There are land-locked forms in Scandinavia and in Canada and Maine, which are regarded by some authors as distinct species {S. hardinii from Lake Wener, 5. sebago from Sebago Lake in Maine, 5. ouananiche from Lake St John, Canada and neighbouring waters). These non- migratory forms are smaller than the typical salmon, never exceeding a weight of 25 lb, the ouananiche, the smallest of all, rarely weighing 73ft and averaging 33. Although spending their whole life in fresh waters, the habits of these fish are very similar to those of the sea salmon, ascending tributary streams to spawn in their higher ranges, and then returning to the deep parts of the lakes, which are to them what the sea is to the anadromous salmonids. The salmon breeds in the shallow running waters of the upper streams of the rivers it ascends. The female, when about to deposit her eggs, scoops out a trough in the gravel of the bed of the stream. This she effects by lying on her «ide and ploughing into the gravel by energetic motions of her body. She then deposits her eggs in the trough ; while she is engaged in these operations she is attended by a male, who sheds milt over the eggs as the female extrudes them, fertilization being, as in the great majority of Teleostei, external. The parent fish then fill up the trough and heap up the gravel over the eggs until these are covered to a depth of some feet. The gravel heap thus formed is called a " redd." The period of the year at which spawning takes place in the British Isles, and in similar latitudes of the northern hemisphere, varies to a certain extent with the locality, and in a given locality may vary in different years; but, with rare exceptions, spawning is confined to the period between the beginning of September and the middle of January. The eggs are spherical and non-adhesive; they are heavier than water, and are moderately tough and elastic. The size varies slightly with the age of the parent fish, those from full-sized females being slightly larger than those from very young fish. According to rough calculations made at salmon-breeding establishments, there are 25,000 eggs to a gallon ; the diameter is about a quarter of an inch. It is usually estimated that a female salmon produces about 900 eggs for each pound of her own weight ; but this average is often exceeded. The time between fertilization and hatching, or the escape of the young fish from the egg-membrane, varies considerably with the temperature to which the eggs are exposed. It has been found that at a constant temperature of 41 ° F. the period is 97 days; but the period may be as short as 70 days and as long as 150 days without injury to the health of the embryo. It follows therefore that in the natural conditions eggs deposited in the autumn are hatched in the early spring. The newly hatched fish, or " alevin," is provided with a very large yolk-sac, and by the absorption of the yolk is nourished for some time; although its mouth is fully formed and open, it takes no food. The alevin stage lasts for about six weeks, and at the end of it the young fish is about I J in. long. The grilse, after spawning in autumn, return again to the sea in the winter or following spring, and reascend the rivers as mature spawning salmon in the following year. Both salmon and grilse after spawning are called " kelts.' The following recorded experi- ment illustrates the growth of grilse into salmon: a grilse-kelt of 2 lb was marked on March 31, 1858, and recaptured on August 2 of the same year as a salmon of 81b. The ascent of rivers by adult salmon is not so regular as that of grilse, and the knowledge of the subject is not complete. Although salmon scarcely ever spawn before the month of September, they do not ascend in shoals just before that season; the time of ascent extends throughout the spring and summer. A salmon newly arrived in fresh water from the sea is called a clean salmon, on account of its bright, well-fed appearance; during their stay in the rivers the fish lose the brilliancy of their scales and deteriorate in condition. The time of year at which clean salmon ascend from the sea varies greatly in different rivers; and rivers are, in relation to this subject, usually denominated early or late. The Scottish rivers flowing into the German Ocean and Pentland Firth are almost all early, while those of the Atlantic slope are late. The Thurso in Caithness and the Naver in Sutherlandshire contain fresh-run salmon in December and January; the same is the case with the Tay. In Yorkshire salmon commence their ascent in July, August or September if the season is wet, but if it is dry their migration is delayed till the autumn rains set in. In all rivers more salmon ascend immediately after a spate or flood than when the river is low, and more with the flood tide than during the ebb. In their ascent salmon are able to pass obstructions, such as waterfalls and weirs of considerable height, and the leaps they make in surmounting such impediments and the persistence of their efforts are very remarkable. We reproduce here, with additions, Professor Noel Paton's summary (published first in the loth edition of this Encyclopedia) of observations on the life-history of the salmon. Important ad- vances in our knowledge of the life-history of the salmon have been made through the investigations of Professor F. Miescher on the Rhine at Basel, of Professor P. P. C. Hoek in Holland, of Mr Archer as lessee of the river Sands in Norway and as inspector of salmon fisheries for Scotland in conjunction with Messrs Gray and Tosh, and of a number of workers in the laboratory of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. With regard to the food of salmon, the enormously rapid growth of smolts to grilse and of salmon from year to year shows that they feed in the sea. In a few months a smolt will increase from a few ounces to 4 or 5 lb; while Archer's weighings of 16 salmon which had been marked and recaptured in the following year showed an average gain of 36 %, reckoned on from kelt stage to kelt stage. During the season of 1895 Tosh, at Berwick-on-Tweed, opened between March and August 514 fish, and found food in the stomachs of 76, or over 14% of the whole. As to the nature of the food, it was found to be as follows: — Herring 36 or 47 % Crustacea, amphipods, &c 14,, 18% Sand eels II ,, 14% Haddock and whiting 8 ,, 10% Feathers and vegetable matter . . 7 ,, 9% Excluding the feathers and vegetable matter, which are not really of the nature of food, all the material found in the stomach was of marine origin. Hoek, out of 2000 fish examined by him, found 7 with food in the stomach, and, curiously enough, 4 of these were taken on the same day. In each case marine fish constituted the food. As to where salmon go to feed in the sea, our information is still very deficient, but the prevalence of herring in the stomach would seem to indicate that they must follow the shoals of these fish which approach the coast during the summer months. While there can be no doubt that salmon feed in the sea, the question of whether they feed in fresh water has been much debated. It is difficult for the popular mind to conceive of an active fish like the salmon subsisting for several months without food, and the fact that the fish so frequently not only takes into its mouth but actually swallows worms and various lures has still further tended to confirm many people in the conviction that salmon do feed in fresh water. In discussing the question it is well clearly to understand what is meant by feeding. It is the taking, digesting and absorbing of material of use in the economy in such quantities as to be of benefit to the individual. Accepting this definition, it may at once be said that all the evidence we possess is entirely opposed to the view that salmon feed when in fresh water. Miescher examined the stomachs of about 2000 salmon captured at Basel, about 500 m. from the mouth of the Rhine, and in only two did he find any indication of feeding. These two fish were male kelts. One contained the remains of a cyprinoid fish, and the other had a dilated stomach with an acid secretion, but no food remains. Hoek, who, as already stated, examined about 2000 fish, found food of marine origin in 7, but in none food derived from fresh water. Of the 132 stomachs of salmon from the estuaries and upper waters of Scottish rivers examined in the laboratory of the College of Physicians not one contained any food remains. The stomach of salmon captured in fresh water is collapsed and shrunken. Its mucous membrane is thrown into folds, and it contains a small amount of mucus of a neutral reaction. The intestine, which usually contains numerous 8 4 SALMON AND SALMONIDAE tape-worms, is full of a greenish-yellow viscous material which, when examined under the microscope, is found to consist of mucus with shed epithelial and other, cells and with masses of crystals of carbonate of lime. In no case does the microscope reveal any food remains such as fish-scales, plates of Crustacea or bristles of worms or annelids. In the fish taken in the estuaries up to the month of August the gall-bladder is distended ; in those taken later in the year it is empty. In all the fish from the upper waters the gall-bladder is empty and collapsed. According to the investigations of Hoek and of Gulland, the lining membrane of the stomach and intestine degenerates while the fish is in the river, but the correctness of these observations has been denied by F. B. Brown and J. Kingston Barton. Gillespie finds that the activity of the digestive processes is low in fish taken from the rivers, and that micro-organisms, which would be killed by the hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice were it actively secreted, flourish in the intestines of the fish from the upper waters. Those who believe that the salmon feeds in fresh water explain the fact that the stomach is always found empty by the supposition that the fish vomits any food when it is captured, and several descriptions of cases in which this has been observed might be quoted; but such observations must be accepted with caution, and the contracted state of the stomach, the absence of the hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice, and lastly the absence of any traces of digested food remains in the contents of the intestine, negative this explanation. The question may be presented in another way. Is there any reason why the salmon should feed while in fresh water? The investigations carried on in the laboratory of the College of Physicians have definitely shown that the salmon leaves the sea with an enormous supply of nourishment stored in its muscles, and that during its sojourn in fresh water it gets its energy and builds up its rapidly growing ovaries and testes from this stored material. Briefly stated, these investigations show that the supply of albuminous material and fats stored in the muscles and used while the fish is in the river is amply sufficient for the greatest requirements of the fish. The amount of energy liberated from the fats and albuminous material is 570 times more than is required to raise the fish from the level of the estuary to that of the upper waters! These analyses further show that all the materials required for the construction of the ovaries and the testes are found in sufficient quantity in the muscles, with the exception of iron, which is, however, abundantly present in the blood. It is a very common opinion that kelts feed voraciously while still in fresh water, and this has been used as an argument that they should be destroyed. It is not easy to bring forward such satis- factory evidence as has been adduced in the case of unspawned salmon, since it is illegal to kill kelts; but none of the 25 kelts procured by the Scottish Fishery Board, and examined in the College of Physicians' laboratory, contained any food, and Mr Anderson, formerly of Dunkeld, informs Professor Paton that in the old days, when kelts were habitually killed when captured, he has opened a large number and never found any trace of food in the stomach. Some fishers declare that they have seen kelts devouring salmon fry, but it is not easy to make accurate observations in deep water. According to Dr Gulland's investigations, the mucous membrane of the stomach and intestine is completely regenerated while the gall-bladder contains bile, and the digestive activity of the alimentary canal is greater than in salmon before spawning. Kelts thus appear at least to be capable of feeding. The rate of growth of the genitalia has been carefully studied by Miescher, Archer and Hoek. From January till about the end of May the growth of the ovaries is slow. In Hoek's series of obser- vations, which are the most complete, they increased from -35 to ■85 % of the body weight. After this they enlarge more rapidly, and by the end of August are about 3 % in salmon taken at the mouth of the Tweed, about 4 % in the salmon from the mouth of the Rhine and about 8 % in the salmon from the Basel fisheries. By November they have risen to 20% in the Tweed and in Holland, and to 23 % in the upper reaches of the Rhine. According to Archer's observations, the development of the ovaries in grilse in the earlier months somewhat lags behind that in the salmon. The growth of the testes has been chiefly investigated by Archer and Tosh in the Tweed and by Miescher at Basel. From March to the middle of July in the Tweed these organs increase from about -19 to '35% of the weight of the fish. In July their rate of growth increases, and they reach their maximum development at the end of September, when they are about 6% of the body weight. In the Rhine in March they weigh about • 1 %, and they reach their maximum development of about 5 % in October. What leads to the migration of salmon from sea to river and river to sea ? It is usually supposed that they come to the river to spawn; that it is the nisus generativus that drives them from the sea, where their ova will not develop, to the fresh water where develop- ment is possible. But it is found that salmon are passing from sea to river at all seasons of the year, and with their genitalia in all stages of development — some fish, running in March with ovaries only 1 % of the body weight, other fish not running till October with ovaries 15 or 16% of the body weight. It is difficult, then, to accept the theory that the sexual act is the governing factor. That it is a secondary factor seems to be indicated by the great run of fish in June, July and August, when the genitalia are most rapidly growing There is one respect, however, in which all the fish leaving the sea for the river agree, and that is in the amount of stored material accumulated in their bodies. In the early running fish this material is largely confined to the muscles, but in the later coming fish it is more equally distributed between muscles and genitalia. The amount of stored material may be measured by the amount of solids, and if we express the results of all the fish examined in terms of fish of uniform size — 100 cm. in length — the following results are obtained : — Nov. 1 Feb. Mar. April. May and June. July and Aug. Oct. and Nov. Kelts. Muscles Ovaries Total 2481 23 2214 24 2355 24 2599 33 2210 47 2270 72 1750 545 946 9 2504 2238 2379 2632 2257 2342 2295 955 It would thus appear that, when the salmon has in the sea accumu- lated a certain definite amount of nourishment, it ceases to feed, and returns to the river irrespective of the state of its genital organs. Nutrition, and not the nisus generativus, appears to be the motive power. That the fish after' spawning returns to the sea in search of food is fully recognized by all. Course of Migration.— It is well known that while salmon run all the year through in greater or lesser numbers, the run of grilse takes place in the summer months, from May to August. But it is further possible to divide the salmon into classes — the so-called winter salmon of the Rhine, large fish running from October to February, with unripe ovaries and testes; and the summer salmon, running for the most part from March to October, with genitalia more or less ripe. These summer fish are small in the early months, but increase in size as the autumn advances. The winter salmon, along with the early summer or spring fish, appear to pass directly to the upper reaches of the river, and to spawn there, while the larger late-coming fish appear to populate the lower waters. This seems to be indicated by the comparison of upper-water and estuary fish throughout the year. The period at which male and female fish enter the rivers also appears to be somewhat different. The observations of Tosh, Miescher and Hoek show that throughout the year the female fish exceed the males in number, and, secondly, that during the earlier months of the year female fish run in much larger numbers than do male fish. It is only in September that anything like an equality between the two sexes is established. But in Great Britain it is not until the end of August that the nets are removed, and one cannot but believe that the destruction of such a very large proportion of females as are captured during the early months of the season must have a most prejudicial effect upon the breeding stock. Rate of Migration. — By a comparison of the first appearance of winter salmon and of grilse in the markets of Holland and of Basel — 500 m. up the river — Miescher gives some data for the determination of the average rate at which salmon ascend an unobstructed stream. It was found that winter salmon appeared at Basel about 54 days after their appearance in Holland, which would give a rate of passage of about 10 m. per diem. From a smaller number of observations on grilse, it appears that they travel at a somewhat slower rate. It is, however, doubtful how far these figures are of value in deciding the rate at which fish pass up the lower reaches of the river. Great difficulties have been experienced in ascertaining the age and rate of growth of salmon. The practice has long ago been resorted to of " marking " salmon, the most satisfactory mark being a small oblong silver label, oxidized or blackened, bearing distinctive letters and numbers, to the dorsal fin. But of late the structure of the scales has been studied with the object of obtaining indications of the age, growth and spawning habit. H. W. Johnston in 1905 contributed an interesting paper on the subject. The scales bear concentric lines, which vary in number and relative distance according to the growth of the fish, and during the feeding periods these lines are added with more rapidity and a greater degree of separation than at other times. Johnston has endeavoured to ascertain their meaning in Tay salmon, and he has shown that the number of lines external to their last annual ring gives some clue to the time at which they left the sea; he is thus able to distinguish among ascending salmon such as are on their first return from such as have made the journey once or oftener before. The group of Pacific salmon, or king salmon, commonly desig- nated as Oncorhynchus, contains the largest and commercially the most important of the Salmonidae. They are anadromous species inhabiting the North Pacific and entering the rivers of America as well as of Asia. The best known and most valuable is the quinnat (S. quinnat), ascending the large rivers in spring and summer, spawning from July to December. They die after the breeding season is over, and never return to the sea. For the important Sal- monidae known as Trout, Char,Whitefish,Smelt,Grayling, &c, see the separate articles. The huchen (S. hucho) of the Danube is an elongate, somewhat pike-like form, growing to the same size 1 Winter fish not due to spawn till following November. SALMONEUS— SALONICA 85 as the salmon, of silvery coloration, with numerous small black dots, extending on the dorsal fin. Allied to it are S. fluviatilis from Siberia and S. perryi or blackistoni from the northern island of Japan. The genus Stenodus is intermediate between Salmo and Coregonus (whitefish). S. leuciththys is an anadromous species, inhabiting the Caspian Sea and ascending the Volga and the Ural ; it is also found in the Arctic ocean, ascending the Ob, Lena, &c. It grows to a length of 5 ft. A second species occurs in Arctic North America; this is the " Inconnu," S. mackenzii, from the Mackenzie river and its tributaries. The capelin {Mallotus villosus, so called from the villous bands formed by the scales of mature males) is a salmonid of the coasts of Arctic America and north-eastern Asia; it deposits its eggs in the sand along the shores in incredible numbers, the beach becoming a quivering mass of eggs and sand. Plecoglossus, a salmonid from Japan and Formosa, is highly remarkable for its lamellar, comb-like, lateral teeth. The siel-smelts, Argentina, are deep-sea salmonids, of which examples have occasionally been taken off the coasts of Scotland and Ireland. Bathylagus, another salmonid discovered by the " Challenger " expedition, is still better adapted for life at great depths (down to 1700 fathoms), the eyes being of enormous size. Authorities. — tm the systematic and life histories : A. Gunther, Catalogue of Fishes in the British Museum, vol. vi. (1866) ; F. Day, British and Irish Salmonidae (London, 1887); F. A. Smitt, Kritisk Forteckning ofver de i Riksmuseum befintliga Salmonider (Stockholm, 1886); V. Fatio, Faune des vertebres de la Suisse, vol. v. (1890); D. S. Jordan and B. W. Evermann, Fishes of North America, vol. i. (1896), and American Food and Game Fishes (London and New York, 1902) ; F. F. Kavraisky, Die Lachse der Kaukasuslander (Tiflis, 1896). On growth and migrations: Die histochemischen und physio- logischen Arbeiten von Friedrich Miescher, Band ii., pp. 116, 192, 304, 325 (Leipzig, 1897); P. P. C. Hoek, Statische und biologische Untersuchungen an in den Niederlandern gefangenen Lachsen (Char- lottenburg, 1895) ; Annual Reports of the Fishery Board for Scotland, part ii., " Report on Salmon Fisheries," Nos. 11, 12, 13, 14 (1893- 1894-95-96) ; Report of Investigations on the Life-History of the Salmon to the Fishery Board for Scotland, edited by Noel Paton, presented to parliament and published 1898; K. Dahl, Orret og unglahs samt lovgivningens forhold til dem (Christiania, 1902) ; H. W. Johnston, " The Scales of Tay Salmon as indicative of Age, Growth and Spawning Habit," Ann. Rep- Fish. Board, Scotland, xxiii., appendix ii. (1905). Introduction in Tasmania and New Zealand: M. Airport, Proc. Zool. Soc. (1870), pp. 14 and 750; A. Nichol, Acclimatization of the Salmonidae at the Antipodes (London, 1882); W. Arthur, History of Fish Culture in New Zealand," TV. N. Zeal. Inst. xiv. ( 1 88 1 ) p. 180; P. S. Seager, " Concise History of the Acclimatization of the Salmonids in Tasmania," Proc. R. 00c. Tasm. (1888) p. 1; also R. M. Johnston, I.e. p. 27. On the salmon disease: T. H. Huxley, Quart. Jour. Micr. Sci. xxii. (1882) p. 311. (G. A. B.) SALMONEUS, in Greek mythology, son of Aeolus (king of Magnesia in Thessaly, the mythic ancestor of the Aeolian race), grandson of Hellen and brother of Sisyphus. He removed to Elis, where he built the town of Salmone, and became ruler of the country. His subjects were ordered to worship him under the name of Zeus; he built a bridge of brass, over which he drove at full speed in his chariot to imitate thunder, the effect being heightened by dried skins and caldrons trailing behind, while torches were thrown into the air to represent lightning. At last Zeus smote him with his thunderbolt, and destroyed the town (Apollodorus i. 9. 7; Hyginus, Fab. 60, 61; Strabo viii. p. 356; Manilius, Astronom. 5, 91; Virgil, Aen. vi. 585, with Heyne's excursus). Joseph Warton's idea that the story is introduced by Virgil as a protest against the Roman custom of deification is not supported by the general tone of the Aeneid itself. According to Frazer (Early History of the Kingship, 1905; see also Golden Bough, i., 1900, p. 82), the early Greek kings, who were expected to produce rain for the benefit of the crops, were in the habit of imitating thunder and lightning in the character of Zeus. At Crannon in Thessaly there was a bronze chariot, which in time of drought was shaken and prayers offered for rain (Antigonus of Carystus, Historme mirabiles, 15). S. Reinach (Revue archtologique, 1903, i. 154) suggests that the story that Salmoneus was struck by lightning was due to the misinterpretation of a picture, in which a Thessalian magician appeared bringing down lightning and rain from heaven ; hence arose the idea that he was the victim of the anger or jealousy of Zeus, and that the picture represented his punishment. SALOME, in Jewish history the name borne by several women of the Herod dynasty. (1) Sister of Herod the Great, who became the wife successively of Joseph, Herod's uncle, Costobar, governor of Idumaea, and a certain Alexas. (2) Daughter of Herod by El pis, his eighth wife. (3) Daughter of Herodias by her first husband Herod Philip. She was the wife successively of Philip the Tetrarch and Aristobulus, son of Herod of Chalcis. This Salome is the only one of the three who is mentioned in the New Testament (Matt. xiv. 3 sqq.; Mark vi. i7sqq.) and only in connexion with the execution of John the Baptist. Herod Antipas, pleased by her dancing, offered her a reward " unto the half of my kingdom "; instructed by Herodias, she asked for John the Baptist's " head in a charger " x (see Herod II. Antipas) . Salome is also the name of one of the women who are mentioned as present at the Crucifixion (Mark xv. 40), and afterwards in the Sepulchre (xvi. 1). Comparison with Matt, xxvii. 56 suggests that she was also the wife of Zebedee (cf. Matt. xx. 20-23). It is further conjectured that she was a sister of Mary the mother of Jesus, in which case James and John would be cousins of Jesus. In the absence of specific evidence any such identifica- tion must be regarded with suspicion. SALON, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of Bouches-du-Rhone, 40 m. N.N.W. of Marseilles by rail. Pop. (1906), town, 9927; commune, 14,030. Salon is situated on the eastern border of the plain of Crau and on the irrigation canal of Craponne, the engineer of which, Adam de Craponne (1519- 1559, has a statue in the town, where he was born. The chief buildings are the church of St Laurent (14th century), which contains the tomb of Michael Nostradamus, the famous astrologer, who died at Salon in 1565, and the church of St Michel (12th century), with a fine Romanesque portal. The central and oldest part of the town preserves a gateway of the 15th century and the remains of fortifications. There are remains of Roman walls near Salon, and in the h6tel-de-ville (17th century) there is a milestone of the 4th century. The town carries on an active trade in oil and soap, which are the chief of its numerous manu- factures. Olives are largely grown in the district, and there is a large trade in them and in almonds._ SALONICA, Salonika or Saloniki (anc. Thessalonica, Turkish Selanik, Slav. Solun); the capital of the Turkish vilayet of Salonica, in western Macedonia, and one of the principal seaports of south-western Europe. Pop. (1905) about 130,000, including some 60,000 Sephardic Jews, whose ancestors fled hither in the 1 6th century to escape religious persecution in Spain and Portugal: their language is a corrupt form of Spanish, called Ladino (i.e. Latin), and spoken to some extent by other com- munities in the city. Salonica lies on the west side of the Chalcidic peninsula, at the head of the Gulf of Salonica (Sinus Thermaicus) , on a fine bay whose southern edge is formed by the Calamerian heights, while its northern and western side is the broad alluvial plain produced by the discharge of the Vardar and the Bistritza, the principal rivers of western Macedonia. Built partly on the low ground along the edge of the bay and partly on the hill to the north (a compact mass of mica schist), the city with its white houses enclosed by white walls runs up along natural ravines to the castle of the Heptapyrgion, or Seven Towers, and is rendered picturesque by numerous domes and minarets and the foliage of elms, cypresses and mulberry trees. The commercial quarter of the town, lying to the north-west, towards the great valleys by which the inland traffic is conveyed, is pierced by broad and straight streets paved with lava. There are electric tram- ways and a good water-supply, but most of the older houses are fragile wooden structures coated with lime or mud, and the sanitation is defective. Apart from churches, mosques and synagogues, there are a few noteworthy modern buildings, such as the Ottoman Bank, the baths, quarantine station, schools and hospitals; but the chief architectural interest of Salonica is centred in its Roman and Byzantine remains. Antiquities. — The Via Egnatia of the Romans (mod. Jassijol or Grande Rue de Vardar) traverses the city from east to west, between the Vardar Gate and the Calamerian Gate. Two Roman triumphal arches used to span the Via Egnatia. The arch near the Vardar Gate — a massive stone structure probably erected towards the end of the 1st century a.d., was destroyed in 1867 I 1 Charger, a large flat plate (see Charge). 86 SALONICA to furnish material for repairing the city walls; an imperfect inscription from it is preserved in the British Museum. The other arch, popularly called the arch of Constantine, but with greater probability assigned to the reign of Galerius (a.d. 305-311), is built of brick and partly faced with sculptured marble. A third example of Roman architecture — the remains of a white marble portico supposed to have formed the entrance to the hippodrome — is known by the Judaeo-Spanish designation of Las Incantadas, from the eight Caryatides in the upper part of the structure. There are also numerous fragments of Roman inscriptions and statuary. The conspicuous mosques of Salonica are nearly all of an early Christian origin; the remarkable preservation of their mural decorations makes them very im- portant for the history of Byzantine architecture. The principal are those dedicated to St Sophia, St George and St Demetrius. St Sophia (Aya Sofia), formerly the cathedral, and probably erected in the 6th century by Justinian's architect Anthemius, was converted into a mosque in 1589. It is cased with slabs of white marble. The whole length of the interior is 1 10 ft. The nave, forming a Greek cross, is surmounted by a hemispherical dome, the 600 sq. yds. of which are covered with a rich mosaic representing the Ascension. St Demetrius, which is probably older than the time of Justinian, consists of a long nave and two side aisles, each ter- minating eastward in an atrium the full height of the nave, in a style not known to occur in any other church. The columns of the aisles are half the height of those in the nave. The internal decoration is ali produced by slabs of different- coloured marbles. St George's, conjecturally assigned to the reign of Constantine (d. 337), is circular in plan, measuring inrernally 80 ft. in diameter. The external wall is 18 ft. thick, and at the angles of an inscribed octagon are chapels formed in the thickness of the wall, and roofed with wagon-headed vaults visible on the exterior; the eastern chapel, however, is en- larged and developed into a bema and apse projecting beyond the circle, and the western and southern chapels constitute the two entrances of the building. The dome, 72 yds. in circumference, is covered throughout its entire surface of 800 sq. yds. with what is the largest work in ancient mosaic still extant, representing a series of fourteen saints standing in the act of adoration in front of temples and colonnades. The Eski Juma, or Old Mosque, is another interest- ing basilica, evidently later than Constantine, with side aisles and an apse without side chapels. The churches of the Holy Apostles and of St Elias also deserve mention. Of the secular buildings, the Caravanserai, usually attributed to Murad II. (1422-1451), probably dates from Byzantine times. Salonica is the see of an Orthodox Greek archbishop. Each religious community has its own schools and places of worship, among the most important being the Jewish high-school, the Greek and Bulgarian gymnasia, the Jesuit college, a high-school founded in i860 and supported by the Jewish Mission of the Established Church of Scotland, a German school, dating from 1887, and a college for boys and a secondary school for girls, both managed by the French Mission La'ique and subsidized since 1905 by the French government. Railways, Harbour and Commerce. — Salonica is the principal Aegean seaport of the Balkan Peninsula, the centre of the import trade of all Macedonia and two-thirds of Albania, and the natural port of shipment for the products of an even larger area. It is the terminus of four railways. One line goes north to Nish in Servia, where it meets the main line (Paris- Vienna-Constantinople) of the Oriental railways; another, after following the same route as far as Uskiib in Macedonia, branches off to Mitrovitza in Albania; the extension of this line to Serajevo in Bosnia was projected in 1908 in order to establish direct communication between Austria and Salonica. A third line, intended ultimately to reach the Adriatic, extends westward from Salonica to Monastir. A fourth, the Con- stantinople junction railway to Constantinople, is of great strategic importance; during the war with Greece in 1897 it facilitated the rapid concentration of Ottoman troops on the borders of Thessaly, and in 1908 it helped to secure the triumph of the Young Turks by bringing the regiments favourable to their propaganda within striking distance of Constantinople. The new harbour, which was opened to navigation in December 1901, allows the direct transhipment of all merchandise whatever may be the direction of the wind, which was previously apt to render shipping operations difficult. The harbour works consist of a breakwater 1835 ft. long, with 28 ft. depth of water on its landward side for a width of 492 ft. Opposite the breakwater is a quay 1475 ft. long, which was widened in 1903-1907 to a breadth of 306 ft. ; at each end of the quay a pier 656 ft. long projects into the sea. Between the extremities of these two piers and those of the breakwater are the two entrances to the harbour. The average number of ships, including small coasters, which entered the port in each of the three years 1905-1907 was 3400, of 930,000 tons. Salonica exports grain, flour, bran, silk cocoons, chrome, manganese, iron, hides and skins, cattle and sheep, wool, eggs, opium, tobacco and fennel. The average yearly value of the imports from 1900 to 1905 was £2,500,000, and that of the exports £1,200,000. The imports consist principally of textiles, iron goods, sugar, tobacco, flour, coffee and chemicals. The volume of the export trade tended to decrease in the first decade of the 20th century. The making of morocco leather and other leather-work, such as saddlery, harness and boots and shoes, affords employment to a large number of persons. Other industries are cotton-spinning, brewing, tanning, iron-founding, and the manufacture of bricks, tiles, so^p, flour, ironmongery and ice. The spirit called mastic or raki is largely produced. History. — Thessalonica was built on the site of the older Greek city of Therma, so called in allusion to the hot-springs of the neighbourhood. It was founded in 315 b.c. by Cassander, who gave it the name of his wife, a sister of Alexander the Great. It was a military and commercial station on a main line of com- munication between Rome and the East, and had reached its zenith before the seat of empire was transferred to Constantinople. It became famous in connexion with the early history of Christ- ianity through the two epistles addressed by St Paul to the community which he founded here; and in the later defence of the ancient civilization against the barbarian inroads it played a considerable part. In 390 7000 citizens who had been guilty of insurrection were massacred in the hippodrome by command of Theodosius. Constantine repaired the port, and probably enriched the town with some of its buildings. During the iconoclastic reigns of terror it stood on the defensive, and succeeded in saving the artistic treasures of its churches: in the 9th century Joseph, one of its bishops, died in chains for his defence of image-worship. In the 7th century the Macedonian Slavs strove to capture the city, but failed even when it was thrown into confusion by a terrible earthquake. It was the attempt made to transfer the whole Bulgarian trade to Thes- salonica that in the close of the 9th century caused the invasion of the empire by Simeon of Bulgaria. In 904 the Saracens from the Cyrenaica took the place by storm; the public buildings were grievously injured, and the inhabitants to the number of 22,000 were carried off and sold as slaves throughout the countries of the Mediterranean. In 11 85 the Normans of Sicily took Thessalonica after a ten days' siege, and perpetrated endless barbarities, of which Eustathius, then bishop of the see, has left an account. In 1204 Baldwin, conqueror of Constanti- nople, conferred the kingdom of Thessalonica on Boniface, marquis of Montferrat; but in 1222 Theodore, despot of Epirus, one of the natural enemies of the new kingdom, took the city and had himself there crowned by the patriarch of Macedonian Bulgaria. On the death of Demetrius, who had been supported in his endeavour to recover his father's throne by Pope Honorius III., the empty title of king of Salonica was adopted by several claimants. In 1 266 the house of Burgundy received a grant of the titular kingdom from Baldwin II. when he was titular emperor, and it was sold by Eudes IV. to Philip of Tarentum, titular emperor of Romania, in 1320. The Venetians to whom the city was transferred by one of the Palaeologi, were in power when Murad II. appeared, and on the 1st of May 1430, in spite of the desperate resistance of the inhabitants, took the city, which had thrice previously been in the hands of the Turks. They cut to pieces the body of St Demetrius, the patron saint of Salonica, who had been the Roman proconsul of Greece, under Maximian, and was martyred in a.d. 306. In 1876 the French and German consuls at Salonica were murdered by the Turkish populace. On the 4th of September 1890 more than 2000 houses were destroyed by fire in the south-eastern quarters of the city. During the early years of the 20th century Salonica was the headquarters of the Committee of Union and Progress, the central organization of the Young Turkey Party, which carried out the constitutional revolution of 1908. Before this event the weakness of Turkey had encouraged the belief that Salonica would ultimately pass under the control of Austria-Hungary or one of the Balkan States, and this belief gave rise to many political intrigues which helped to delay the solution of the Macedonian Question. Vilayet. — The vilayet of Salonica has an area of 13,510 sq. m. and an estimated population of 1,150,000. It is rich in minerals, including chrome, manganese, zinc, antimony, iron, argentiferous SALOON— SALT 87 lead, arsenic and lignite, but some of these are unworked. The chief agricultural products are grain, rice, beans, cotton, opium and poppy seed, sesame, fennel, red pepper, and much of the finest tobacco grown in Europe; there is also some trade in timber, live- stock, skins, furs, wool and silk cocoons. The growth of commerce has been impeded by the ignorance of cultivators, the want of good roads and the unsettled political condition of Turkey. Apart from the industries carried on in the capital, there are manufactures of wine, liqueurs, sesame oil, cloth, macaroni and soap. The principal towns, Seres (pop. 30,000), Vodena (25,000) and Cavalla (24,000), are described in separate articles; Tikvesh (21,000) is the centre of an agricultural region, Caraferia (14,000) a manufacturing town, and Drama (13,000) one of the centres of tobacco cultivation. SALOON, a large room for the reception of guests in a mansion. The French salon itself is formed from salle, Ger. Saal, hall, reception-room, represented in Old English by the cognate seel, hall, properly " abiding-place," from the root seen in Gothic saljan, to dwell, cf. Russ. selo, village. The word in its proper sense has now a somewhat archaistic flavour, being chiefly used of the 1 8th century, and it has come principally to be used (1) of the large rooms on passenger steamers; (2) on English railways of carriages for the accommodation of large parties not divided into compartments, and in the United States of the so-called " drawing-room cars "; and (3) of a bar or place for the sale of intoxicants. SALSAFY, or Salsify, Tragopogon porrijolius, a hardy biennial, with long, cylindrical, fleshy, esculent roots, which, when properly cooked, are extremely delicate and wholesome; it occurs in meadows and pastures in the Mediterranean region, and in Britian is confined to the south of England, but is not native. The salsafy requires a free, rich, deep soil, which should be trenched in autumn, the manure used being placed at two spades' depth from the surface. The first crop should be sown in March, and the main crop in April, in rows a foot from each other, the plants being afterwards thinned to 8 in. apart. In November the whitish roots should be taken up and stored in sand for immediate use, others being secured in a similar way during intervals of mild weather. The genus Tragopogon belongs to the natural order Compositae, and is represented in Britain by goat's beard, T. pratensis, found in meadows, pastures and waste places. The flowers close at noon, whence the popular name " John-go-to-bed-at-noon." SALSETTE ( = " sixty-six villages "), a large island in British India, N. of Bombay city, forming part of Thana district. Area, 246 sq. m. It is connected with Bombay Island and also with the mainland by bridge and causeway. Salsette is a beautiful, well-wooded tract, its surface being diversified by hills and mountains, some of considerable height, while it is rich in rice fields. In various parts of the island are ruins of Portuguese churches, convents and villas; while the cave temples of Kanheri form a subject of interest. There are 109 Buddhist caves, which date from the end of the 2nd century A.D., but are not so interesting as those of Ajanta, Ellora and Karli. Salsette is crossed by two lines of railway, which have encouraged the building of villa residences by the wealthier merchants of Bombay. The population in 1901 was 146,933. The island was taken from the Portuguese by the Mahrattas in 1739, and from them by the British in 1774; it was formally annexed to the East India Company's dominions in 1782 by the treaty of Salbai. There is another Salsette in the Portuguese settlement of Goa, a district with a population (1900) of 113,061. SALSOMAGGIORE, a village of Emilia, Italy, in the province of Parma, 6 m. S.W. of Borgo San Donnino by steam tramway. Pop. (1901) 1387 (village); 7274 (commune). It is situated 525 ft. above sea-level at the foot of the Apennines, and is a popular watering-place, the baths being especially frequented. The water is strongly saline. SALT, SIR TITUS, Bart.(i8o3-i876), English manufacturer, was born on the 20th of September 1803, at Morley, Yorkshire. In 1820 he was apprenticed to learn wool-stapling at Bradford, and his father, having followed him there and started in that business, took him into partnership in 1824. His success in intro- ducing the coarse Russian wool (donskoi) into English worsted manufacture, due to special machinery of his own devising, gave his firm a great impetus. In 1836 he solved the difficulties of working alpaca (q.v.) wool, created an enormous industry in the production of the staple goods for which that name was retained, and became one of the richest manufacturers in Brad- ford. In 1853 he opened, a few miles out of the city on the Aire, the extensive works and model manufacturing town of Saltaire. From 1859-1861 Salt was M. P. for Bradford, of which city he had been mayor in 1848, and in 1869 he was created a baronet. He died on the 20th of September 1876, and was accorded a public funeral. After his death his many benevolent institutions at Saltaire, at first continued by his widow, were transferred to a trust. See R. Balgarnie, Sir Titus Salt, his Life and its Lessons. SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Sals, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. ctXs, Lat. sal). In chemistry the term salt is given to a compound formed by substituting the hydrogen of an acid by a metal or a radical acting as a metal, or, what comes to the same thing, by eliminating the elements of water between an acid and a base (see Acid; Chemistry). Common Salt. Common salt, or simply salt, is the name given to the native and industrial forms of sodium chloride, NaCl. Pure sodium chloride, which may be obtained by passing hydrochloric acid gas into a saturated solution of the commercial salt, whereupon it is precipitated, forms colourless, crystalline cubes (see also below under Rock salt) which melt at 815. 4 , and begins to volatilize at slightly higher temperatures. It is readily soluble in water, 100 parts of which dissolve 35-52 parts at 0° and 39.16 parts at 100°. The saturated solution at 109. 7 contains 40-35 parts of salt to 100 of water. On cooling a saturated solution to -io°, or by cooling a solution in hot hydrochloric acid, the hydrate NaCl. 2H 2 separates; on further cooling an aqueous solution to -20 a cryohydrate containing 23-7% of the salt is deposited. The consideration of this important substance falls under two heads, relating respectively to sea salt or " bay " salt and " rock " salt or mineral salt. The one is probably derived from the other, most rock salt deposits bearing evidence of having been formed by the evaporation of lakes or seas. Sea Salt. — Assuming that each gallon of sea water contains 0-2547 lb of salt, and allowing an average density 2-24 for rock- salt, it has been computed that the entire ocean if dried up would yield no less than four and a half million cubic miles of rock-salt, or about fourteen and a half times the bulk of the entire continent of Europe above high-water mark. The proportion of sodium chloride in the water of the ocean, where it is mixed with small quantities of other salts, is on the average about 3.33%, ranging from 2-9% for the polar seas to 3-55% or more at the equator. Enclosed seas, such as the Mediterranean, the Red Sea. the Black Sea, the Dead Sea, the Caspian and others, are dependent of course for the proportion and quality of their saline matter on local circumstances (see Ocean). At one time almost the whole of the salt in commerce was produced from the evaporation of sea water, and indeed salt so made still forms a staple commodity in many countries possessing a seaboard, especially those where the climate is dry and the summer of long duration. In Portugal there are salt works at Setubal, Alcacer do Sal, Figueira and Aveiro. Spain has salt works at the Bay of Cadiz, the Balearic Islands, &c; Italy at Sicily, Naples, Tuscany and Sardinia. France has its " marais salants du midi " and also works on the Atlantic seaboard; whilst Austria has " Salzgarten " at various places on the Adriatic (Sabbioncello, Trieste, Pirano, Capo d'Istria,&c). In England and Scotland the industry has greatly fallen off under the competition of the rock-salt works of Cheshire. The process of the spontaneous evaporation of sea water was studied by Usiglio on Mediterranean water at Cette. The density at first was 1-02. Primarily but a slight deposit is formed (none until the concentration arrives at specific gravity 1-0509), this deposit consisting for the most part of calcium carbonate and ferric oxide. This goes on till a density of 1 • 1 3 1 5 is attained, when hydra ted calcium sulphate begins to deposit, and continues till specific gravity 1-2646 is reached. At a density of 1-218 the deposit becomes augmented by sodium chloride, which goes down mixed with a little magnesium chloride and sulphate. At specific gravity 1-2461 a 88 SALT little sodium bromide has begun also to deposit. At specific gravity 1-311 the volume of the water contained-- Magnesium sulphate . . . . 11-45% Magnesium chloride .... 19-53 % Sodium chloride 15-98% Sodium bromide 2-04% Potassium chloride . . . . 3-30% Up to the time then that the water became concentrated to specific gravity 1-218 only 0-150 of deposit had formed, and that chiefly composed of lime and iron, but between specific gravity 1-218 and 1-313 there is deposited a mixture of — Calcium sulphate 0-0283 % Magnesium sulphate .... 0-0624% Magnesium chloride .... 0-0153% Sodium chloride 2-7107 % Sodium bromide 0-0222 % 2-8389% Of this about 95 % is sodium chloride. Up to this point the separation of the salts has taken place in a fairly regular manner, but now the temperature begins to exert an influence, and some of the salts deposited in the cold of the night dissolve again partially in the heat of the day. By night the liquor gives nearly pure mag- nesium sulphate; in the day the same sulphate mixed with sodium and potassium chlorides is deposited. The mother-liquor now falls to a specific gravity of 1-3082 to 1-2965, and yields a very mixed deposit of magnesium bromide and chloride, potassium chloride and magnesium sulphate, with the double magnesium and potassium sulphate, corresponding to the kainite of Stassfurt. There is also deposited a double magnesium and potassium chloride, similar to the carnallite of Stassfurt, and finally the mother-liquor, which has now again risen to specific gravity 1-3374, contains only pure mag- nesium chloride. The application of these results to the production of salt from sea water is obvious. A large piece of land, barely above high-water mark, is levelled, and if necessary puddled with clay. In tidal seas, a " jas " (or storage reservoir) is constructed alongside, similarly rendered impervious, in which the water is allowed to settle and concentrate to a certain extent. In non-tidal seas this storage basin is not required. The prepared land is partitioned off into large basins {adernes or muants) and others (called in France aires, auillets or tables salantes) which get smaller and more shallow in proportion as they are intended to receive the water as it becomes more and more concentrated, just sufficient fall being allowed from one set of basins to the other to cause the water to flow slowly through them. The flow is often assisted by pumping. The sea salt thus made is collected into small heaps on the paths around the basins or the floors of the basins themselves, and here it under- goes a first partial purification, the more deliquescent salts (especially the magnesium chloride) being allowed to drain away. From these heaps it is collected into larger ones, where it drains further, and becomes more purified. The salt is collected from the surface by means of a sort of wooden scoop or scraper, but in spite of every precaution some of the soil on which it is produced is inevitably taken up with it, communicating a red or grey tint. Generally speaking this salt, which may contain up to 15% of impurities, goes into commerce just as it is, but in some cases it is taken first to the refinery, where it either is simply washed and then stove-dried before being sent out, or is dissolved in fresh water and then boiled down and crystallized like white salt from rock-salt brine. The salt of the " salines du midi " of the south-east of France is far purer, containing about 5% of impurities. In northern Russia and in Siberia sea water is concentrated by freezing, the ice which separates containing little salt ; the brine is then boiled down when an impure sea salt is deposited. Rock-salt. — To mineralogists rock-salt is often known as halite — a name suggested in 1847 by E. F. Glocker from the Greek a\s (salt). The word halite, however, is sometimes used not only for the species rock-salt but as a group-name to include a series of haloid minerals, of which that species is the type. Halite or rock-salt crystallizes in the cubic system, usually in cubes, rarely in octahedra; the cubes being solid, unlike the skeleton-cubes obtained by rapid evaporation of brine. The mineral has perfect cubic cleavage. Percussion- figures, readily made on the cleavage-faces, have rays parallel to faces of the rhombic dodecahedron; whilst figures etched with water represent the four-faced cube. Rock-salt commonly occurs in cleavable masses, or sometimes in laminar, granular or fibrous forms, the finely fibrous variety being known as "hair-salt." The hardness is 2 to 2-5 and the spec. grav. 2-1 to 2-6. Rock-salt when pure is colourless and transparent, but is usually red or brown by mechanical admixture with ferric oxide or hydroxide. The salt is often grey, through bituminous matter or other impurity, and rarely green, blue or violet. The blue colour, which disappears on heating or dissolving the salt, has been variously ascribed to the presence of sodium subchloride, sodium, sulphur or of a certain compound of iron, or again to the existence of minute cavities with parallel walls. Halite occasionally exhibits double refraction, perhaps due to natural pressure. It is remarkably diathermanous, or capable of transmitting heat-rays, and has therefore been used in certain physical investigations. Pure halite consists only of sodium chloride, but salt usually contains certain magnesium compounds rendering it deliquescent. Minute vesicular cavities are not infrequently present, sometimes as negative cubes, and these may contain saline solutions or carbon dioxide or gaseous hydrocarbons. Some salt decrepitates on solution (Knistersalz) , the phenomenon being due to the escape of condensed gases. Halite may occur as a sublimate on lava, as at Vesuvius and some other volcanoes, where it is generally associated with potassium chloride; but its usual mode of occurrence is in bedded deposits, often lenticular, and sometimes of great thick- ness. The salt is commonly associated with gypsum, often also with anhydrite, and occasionally with sylvite, carnallite and other minerals containing potassium and magnesium. Deposits of rock-salt have evidently been formed by the evaporation of salt water, probably in areas of inland drainage or enclosed basins, like the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake of Utah, or perhaps in some cases in an arm of the sea partially cut off, like the Kara Bughaz, which forms a natural salt-pan on the east side of the Caspian. Such beds of salt are found in strata of very varied geological age; the Salt Range of the Punjab, for instance, is probably of Cambrian age, while, the famous salt- deposits of Wieliczka, near Cracow, have been referred to the Pliocene period. In many parts of the world, including the British area, the Triassic age offered conditions especially favourable for the formation of large salt-deposits. In England extensive deposits of rock-salt are found near the base of the Keuper marl, especially in Cheshire. The mineral occurs generally in lenticular deposits, which may reach a thickness of more than 100 ft. ; but it is mined only to a limited extent, most of the salt being obtained from brine springs and wells which derive their saline character from deposits of salts. Much salt is obtained from north Lancashire, as also from the brine pits of Staffordshire, Worcestershire, Yorkshire, Durham and the Isle of Man (Point of Ayre). The salt of N.E. Yorkshire and S. Durham is regarded by some authorities as Permian, but that near Carrickfergus in Co. Antrim, Ireland, is undoubtedly of Triassic age. The Antrim salt was discovered in 1850 during a search for coal: one of the beds at Duncrue mine has a thickness of 80 ft. Important deposits of rock- salt occur in the Keuper at Berchtesgaden, in the Bavarian Alps; at Hall in Tirol and at Hallein, Hallstatt, Ischl and Aussee in the Salzkammergut in Austria. Salt occurs in the Muschelkalk at Friedrichshall and some other localities in Wurttemberg and Thur- ingia; and in the Bunter at Schoningen near Brunswick. The Permian system (Zechstein) yields the great salt-deposits worked at Stassfurt and at Halle in Prussian Saxony. The Stassfurt deposits are of special importance for the sake of the associated salts of potassium and magnesium, such as carnallite and kainite. These deposits, in addition to having a high commercial importance, present certain problems which have received much attention, more particularly at the hands of van't Hoff and his collaborators, whose results are embodied in his Zur Bildung der ozeanischen Salzab- lagerungen, vol. i. (1905), vol. ii. (1909). (A summary is given in A. W. Stewart, Recent Advances in Physical and Inorganic Chemistry, 1909; see also van't Hoff, Lectures on Theoretical and Physical Chemistry, vol. i.) A typical section is as follows: Beneath the surface soil of sandstone there is a layer up to 100 ft. in thickness of carnallite, MgCl 2 -KCl-6H 2 0, mixed with a little salt; this is followed by a thicker deposit of kieserite, MgSCvH 2 0, containing rather more salt than the upper bed. Deeper down there are suc- cessively strata of polyhalite, MgS0 4 -K2SOr2CaS04-2H 2 0, and anhydrite, CaSO*, interspersed with regular layers of rock-salt; whilst below the anhydrite we have the main rock-salt deposits. A bed of rock-salt in the Zechstein at Sperenberg near Berlin has been proved by boring to have a thickness of upwards of 4000 ft. The salt of Bex in Switzerland is Jurassic, whilst Cretaceous salt occurs in Westphalia and Algiers. Important deposits of salt are developed in many parts of the Tertiary strata. At Cardona, near Barcelona, Tertiary salt forms hill-masses, while the Carpathian SALT 89 sandstone in Galicia and Transylvania is rich in salt. The extensive mines at Wieliczka are in this rock-salt, as also is the salt of Kalusz in Galicia, which is associated with sylvite, KC1. In North America salt is widely distributed at various geological horizons. In New York it occurs in the Salina beds of the Onondaga series, of Silurian age; and Silurian salt is found also in parts of Michigan and in Ontario, Canada. Some of the salt of Michigan is regarded as Carboniferous. Rock-salt is mined in several states, as New York, Kansas and Louisiana; but American salt is mostly obtained from brine. Deposits of salt, regarded as either Cretaceous or Tertiary, occur in the island of Petite Anse, west of Vermilion Bay, in Louisiana. Salt often occurs in association with petroleum and natural gas, and extensive beds were discovered in the Wyoming valley in boring for petroleum. In the dry regions of the West salt occurs as an incrustation on the surface of the soil — a mode of occurrence found in desert areas in various parts of the world. Cubic pseudomorphs representing rock-salt are sometimes seen in strata which have been deposited in shallow water, especially on the margin of a salt-lake. The salt has been dissolved out of its original matrix, and the cavity so formed has then been filled with fine clayey or other mineral matter, forming a cubic cast. Such casts are not infrequent in the Keuper marls and sandstones, and in the Purbeck beds of England. Manufacture. — The chief centres of manufacture in England are at Northwich, Middlewich, Winsford and Sandbach in Cheshire, Weston-on-Trent in Staffordshire, Stoke Prior and Droitwich in Worcestershire and Middlesbrough in Yorkshire. 1 The Cheshire and Worcestershire salt deposits are by far the most important. Although brine springs have been known to exist in both these counties ever since the Roman occupation, and salt had been made there from time immemorial, it was not till 1670 that rock-salt about 30 yds. thick was discovered at Marbury near Northwich by some men exploring for coal, at a depth of 34 yds. In 1779 three beds of rock-salt were discovered at Lawton, separated from one another by layers of indurated clay. The old Marston or Marston Rock mine is the largest and perhaps the oldest in England. It was worked for about a hundred years in only its upper bed, but in 1 78 1, after traversing a layer of indurated clay intersected with small veins of salt iOj yds. thick, a layer of rock-salt 33 to 37 yds. thick was found. Beneath it are others, but they are thin and im- pure. The total depth of the mine to the bottom of the lower level is 120 yds. At Winsford, where the same formation seems to recur, it is 159 yds. from the surface. The Marston mine covers an area of about 40 acres. The salt is first reached at 35-40 yds. in the North- wich district, and the upper layer is 25-30 yds. in thickness (Marston 23-26 yds.); it has above it,- apparently lying in the recesses of its surface, a layer of saturated brine. This is the brine which is raised at the various pumping stations in Northwich and elsewhere around, and which serves to produce white salt. The beds are reached by sinking through the clays and variegated marls typical of this for- mation. The salt is blasted out with gunpowder. The Middles- brough deposit was discovered by Bolckow and Vaughan in boring for water in 1862 at a depth of 400 yds., but was not utilized, and was again found by Messrs Bell Brothers at Port Clarence at a depth °f 376 yds. In Cheshire the surface-water trickling through the overlying strata dissolves the salt, which is subsequently pumped as brine, but at Middlesbrough the great depth and impermeability of the strata precludes this, so another method has been resorted to. A bore is made into the salt, and lined with tubing, and this tube where it traverses the salt is pierced with holes. Within this is hung loosely a second tube of much smaller dimensions so as to leave an annular space between the two. Through this space the fresh surface water finds its way, and dissolving the salt below rises in the inner tube as brine, but only to such a level that the two columns bear to one another the relation of ten to twelve, this being the inverse ratio of the respective weights of saturated brine and fresh water. For the remaining distance the brine is raised by a pump. The fresh water, however, as it descends rises to the surface of the salt, tending rather to dissolve its upper layers and extend superficially, so that after a time the superincumbent soil, being without support, falls in. These interior landslips, besides choking the pipes and breaking the communication, often produce sinkings at the surface. The same inconvenience is felt in the environs of Nancy, and a similar one produces on a larger scale the sinking and subsidences at Winsford and Northwich. In the United States extensive deposits and brine springs are worked, and also incrustations (see above). Canada also is a pro- ducer. South America possesses several salt deposits and brine springs. Asiatic Russia is very abundantly supplied with salt, as likewise is China; and Persia is perhaps one of the countries most abundantly endowed with this natural and useful product. In India there is the great salt range of the Punjab, as well as the Sambhur Lake, and salt is obtained from sea water at many places along its extensive seaboard. 1 The termination " wich " in English place-names often points to ancient salt manufacture — the word " wich " (creek, bay; Icel. vik) having acquired a special sense in English usage. In Germany the various forms of the non-Teutonic words Hall, Halle occurring in place-names point in the same way to ancient salt-works. Rock-salt is the origin of the greater part of the salt manufactured in the world. It occurs in all degrees of purity, from that of mere salty clay to that of the most transparent crystals. In the former case it is often difficult to obtain the brine at a density even approach- ing saturation, and chambers and galleries are sometimes excavated within the saliferous beds to increase the dissolving surface, and water let down fresh is pumped up as brine. Many brine springs also occur in a more or less saturated condition. In cases where the atmospheric conditions are suitable the brine is run into large tanks and concentrated merely by solar heat, or it may be caused to trickle over faggots arranged under large open sheds called " gradua- tion houses " (Gradirhauser) , whereby a more extensive surface of evaporation is obtained and the brine becomes rapidly concentrated. After settling it is evaporated in iron pans. The use, however, of the "graduation houses" is dying out, as both their construction and their maintenance are expensive. The purer rock-salt is often simply ground for use, as at Wieliczka and elsewhere, but it is more frequently pumped as brine, produced either by artificial solution as at Middlesbrough and other places, or by natural means, as in Cheshire and Worcestershire. One great drawback to the use of even the purest rock-salt simply ground is its tendency to revert to a hard unwieldy mass, when kept any length of time in sacks. As usually made, white salt from rock-salt may be classified into two groups: (1) boiled: known as fine, table, lump, stoved lump, superfine, basket, butter and cheese salt (Fr. sel fin-fin, sel & la minute, &c); (2) unboiled: common, chemical, fishery, Scotch fishery, extra fishery, double extra fishery and bay salt (Fr. sel de 12, 24, 48, 60 and 72 heures). All these names are derived from the size and appearance of the crystals, their uses and the modes of their production. The boiled salts, the crystals of which are small, are formed in a medium constantly agitated by boiling. The fine or stoved table salts are those white masses with which we are all familiar. Basket salt takes its name from the conical baskets from which it is allowed to drain when first it is " drawn " from the pan. Butter and cheese salts are not stove-dried, but left in their more or less moist condition, as being thus more easily applied to their respective uses. Of the unboiled salts the first two, corresponding to the Fr. sel de 12 heures and sel de 24 heures, show by their English names the use to which they are applied, and the others merely depend for their quality on the length of time which elapses between successive " drawings," and the temperature of the evaporation. The time varies for the unboiled salts from twelve hours to three or four weeks, the larger crystals being allowed a longer time to form, and the smaller ones being formed more quickly. The temperature varies from 55° to 180 F. One difference between the manufacture of salt from rock-salt brine as carried on in Britain and on the Continent lies in the use in the latter case of closed or covered pans, except in the making of fine salt, whereas in Britain open ones are employed. With open pans the vapour is free to diffuse itself into the atmosphere, and the evaporation is perhaps more rapid. When covered pans are used, the loss of heat by radiation is less, and the salt made is also cleaner. It has also been proposed to concentrate the brines under diminished pressure. In S. Pick's system a triple effect is obtained by evapora- ting in these connected vessels, so that the steam from one heats the. second into which it is led (see Soc. of Eng., 1891, p. 115). In Britain the brine is so pure that, keeping a small stream of it running into the pan to replace the losses by evaporation and the removal of the salt, it is only necessary occasionally (not often) to reject the mother-liquor when at last it becomes too impure with magnesium chloride; but in some works the mother-liquor not only contains more of this impurity but becomes quite brown from organic matter on concentration, and totally unfit for further service after yielding but two or three crops of salt crystals. Some- times, to get rid of these impurities, the brine is treated in a large tub (bessoir) with lime; on settling it becomes clear and colourless, but the dissolved lime forms a skin on its surface in the pan, retards the evaporation and impedes the crystallization. At times sodium sulphate is added to the brine, producing sodium chloride and mag- nesium sulphate by double decomposition with the magnesium chloride. A slight degree of acidity seems more favourable to the crystallization of salt than alkalinity ; thus it is a practice to add a certain amount of alum, 2 to 12 lb per pan of brine, especially when, as in fishery salt, fine crystals are required. The salt is " drawn " from the pan and placed (in the case of boiled salts) in small conical baskets hung round the pan to drain, and thence moulded in square boxes and _ afterwards stove-dried, or (in case of unboiled salts) " drawn " in a heap on to the " hurdles," on which it drains, and thence is carried to the -store. In most European countries a tax is laid on salt ; and the coarser as well as the finer crystals are therefore often dried so as not to pay duty on more water than can be helped. The brine used in the salt manufacture in England is very nearly saturated, containing 25 or 26,% of sodium chloride, the utmost water can take up being 27%; and it ranges from 38 to 42 oz. of salt per gallon. In some other countries the brine has to be concen- trated before use. Saltmaking is by no means an unhealthy trade, some slight soreness of the eyes being the only affection sometimes complained of; indeed the atmosphere of steam saturated with salt in which 9° SALTA the workmen live seems specially preservative against colds, rheu- matism, neuralgia, &c. A parliamentary commission was appointed in 1881 to investigate the causes of the disastrous subsidences which are constantly taking place in all the salt districts, and the provision of a remedy. It led to no legislative action; but the evil is recognized as a grave one. At Northwich and Winsford scarcely a' house or a chimney stack remains straight. Houses are keyed up with " shaps," " face plates " and " bolts," and only kept from falling by leaning on one another. The doors and windows have become lozenge-shaped, the walls bulged and the floors crooked. Buildings have sunk — some of them disappearing altogether. Lakes have been formed where there was solid ground before, and incalculable damage done to property in all quarters. At the same time it is difficult to see how this grievance can be remedied without inflicting serious injury, almost ruin, upon the salt trade. The workings in Great Britain represent the annual abstraction of rather more than a mass of rock equal to a foot in thickness spread over a square mile. The table gives the outputs in metric tons of the most important producers in 1900 and 1905 (from Rothwell, Mineral Industry, 1908). Salt Production in Metric Tons. 1900. 1905. Austria France Germany Hungary .... Italy Japan Russia ..... Spain United Kingdom . United States . 330,277 1,088,634 1,514.027 189.363 1,021,426 367.255 669,694 1,768,005 450,041 1,873,601 2,651,278 343,375 1,130,000 1,777,557 195,410 1,212,600 437,699 483.506 1,844,678 493.451 1,920,149 3.297.285 See F. A. Ftirer, Salzbergbau- und Salinenkunde (Braunschweig, 1900) ; J. O. Freiherr von Buschmann, Das Salz: dessen Vorkommen und Verwertung (Leipzig, vol. I, 1909, vol. 2, 1906). (X.) Ancient History and Religious Symbolism. — Salt must have been quite unattainable to primitive man in many parts of the world. Thus the Odyssey (xi. 122 seq.) speaks of inlanders (in Epirus ?) who do not know the sea and use no salt with their food. In some parts of America, and even of India (among the Todas), salt was first intro- duced by Europeans; and there are still parts of central Africa where the use of it is a luxury 'confined to the rich. Indeed, where men live mainly on milk and flesh, consuming the latter raw or roasted, so that its salts are not lost, it is not necessary to add sodium chloride, and thus we understand how the Numidian nomads in the time of Sallust and the Bedouins of Hadramut at the present day never eat salt with their food. On the other hand, cereal or vegetable diet calls for a supplement of salt, and so does boiled meat. The important part played by the mineral in the history of commerce and religion depends on this fact; at a very early stage of progress salt became a necessary of life to most nations, and in many cases they could procure it only from abroad, from the sea-coast, or from districts like that of Palmyra where salty incrustations are found on the surface of the soil. Sometimes indeed a kind of salt was got from the ashes of saline plants {e.g. by the Umbrians, Aristotle, Met. ii. p. 459), or by pouring the water of a brackish stream over a fire of (saline) wood and collecting the ashes, as was done in ancient Germany (Tac. Ann. xiii. 57), in Gaul and in Spain (Plin. H.N. xxxi. 7. 82 seq.); but these were imperfect surrogates. Among inland peoples a salt spring was regarded as a special gift of the gods. The Chaonians in Epirus had one which flowed into a stream where there were no fish; and the legend was that Heracles' had allowed their forefathers to have salt instead of fish (Arist. ut supra). The Ger- mans waged war for saline streams, and believed that the presence of salt in the soil invested a district, with peculiar sanctity and made it a place where prayers were most readily heard (Tac. ut sup.). That a religious significance was attached to a substance so highly prized and which was often obtained with difficulty is no more than natural. And it must also be remembered that the habitual use of salt is intimately connected with the advance from nomadic to agricultural life, i.e. with precisely that step in civilization which had most influence on the cults of almost all ancient nations. The gods were worshipped as the givers of the kindly fruits of the earth, and, as all over the world " bread and salt " go together in common use and common phrase, salt was habitually asspciated with offerings, at least with all offerings which consisted in whole or in part of cereal elements. This practice is found alike among the Greeks and Romans and among the Semitic peoples (Lev. ii. 13) ; Homer calls salt " divine," and Plato names it " a substance dear to the gods " {Timaeus, p. 60; cf. Plutarch, Sympos. v. 10). As covenants were ordinarily made over a sacrificial meal, in which salt was a necessary element, the expression " a covenant of salt " (Numb, xviii. 19) is easily understood; it is probable, however, that the preservative qualities of salt were held to make it a peculiarly fitting symbol of an enduring compact, and influenced the choice of this particular element of the covenant meal as that which was regarded as sealing an obligation to fidelity. Among the ancients, as among Orientals down to the present day, every meal that included salt had a certain sacred character and created a bond of piety and guest friendship between the participants. Hence the Greek phrase aXas nal T-pdirefai/ irapa.0a.ivav, the Arab phrase " there is salt between us," the expression " to eat the salt of the palace " (Ezra iv. 14, R.V.), the modern Persian phrase namak haram, " untrue to salt," i.e. disloyal or ungrateful, and many others. Both early in the history of the Roman army and in later times an allowance of salt was made to officers and men. In imperial times, however, this salarium was an allowance of money for salt (see Salary). It has been conjectured that some of the oldest trade routes were created for traffic in salt; at any rate salt and incense, the chief economic and religious necessaries ot the ancient world, play a great part in all that we know of the ancient highways of commerce. Thus one of the oldest roads in Italy is the Via Salaria, by which the produce of the salt pans of Ostia was carried up into the Sabine country. Herodotus's account of the caravan route uniting the salt- oases of the Libyan desert (iv. 181 seq.) makes it plain that this was mainly a salt-road, and to the present day the caravan trade of the Sahara is largely a trade in salt. The salt of Palmyra was an im- portant element in the vast trade between the Syrian ports and the Persian Gulf (see Palmyra), and long after the glory of the great merchant city was past " the salt of Tadmor " retained its reputation (Mas'udi viii. 398). In like manner the ancient trade between the Aegean and the coasts of southern Russia was largely dependent on the salt pans at the mouth of the Dnieper and on the salt fish brought from this district (Herod, iv. 53; Dio Chrys. ~>, 437). In Phoenician commerce salt and salt fish — the latter a valued delicacy in the ancient world — always formed an important item. The vast salt mines of northern India were worked before the time ot 1 . lexander (Strabo v. 2, 6, xv. 1, 30) and must have been the centre of a wide- spread trade. The economic importance of salt is further indicated by the almost universal prevalence in ancient and medieval times, and indeed in most countries down to the present day, of salt taxes or of government monopolies, which have not often been directed, as they were in ancient Rome, to enable every one to procure so necessary a condiment at a moderate price. In Oriental systems of taxation high imposts on salt are seldom lacking and are often carried out in a very oppressive way, one result of this being that the article is apt to reach the consumer in a very impure state largely mixed with earth. " The salt which has lost its savour " (Matt, v. 13) is simply the earthy residuum of such an impure salt after the sodium chloride has been washed out. Cakes of salt have been used as money in more than one part of the world — for example, in Abyssinia and elsewhere in Africa, and in Tibet and adjoining parts. See the testimony of Marco Poio (bk. ii. ch. 48) and Colonel Yule's note upon analogous customs elsewhere and on the use of salt as a medium of exchange in the Shan markets down to our own time, in his translation of Polo ii. 48 seq. In the same work interesting details are given as to the importance of salt in the financial system of the Mongol emperors (ii. 200 seq.). (W. R. S.) SALTA, a N.W. province of Argentina, bounded N. by Bolivia and the province of Jujuy, E. by the territories of Formosa and the Chaco, S. by Santiago del Estero and Tucuman, and W. by the Los Andes territory and Bolivia. Area, 62,184 sq. m.; pop. (1904, estimated) 136.059. The western part of the province is mountainous, being traversed from N. to S. by the eastern chains of the Andes. Indenting these, however, are large valleys, or bays, of highly fertile and comparatively level land, like that in which the city of Salta is situated. The eastern part of the province is chiefly composed of extensive areas of alluvial plains belonging to the Chaco formation, whose deep, fertile soils are among the best in Argentina. This part of the province is well wooded with valuable construction timbers and furniture woods. The drainage to the Paraguay is through the Bermejo, whose tributaries cover the northern part of the province; and through the Pasage or Juramento, called Salado on its lower course, whose tributaries cover the southern part of the province and whose waters are discharged into the Parana. The climate is hot, and the year is divided into a wet and a dry season, the latter characterized by extreme aridity. Irrigation is necessary in a great part of the province, though the rainfall is abundant in the wet season, about 21 in. Fever and ague, locally called ckucho, is prevalent on the lowlands, but in the mountain districts the climate is healthy. There is considerable undeveloped mineral wealth, including gold, silver and copper, but its inhabitants are almost exclusively agriculturist. Its principal products are sugar, rum (aguardiente), wine, wheat, Indian corn, barley, tobacco, alfalfa and coffee. The Cafayate wines are excellent, but are chiefly consumed in the province. SALT A— SALT-CELLAR 9 1 Various tropical fruits are produced in abundance, but are not sent to market on account of the cost of transportation. Stock- raising is carried on to a limited extent for the home and Bolivian markets. The province is traversed by a government railway (the Central Northern) running northward from Tucuman to the Bolivian frontier, with a branch from General Giiemes westward to the city of Salta (q.v.), the provincial capital. The principal towns are Oran (1904, 3000) on a small tributary (the Zcnta) of the Bermejo, in the northern part of the province, formerly an important depot in the Bolivian trade, and nearly destroyed by earthquakes in 1871 and 1873; Rosario de Lerma (pop. 1904, 2500), 30m. N.W. of Salta in the great Lerma valley; and Rosario de la- Frontera (pop. 1904, 1200) near the Tucuman frontier, celebrated for its hot mineral baths and gambling establishment. Salta was at one time a part of the great Inca empire, which extended southward into Tucuman and Rioja. It was overrun by adventurers after the Spanish conquest. The first Spanish settle- ment within its borders was made by Hernando de Lerma in 1582. Salta was at first governed from Tucuman, but in 1776 was made capital of the northern intendencia, which included Catamarca, Jujuy and Tucuman. After the War of Independence there was a new division, and Salta was given its present boundaries with the exception of the disputed territory on the Chilean frontier, now the territory of Los Andes. SALTA, a city of Argentina, capital of a province of the same name, and see of a bishopric, on a small tributary (the Arias) of the Pasage, or Juramento, 976 m. by rail N.N.W. of Buenos Aires. Pop. (1904, estimated) i8,oco. Salta is built on an open plain 3560 ft. above the sea, nearly enclosed with mountains. The climate is warm and changeable, malarial in summer. The city is laid out regularly, with broad, paved streets and several parks. Some of the more important public buildings face on the plaza mayor. There are no manufactures of importance. Salta was once largely interested in the Bolivian trade, and is still a chief distributing centre for the settlements of the Andean plateau. Near the city is the battlefield where General Belgrano won the first victory from the Spanish forces (181 2) in the War of Independence. There is a large mestizo element in the popula- tion, and the Spanish element still retains many of the character- istics of its colonial ancestors. In Salta Spanish is still spoken with the long-drawn intonations and melodious " 11 " of southern Spain. Salta was founded in 1582 by Governor Abreu under the title of San Clemente de Nueva Sevilla, but the site was changed two years later and the new settlement was called San Felipe de Lerma. In the 17th century the name Salta came into vogue. SALTA (Italian for "Jump!"), a table-game for two intro- duced at the end of the 19th century, founded on the more ancient game of Halma. It is played on a board containing 100 squares, coloured alternately black and white. Each player has a set of 1 5 pieces, one set being green, the other pink. These are placed upon the black squares of the first three rows nearest the player, and are classified in these rows as stars, moons and suns. The pawns move forward one square at a time, except when a pawn is situated in front of a hostile piece with an unoccupied space on the further side , in which case the hostile pawn must be jumped, as at draughts, but without removing the jumped pawn from the board. The object of the game is to get one's pieces on the exact squares corresponding to their own on the enemy's side, the stars in the star-line, the moons in the moon-line, &c. Salta tournaments have taken place in which chess masters of repute participated. See Salta, by Schubert (Leipzig, 1900). SALTASH, a municipal borough in the Bodmin parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 5 m. N.W. of Plymouth, on the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3357. It is beautifully situated on the wooded shore of the Tamar estuary, on the lower part of which lies the great port and naval station of Plymouth. Local communications are maintained by river steamers. At Saltash the Royal Albert bridge (1857-1859) carries the railway across the estuary. It was built by Isambard Brunei at a cost of £230,000, and is remarkable for its great height. The church of St Nicholas and St Faith has an early Norman tower, and part of the fabric is considered to date from before the Conquest ; but there was much alteration in the Decorated and Perpendi- cular periods. The church of St Stephen, outside the town, retains its ornate Norman font. The fisheries for which Saltash was famous have suffered from the chemicals brought down by the Tamar; but there is a considerable seafaring population, and the town is a. recruiting ground for the Royal Navy. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 1 2 councillors. Area, 194 acres. The Sunday market established by the count of Mortain at his castle of Trematon, which ruined the bishop of Exeter's market at St Germans, was probably held at Saltash a short distance from the castle. Saltash (Esse, 1297; Ash, 1302; Assheburgh, 1392) belonged to the manor of Trematon and the latter at the time of the Domesday Survey was held by Reginald de Vailetort of the count. Reginald's descendant and namesake granted a charter (undated) to Saltash about 1 190. It confirms to his free burgesses of Esse the liberties enjoyed by them under his ancestors, viz. : burgage tenure, exemption from all jurisdiction save the " hundred court of the said town," suit of court limited to three times a year, a reeve of their own election, pasturage in his demesne lands on certain terms, a limited control of trade and shipping, and a fair in the middle of the town. This charter was confirmed in the fifth year of Richard II. Roger de Vailetort, the last male heir of the family, gave the honour of Trematon and with it the borough of Saltash to Richard, king of the Romans and earl of Cornwall. Thenceforth, in spite of attempts to set aside the grant, the earls and subsequently the dukes of Cornwall were the lords of Saltash. It was probably to this relation that the burgesses owed the privilege of parliamentary representation, conferred by Edward VI. In 1584 Queen Elizabeth granted a charter of incorporation to Saltash. This was superseded by another in 1683 under which the governing body was to consist of a mayor and six aldermen. In 1774, the corporation being in danger of extinction, burgesses were added, but it was not until 1886 that the ratepayers acquired the right of electing representatives to the council, the right up to that time having been exercised by the members of the corporation. The parliamentary franchise was enjoyed by the mayor, aldermen and the holders of burgage tene- ments. In 1814 they numbered 120. In 1832 Saltash was deprived of its two members. The count of Mortain's Sunday market had given place in 1337 to one on Saturday and this is still held. Queen Elizabeth's charter provided for one on Tuesday also, but this has disappeared. A fair en the feast of St Faith yielded 6s. 8d. in 1337. This is no longer held, but fairs at Candlemas and St James, of ancient but uncertain origin, remain. Saltash was sufficiently con- siderable as a port in the 1 6th century to furnish a frigate at the town's expense against the Armada. This probably represents the zenith of its prosperity. SALTBURN BY THE SEA, a seaside resort in the Cleveland parliamentary division of the North Riding of Yorkshire, England, 21 m. E. of Middlesbrough by a branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 2578. A frm sandy beach extends westward to Redcar and the mouth of the Tees, while eastward towards Whitby the cliffs become very fine, Boulby Cliff (666 ft.) being the highest sea cliff in England. Several fishing villages occur along this coast, of which nons is more picturesque than Staithes, lying in a steep gully in the cliff. There are brine baths supplied from wells near Middlesbrough, a pier, gardens and promenades. Inland the county is hilly and picturesque, though in part defaced by the Cleveland iron mines. SALT-CELLAR, a vessel containing salt, placed upon the table at meals. The word is a combination of "salt" and " saler," assimilated in the 16th and 17th centuries to "cellar" (Lat. cellarium, a storehouse). " Saler " is from the Fr. (Mod. saliere), Lat. solarium, that which belongs to salt, cf. " salary." Salt cellar is, therefore, a tautological expression. There are two types of salts, the large ornamental salt which during the medieval ages and later was one of the most important pieces of household plate, and the smaller " salts," actually used and placed near the plates or trenchers of the guests at table; 'they were hence styled " trencher salts." The great salts, below which the inferior guests sat, were, in the earliest form which survives, shaped like an hour-glass and have a cover. New College, Oxford, possesses a magnificent specimen, dated 1493. Later salts take a. square or cylindrical shape. The Elizabethan salt, kept with the regalia in the Tower of London, has a rover with numerous figures. The London Livery Companies possess many salts of a still later pattern, rather low in height and without a 92 SALTER— SALT LAKE CITY cover. The " trencher salts " are either of triangular or circular shape, some are many-sided. The circular silver salt with legs came into use in the 18th century. SALTER, JOHN WILLIAM (1820-1869), English naturalist and palaeontologist, was born on the 15th of December 1820. He was apprenticed in 1835 to James de Carle Sowerby, and was engaged in drawing and engraving the plates for Sowerby's Mineral Conchology, the Supplement to his English Botany, and other Natural History works. In 1842 he was employed for a short time by Sedgwick in arranging the fossils in the VVood- wardian Museum at Cambridge, and he accompanied the professor on several geological expeditions (1842-1845) into Wales. In 1846 he was appointed on the staff of the Geological Survey and worked under Edward Forbes until 1854; he was then appointed palaeontologist to the survey and gave his chief attention to the palaeozoic fossils, spending much time in Wales and the border counties. He contributed the palaeontological portion to A. C. Ramsay's Memoir on the Geology of North Wales (1866), assisted Murchison in his work on Siluria (1854 and later editions), and Sedgwick by preparing A Catalogue of the Collection of Cambrian and Silurian Fossils contained in the Geological Museum of the University of Cambridge (1873). Salter prepared several of the Decades of the Geological Survey and became the leading authority on Trilobites, contributing to the Palaeontographical Society four parts of A Monograph of British Trilobites (1864- 1867). He resigned his post on the Geological Survey in 1863, and died on the 2nd of August 1869. SALTILLO, a city and the capital of the state of Coahuila, Mexico, about 615 m. by rail N. by W. of the city of Mexico. Pop. (1900) 23,996. Saltillo is on the Mexican National railway and another railway connects it with the important mining and industrial town of Torreon, on the Mexican Central. The city is on the great central plateau of Mexico, about 5200 ft. above sea-level. It has a cool and healthy climate, and is a resort in summer for the people of the tropical coast districts, and in winter for invalids from the north. The city is laid out in regular squares, with shady streets and plazas. The residences are of the Spanish colonial type, with heavy walls and large rooms to insure coolness during the heat of the day. Among its public institu- tions are a national college, an athenaeum, the Madero Institute with a good library, some fine churches, and the charitable institutions common to all Mexican cities. Saltillo is an active commercial and manufacturing town, and an important railway centre. Its manufactures include cotton and woollen fabrics, knitted goods and flour. The woollen " zarapes " or " ponchos" of Saltillo are among the finest produced in Mexico. There are undeveloped coal deposits in the vicinity. Saltillo was founded in 1586 as an outpost against the Apache Indians. It became an incorporated city in 1827. In 1824 the capital of the state of Coahuila and Texas was at Saltillo. A partisan controversy removed the seat of government to Monclova in 1833, but it was returned to Saltillo in 1 835. The battle of Buena Vista was fought near Saltillo on the 22nd-23rd of February 1847. After leaving San Luis Potosi, President Juarez established his capital at Saltillo for a brief period. SALT LAKE CITY, the capital city of Utah and the county-seat of Salt Lake county, in the N.W. part of Utah, immediately E. of the Jordan river in the Salt Lake Valley, near the base of the Wasatch mountains, at an altitude of about 4350 ft., about n m. S.E. of the Great Salt Lake, about 710 m. W. by N. of Denver and about 930 m. E. of San Francisco. Pop. (i860) 8236; (1900) S3,53i; (19/0 census) 92,777. Area, 51-25 sq. m. Of the total population in 1900, 12,741 (nearly one-fourth) were foreign-born, including 5157 English, 1 1687 Swedes, 965 Danes, 963 Germans and 912 Scotch; 35,152 were of foreign-parentage (one or the other parent foreign-born); 278 were negroes, 214 Chinese, 22 Japanese. Salt Lake City is served by the Denver & Rio Grande, the Union Pacific, the Western Pacific, the Oregon Short Line, and the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake railways; it is also a terminus of shorter roads to Ogden, to Los Angeles and to Mercur, a mining town in the Oquirrh mountains 1 The early Mormon missions in England were very successful, and many of the leaders of the church and those otherwise prominent in Salt Lake City have been of English birth. (S. of Great Salt Lake) whose ores are reduced by the cyanide pro- cess. The Oregon Short Line and the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake have a union railway station (1909), and the Denver & Rio Grande and the Western Pacific also have a large union rail- way station (1910). The street railway system is excellent; electric cars were introduced in 1889; and the street railways were reorganized by E. H. Harriman, who bought a controlling interest in them. The situation of the city is striking, with views of mountains and of the Great Salt Lake, and the climate is dry and salubrious. The city is the headquarters of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (see Mormons). The streets are laid out, according to the plan of Brigham Young, with city blocks of 10 acres each (660 ft. sq.) and streets 132 ft. wide, and well shaded with trees planted along irrigating ditches, fed by mountain streams. Brigham (or South Temple) Street is a fine boulevard running 3 m. from the Temple to Fort Douglas. Most of the streets are numbered and named " East " or " West," " North " or " South," from their direction from the centre of the city, the Temple Block. State Street is the official name of First East Street ; and East Temple Street is called Main, and South Temple Street (east of the Temple block) is called Brigham. The only developed parks are Pioneer and City Hall, both small, and Liberty Park (no acres), in which Brigham Young built a grist mill in 1852 and which was bought from his estate by the city in 1880. There are bathing parks on the shores of Great Salt Lake, n-15 m. W. of the city — the best known being Saltair, which has a Moorish pavilion; and 5 m. S. is Wandamere (formerly Calder's) Park (64 acres). Three miles E. of the city is Fort Douglas, established as Camp Douglas in 1862 by Colonel P. Edward Connor (1820-1891), afterwards prominently connected with the develop- ment of the mineral resources of Utah ; the fort overlooks the city, being more than 4900 ft. above sea-level. In the city there are medicinal and thermal springs, and water at a temperature of 98- 104 F. is piped to a large bath-house (1850) in the N. part of the city. The most prominent buildings are those of the Church of Latter- Day Saints, particularly, in Temple Square', the Temple, Tabernacle, and Assembly Hall. The great Mormon Temple (1853-1893) has grey granite walls 6 ft. thick, is 99 X 186 ft., and has six spires, the highest (220 ft.) having a copper statue of the angel Moroni. The elliptical Tabernacle (1870) has a rounded, turtle-shell shaped roof, unsupported by pillars or beams, seats nearly 10,000, and has a large pipe organ (5000 pipes). The Assemby Hall (1880), also of granite, has an auditorium which seats about 2500. In 1909 a bishopric building, with many of the business offices of the church, was built. Other buildings connected with the history of the Mormon church are three residences of Brigham Young, called the Lion House, the Beehive (the beehive is the symbol of the industry of the Mormon settlers in the desert and appears on the state seal), and the Amelia Palace or Gardo House (1877), which is now privately owned and houses an excellent private art gallery. Three blocks E. of the Temple is St Mary's, the Roman Catholic cathedral (1909, 100-200 ft.; with two towers 175 ft. high). Other large churches are: St Mark's Cathedral (1869, Protestant Episcopal) and the First Presbyterian Church (1909). There is a large city and county building (1894), built of rough grey sandstone from Utah county; it has a dome on the top of which is a statue of Columbia; over its entrances are statues of Commerce, Liberty and Justice; its bal- conies command views of the neighbouring country and of the Great Salt Lake; the interior is decorated with Utah onyx. Other buildings are : the Federal building ; the Packard Library, the public library of the city (1905), one block E. of Temple Block, which housed in 1910 about 40,000 volumes; and several business buildings. Typical qf the city is the great building of the Zion's Co-operative Mercantile Institution, a concern established by Brigham Young in 1868 — there are several large factories connected with it, and its annual sales average more than $5,000,000. A monument to Brigham Young and the Utah Pioneers, crowned by a statue of Brigham Young, by C. E. Dallin, was unveiled in 1897, at the intersection of Main and Brigham Streets. The city has numerous hospitals and charities, and there is a state penitentiary here. In the S.E. part is the Judge Miner's Home and Hospital (Roman Catholic), a memorial to John Judge, a successful Utah miner. Salt Lake City has a good public school system In the city is the University of Utah, chartered in 1850 as the University of the state of Deseret and opened in November 1850; it was practically dis- continued from 1 85 1 until 1867, and then was scarcely more than a business college until 1869; its charter was amended in 1884 and a new charter was issued in 1894, when the present style of the cor- poration was assumed; in 1894 60 acres from the Fort Douglas reservation were secured for the campus. _ In 1909-1910 the university consisted of a school of arts and sciences, a state school of mines (1901), a normal school, and a preparatory department. Other institutions of learning are : the Latter-Day Saints University (1887) and the Latter-Day Saints High School, St Mary's Academy (1875; under the Roman Catholic Sisters of the Holy Cross), All Hallows College (1886; Roman Catholic), Gordon Academy (1870; Congregational) , Rowland Hall Academy ( 1 880 ; Protestant Episcopal) SALTO— SALTPETRE 93 and Westminster College (1897; Presbyterian). There is a state Art Institute, which gives an annual exhibition, provides for a course of public lectures on art, and houses in its building the state art collection. The city has always been interested in music and the drama: the regular choir of 500 voices of the Mormon Tabernacle (organized in 1890) is one of the best choruses in the country, and closely connected with its development are the Symphony Orchestra and the Salt Lake Choral Society. Brigham Young was an admirer of the drama, and the Salt Lake Theatre (1862) has had a brilliant history. There is a Young Men's Christian Association (organized in 1890). The principal clubs are the Alta, University, Commercial, Country, and Women's. There are a Masonic Temple and buildings of the Elks and Odd Fellows. Salt Lake City is the great business centre of Utah and one of the main shipping points of the West for agricultural products, live stock (especially sheep), precious metals and coal; and the excellent railway facilities contribute greatly to the commercial importance of the city. In 1905 the value of the factory products was $7,543,983, being 76-3% more than in 1900 and being nearly one-fifth of the total value of the factory products of all Utah. There are three large steam-car repair shops in the city. Among the more valuable manufactures are: newspapers, books, &c. ($924,495 in 1905), malt liquors, confectionery, flour, foundry and machine-shop products, dairy products, salt, knit goods, mattresses, sugar, cement, &c. Electricity is largely used in the newer factories, the power being derived from Ogden river, near Ogden, about 35 m. away, and from cataracts in Cottonwood canyon and other canyons. The city is governed under a charter of 1851. The government is in the hands of a mayor, elected for two years, and of a unicameral municipal council, consisting of 15 members, elected from the five wards of the city for two years or for four years. The municipality owns the water works. In 1909 the assessed valuation, real and personal, was $52,180,789; the tax levy was $677,411; and the city debt was $4,399,400 (exclusive of $1,528,000, the bonded in- debtedness of the city schools). The history of the city is largely that of the Mormons (q.v.) and in its earlier years that of Utah (q.v.). The Mormons first came here in 1847; an advance party led by Orson Pratt and Erastus Snow entered the Salt Lake Valley on the 22nd of July. President Brigham Young upon his arrival on the 24th approved of the site, saying that he had seen it before in a vision; on the 28th of July he chose the site for the temple. In August the city was named " the City of the Great Salt Lake," and this name was used until 1868 when the adjective was dropped by legislative act. In the autumn the major body of the pioneers arrived. The first government was purely ecclesiastical, the city being a "stake of Zion " under a president; "Father" Joseph Smith was the first president. The gold excitement of 1849 and the following years was the source of the city's first prosperity: the Mormons did not attempt to do any mining — Brigham Young counselled them not to abandon agriculture for prospecting — but they made themselves rich by outfitting those of the gold-seekers who went to California overland and who stopped at the City of the Great Salt Lake, the westernmost settlement of any importance. On the 4th of March 1849 a convention met here which appointed a committee to draft a constitution; the constitution was immediately adopted, the independent state of Deseret was organized and on the 12th of March the first general election was held. In 1850 the city had a population of 6000, more than half the total number of inhabitants of the Great Salt Lake Valley, which, as well as the rest of Utah, was largely settled from Salt Lake City. In January 1851 the general assembly of the state of Deseret chartered the city; and the first municipal election was held in April of the same year; the charter was amended in 1865. Immigration from Europe and especially from England was large in the earlier years of the city, beginning in 1848. Salt Lake City was promin- ently identified with the Mormon church in its struggle with the United States government ; in 1858 it was entirely deserted upon the approach of the United States troops. Since the Civil War, the non-Mormon element (locally called " Gentile ") has steadily increased in strength, partly because of industrial changes and partly because the city is the natural point of attack on the Mormon church of other denominations, which are comparatively stronger here than elsewhere in Utah. See the bibliography under Mormons and under Utah; and particularly E. W. Tullidge, History of Salt Lake City (Salt Lake City, 1886), the famous descriptions in Captain Stansbury's report (1850), and in R. F. Burton's The City of the Saints (1861), and H. H. Bancroft, History of Utah (San Francisco, 1890). SALTO, a town and river port of Uruguay and capital of a department of the same name, on the Uruguay river 60 m. above Paysandu. Pop. (1900, estimate) 1 2,000. It has railway con- nexion with Montevideo via Paysandu and Rio Negro (394 m.), and with Santa Rosa, on the Brazilian frontier (113 m.). It is also connected with Montevideo and Buenos Aires by river steamers, Salto being at the head of high water navigation for large vessels. There are reefs and rocks in the river between Paysandu and Salto that make navigation dangerous except at high water. Above Salto the river is obstructed by reefs all the way up to the Brazilian frontier, about 95 m., and is navigable for light-draft vessels only at high water. Farther up, the river is freely navigable to Santo Tome (Argentina) — a distance of about 1 70 m. Travellers wishing to ascend the river above Salto usually cross to Concordia, Entre Rios, and go up by railway to Ceibo, near Monte Caseros, from which point small steamers ascend to Uruguayana, Itaqui, and other river ports. The streets of Salto are well paved and lighted with electricity, and there are some good public buildings. The town has two meat-curing establishments (saladeros) and is the shipping port for north-western Uruguay and, to some extent, for western Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil). Behind Salto lies a rich, undulating grazing country, whose large herds supply its chief exports. The department of Salto — area, 4866 scj. m., pop. (1900) 40,589, (1907, estimate) 53,154 — is an undulating, well-watered region occupying the north-west angle of Uruguay. Its industries are almost exclusively pastoral About one-third of its population are foreigners, chiefly Brazilians. SALTPETRE (from the Lat. sal, salt, petra, a rock), the commercial name given to three naturally occurring nitrates, distinguished as (1) ordinary saltpetre, nitre, or potassium nitrate, (2) Chile saltpetre, cubic nitre, or sodium nitrate, (3) wall-saltpetre or calcium nitrate. These nitrates generally occur as efflorescences caused by the oxidation of nitrogenous matter in the presence of the alkalies and alkaline earths. 1. Ordinary Saltpetre or Potassium Nitrate, KNO3, occurs, mingled with other nitrates, on the surface and in the superficial layers of the soil in many countries, especially in certain parts of India, Persia, Arabia and Spain. The deposits in the great limestone caves of Kentucky, Virginia and Indiana have been probably derived from the overlying soil and accumulated by percolating water; they are of no commercial value. The actual formation of this salt is not quite clear; but it is certainly conditioned by the simultaneous contact of decaying nitrogenous matter, alkalies, air and moisture. The demand for saltpetre as an ingredient of gunpowder led to the formation of saltpetre plantations or nitriaries, which at one time were common in France, Germany, and other countries; the natural conditions were simulated by exposing heaps of decaying organic matter mixed with alkalies (lime, &c.) to atmospheric action. The salt is obtained from the soil in which it occurs naturally, or from the heaps in which it is formed artificially, by extracting with water, and adding to the solution wood-ashes or potassium carbonate. The liquid is filtered and then crystallized. Since potassium nitrate is generally more serviceable than the sodium salt, whose deliquescent properties inhibit its use for gunpowder manufacture, the latter salt, of which immense natural deposits occur (see below (2) Chile saltpetre), is converted into ordinary saltpetre in immense quantities. This is generally effected by adding the calculated amount of potassium chloride (of which immense quantities are obtained as a by-product in the Stassfurt salt industry) dissolved in hot water to a saturated boiling solution of sodium nitrate; the common salt, which separates on boiling down the solution, is removed from the hot solution, and on cooling the potassium nitrate crystallizes out and is separated and dried. As found in nature, saltpetre generally forms aggregates of delicate acicular crystals, and sometimes silky tufts; distinctly developed crystals are not found in nature. When crystallized from water, crystals belonging to the orthorhombic system, and having a prism angle of 6i° 10', are obtained; they are often twinned on the prism planes, giving rise to pseudo-hexagonal groups resembling aragonite. There are perfect cleavages 94 SALT RANGE— SALUTATIONS parallel to the dome (on). The hardness is 2, and the specific gravity 2-1. It is fairly soluble in water; 100 parts at 0° dis- solving 13-3 parts of the salt, and about 30 parts at 20 ; the most saturated solution contains 327-4 parts of the salt in 100 of water; this solution boils at 114-1°. It fuses at 339° to a colourless liquid, which solidifies on cooling to a white fibrous mass, known in pharmacy as sal prunella. It is an energetic oxidizing agent, and on this property its most important applica- tions depend. At a red heat it evolves oxygen with the formation 01 potassium nitrite, which, in turn, decomposes at a higher temperature. Heated with many metals it converts them into oxides, and with combustible substances, such as charcoal, sulphur, &c, a most intense conflagration occurs. Its chief uses are in glass-making to promote fluidity, in metallurgy to oxidize impurities, as a constituent of gunpowder and in pyrotechny; it is also used in the manufacture of nitric acid. Potassium nitrate was used at one time in many different diseased conditions, but it is now never administered internally, as its extremely depressant action upon the heart is not com- pensated for by any useful properties which are not possessed by many other drugs. One most valuable use it has, however, in the treatment of asthma. All nitrites {e.g. sodium nitrite^ ethyl nitrite, amyl nitrite) cause relaxation of involuntary muscular fibre and therefore relieve the asthmatic attacks, which depend upon spasm of the involuntary muscles in the bronchial tubes. Saltpetre may be made to act as a nitrite by dissolving it in water in the strength of about fifty grains to the ounce, soaking blotting-paper in the solution and letting the paper dry. Pieces about 2 in. square are then successively put into a jar and lighted. The patient inhales the fumes, which contain a considerable proportion of nitrogen oxides. This treatment is frequently very successful indeed in relaxing the bronchial spasm upon which the most obvious features of an attack depend. 2. Chile saltpetre, cubic nitre or sodium nitrate, NaNOs, occurs under the same conditions as ordinary saltpetre in deposits covering immense areas in South America, which are known locally as caliche or terra salitrosa, and abound especially in the provinces of Tarapaca and Antofagasta in Chile. The nitrate fields are confined to a narrow strip of country, averaging 2J m. in width, situated on the eastern slopes of the coast ranges and extending from north to south tor 260 geographical miles, between the latitudes 25 45' and 19° 12' S The nitrate forms beds, varying in thickness from 6 in. to 12 ft ' under a covering of conglomerate locally known as lostra, which is itself overlain by a loose sandy soil. The conglomerate consists of rock fragments, sodium chloride and various sulphates, cemented together by gypsum to form a hard compact mass 6 to 10 ft. in thickness. The caliche has often a granular structure, and is yellowish- white, bright lemon-yellow, brownish or violet in colour. It contains from 48 to 75% of sodium nitrate and from 20 to 40% of common salt, which are associated with various minor saline components including sodium lodate and more or less insoluble mineral, and also some organic matter, e.g. guano, which suggests the idea that the nitrate was formed by the nitrification of this kind of excremental matter. 1 he caliche is worked up in loco for crude nitrate bv ex- tracting the salts with hot water, allowing the suspended earth to settle, and then transferring the clarified liquor, first to a cistern where it deposits part of its sodium chloride at a high temperature and then to another where, on cooling, it yields a crop of crystals of purified nitrate. The nitre thus refined is exported chiefly from Valparaiso whence the name of " Chile saltpetre." The mother liquors used to be thrown away, but are now utilized for the extrac- tion of their iodine (q.v.). Chemically pure sodium nitrate can be obtained bv reoeated ^crystallization of Chile saltpetre or by synthesis. I? forms Sour less, transparent rhombohedra, like those of Iceland spar; the angles i^t n rt Y T a ' 1° "Singles, being 73 ° 30', so that the crystals look like cubes: hence the name of " cubic saltpetre." There are perfect cleavages parallel to the rhombohedral faces, and the crystals exhibit a strong negative double refraction, like calcite. One hundred Su-%°t r^tif* k -r nd at . IOO ° dissolve 72-9 and 180 parts of the tII' if boiling-point of the saturated solution, 216 parts. The salt fuses at 316°; at higher temperatures it loses oxygen [more SiTV^ corresponding potassium salt) with the formation of nitrite which at very high temperatures, is reduced ultimately to a mixture of peroxide, Na 2 2 , and oxide, Na 2 0. The chief applications of Chile saltpetre are in the nitric acid industry, and m the manufacture of ordmary saltpetre for making gunpowder ordmary Chile saltpetre being unsuitable by reason of its cfeliquelcent nature a property however, not exhibited by the perfectly pure .alt. It is also employed as a manure. For references to memoirs '\r? :Ti $ i 71,° i £ e C wx? ni H ate de P° sits . see G. P. Merrill, The Non-Metalkc Minerals (New York, 1904). 3. Wall-saltpetre or lime saltpetre, calcium nitrate, Ca(N0 3 )j is found as an efflorescence on the walls of stables; it is now manu- factured in large quantities by fixing atmospheric nitrogen, i.e. bv passing a powerful electric arc discharge through moist air and absorbing the nitric acid formed by lime. Its chief applications are as a manure and in the nitric acid industry. SALT RANGE, a hill system in the Punjab and North- West Frontier Provinces of India, deriving its name from its extensive deposits of rock-salt. The range commences in Jhelum. district in the lofty hill of Chel (3701 ft.), on the right bank of the river Jhelum, traverses Shahpur district, crosses the Indus in Mianwali district, thence a southern branch forms the boundary between Bannu and Dera Ismail Khan until it finally merges in the Waziristan system of mountains. The salt range contains the great mines of Mayo, Warcha and Kalabagh, which yield an inexhaustible supply of salt, and supply the wants of all Northern India. Coal of an inferior quality is also found SALTYKOV (STCHEDRIN), MICHAEL EVGRAFOVICH (1826- (1889), Russian satirist, was born on his father's estate in the province of Tula, 15th (27th) January 1826. His early education was completely neglected, and his youth, owing to the severity and the domestic quarrels of his parents, was full of the most melancholy experiences. Left entirely to himself, he developed a love for reading; but the only book in his father's house was the Bible, which he studied with deep attention. At ten years of age he entered the Moscow Institute for the sons of the nobility, and subsequently the Lyceum at St Petersburg, where Prince Lobanov Rostofski, afterwards minister for foreign affairs was one of his schoolfellows. Whfle there he published poetry' and translations of some of the works of Byron and Heine; and on leaving the Lyceum he obtained employment as a clerk in the Ministry of War. In 1884 he published Zaputennoye Dyelo ( A Complicated Affair "), which, in view of the revolutionary movements at that time in France and Germany, was the Cause of his banishment to Vyatka, where he spent eight years as a minor government official. This experience enabled him to study the life and habits of civil servants in the interior, and to give L ,V. ?, 1 , CtUre ° f Russian Provincial officials in his GubernsMe Otcherki ( Provincial Sketches "). On his return to St Peters- burg as he was quickly promoted to administrative posts of con- siderable importance. After making a report on the condition of the Russian police, he was appointed deputy governor, first of Ryazan and then of Tver. His predilection for literary work !?i UC6 , d - hlm t0 kave the g° vernm ent service, but pecuniary difficulties soon compelled him to re-enter it, and in 1864 he was appointed president of the local boards of taxation succes- sively at Penza, Tula and Ryazan. In 1868 he finally quitted the civil service. Subsequently he wrote his principal works, namely, Poshekhonskaya Starina (" The Old Times of Poshek- hona"), which possesses a certain autobiographical interest- Istona odnavo Goroda (" The History of a Town "); A Satirical History of Russia; Messieurs el Mesdames Pompadours- and Messieurs Golovlof. At one time, after the death of the poet ISekrasov, he acted as editor of a leading Russian magazine, the Contemporary. He died in St Petersburg on the 10th of April (12th May) 1889. (G D ) SALUS, in Roman mythology the personification of health and prosperity. In 302 b.c. a temple was dedicated to Salus on the Quirmal (Livy x. 1); and in later times public prayers were offered to her on behalf of the emperor and the Roman people at the beginning of the year, in time of sickness, and on the emperor's birthday. In 180 b.c, on the occasion of a plague, vows were made to Apollo, Aesculapius and Salus (Livy xl. 37) Here the special attribute of the goddess appears to be health- and in later times she was identified with the Greek goddess of health, Hygieia. SALUTATIONS, or Greetings, the customary forms of kindly or respectful address, especially on meeting or parting or on occasions of ceremonious approach. Etymologically the word salutation (Lat. salutatio, " wishing health ") refers only to words spoken. SALUTATIONS 95 Forms of salutation frequent among savages and barbarians may last on almost unchanged in civilized custom. The habit of affectionate clasping or embracing is seen at the meetings of the Andaman islanders and Australian blacks, or where the Fuegians in friendly salute hug "like the grip of a bear." 1 This natural gesture appears in old Semitic and Aryan custom : " Esau ran to meet him (Jacob) and embraced him, and fell on his neck, and kissed him, and they wept " (Gen. xxxiii. 4) ; so, when Odysseus makes himself known, Philoetius and Eumaeus cast their arms round him with kisses on the head, hands and shoulders (Odyss. xxi. 223). The idea of the kiss being an instinctive gesture is negatived by its being unknown over half the world, where the prevailing salute is that by smelling or sniffing (often called by travellers " rubbing noses ") , which belongs to Polynesians, Malays, Burmese and other Indo-Chinese, Mongols, &c, extending thence eastward to the Eskimo and westward to Lapland, where Linnaeus saw relatives saluting by putting their noses together. 2 This seems the only appearance of the habit in Europe. On the other hand the kiss, the salute by tasting, appears constantly in Semitic and Aryan antiquity, as in the above cases from the book of Genesis and the Odyssey, or in Herodotus's description of the Persians of his time kissing one another — if equals on the mouth, if one was somewhat inferior on the cheek (Herod, i. 134). In Greece in the classic period it became customary to kiss the hand, breast or knee of a superior. In Rome the kisses of in- feriors became a burdensome civility (Martial xii. 59). The early Christians made it the sign of fellowship: "greet all the brethren with an holy kiss" (1 Thess. v. 26; cf. Rom. xvi. 16, &c). It early passed into more ceremonial form in the kiss of peace given to the newly baptized and in the celebration of the Eucharist; 3 this is retained by the Oriental Church. After a time, however, its indiscriminate use between the sexes gave rise to scandals, and it was restricted by ecclesiastical regulations — men being only allowed to kiss men, and women women, and eventually in the Roman Church the ceremonial kiss at the communion being only exchanged by the ministers, but a relic or cross called an osculatorium or pax being carried to the people to be kissed. 4 While the kiss has thus been adopted as a re- ligious rite, its original social use has continued. Among men, however, it has become less effusive, the alteration being marked in England at the end of the 17 th century by such passages as the advice to Sir Wilfull by his London-bred brother: " in the country, where great lubberly brothers slabber and kiss one another when they meet; . . . 'T is not the fashion here." 5 Court ceremonial keeps up the kiss on the cheek between sovereigns and the kissing of the hand by subjects, and the pope, like a Roman emperor, receives the kiss on his foot. A curious trace which these osculations have left behind is that when ceasing to be performed they are still talked of by way of politeness: Austrians say, "Kiiss d'Hand!" and Spaniards, "Beso a Vd. las manos!" "I kiss your hands!" Strokings, pattings and other caresses have been turned to use as salutations, but have not a wide enough range to make them im- portant. Weeping for joy, often occurring naturally at meetings, is sometimes affected as a salutation ; but this seems to be different from the highly ceremonious weeping performed by several rude races when, meeting after absence, they renew the lamentations over those friends who have died in the meantime. The typical case is that of the Australian natives, where the male nearest of kin presses his breast to the new comer's, and the nearest female relative, with piteous lamentations, embraces his knees with one hand, while with the other she scratches her face till the blood drops. 6 Obviously this is no joy-weeping, but mourning, and the same is true of the New Zealand tangi, which is performed at the reception of a distinguished visitor, whether he has really dead friends to mourn or not. 7 Cowering or crouching is a natural gesture of fear or inability to resist that belongs to the brutes as well as man ; its extreme form is lying prostrate face to ground. In barbaric society, as soon as 1 W. P. Snow in Trans. Ethnol. Soc., n.s., i. 263. 2 J. E. Smith, Linnaeus 's Tour in Lapland, i. 315. * Bingham, Antiquities of the Chr. Church, bk. xii. c. 4, xv. c. 3. * The latter term has supplied the Irish language with its term for a kiss, pog, Welsh poc ; see Rhys, Revue Celtique, vi. 43. 6 Congreve's Way of the World, act iii. 6 Grey, Journals, ii. 255. T A. Taylor, New Zealand, p. 221. distinctions are marked between master and slave, chief and com- moner, these tokens of submission become salutations. The sculp- tures of Egypt and Assyria show the lowly prostrations of the ancient East, while in Dahomey or Siam subjects crawl before the king, and even Siberian peasants grovel and kiss the dust before a noble. A later stage is to suggest, but not actually perform, the prostration, as the Arab bends his hand to the ground and puts it to his lips or forehead, or the Tongan would touch the sole of a chief's foot, thus symbolically placing himself under his feet. Kneeling prevails in the middle stages of culture, as in the ceremonial of China ; Hebrew custom sets it rather apart as an act of homage to a deity (1 Kings xix. 18; Isa. xlv. 23); medieval Europe distinguishes • between kneeling in worship on both knees and on one knee only in homage, as in the Boke of Curtasye (15th century): — " Be curtayse to god, and knele doun On bothe knees with grete deuocioun; To mon |>ou shalle knele opon be ton, pe to|>er to Jiy self Jou halde alofi." Bowing, as a salute of reverence, appears in its extreme in Oriental custom, as among the ancient Israelites: " bowed himself to the ground seven times " (Gen. xxxiii. 3).* The Chinese according to the degree of respect implied bow kneeling or standing. 9 The bowing salutation, varying in Europe from something less than the Eastern salaam down to the slightest inclination of the head, is interesting from being given mutually, the two saluters each making the sign of submission to the other, which would have been absurd till the sign passed into mere civility. Uncovering is a common mode of salutation, originally a sign of disarming or defencelessness or destitution in the presence of a superior. Polynesian or African chiefs require more or less stripping, such as the uncovering to the waist which Captain Cook describes in Tahiti. 10 Taking off the hat by men has for ages been the accepted mode in the Western world. Modern usage has moderated this bowing and scraping (the scrape is throwing back the right leg as the body is bent forward), as well as the curtseys (courloisie) of women. Some Eastern nations are apt to see disrespect in baring the head, but insist on the feet being un- covered, Burma was agitated for years by " the great shoe question," whether Europeans should be called on to conform to native custom rather than their own, by taking off their shoes to enter the royal presence. 11 Grasping hands is a gesture which makes its appearance in antiquity as a legal act symbolic of the parties joining in compact, peace or friendship; this is well seen in marriage, where the hand grasp was part of the ancient Hindu ceremony, as was the ". dex- trarum junctio " in Rome, which passed on into the Christian rite. In the classic world we see it passing into a mere salutation, as where the tiresome acquaintance met by Horace on his stroll along the Via Sacra seizes his hand (Hor., Sat. i. 9). Giving the right hand of fellowship (Gal. ii. 9) passed naturally into a salutation throughout Christendom, and spread, probably from Byzantium, over the Moslem world. The emphatic form of the original gesture in " striking hands " is still used to make the greeting more hearty. The variety called in English " shaking hands " (Ger. H dnde-schiitteln) only appears to have become usual in the middle ages.'- 2 In the Moslem legal form of joining hands the parties press their thumbs together. 13 This has been adopted as a salute by African tribes. As to words of salutation, it is found even among the lower races that certain ordinary phrases have passed into formal greetings. Thus among the Tupis of Brazil, after the stranger's silent arrival in the hut, the master, who for a time had taken no notice of him, would say " Ereioube?" that is, "Art thou come?" to which the proper reply was, "Yes, I am come"! 14 Many formulas express difference of rank and consequent respect, as where the Basuto salute their chiefs with Tama sevata I i.e. " Greeting, wild beast ! " Congo negroes returning from a journey salute their wives with an affectionate Okowe I but they meekly kneeling round him may not repeat the word, but must say Ka I ka ! 16 Among cultured nations, salutations are apt to be expressions of peace and goodwill, as in the Biblical instances, " Is it well with thee ? " (2 Kings iv. 26) ; " Peace to thee, and peace to thine house," &c. (1 Sam. xxv. 6; see Ezra iv. 17). Such formulas run on from age to age, and the latter may be traced on to the Moslem greeting, Salam 'alaikuml "The peace be on you," to which the reply is Wa-'alaikum as-salam I "And on you be the peace (sc. of God) ! " This is an example how a greeting may become a pass-word among fellow-believers, for it is usually held that it may not be used by or to an infidel. From an epigram of Meleager (Anth., ed. Jacobs vii. 119; cf. Plautus, Poen: v. passim) we learn that, while the Syrian salutation was Shelom (" Peace ! "), the Phoenicians greeted by wishing life ('nxvin, the 8 See the Egyptian bow with one hand to the knee; Wilkinson, Anc. Eg. 9 S. Wells Williams, Middle Kingdom, i. 801. 10 See references to these customs in Tylor, Early History of Mankind, ch. iii. 11 Shway Yoe, The Burman, ii. 158, 205. 12 See Tylor in Macmillan' s Mag. (May 1882), p. 76. 13 Lane, Mod. Eg. i. 219. 14 Jean de Lery, part ii. p. 204. 15 Magyar, Reise in Siid-Afrika. 9 6 SALUZZO— SALVADOR ion, &c, of Neo-Punic gravestones). The cognate Babylonian form, " O king, live for ever!" (Dan. iii. 9), represents a series of phrases which continue still in the Vivat rex! " Long live the king!" The Greeks said x"'P«. " Be joyful!" both at meeting and parting; the Pythagorean vyiaivei.v and the Platonic e5 vpirrav, wish health; at a later time aairdfo^tu, "I greet!" came into fashion. The Romans applied Salve 1 " Be in health ! " especially to meeting, and Vale! " Be well!" to parting. In the modern civilized world, everywhere, the old inquiry after health appears, the " How do you do ? becoming so formal as often to be said on both sides without either waiting for an answer. Hardly less wide in range is the set of phrases "Good day!" " Good night!" &c, varying according to the hour and translating into every language of Christendom. Among other European phrases, some correspond to our " welcome! " and "farewell! " while the religious element enters into another class, exemplified by our "Good-bye!" ("God be with you!"), and French Adieul Attempts have been made to shape European greetings into expressions of orthodoxy, or even tests of belief, but they have had no great success. Examples are a Protestant German salutation "Lobe Jesum Christum!" answered by "In Eviigkeit, Amen!" and the formula which in Spain enforces the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, " Ave Maria purisima!" answered by "Sin pecado concebidat" On the whole, though the half-meaning- less forms of salutation may often seem ridiculous, society would not carry them on so universally unless it found them useful. They serve the purpose of keeping up social intercourse, and establishing relations between the parties in an interview, of which their tone may strike the keynote. (E. B. T.) SALUZZO, a city and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Cuneo, 42 m. S. of Turin by rail, 1296 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 10,306 (town), 16,208 (commune). The upper town preserves some part of the fortifications which pro- tected it when, previous to the plague of 1630, the city had upwards of 30,000 inhabitants. The old castle of the marquises of Saluzzo now serves as a prison. Besides the Gothic cathedral (1480-1511), with the tombs of the marquises, the churches of San Giovanni (formerly San Domenico), San Bernardo and the Casa Cavazza, now the municipal museum, are noteworthy. Railways run to Cuneo and Airasca (the latter on the Turin- Pinerolo line) and steam tramways in various directions. The castle of Manta, in the vicinity, contains interesting 15th-century frescoes by a French artist (see P. d'Ancona in V Arte for 1905; 94, P- 184). The line of the marquises of Saluzzo began (1 142) with Manfred, son of Boniface, marquis of Savona, and continued till 1548, when the city and territory were seized by the French. The marquises being opponents of the house of Savoy, and taking part in the struggles between France and the empire, the city often suffered severely from the fortunes of war. Henry IV. restored the marquis- ate to Charles Emmanuel I. of Savoy at the peace of Lyons in 1601. Among the celebrities of Saluzzo are Silvio Pellico, Bodoni, the famous printer of Parma of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, and Casalis the historian of Sardinia. The history of the marquisate was written by Delfino Muletti (5 vols., 1829-1833). SALVADOR, or San Salvador (Republica del Salvador), the smallest but most densely peopled of the republics of Central America, bounded on the N. and E. by Honduras, S. by the Pacific Ocean, and W. by Guatemala. (For map, see Central America.) Pop. (1906) 1,116,253; area, about 7225 sq. m. Salvador has a coastline extending for about 160 m. from the mouth of the Rio de la Paz to that of the Goascoran in the Bay of Fonseca (q.v.). Its length from E. to W. is 140 m., and its average breadth about 60 m. Physical Features. — With the exception of a comparatively narrow seaboard of low alluvial plains, the country consists mainly of a plateau about 2000 ft. above the sea, broken by a large number of volcanic cones. These are geologically of more recent origin than the main chain of the Cordillera which rises farther N. The principal river of the republic is the Rio Lempa, which, rising just beyond the frontier of Guatemala and crossing a corner of Honduras, enters Salvador N. of Citala. After receiving the surplus waters of the Laguna de Guija, it flows E. through a magnificent valley between the plateau and the Cordillera, and then turning S. skirts the base of the volcano of Siguatepeque and reaches the Pacific in 88° 40' W. Among its numerous tributaries are the Rio Santa Ana, rising near the city of that name, the Asalguate, which passes the capital San Salvador, the Sumpul, and the Torola, draining the N.E. of Salvador and part of Honduras. The Lempa is for two-thirds of its course navigable by small steamers. The Rio San Miguel drains the country between the bay of Fonseca and the basin of the Lempa. The volcanic mountains do not form a chain but a series of clusters: the Izalco group in the W. — including Izalco (formed in 1770), Marcelino, Santa Ana, Naranjos, Aguila, San Juan de Dios, Apaneca, Tamajaso and Lagunita; the San Salvador group, about 30 m. E.; Cojute- peque to the N.E. and the San Vicente group to the E. of the great volcanic lake of Ilopango; the Siguatepeque summits to the N.E. of San Vicente; and the great S.E. or San Miguel group — San Miguel, Chinameca, Buenapa, Usulatan, Tecapa, Taburete. Cacaguateque and Sociedad volcanoes in the N.E. belong to the inland Cordillera. Santa Ana (8300 ft.) and San Miguel (7120 ft.) are the loftiest volcanoes in the country. The neighbourhood of the capital is subject to earthquakes. San Miguel is described as one of the most treacherous burning mountains in America, sometimes several years in complete repose and then all at once bursting out with terrific fury. In 1879-1880 the Lake of Ilopango was the scene of a remarkable series of phenomena. With a length of 5^ m. and a breadth of 45, it forms a rough parallelogram with deeply indented sides, and is surrounded in all directions by steep mountains except at the points where the villages of Asino and Apulo occupy little patches of level ground. Between the 31st of December 1879 and the nth of January 1880 the lake rose 4 ft. above its level. The Jibpa, which flows out at the S.E., became, instead of a very shallow stream 20 ft. broad, a raging torrent which soon scooped out for itself in the volcanic rocks a channel 30 to 35 ft. deep. A rapid subsidence of the lake was thus produced, and by the 6th of March the level was 34! ft. below its maximum. Towards the centre of the lake a volcanic centre about 500 ft. in diameter rose 150 ft. above the water, surrounded by a number of small islands. Climate. — The lowlands are generally hot and, on the coast, malarial; but on the tablelands and mountain slopes of the interior the climate is temperate and healthy. There are only two seasons: the wet, which Salvadorians call winter, from May to October; and the dry, or summer, season, from November to April. In July and August there are high winds, followed by torrents of rain and thunderstorms; in September and October the rain, not heavy, is continuous. For an account of the geology, fauna and flora of Salvador, see Central America. Inhabitants. — The population in 1887 was stated to be 664,513, (1901) 1,006,848, (1906) 1,116,253. The number of Ladinos (whites and persons of mixed blood) is about 775,000 and of Indians about 230,000. The various elements were, before 1901, estimated as follows, and the proportion still holds good in the main: whites (creoles and foreigners) 10%, half-castes 50%, Indians 40%, and a very small proportion of negroes. The whites of pure blood are very few, a liberal estimate putting the proportion at 2-5%. There is no immigration into the country, and the rapid increase with which the population is credited can be due only to a large surplus of births over deaths. The chief towns, which are described in separate articles, comprise San Salvador the capital (pop. 1905, about 60,000), Santa Ana (48,000), San Miguel (25,000), San Vicente (18,000), Sonsonate (17,000), Nueva San Salvador or Santa Tecla (18,000) and the seaport of La Union (4000). For the ancient Indian civilization of Salvador, see Central America: Archaeology, and Mexico: History. Agriculture. — The only industry extensively carried on is agriculture, but the methods employed are still primitive. The more important products are coffee, sugar, indigo and balsam. The country is rich in medicinal plants. Peruvian balsam {Myrospermum Salvatorense or Myroxylon Pereirae) is an indi- genous balm, rare except on the Balsam Coast, as the region about Cape Remedios is named. It is not cultivated in Peru, but owes its name to the fact that, during the early period of Spanish rule, it was forwarded to the Peruvian port of Callao for tran- shipment to Europe. Rubber is collected; tobacco is grown in small quantities; cocoa, rice, cereals and fruits are cultivated. The government seeks 'to encourage cotton-growing, and has 9 8 SALVAGE to the doctrine of Roman law that " spontaneous services " in the. protection of lives and property should be rewarded. But that doctrine has not found a place in English law except, as part of the maritime law administered in the court of admiralty. Thus services on land, say in rescuing lives or houses or goods from fire, do not entitle the person rendering those services to reward, unless he has acted under some contract or employment. But at sea the right to reward springs from the service itself if it has been rendered to a ship, or her passengers, crew or cargo, or to property which has been thrown or washed out of her. And such a service entitles to salvage though the ship may be in harbour, or within a river, or even in a dock. This connexion of the lives or property with a ship seems essential. The right does not arise upon saving goods which have got adrift in river or harbour, even if they have been washed out to sea, nor upon saving property of other kinds which may be in peril on the sea of on the seashore. Thus a claim to reward for saving a gas- buoy or beacon, which had broken from its moorings in the Upper Humber, and was aground on the Lincolnshire coast, was disallowed by the House of Lords, affirming the court of appeal, in the case of the gas-float " Whitton No. 2," 1897, A.C. 337- The definite right to salvage for saving lives from ships is the creation of modern statutes. Formerly the Admiralty judges treated the fact that lives had been saved as enhancing the merit of a salvage of property by the same salvors, where the two could be connected; and so indirectly gave life salvage. And this is still the position in cases where the Merchant Shipping Act of r8o4 does not apply. This act (§544) applies to all cases in which the " services are rendered wholly or in part -within British waters in saving life from any British or foreign vessel, or elsewhere in saving life from any British vessel." Also (§ 545) it can De applied, by Order in Council, to life salvage from ships of any foreign country whose government " is willing that salvage should be awarded by British courts for services rendered in saving life from ships belonging to that country where the ship is beyond the limits of British jurisdiction." By section 544 the life salvage is made payable " by the owner of the vessel, cargo or apparel saved " ; and is to be paid in priority to all other claims for salvage. Where the value of the vessel, cargo and apparel saved is insufficient to pay the life salvage, the Board of Trade may in their discretion make up the deficiency, in whole or in part, out of the Mercantile Marine Fund. The effect of the act is to impose a common responsibility upon the owners of ship and cargo to the extent of their property saved. Whatever is saved becomes a fund out of which life salvors may be rewarded, and to which they are entitled in priority to other salvors. In the case of the cargo ex "Schiller" (1877, 2 P.D. r45) salvage was allowed out of specie raised by divers from the sunken wreck, to persons who had saved some of the passengers and crew. This limitation of liability to the amount of the property salved is also true with regard to salvage of property. The ordinary remedy of the salvor is against the property itself; by proceedings in rem, to enforce the maritime lien given him by the law upon that property. This enables him to arrest the property, if within the jurisdiction, into whose hands soever it may have come; and, if necessary, to obtain a sale, and payment of his claim out of the proceeds. The salvor has also a remedy in personam, used only in exceptional cases, against the owners or others interested in the property saved (Five steel barges, 15 P.D. 142) ; but it seems certain that that depends upon property having been saved, and having come to the owner's hands; and that the amount which can be awarded is limited by the value of that property. An essential condition is that the lives or property saved must have been in danger — either in immediate peril, or in a position of "difficulty and reasonable apprehension." Danger to the salvor is not essential, though it enhances his claim to reward; but to constitute a salvage service there must have been danger to the thing salved. Again, the service must have helped usefully towards saving the lives or property. Ineffectual efforts, however strenuous and meritorious, give rise to n<; claim. But the service need not be completely successful. If it has contributed to an ultimate rescue it will be rewarded, though that may have been accomplished by others. And as we have seen, there must have been ultimate success. Some of the property involved in the adventure must have been saved. And the value of that, or the fund realized by its sales, limits the total of the awards to all the salvors. Cases, of course, occur in which services at sea are employed by ships in danger: as where a steamer with a broken propeller shaft employs another steamer to tow her; or where a vessel which has lost her anchors employs another to procure anchors for her from shore. In such cases the conditions of reward above set out may not apply. Reward may be payable, notwithstanding entire failure of success, by the express or implied terms of the employment. But such a reward is not truly " salvage." Services rendered in the performance of a duty owed do not entitle to salvage. The policy of the law is to stimulate voluntary effort, not to weaken obligation. Thus the crew cannot (while still the crew) be salvors of the ship or cargo; nor can the passengers, unless they have voluntarily stayed on the ship for the purpose of saving her. Nor can a pilot employed as such be salvor, unless he has boarded her in such exceptional circum- stances that his doing so for pilotage fees could not reasonably be required; or unless the circumstances of the service, entered upon as pilotage, have so changed as to alter its character; and it may be doubted whether such a change of circumstances is a valid ground for a claim of salvage remuneration by the pilot where he has had no opportunity of leaving the ship. So again of the owners and crew of a tug employed to tow a ship. They cannot claim salvage for rescuing her from a danger which may arise during the towage, unless circumstances have super- vened which were not contemplated, and are such as to require extraordinary aid from the tug, or to expose her to extraordinary risk. Officers and crew of a ship of the royal navy may have salvage where they have rendered services outside the protec- tion which their ship ought to afford. But by the Merchant Shipping Act 1894, § 557, such a claim must be with consent of the Admiralty; and no claim can be made in respect of the ship herself. The kinds and degrees of service are very various. The rewards given vary correspondingly. Regard is paid, first, to the degree of the danger to the property salved, to its value, and to the effect of the services rendered ; next, to the risks Tun by the salvors, the length and severity of their efforts, the enterprise and skill displayed, and to the value and efficiency of the vessel or apparatus they have used, and the risks to which they have exposed her. In a modern case (the " Glengyle," 1898, A.C. 519) a specially large award was given to vessels kept constantly ready for salving operations in Gibraltar Bay. It was owing to that readiness that the rdscue had been possible. On the other hand, any negligent or improper conduct of the salvors will be considered in diminution of the award: as where they have negligently exposed the ship to damage, or have plundered the cargo, or dealt with it contrary to the owner's interests. And where the rescue has been from a danger which Was brought about by the negligent or improper conduct of those who effected the rescue, no salvage is allowed. So that where two colliding ships were both to blame for the collision, the master and crew of one of them were not allowed salvage for services in saving cargo of the other (cargo ex " Capella," L.R. 1 A. and E. 356). ' In apportioning the total award given for a salvage service among the owners, master and crew of the vessel by means of which it has been rendered, the special circumstances of each case have to be considered. In nearly all cases a large portion goes to the owners, and as in recent times the value and efficiency Of ships (especially of steamships) have increased, so the propor- tion of the whole usually awarded to the owners has also increased. In an ordinary case of salvage by a steamship towing a distressed ship into safety, the share of the owners is usually about three- fourths; of the remainder the master usually gets about one-third, -\SA£tfA<3E: 99 and the officers and crew divide the rest -in- proportion to their: ratings. But where the salving ship has' sustained special damage in the service, or her owners have been put to loss by it, that is taken into account. On the other hand, where Special personal services have been rendered by members of the crew they are specially rewarded. .< , As an illustration take the case of the;" Rasche "• (L.R. 4. A. and E. 137)- The brigantine " Rasche," derelict, was fallen in with (by the ship " Scythia " (carrying a. very valuable cargo) 220 m. N. of the Lizard. The mate and three, hands of the "" Scythia " were put on board, and in circumstances of much hardship and danger they brought her after eighteen days safely to Liverpool. After deducting expenses incurred by the owners of the "Scythia," the value of the property saved was £6294. Sir R. Phillimore awarded £3 2 9°; and of this he gave £600 to the mate, £510 to each of the three men who had .accompanied him; £500 to the owners of the " Scythia " ; and £350 to her other officers and crew. An agreement as to the salvage to be paid is sometimes made" at the time the assistance is given. When made fairly the court- will act upon it, though it may turn out to be a bad. bargain for one or other of the parties, i But if the facts were not correctly apprehended by one or both, or if the position was one of such difficulty that those salved had no real option as to accepting the salvor's terms, the courts will set the agreement aside. This happened, for instance, where the salving ship : refused to rescue 550 wrecked pilgrims from the Parkin . Rock in the Red Sea for a less sum than £4000. An agreement had in consequence been sighed for their conveyance for that sum to Jedda, two or three days' sail. The Parkin Rock stands 6 ft. above the water, a*nd had bad weather come on the lives would have been in great danger. It was held that the sum asked for was exorbitant; and that the agreement, made under practical .compulsion, could not stand (the ' Medina," 2 PiD. 5). On the other "hand, an agreement to tow, for a fixed sum, a vessel which had suffered considerable damage, was set aside, and salvage awarded, oh the ground: that the damaged condition had not been disclosed to the tug when the contract was made (the " Kingaloch," 1 Spink, 265). .. . The award of salvage is generally made in one sum against ship, freight and cargo; and those , interests contribute to the amount in proportion to the value saved. No distinction is made between the degree of service rendered to one interest and another. But, with a possible exception in the case of life salvage, there is not a joint liability of the several interests. Each is liable to the salvors for his own share, and for ; no more. The ship cannot be made to pay the cargo's share, nor the cargo the ship's. If, however, the, shipowner pays the cargo's share,, he has a lien upon it for the amount. In practice the liabilities fpr salvage are ordinarily adjusted as part of general average. Strictly, however, there is a difference. The . liability to pay salvage is a direct liability to the salvors, arising at once, e.g. at the port of refuge, and proportional to the values there; whereas the liability to contribute to a general average -loss or expenditure is postponed until the completion or break up of the adventure, and depends upon the values of the interests which have arrived there; which may be very different. (See Average, Insurance, Marine, and also Admiralty. Jurisdiction.) Authorities. — Kennedy, On, the Law of Civil Salvage (London, 1907); Abbott, Law of Merchant Ships and Seamen (14th ed., London, 1901); Carver, Carriage by Sea (5th ed., London, T909). (T. G. C.) •"■2. Military Salvage is analogous to civil salvage. Itisdefined as such a service as may become the ground for the demand of a reward in the court as a prize court, and consists in the rescue of property from the enemy in time of war. Such cases almost invariably relate to ships and their cargoes; and they : have always been dealt with by courts having Admiralty jurisdiction, sitting as prize courts. . They involve the determination of two questions: first, whether the property is to be restored to its original owner or condemned as prize to the recaptor ; and second, what amount .of salvage, if any, is to accompany restitu- tion. Generally speaking, the first question depends upon the law of nations, which may be taken to be that where a ship has been carried by an enemy infra praesidia, and especially after a sentence of condemnation, the title of the original owner is divested, and does not revest upon recapture by third parties. In such a case, therefore, jure gentium restitution cannot be claimed. The municipal law of civilized countries, however, : does "not encourage subjects to " ; make* reprisals upon one another" (the " Renard," Marr. Adm. Dec. 2 2 2) /and laws are generally found; as in England, which as between subjects of that particular state provide for restitution irrespective of any change in the title to the subject matter which may have occurred. But (speaking henceforth of England) in cases which do not fall strictly within these acts, the old maritime law, which was In unison' with the gerierallaw of nations, is applied by the courts, ; Moreover, the English. Prize Acts do not apply to foreign owners of recaptured prizes, and therefore no award Call be made against them unless in accordance with the law ' of nations. In practice the courts have acted Upon the " rule of reciprocity " : where recaptures have been made of the property of formal allies, dealing with them as the allied state would have dealt with : English property. In the case of neutral recaptures restitution is always ordered. An exception to the rule Of restitution as between British subjects is made in the case of a British ship whichhas been " set forth as a ship of war " by the captor, and subsequently retaken by a British ship. Such a ship is not liable to restoration, but is the prize of the recaptor. This exception, the object of which is to encourage 1 the capture of armed ships, • dates from 1793, previous acts having provided for restitution upon payment of a moiety as salvage. The condition of setting forth ias' a ship of war is satisfied, where under a fair semblance of authority, which is not disproved, the ship "has been used in the operations of war, and constituted a part of the naval force of the enemy " (the " Ceylon," 1 Dod. 105) . Such a user perma- nently obliterates the ship's original character, and extinguishes all future claims to restitution (" L'Actif," Edw. 185). As to the right to salvage and the amount which will be allowed; this is also a question of the jus gentium, though usually governed by municipal law. The right was recognized so long ago as the nth century, when the " Consolato del Mare" (see Consulate of the Sea) laid down elaborate provisions on the subject. In England the first statutory recognition of the right occurs in 1648, when an act of the Commonwealth, which in its outline has been the model for all subsequent Prize Acts, provides that British vessels captured by an enemy and retaken by British ships shall be restored upon payment of brie-eighth of the value of the property in lieu of salvage, or one-half in the case of a prize " set forth as a ship of war." From that date until 1864* the date of the act now in force, there have been thirteen Prize Acts dealing with recapture, each of which, except that of 1864, has been passed to meet a particular occasion, and has expired with the cessation of the then existing hostilities. Since the first act, and down to the act of 1805 inclusive, a distinction has always been drawn between a recapture effected by one of the royal ships of war and a recapture by a privateer or other vessel. In the former case the allowance has always been one-eighth, in the latter it varied, but was usually one-sixth. In the act of 1692 a clause taken from a Dutch law gave salvage to a privateer, rising in amount from one-eighth to one-half according to the number of hours the prize had been in the enemy's possession, but this clause has disappeared since 1756. There is no provision in the present act for the payment of salvage, except hi case of re- capture by one Of His Majesty's ships, but it seems beyond question' that recaptors are entitled at law to salvage, although they rriay hold no commission from the crown. " It is the duty of every subject of the king to assist his fellow-subjects in war; and to retake their property in the possession of the enemy: no commission is necessary to give a person so employed a title to the reward which the policy of the law allots to that meritorious act of duty " (the "Helen," 3 C. Rob. 226, per Sir W. Scott). Though it is improbable that privateers will figure in any future war, it may reasonably be anticipated that recaptures may be made by private vessels, and in such cases salvage would probably be awarded, the proportion lying in the discretion of the court. Similarly, salvage is awarded in the case of recapture from pirates or from a mutinous crew. In the case of royal ships the present act allows one-eighth salvage, which in cases of " special difficulty or' danger " the court rriay increase to a quarter. The latter pr6visidri is ari innovation. SALVAGE 97 established in the suburbs of the capital an agricultural college and model farm. Mining. — In the Cordillera, which runs through Salvador, there are veins of various metals — gold, silver, copper, mercury and lead being found mostly in the E., and iron in the W. Coal has been discovered at various points in the valley of the Lempa. In the republic there are about 180 mining establishments, about half of them .being in the department of Morazan; they are owned by British, United States and Salvadorian companies. Only gold and silver are worked. The output, chiefly gold, was valued at £250,000 in 1907. Commerce. — The trade of Salvador is almost entirely confined to the import of cotton goods, woollen goods, sacks and machinery, and to the export of coffee and a few other agricul- tural products. In 1900 the formation of a statistical office was decreed. The average yearly value of the imports for the five years 1904-1908 was £804,000, of the exports £1,250,000. The coffee exported in 1908 was valued at £830,000. The imports, comprising foodstuffs, hardware, drugs, cottons, silk and yarn, come (in order of value) chiefly from Great Britain, the United States, France and Germany; the exports are mostly to the United States and France. Shipping and Communications. — Until 1855 the roads of Salvador were little better than bridle-paths, and fords or ferries were the sole means of crossing the larger rivers. During the next half-century about 2000 m. of highways were built, and the rivers were bridged. The first railway, a narrow-gauge line, between the port of Acajutla and Sonsonate, was opened in 1882, and afterwards extended to Ateos on the E. and Santa Ana on the N.W. A railway from the capital to Nueva San Salvador was also constructed, and in 1900 was linked to the older 'system by a line from Ateos to San Salvador. In 1903, a concession was granted for an extension from Nueva San Salvador to the port of La Libertad. From 350 to 450 vessels annually entered and cleared at Salvadorian ports (chiefly Acajutla, La Libertad and La Union), during the years 1895 to 1905. The old port of Acajutla has been closed, and a new port opened in a more sheltered position about 1 m. N., where an iron pier, warehouses and custom-house have been erected. Salvador joined the postal union in 1879. Currency and Credit. — In 1910 there were three commercial banks and an agricultural bank within the republic. In 1897 a law was passed adopting a gold standard. The currency of the country in 1910 consisted entirely of silver pesos, the fractional money under -900 fine having, by arrangement with the govern- ment, been all exported by the banks. The peso or dollar at par is valued at four shillings; its actual value was about is. 8d. in 1 9 1 o. The metric system of weights and measures was adopted by decree of January 1886, but the old Spanish weights and measures still continue in general use. Finance. — The revenue is mainly derived from import and export duties, but considerable sums are also obtained from excise, and smaller amounts from stamps and other sources. The principal branches of expenditure are the public debt, defence and internal administration. The official figures showing the revenue and expenditure for the five years 1904-1908 are as follows (pesos being converted into sterling at the rate of 12 to £1):- Years. Revenue. Expenditure. 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 675,000 711,000 707,000 728,000 1,064,000 734,ooo 837,000 1,024,000 886,000 1,019,000 The foreign debt, amounting to £726,420 (£240,000 of a 6% loan of 1889, and £485,720 of another of 1892) was in 1899 converted into 5 % mortgage debentures of the Salvador Railway Company Limited, to which the government has guaranteed, for eighteen years from the 1st of January 1899, a fixed annual subsidy of £24,000. In March 1908 a newforeign loan was raised, amount- ing to £1,000,000. The bonds were issued at 86, and bore 6% XXIV. A interest, secured partly upon the special import duty of $3.60 (American gold) on every kilogramme of imported merchandise, partly upon the export duty of 40 c. (American gold) on every quintal (100 lb) of coffee up to 500,000 lb. The 4% internal debt amounted in 1905 to £840,170. Government. — The constitution proclaimed in 1824, and modified in 1859, 1864, 1871, 1872, 1880, 1883 and 1886, vests the legislative power in a chamber of 70 deputies, including 42 landowners (3 for each department), all chosen by the direct vote of the people. The president and vice-president are likewise chosen by direct popular vote, and they hold office for 4 years. The president is not eligible for the presidency or vice-presidency during the following presidential term. He is assisted by 4 ministers. Local government is carried on in each of the 14 departments by governors appointed by the central executive. The municipalities are administered by officers (alcaldes, regi- dores, &c.) elected by the inhabitants. Religion and Education. — The Roman Catholic religion prevails throughout the republic, but there is complete religious freedom, so far as is compatible with public order. Civil marriage is legal, monastic institutions are prohibited, and education is in the hands of laymen. Primary education is gratuitous and obligatory. For secondary instruction there are about 20 higher schools, including 3 technical institutes, and 2 schools for teachers, one for men and the other for women — these five institutions being supported by the government. At San Salvador there is a national college for the higher education of women. Superior and professional instruction is provided at the national university in the capital. Justice is administered by a supreme court, and in district, circuit and local courts. The active army consists of about 3000 men, and the militia, of about 18,000. In time of war all males between the ages of eighteen and sixty are liable for service. The navy consists of one customs cruiser. History. — Salvador received its name from Pedro de Alvarado, who conquered it for Spain in 1525-26. Its independence of the Spanish Crown dates from 1822; (see Central America: History). Revolutions have been frequent. In July 1906 war broke out between Salvador, Honduras and Guatemala, but was terminated within the month by the arbitration of the United States president (see as above). In 1907 Salvador supported Honduras (q.v.) against Nicaragua; its prosperity was not, however, seriously impaired by the defeat of its ally. See E. G. Squier, The States of Central America (London, 1868); D. Guzman, Apuntamientos sobre la topografia fisica de la republica del Salvador (San Salvador, 1883); D. Gonzalez, Datos sobre la republica de El Salvador (San Salvador, 1901); No. 58 of the Bulletins of the Bureau of American Republics (Washington, 1892) ; annual reports of the Council of the Corporation of Foreign Bond- holders (London) and of the British Foreign Office. SALVAGE (from Lat. salvus, safe). There is no general rule or principle of law which entitles one who saves the life 01 property of another to be rewarded by him. But in certain special classes of cases the law does require the appointed courts to reward those who by their exertions have rescued lives or property from probable damage or destruction. The reward so given is called salvage and the same word is often used to denote the service rewarded. Apart from the application of the term by analogy to the saving of property from fire on land, the recovery of property from destruction by the aid of voluntary payments (as in the case of payments to prevent the forfeiture of an insurance policy), or a solicitor's charges for property recovered by his means, the subject of salvage divides into (1) civil salvage, (2) military salvage. 1. Civil Salvage in English law is defined as such a service as may become the ground of a reward in the (admiralty) court on the civil side of its jurisdiction, and consists in the preservation of life or property from some of the dangers of the sea. The jurisdiction to give it is an admiralty jurisdiction. But the right to reward was recognized in the courts of common law before the admiralty court became, as it now is, a part of the High Court of Justice, e.g. by enforcing a possessory lien of the salvor over the salved property. The origin of the rule has been traced IOO SALVAGE CORPS— SALVATION ARMY It may appear that the grant of salvage to ships of war, the duty of whose commanders it is, according to the naval instruc- tions, " if possible, to rescue any British vessel which he may find attacked or captured by the enemy, " needs some justifica- tion. Objections on this ground have never been seriously treated, it being urged that it is politic to encourage the under- taking of such enterprises, even where they coincide with the path of duty. Where, however, a transport was rescued from under the guns of an enemy by a ship of war, under whose charge she sailed, salvage was refused on the ground that the salvor was only doing what he was bound to do (the " Belle, " Edw. 66). So no salvage is due to a crew who rescue a ship from mutineers, this being only their duty under a subsisting contract (the " Governor Raffles," 2 Dod. 14). On the other hand, a crew who rescue their ship from the prize crew of a belligerent are entitled to salvage, since the capture discharges them from their contract with the owner, and they act as volunteers (the " Two Friends," 1 C. Rob. 271). In the case of a neutral captured by one belligerent and recaptured by the other, which has been already alluded to, no salvage is as a rule allowed, upon the supposition that if the vessel had been carried into the port of the enemy justice would have been done and the vessel restored. In the case of the French war at the opening of the 19th century no such supposi- tion existed, and salvage was usually awarded on the recapture of neutral property from the French. (M. Bt.) SALVAGE CORPS. The London Salvage Corps is maintained by the fire offices of London. The corps was first formed in 1865 and began operations in March 1866. The staff of the corps when first formed consisted of 64. Since that time, owing to the many improvements that have taken place in the system of dealing with salvage, and the increase in the work to be done, the corps has necessarily been strengthened, and the staff now numbers over 100. The various stations of the corps are well placed, and the Metropolis has been mapped out so that when a fire takes place it may be attended to at the earliest possible moment. The headquarters are situated at Watling Street, which is called the No. 1 station, and this station protects the City of London enclosed by the Euston Road, Tottenham Court Road, City Road and the river Thames; this is known as the " B " district. No. 2 station is at Commercial Road, and attends to the whole of the E. and N.E. portion of London to the N. of the Thames, and is known as the " C " district. No. 3 station, opposite the headquarters of the Metropolitan Fire Brigade Station in the Southwark Bridge Road, protects the whole of S. London, and is known as the " D " district. No. 4 station, at Shaftesbury Avenue, is called the " A " district, and covers the West End and Kensington. Finally, No. 5 station, in Upper Street, Islington, guards the parish of Islington. The working staff, which is mainly recruited from the royal navy, consists of the chief officer and a superintendent, foreman and crew of men at each station. The stations of the corps are connected by telephone with the fire brigade stations from whence the " calls " are received. In addition to the home staff, there is also a staff constantly employed during the daytime in inspecting docks, wharves, Manchester goods and uptown warehouses, and reports are made weekly to the committee. Generally speaking, the work of the Corps may be divided into two distinct classes — (1) services at fires; (2) watching and working salvage. (1) Services at Fires form the most important feature of the work. Much depends upon the method of dealing with the salvage. If, for instance, a large Manchester goods warehouse was on fire in the top part, it would be very little advantage to the offices interested in the risk if the men were set to work removing the stock off the ground floor. The best method would be to cover up with tarpaulin all goods there, and prevent the water from collecting on the lower floors. It will be gathered that the most important work of the corps is to prevent damage to goods, and that water is mostly looked after. The damage from fire is left almost entirely to the fire brigade. The traps, which immediately on receipt of an alarm proceed to the scene of the fire with their crew of men, carry every kind of appliance for the saving of goods from destruction by fire or damage by water, as well as lime-light apparatus for use in working after the fire has been extinguished, thus enabling the men to note the position of dangerous walls, &c; and a portable coal-gas apparatus, which can be employed in the interior of buildings when the ordinary means of illumination has failed; in addition to ambulance appliances for emergencies. (2) Working Salvage.— When a fire takes place, a man is left behind in charge of the salvage if the property is insured; or if that fact cannot be ascertained, but it appears probable that it is, a man is left until the information is obtained later. The duty, if an important one, is divided into a day and night duty. This enables an experienced man to be sent on day duty to meet the surveyor, and to carry out his instructions regarding the working out of the salvage; and a junior man at night. The day man, if working out salvage, would employ a number of men called strangers, over whom he acts as a kind of foreman. The " working out " may take the form of dividing up damaged goods into lots ready for a sale to be held by the surveyor, or of sifting over the debris to find remains of certain articles claimed for. If, for instance, a large fire occurred at a pianoforte manufacturer's, and the debris was all in one common heap, the London Salvage Corps might have to arrange certain quantities of pegs and wires in order to give an idea of the number of pianos before the fire. The watching continues until the loss is settled, when the charge of the premises is given over to the assured. There are also salvage corps on similar lines, but on a smaller scale, in Liverpool and Glasgow. (C. J. F.) SALVANDY, NARCISSE ACHILLE (1795-1856), French politician, was born at Condom (Gers)on the nth of June 1795; of a poor family Irish by extraction. He entered the army in 1813, and next year was admitted to the household troops of Louis XVIII. A patriotic pamphlet on La Coalition et la France (18 16) attracted the attention of Decazes, who employed him to disseminate his views in the press, and he waged war against the Villele ministry of 1822-1828. Under the July monarchy he sat almost continuously in the Chamber of Deputies from 1830 till 1848, giving his support to the Conservative party. Minister of education in the Mole cabinet of 1837-1839, and again in 1845, he superintended the reconstitution of the Council of Education, the foundation of the French School at Athens and the restoration of the Ecole des Chartes. For short periods in 1841 and 1843 he was ambassador at Madrid and at Turin, and became a member of the French Academyin 1835. Under the Empire he took no part in public affairs, and died at Graveron (Eure) on the 16th of December 1856. SALVATION ARMY, a religious philanthropic organization founded by William Booth (q.v.), who in 1865 began to hold meetings for preaching in the streets in London and in tents, music halls, theatres and other hired buildings. Large numbers attended, many of whom had never entered a place of worship, and presently an organized society was formed called " The Christian Mission." Booth was assisted by his wife, Catherine Booth, a woman of remarkable gifts, who won for the new movement the sympathy of many among the cultured classes. In 1878 the Mission, which had spread beyond London, was reorganized on a quasi-military basis, and the title of " The Salvation Army " was definitely adopted in June 1880. The local societies became " Corps," and their evangelists " Field Officers," with Booth as " General " of the whole body. The spiritual operations of the Army at once rapidly expanded in spite of much disorderly opposition in some places. In 1878 there were 75 corps and 120 officers in the United Kingdom, the amount contributed by the outside public being £1925. Since then the number of corps and officers has greatly increased. Very large numbers who have " professed conversion " are reported annually. No figures of membership, however, are published. In doctrine, the Army is in harmony with the main principles of the evangelical bodies, " as embodied in the three creeds of the Church." Its preaching is practical and direct, asseverating the reality of Sin, " the everlasting punishment of the wicked," and Redemption. The Army proclaims the SALVATION ARMY IOI supreme duty of self-sacrifice for the sake of the salvation of others The Army is under the control of the General for the time being, who issues all orders and regulations. Large powers devolve upon other officers, such as the " Chief of the Staff," the " Foreign Secretary," and the " Chancellor," who direct affairs from the " International Headquarters " in London. The system of government is autocratic, " unquestioning obedience " being required throughout all ranks. The Army is divided, usually in harmony with national boundaries, into " territories," each under a " Commissioner," with headquarters in the capital of the country. The Territories are generally divided into " Provinces " and these again into " Divisions," which include a number of corps, each supporting its own " Captain " and " Lieutenant." The " soldiers " or members are drawn from all classes of the community. The property of the Army in the United Kingdom is held by the General for the time being, for the benefit of the Army exclusively, he being constituted the sole trustee of the property, in the disposal of which and in the appoint- ment of his successor he is placed under the government of a deed poll, executed by Booth while the body was still known as " The Christian Mission," and enrolled in the Court of Chancery in August 1878. In other countries various modifications have been necessary, but the General's ultimate con- trol has been practically assured. A further deed poll providing for the removal of a General in the contingency of " mental incapacity " or other " unfitness," and for the election of a successor, was executed by Booth in July 1904. Funds are raised from the voluntary offerings of the corps, from open-air and other collections, from friends interested in evangelical and chari- table work, and from the profits on publications and general trading. The financial statements of the various national headquarters funds are an- nually published, certified by public accountants, in each country. In 1909 the general income and expenditure account of International Head- quarters in London dealt with a total of £64,345. Details of the aggregate income raised in the United Kingdom by the corps are not pub- lished. The annual Self-Denial offering (Great Britain) was £12,663 in 1888, £72,562 in 1906 and £69,034 in 1910. The value of the assets Total number of officers engaged exclusively in social work, 2520. of the spiritual work in the United Kingdom ho^^V^orief Ug ex - cnmmals are now recelved m the ordlnary labour increased from £558,992 in 1891 to £1,357,706 and was started with subscriptions amounting to over £100,000. A separate deed poll, making the General sole trustee, was executed by Booth in regard to the property and funds of this branch of work. Since then, both in Great Britain and abroad, the scheme has been actively carried on. The amount received in the year ending 30th September 1909 for cheap food and lodging in the United Kingdom was returned at £42,022 for the men's work, and £6417 for the women's. Large numbers of unemployed, ex-criminal and other needy persons have been aided or dealt with. In the year ending 30th September 1909, the number of persons received into the " elevators " or factories was reported as 6425, of women and girls received into rescue homes as 2559. The farm colony at Hadleigh in Essex has a large acreage under cultivation, with fruit and market gardens and various industrial undertakings. The emigration depart- ment, although a development of the Darkest England Scheme, has no connexion with the rescue work; in 1907 the passage money received amounted to £85,014, and in 1909 to £38,179. An " anti-suicide bureau " was opened in 1907, and at Boxted, near Colchester, a scheme for Small Holdings has been initiated. In 1909 the value of the property held under the Darkest England Scheme in the United Kingdom was returned at £329,645, and the income of the central fund at £50,594. Summary of Social Operations throughout the World (Compiled from the " S.A. Year-Booh, 1910 "). Number of Institutions. United Kingdom. Abroad. Total, Total Accommo- dation. Men's Work- Shelters and Food Depots . Labour Bureaus .... Labour Homes and Factories . Ex-criminal Homes Farm Colonies .... Women's Work — Rescue and Maternity Homes . Shelters and Food Depots Children's Homes and Creches . Slum Posts .... Other Social Institutions . . Total Institutions 3i 8 28 1 2 32 10 2 44 17 156 50 117 18 15 107 20 57 103 87 187 58 145 18 17 139 30 59 147 104 I8.53I 4.936 486 3.469 1.934 174 73° 904 29.356 in 1909, the liabilities on account of loans upon mortgage and otherwise amounting at the latter date to £662,235. The assets of the Trade Departments were valued at £110,657 in 1909. Statistics of Spiritual Operations (Compiled from the " S.A. Year Book, 1910 "). Corps and Outposts. Officers and Cadets. The British Isles The United States .... South America and West Indies Canada and Newfoundland Australasia and Java .... India, Ceylon, Japan and Korea . South Africa and St Helena . France, Belgium, Switzerland and Italy Germany and Holland Sweden, Norway, Finland, 'Denmark Gibraltar and Malta .... Total . t 1447 871 128 465 1283 2584 113 374 248 1067 2 3.I9I 1 2,983 188 95o 1,721 1,626 278 499 772 I.5I3 5 8582 13.726 Employees (without rank), 6269. 1 Officers and employees (British Isles), 7538. Booth's scheme for Social Relief, described in In Darkest England, and the Way Out (1890), attracted wide-spread interest, There are a number of subsidiary branches of work, such as the Young People's Legion, and the Naval and Military League for work among men in the military, naval and merchant services. In England there is a bank (the Reliance Bank, Ltd.) and a Life Assurance Society, the funds of the latter amounting to £566,309 in 1909. All officers and many of the rank and file wear a uniform. Music is universally employed. While the organiza- tion has succeeded in securing recognition and favour in high places both in England and abroad, it has been seriously criticized at times, notably by Huxley and others in 1890-1891, and more recently by J. Manson in The Salvation Army and the Public, a work which led to much public discussion of the Army's religious, social and financial operations and methods. In 1 9 10 some resignations took place among the higher officials. Authorities. — William Booth, Orders and Regulations for Soldiers; Orders and Regulations for Field Officers; Orders and Regulations for Staff Officers; Salvation Soldiery; Interview with W. E. Gladstone; In Darkest England and the Way Out (189O); Bramwell Booth, Social Reparation; Servants of All (1899); Booth-Tucker, The Life of Catherine Booth (1892); Railton, Heathen England; Twenty-one Years' Salvation Army; Arnold White, Truth about the Salvation Army (\8g2, 1900 and 1906); The Great Idea (1909; 2nd ed., 1910); T. F. G. Coates, The Life Story of General Booth (2nd ed., 1906); Harold Begbie, Broken Earthenware (1909) ; various reports and accounts; The War Cry, The Social Gazette, The Salvation Army Year Book, &c. Criticism; Thomas H. Huxley, " Social Diseases and Worse Remedies" in Collected Essays, vol. ix. (1895); John 102 SALVER— SALVIAN Manson, The Salvation Army and the Public (1906; 3rd ed., 1908); Salvation Army Headquarters, A Calumny Refuted: A Reply to the Unfounded Charges of Sweating, &c. (1908) ; United Workers' Anti- Sweating Committee, Salvation Army Sweating: A Reply to the Mis-statements of General Booth and his Officials (1908; 2nd ed., 1910); Reports of the Trades Union Congress (1907 to 1910). SALVER, a flat tray of silver or other metal used for carrying or serving glasses, cups, dishes, &c, at table or for the presenting of a letter or card by a servant. In a royal or noble household the fear of poisoning led to the custom of tasting the food or drink before it was served to the master and his guests; this was known as the " assay " of meat and drink, and in Spanish was called salva (salvar, to preserve from risk, Lat. salvare, to save). The term salva was also applied to the dish or tray on which the food or drink was presented after the tasting process. There seems no doubt that this Spanish word is the source of the English " salver "; a parallel is found in the origin of the term " credence-table," which is from the Ital. credenza, Lat. credere, to believe, trust (see Credence and Credence-Table). SALVIA, a large genus belonging to the natural order Labiatae (q.v.), containing about 500 species in the temperate and warmer regions of both hemispheres. The name is derived from the Lat. salvo, from the healing properties of sage, S. officinalis (see figure under Labiatae). S. verbenaea, Clary, is a native of Britain found in dry pastures and waste places. Some of the Salvias are among the most showy of the soft-wooded winter-flowering plants, the blossoms being of a bright glowing scarlet. The three most useful species are 5. splendens, S. Heerii and 5. gesneriflora, the first beginning to flower early in the autumn and lasting till Christmas, while the others follow immediately in succession, and continue in full beauty till April. Young plants should be propagated annually about February, and after nursing through the spring should be grown outdoors in a fully exposed situation, where they can be plunged in some non-conducting material, such as half-decomposed leaves. The young shoots should be stopped to secure bushy plants, but not later than the middle of August. The most suitable compost for them is a mixture From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Bolanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer. Pollination of Salvia Fratensis. 1, Flower visited by a bumble- bee, showing the projection of the curved connective from the helmet-shaped upper lip and the deposition of the pollen on the back of the bumble-bee. 2, Older flower, with connective drawn back, and elongated style. 4, The staminal apparatus at rest, with connective en- closed within the upper lip. 3, The same when disturbed by the entrance of the proboscis of the bee in the direction of the arrow.. /, Filament. c, Connective. [anther. s, The obstructing half of the of mellow fibry loam enriched with a little mild thoroughly decom- posed manure, made sufficiently porous by the addition of sand or grit. In spring, and during the blooming period, the temperature should be intermediate between that of a stove and greenhouse. There are other very ornamental species of easy growth, increased by cuttings in spring, and succeeding well in ordinary rich loamy soil. Of these S. angustifolia bears spikes of fine bright-blue flowers in May or June; S. chamaedryoides, a dwarfish subject, has deep- blue flowers in August; S. fulgens produces scarlet flowers in August; and 5. involucrata produces fine red flowers during the autumn. 5. patens is a lovely blue free-blooming sort, flowering in August, the colour being unique. SALVIAN, a Christian writer of the 5th century, was born probably at Cologne (De gub. Dei, vi. 8, 13), some time between 400 and 405. He was educated at the school of Treves and seems tc have been brought up as a Christian. His writings appear to show that he had made a special study of the law; and this is the more likely as he appears to have been of noble birth and could describe one of his relations as being " of no small account in her own district and not obscure in family " (Ep. i.). He was certainly a Christian when he married Palladia, the daughter of heathen parents, Hypatius and Quieta, whose dis- pleasure he incurred by persuading his wife to retire with him to a distant monastery, which is almost certainly that founded by St Honoratus at Lerins. For seven years there was no communi- cation between the two branches of the family, till at last, when Hypatius had become a Christian, Salvian wrote him a most touching letter in his own name, his wife's, and that of his little daughter Auspiciola, begging for the renewal of the old affection (Ep. iv.). This whole letter is a most curious illustration of Salvian's reproach against his age that the noblest man at once forfeited all esteem if he became a monk (De gub. iv. 7; cf. viii. 4) . It was presumably at Lerins that Salvian made the acquaint- ance of Honoratus (ob. 429), Hilary of Aries (ob. 449), and Eucherius of Lyons (ob. 449). That he was a friend of the former and wrote an account of his life we learn from Hilary ( Vita Hon., ap. Migne, 1. 1260). To Eucherius's two sons, Salonius and Veranus, he acted as tutor in consort with Vincent of Lerins. As he succeeded Honoratus and Hilary in this office, this date cannot well be later than the year 426 or 427, when the former was called to Aries, whither he seems to have summoned Hilary before his death in 429 (Eucherii Instructio ad Salonium, ap. Migne, 1. 773; Salv., Ep. ii.). Salvian continued his friendly intercourse with both father and sons long after the latter had left his care; it was to Salonius (then a bishop) that he wrote his explanatory letter just after the publication of his treatise Ad ecclesiam ; and to the same prelate a few years later he dedicated his great work, the De gubernatione Dei. If French scholars are right in assigning Hilary's Vita Honorati to 430, Salvian, who is there called a priest, had probably already left Lyons for Mar- seilles, where he is known to have spent the last years of his life (Gennadius, ap. Migne, lviii. 1099). It was probably from Marseilles that he wrote his first letter — presumably to Lerins — begging the community there to receive his kinsman, the son of a widow of Cologne, who had been reduced to poverty by the barbarian invasions. It seems a fair inference that Salvian had divested himself of all his property in favour of that society and sent his relative to Lerins for assistance (Ep. i., with which compare Ad eccles. ii. 9, 10; iii. 5). It has been conjectured that Salvian paid a visit to Carthage; but this is a mere infer- ence based on the minute details he gives of the state of this city just before its fall (De gub. vii. viii.). He seems to have been still living at Marseilles when Gennadius wrote under the papacy of Gelasius (492-496). Of Salvian's writings there are still extant two treatises, entitled respectively De gubernatione Dei (more correctly De praesenti judicio) and Ad ecclesiam, and a series of nine letters. The De gubernatione, Salvian's greatest work, was published after the capture of Litorius at Toulouse (439), to which he plainly alludes in vii. 40, and after the Vandal conquest of Carthage in the same year (vi. 12), but before Attila's invasion (450), as Salvian speaks of the Huns, not as enemies of the empire, but as serving in the Roman armies (vii. 9). The words " proximum bellum " seem to denote a year very soon after 439. In this work, which furnishes a valuable if prejudiced description of life in 5th-century Gaul, Salvian deals with the same problem that had moved the eloquence of Augustine and Orosius. Why were these miseries falling on the empire? Could it be, as the pagans said, because the age had forsaken its old gods?- or, as the semi-pagan creed of some Christians taught, that God did not constantly overrule the world he had created (i. 1)? With the former Salvian will not argue (iii. 1). To the latter he replies by asserting that, " just as the navigating steersman never looses the helm, so does God never remove his care from the world." Hence the title of the treatise. In books i. and ii. Salvian sets himself to prove God's constant guidance, first by the facts of Scripture history, and secondly by the enumeration of special texts declaring this truth. Having thus " laid the foundations " of his work, he declares in book iii. that the misery of the Roman world is all due to the neglect of God's commandments and the terrible sins of every class of society. It is not merely that the slaves are thieves and runaways, wine-bibbers and gluttons — the rich are worse (iv. 3). It is their harshness and greed that drive the poor to join the Bagaudae and fly for shelter to the barbarian invaders (v. 5 and 6). Every- where the taxes are heaped upon the needy, while the rich, who have the apportioning of the impost, escape comparatively free (v. 7). The great towns are wholly given up to the abominations of the SALVINI— SALWEEN 103 circus and the theatre, where decency is wholly set at nought, and Minerva, Mars, Neptune and the old gods are still worshipped (vi. 1 1 ; cf. vi. 2 and viii. 2). Treves was almost destroyed by the barbarians; yet the first petition of its few surviving nobles was that the emperor would re-establish the circus games as a remedy for the ruined city (vi. 15). And this was the prayer of Christians, whose baptismal oath pledged them to renounce " the devil and his works . . . the pomps and shows (spectacula) " of this wicked world (vi. 6). Darker still were the iniquities of Carthage, surpassing even the unconcealed licentiousness of Gaul and Spain (iv. 5) ; and more fearful to Salvian than all else was it to hear men swear " by Christ " that they would commit a crime (iv. 15). It would be the atheist's strongest argu- ment if God left such a state of society unpunished (iv. 12) — especially among Christians, whose sin, since they alone had the Scriptures, was worse than that of barbarians, even if equally wicked, would be (v. 2). But, as a matter of fact, the latter had at least some shining virtues mingled with their vices, whereas the Romans were wholly corrupt (vii. 15, iv. 14). With this iniquity of the Romans Salvian contrasts the chastity of the Vandals, the piety of the Goths, and the ruder virtues of the Franks, the Saxons, and the other tribes to whom, though heretic Arians or unbelievers, God is giving in reward the inheritance of the empire (vii. 9, 11, 21). It is curious that Salvian shows no such hatred of the heterodox barbarians as was rife in Gaul seventy years later. It is difficult to credit the universal wickedness adduced by Salvian, especially in face of the contemporary testimony of Symmachus, Ausonius and Sidonius. Salvian was a 5th-century socialist of the most extreme type, and a zealous ascetic who pitilessly scourged everything that fell short of an exalted morality, and exaggerated, albeit unconsciously, the faults that he desired to eradicate. Ad ecdesiam is explained by its common title, Contra avaritiam. It strongly commends meritorious almsgiving to the church. It is quoted more than once in the De gubernatione. Salvian published it under the name of Timothy, and explained his motives for so doing in a letter to his old pupil, Bishop Salonius (Ep. ix.). This work is chiefly remarkable because in some places it seems to recommend parents not to bequeath anything to their children, on the plea that it is better for the children to suffer want in this world than that their parents should be damned in the next (iii. 4). Salvian is very clear on the duty of absolute self-denial in the case of sacred virgins, priests and monks (ii. 8-10). Several works mentioned by Gennadius, notably a poem " in morem Graecorum " on the six days of creation (hexaemeron), and certain homilies composed for bishops, are now lost (Genn. 67). The Ad ecdesiam was first printed in Sichard's Antidoton (Basel, 1528); the De gubernatione by Brassicari (Basel, 1530). The two appeared in one volume at Paris in 1575- Pithoeus added variae lectiones and the first seven letters (Paris, 1580); Ritterhusius made various conjectural emendations (Altorf, 1611), and Baluze many more based on MS. authority (Paris, 1663-1669). Numerous other editions appeared from the 16th to the 18th century, all of which are now superseded by the excellent ones of C. Halm (Berlin, 1877) and F. Pauly (Vienna, 1883). The two oldest MSS. of the De gubernatione belong to the 10th century (Cod. Paris, No. 13,385) and the 13th (Brussels, 10,628); of the Ad ecdesiam to the 10th (Paris, 2172) and the nth (Paris, 2785); of Epistle IX. to the 9th (Paris, 2785) ; of Epistle VIII. to the 7th or 8th century (Paris, 95,559) and to the 9th or 10th century (Paris, 12,237, 12,236). Of the first seven epistles there is only one MS. extant, of which one part is now at Bern (No. 219), the other at Paris (No. 3791). See Histoire litte- raire de France, vol. ii. ; Zschimmer's Salvianus (Halle, 1875). Salvian's works are reprinted (after Baluze) in Migne's Cursus patrologiae, ser. lat. vol. liii. For bibliography, see T. G. Schoene- mann's Bibliotheca patrum (ii. 823), and the prefaces to the editions of C. Halm (Monum. Germ., 1877) and F. Pauly (.Vienna, Corp. scr. eccl. Lat., 1883). Gennadius, Hilary and Eucherius may be consulted in Migne, vols, lviii. and 1. See also S. Dill, Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire, pp. 1 15-120. (T. A. A.) SALVINI, TOMMASO (1829- ), Italian actor, was born at Milan on the 1st of January 1829. His father and mother were both actors, and Tommaso first appeared when he was barely fourteen as Pasquino in Goldoni's Donne curiose. In 1847 he joined the company of Adelaide Ristori, who was then at the beginning of her brilliant career. It was with her as Elettra that he won his first success in tragedy, playing the title role in Alfiero's Orcste at the Teatro Valle in Rome. He fought in the cause of Italian independence in 1849; otherwise his life was an unbroken series of successes in his art. He acted frequently in England, and made five visits to America, his first in 1873 an( i his last in 1889. In 1886 he played there Othello to the Iago of Edwin Booth. Apart from Othello, which he played for the first time at Vicenza in June 1856, his most famous impersona- tions included Conrad in Paolo Giacometti's La Morte civile, Egisto in Alfieri's Merope, Saul in Alfieri's Saul, Paolo in Silvio Pellico's Francesca da Rimini, Oedipus in Nicolini's play of that name, Macbeth and King Lear. Salvini retired from the stage in 1890, but in January 1902 took part in the celebration in Rome of Ristori's eightieth birthday (see the Century Magazine for June 1902, vol. lxiii.). Salvini published a volume entitled Ricordi, anedotti ed impressioni (Milan, 1895). Some idea of his career may be gathered from Leaves from the Autobiography of Tommaso Salvini (London, 1893). His son Allessandro (1861-1896), also an actor, had several notable successes in America, particularly as D'Artagnan in The Three Guardsmen. SALWEEN, a river of Burma. This river, called Nam Kong by the Shans, Thanlwin by the Burmese, Lu Kiang, or Nu Kiang, or Lu Tzu Kiang by the Chinese, is the longest river in Burma, and one of the wildest and most picturesque streams in the world. Its sources are still undetermined, but there seems little doubt that it rises in the Tanla mountains, S. of the Kuen Lun, somewhere in 32 or 33° N., and that perhaps it draws some of its water from the Kara Nor. It is thus a much longer river than the Irrawaddy. From the time it leaves Tibet it has a very narrow basin, and preserves the character of a gigantic ditch, or railway cutting, with for long stretches no other affluents than the mountain torrents from the hills, which rise from 3000 to 5000 or 6000 ft. above the level of- the river-bed. In the dry season the banks are alternate stretches of blinding white, fine sand, and a chaos of huge boulders, masses and slabs of rock, with here and there, usually where a tributary enters, long stretches of shingle. In the rains all these disappear, and the water laps against forest trees and the abrupt slope of the hills. The average difference between high and low water level of the Salween throughout the Shan States- is between 50 and 60 ft., and in some places it is as much as 90. There are many rapids, caused by reefs of rock running across the bed, or by a sudden fall of from one to several feet, which produce very rough water below the swift glide; but the most dangerous places for navigation are where a point juts out into the stream, and the current, thrown back, causes a violent double back- water. Nevertheless, long stretches of the river, extending to scores of miles, are habitually navigated by native boats. The current is extremely variable, from § m. an hour to ten knots. Launches ply regularly from Moulmein to the mouth of the Yonzalin, in Lower Burma. The worst part of the whole Salween, so far as is known, is the gorge between the mouth of the Yonzalin and Kyaukhnyat. It is quite certain that steam launches could ply over very long sections of the river above that, perhaps as far as the Kaw ferry, or even the Kunlong ferry. In British territory, however, there are very few settlements on the river itself, and frequently the ferry villages are built 1000 ft. above the river. The Chinese believe the Salween valley to be deadly to all strangers, but it is in Chinese territory — particularly in the Lu Kiang, or Mong Hko state— that there is the largest population on the river until Lower Burma is reached. A description of the Salween resolves itself into a list of the ferries at which it can be crossed, for no one marches up the river. The river is bridged by the Chinese on the main route from Teng Yueh (Momien) and Bhamo to Tali-fu. There are two spans ; these are not in a straight line, but parallel to one another at the distance of the breadth of the central pillar. Each span is formed by twelve or fourteen massive iron chains, with planks laid across them. There was a bridge some 20 m. lower down, but this was destroyed in 1894. In British territory there are no bridges, and the ferries are the same as those maintained before annexation. There are a great number of these ferries, but only a few are used, except by the local people. From Ta Hsang Le large trading boats ply regularly to Kyaukhnyat, whence the traders make their way by land over the hill to Papun, and so down the Yonzalin. The chief tributaries of the Salween in British territory are the Nam Yu and the Nam Oi or Nam Mwe on the right bank, and the Hsipa Haw on the left. These are short but fair-sized streams. Near the Kunlong ferry the Nam Nim, on the right bank, and the Nam Ting, on the left, are considerably longer, and the Nam Ting is navigable by native craft for considerable stretches up to Meng Ting and farther. To the S. the next tributary is the Nam Kyek, on the right bank, down the valley of which the railway will reach the Salween. Below this are two streams called Nam Ma, one entering on the right bank, the other on the left, at no great distance from one another, but of no great length. A little below is the Nam Nang, on the left bank, coming from the Wa country. The Nam Kao enters in a cascade of nearly 200 ft. in the cold weather from the right, and then there are no affluents till the Nam Hka comes in on the left. 104 SALWEEN— SALZBURG This has a great volume of water, but is unnavigable because of its steep gradient and many gorges. After the Hwe Long, entering from the left at Ta Kaw, is passed, the Nam Pang comes in 22 m. lower down on the right bank. This is probably the largest tributary of the Salween ; some distance above its mouth, at Keng Hkam, it is 400 yds. wide and quite unfordable. The next important tributary is the Nam Hsim, on the left bank, rising in the latitude of Keng Tung. It is a large but quite unnavigable stream. Except the Me Sili and Me Sala, from opposite sides, and the Nam Hang, which burrows its way through a range of hills from the E., and the Nam Pan, coming from the W., there is no considerable tributary till 19° 52' N., where the Nam Teng comes in on the right from the central Shan States. This is a considerable river, and navigable for long stretches in its upper course, but the last few miles before it enters the Salween are little better than a cataract. Below this the only large affluent is the Nam Pawn, which drains all Karenni and a considerable por- tion of the Shan States, but is quite unnavigable. Below this the tributaries are again only mountain streams till the Thaung-yin comes in from the S.E. Thirty m. lower down is Kyodan, the great timber depot. Here a cable, stretched across the river, catches all the timber, which is then made up into rafts and floated down to Kado, near Moulmein, where the revenue is collected. The Yonzalin enters the Salween from the right about 10 m. below Kyodan. Boats can ply from Kyodan S., and light draught steamers ascend as far as Shwegon, 63 m. from Moulmein. The Salween cuts the British Shan States nearly in half, and is a very formidable natural obstacle. It seems probable, however, that long stretches of it can be opened to trade. It is certainly no less navigable than the Middle Mekong or the Yangtsze-kiang above I-chang. (J. G. Sc.) SALWEEN, a district in the Tenasserim division of Lower Burma. Area, 2666 sq.m. Pop. (1001) 37,837, consisting largely of aboriginal tribes, Karens (33,448) and Shans (2816). Nearly the whole district is a maze of mountains intersected by deep ravines, the only level land of any considerable extent being found in the valley of the Yonzalin, while the country is covered with dense forest, of which 1 28 sq. m. are reserved. The district is drained by three principal rivers, the Salween, Yonzalin and Bilin, fed by mountain torrents. The Yonzalin, which rises in the extreme N., is navigable with some difficulty in the dry season as far as Papun; the Bilin is not navigable within the limits of the district except by small boats and rafts. The district is in charge of a superintendent of police, with head- quarters at Papun. The total rainfall in 1905 was 114-48 in., recorded at Papun. Apart from cotton-weaving, there are no manufactures. A considerable trade is carried on with Siam by bridle paths across the mountains. SALYANY, a town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the govern- ment of Baku, 80 m. S.S.W. from Baku, on the river Kura, and on an island of the same name. In 1897 its population was 10,168, chiefly Tatars. It is a fishing centre, where thousands of workers gather from all parts of Russia during the season. Salyany was annexed to Russia in the 18th century, but was retaken by the Persians, and only became Russian finally in 1813. SALYES (Gr. SctXues: also Sallyes, Salyi, Salluvtt), in ancient geography, a people occupying the plain S. of the Druentia (Durance) between the Rhone and the Alps. According to Strabo (iv. p. 203) the older Greeks called them Ligyes, and their territory Ligystike. By some authorities they were con- sidered a mixed race of Galli and Ligurians (hence Celtoligyes) ; by others a purely Celtic people, who subjugated the Ligures in the Provincia. They are said to have been the first transalpine people subdued by the Romans (Florus iii. 2). In 154 B.C. the inhabitantsof Massilia, who had been connected with the Romans by ties of friendship since the second Punic war, appealed for aid against the Oxybii and Decietes (or Deciates). These people, called by Livy (Epit. 47) " transalpine Ligurians," were perhaps two smaller tribes included under the general name of Salyes. They were defeated by Quintus Opimius. In 125-124 hostilities broke out between the Romans and the Salyes from the same cause. The successful operations of Marcus Fulvius Flaccus were continued by Gaius Sextius Calvinus (123-122), who definitely subdued the Salyes, destroyed their chief town, and founded near its ruins the colony of Aquae Sextiae (Aix). Part of their territory was handed over to the Massaliots. Their king, Tuto- motulus (or Teutomalius), took refuge with the Allobroges. From this time the Salyes practically disappear from history. Among other important Roman towns in their territory may be mentioned Tarusco or Tarasco (Tarascon), Arelate (Aries), Glanum (St Remy) and Ernaginum (St Gabriel). For ancient authorities see A. Holder, Altceltischer Sprachschatz, ii. (1904). SALZA, HERMANN VON (c. 1170-1239), Master of the Teu- tonic Order, and councillor of the emperor Frederick II., was a scion of the family of Langensalza in Thuringia. He entered the Teutonic Order in early life, became very intimate with Frederick II., took part in the expedition to Damietta in 1221, and accom- panied the emperor on the crusade of 1228, which was joined by many princes owing to his influence. About 12 10 he was ap- pointed master of the Teutonic Order, and was offered, in 1226, the province of Kulm by Conrad I., duke of Masovia, in return for help against the Prussians; this he accepted and obtained the investiture from Frederick. In 1230 the conquest of Prussia was begun by the Order, although not under his immediate leadership. In i225hereconciledValdemarII.,kingof Denmark, with Henry I., count of Schwerin, and thus won again the land on the right bank of the Elbe for the Empire, and the recognition of imperial superiority over Denmark. Trusted by Pope Gregory IX. and the emperor alike, he brought about the treaty of San Germano between them in 1230, was the only witness when they met in conference at Anagni in the same year, and it was he who, in 1235, induced Frederick's son, Henry, to submit to his father. He died on the 19th of March 1239 at Barletta in Apulia, and was buried there in the chapel of his Order. Vide: A. Koch, Hermann von Salza, Meister des deutschen Ordens (Leipzig, 1885). SALZBRUNN, a watering-place of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, at the foot of a well- wooded spur of the Riesengebirge, 30 m. S.W. of Breslau, by the railway to Halber- stadt. Pop. (1905) 10,412. It consists of Ober-, Neu- and Nieder-Salzbrunn, has a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical church and manufactures of glass, bricks and porcelain. Its alkalo-saline springs, especially efficacious in pulmonary and urinary complaints, were known as early as 13 16, but fell into disuse until rediscovered early in the 19th century. The waters are used both for drinking and bathing, and of the two chief springs, the Oberbrunnen and the Kronenquelle, nearly two million bottles are annually exported. The number of summer visitors is about 7000 a year. See Valentiner, Der Kurort Obersalzbrunn (Berlin, 1877); Biefel, Der Kurort Salzbrunn (Salzbrunn, 1872); and Deutsch, Schlesiens Heilquellen und Kurorte (Breslau, 1873). SALZBURG, a duchy and crownland of Austria, bounded E. by Upper Austria and Styria, N. by Upper Austria and Bavaria, W. by Bavaria and Tirol and S. by Carinthia and Tirol. It has an area of 2762 sq. m. Except a small portion in the extreme N., near Bavaria, the country is mountainous and belongs to the N. and central zone of the Eastern Alps. It is divided into three regions; the region of the Hohe Tauern, extending S. of the Salzach, the region of the limestone Alps and the undulating foothill region. The Hohe Tauern contains many high lying valleys, traversed by the streams which flow into the Salzach, as well as numerous depressions and passes, here called popularly Tauern. The deepest depression of the whole range is the Velber Tauern valley (8334 ft.) between the Velber and the Tauern, and the principal pass is the Niederer (Mallnitzer) Tauern (7920 ft.). This pass which leads from the Gastein valley to Carinthia is the oldest bridle-path over the Hoher Tauern. Between the passes is the ridge of Sonnblick, where a meteorological observatory was established in 1886 at an altitude of 10,170 ft. The region of the limestone Alps is composed of several detached groups: a portion of the Kitzbuhler Alps, which contain the famous Thurn pass (4183 ft.) ; then the Salz- burg Alps, which contain the Loferer Steinberge and the peak Birnhorn (8637 ft.) ; the Reitalm or the Reiteralpe with the peak Stadelhorn (7495 ft.) ; and the broad mass of the Schonfeldspitze (8708 ft.), from which the great glacier-covered block of the Ewiger Schnee, or Ubergossene Alps projects into the Salzach valley. Farther N. are the Hagengebirge (7844 ft.); the beauti- ful summit of the Hoher Goll (8263 ft.); trie Tennegebirge (7217 ft.); and the Untersberg, an outpost of the Berchtesgaden SALZBURG !05 group. Between the Hagengebirge and the Tennengebirge, which are situated on each side of the Salzach valley, is one of the most magnificent narrow passes of the Alps. It is below Werfen, and near its exit, just at the narrowest part, is the Lueg Pass, which was fortified as early as 13 16 and offered a firm resistance to the French in the years 1800, 1805 and 1809. A portion of the Ischler Alps, as well as of the Dachstein group, also belongs to Salzburg. The principal river of Salzburg is the Salzach. The Enns and the Mur also rise in this province. The four Krimmler falls, together 2085 ft. high, are the most important falls in the Eastern Alps. The two falls at Wildbad-Gastein (196 and 296 ft.); the fall, by which the Gasteiner Ache discharges itself into the Salzach, near Lend; the Tauern fall (660 ft.), formed by the Tauern Ache on the N. side of the Radstater Tauern; and the Gollinger fall (202 ft. ) also deserve notice. Among the Klammen, i.e. narrow passages leading from the Salzach valley to the valleys of smaller rivers, the most celebrated are the Kitzloch Klamm and the Liechtenstein Klamm. The Kitzloch Klamm is formed by the Rauris Thai and the Liechtenstein Klamm by the Gross-Arle Thai. A path through the last Klamm leads to the magnificent fall (174 ft.) of the Gross-Arle river, which discharges itself in a series of cascades into the Salzach. The most important lake is the Zeller-see (2424 ft. above sea- level, 2 sq. m. in extent, 238 ft. deep), whose waters are carried off by the Salzach. The Waller-see or Lake of Seekirchen (1653 ft. above sea-level), the Fuschl-see (209s ft.), the Hinter-see (2580 ft.), the Ober-Trumer-see and Nieder-Trumer-see are all situated in the Alpine foothill region. The Mond-see (1560 ft.) and Aber-see, or Lake St Wolfgang, are on the frontier between Salzburg and Upper Austria. The climate, although healthy, is very changeable, with great extremes of temperature and heavy rainfall, especially in the summer. The most settled season is the autumn. The annual mean temperature at Salzburg is 46°-4 F. The population of the duchy in 1900 was 193,247, which is equivalent to 69 inhabitants per square mile. It is the most sparsely populated province of Austria. Between 1880 and 1900 the population increased by 17-5%. The inhabitants are a handsome and powerfully built peasant race, very con- servative in religion, manners, customs and national costume. They are almost exclusively of German stock and are Roman Catholics. Elementary education is much more advanced here than in any other Alpine province. Although 13-71% of the soil is unproductive and 32-4% is covered with forests, Salzburg is one of the principal pastoral regions of Austria. Of its total area, 28-9% consists of Alpine pastures available during the summer months, 4-95% of lowland pasturages and 8-3% of meadows, while only 9-2% is arable. Cattle-breeding and dairy-farming are very developed and constitute the chief re- sources of the province. Next in importance comes the timber trade; game is also plentiful. The mineral wealth of Salzburg includes salt at Hallein, copper at Mitterberg, iron-ore at Werfen, marble in the Untersberg region and small quantities of gold near the Goldberg in the Rauris valley and at Bockstein in the Gastein valley. The duchy contains also a great number of mineral springs, as the celebrated springs at Gastein, alkaline springs at Mauterndorf and at St Wolfgang, and saline springs at Golling and Hallein. Commerce and manufacture are poorly developed. The duchy is divided into six departments, of which the capital, Salzburg, is one and its environs the second. The other four are Hallein, St Johann, Tamsweg and Zell-am-See. The local diet, of which the archbishop is a member ex-officio, is composed of 28 members, and the duchy sends 7 members to the reichsrat at Vienna. At Hallein, pop. (1900) 6608, with celebrated saline springs known since the beginning of the 12th century, in October 1809, encounters between the French and the Tirolese under Joachim Johann Haspinger took place. To the N.E. lies Adnet with extensive marble quarries, and to the N. Oberalm, with manufacture of marble articles. The ascent of the Hoher Goll is made from here. Zell-am-See (2473 ft.), pop. 1561, is a favourite tourist resort. To the E. is the Schmit- tenhohe (6455 ft.)., which is easily accessible. On the summit is a meteorological station. Sankt Johann (pop. 1343) was one of the earliest settlements in the Salzach valley, and was a principal centre of Protestantism. Near it is the Liechtenstein Klamm. For the history of the archbishopric and duchy see the article on the town of Salzburg (below). SALZBURG, capital of the Austrian duchy and crownland of Salzburg and formerly of the archbishopric of the same name, 195 m. W. by S. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900) 32, 934. The city occupies a position of singular beauty on the Salzach which passes at this point between two isolated hills, the Monchsberg (1646 ft.) on the left and the Capuzinerberg (2132 ft.) on the right. In the lovely valley so formed, and stretching into the plain beyond, lies Salzburg. The older and main part of the city lies on the left bank of the Salzach, in a narrow semicircular plain at the base of the Monchsberg; the newer town is on the right bank at the foot of the Capuzinerberg, which is separated from the river by the narrow suburb of Stein. At the S. of the old town, below the Nonnberg, of S.E. spur of the Monchsberg, is the suburb of Nonnthal; and at the N. end is Miilln. The steep sides of the Monchsberg rise directly from amidst the houses of the town, some of which have cellars and rooms hewn but of the rock; and the ancient cemetery of St Peter, the oldest in Salzburg, is bounded by a row of vaults cut in the side of the hill. The narrowest part of the ridge, which has a length of above 2 m. is pierced by the Neu Thor, a tunnel 436 ft. long and 23 ft. broad, completed in 1767, to form a convenient passage from the town to the open plain. The S. end of the Monchsberg is occupied by the imposing Hohen-Salzburg, a citadel originally founded in the 9th century, though the present buildings, the towers of which rise 400 ft. above the town, date chiefly from 1496-1519. Its chapel contains statues of the twelve apostles in red marble. The citadel is now used for barracks. The streets in the older quarters are narrow, crooked and gloomy; but the newer parts of the city, especially those laid out since the removal of the fortifica- tions about 1861, are handsome and spacious. Owing to the frequent fires the private buildings of Salzburg are comparatively modern; and the existing houses, lavishly adorned with marble, are, like many of the public buildings, monuments of the gorgeous taste of the archbishops of the 17th and 18th centuries. From the style of the houses, the numerous open squares, and the abundant fountains which give an Italian aspect to the town, Salzburg has received the name of " the German Rome." Both sides of the river are bordered by fine promenades, planted with trees. The Salzach is spanned by four bridges, including a railway bridge. Salzburg is full of objects and buildings of interest. The cathedral, one of the largest and most perfect specimens of the_ Renaissance style in Germany, was built in 1614-1668 by the Italian architect Santino Solari, in imitation of St Peter's at Rome. On three sides it is bounded by the Dom-Platz, the Kapitel-Platz and the Residenz- Platz ; and opening on the N.E. and N.W. of the last are the Mozart- Platz and the Markt-Platz. In the Mozart-Platz .is a statue of Mozart by Schwanthaler erected in 1842. On one side of the Residenz-Platz is the palace, an irregular though imposing building in the Italian style, begun in 1592 and finished in 1725. It contains a picture-gallery and is now occupied by the grand-duke of Tuscany. Opposite is the Neu Bau, begun in 1588, in which are the govern- ment offices and the law courts. In the middle of the Residenz- Platz is a handsome fountain, the Residenz-Brunnen, 46 ft. high, executed in marble by Antonio Dario in 1 664-1 680. The palace of the present archbishop is in the Kapitel-Platz. Across the river, with its French garden adjoining the public park, is the Mirabell palace, formerly the summer residence of the archbishops. Built in 1607, and restored after a fire in 1818, it was presented to the town in 1867 by the emperor Francis Joseph. The town hall of Salzburg was built in 1407 and restored in 1675. Other interesting secular buildings are the Chiemseehof, founded in 1305 and rebuilt in 1697, formerly the palace of the suffragan bishop of Chiemsee, and now the meeting-place of the Salzburg diet and the Carolino-Augusteum- Museum, containing an interesting collection of antiquities and a library .of 20,000 volumes. Of the twenty-five churches the majority are interesting from their antiquity, their architecture or their associations. Next to the cathedral, the chief is perhaps the abbey church of St Peter, a Romanesque basilica of the 12th century which was tastelessly restored in 1745, and which contains a monument to St Rupert. St Margaret's, in the midst of St Peter's churchyard, built in 1485, and restored in 1865, is situated near the cave in the side of the Monchsberg, said to have been the hermitage of St Maximus, who io6 SALZKAMMERGUT— SAMAIN was martyred by the pagan Heruli in 477. The Franciscan church, with an elegant tower built in 1866, is an interesting example of the transition style of the 13th century, with later baroque additions. St Sebastian's, on the right bank, built in 1505-1512 and restored in 18 1 2, contains the tomb of Paracelsus, who died here. The oldest and most important of the eight convents at Salzburg is the Bene- dictine abbey of St Peter founded by St Rupert as the nucleus of the city. It was completely rebuilt in 1131 and contains a library of 40,000 volumes, besides MSS. The Capuchin monastery, dating from 1599, gives name to the Capuzinerberg. The oldest nunnery is that founded on the Nonnberg by St Rupert, the Gothic church of which dates from 1423 and contains some fine stained glass and some old frescoes. The single Protestant church in Salzburg was not built until 1865. A theological seminary is the only relic now left of the university of Salzburg, founded in 1623 and suppressed in 1810. The city is the see of an archbishop with a cathedral chapter and a consistory. Salzburg, situated at an altitude of 1 35 1 ft. above sea- level, has a healthy climate and is visited annually by over 60,000 tourists. It has a mean annual temperature of 46-4° F. and a mean annual rainfall of 45-59 in. The town carries on a variety of small manufactures, including musical instruments, iron-wares, marble ornaments. Other industries are brewing and book-binding. It was the birthplace of Mozart and of the painter Hans Makart (1840- 1884). The house in which Mozart was born has been transformed into a museum, which contains many interesting relics. Numerous places of interest and beautiful spots are to be found round Salzburg. To the E. rises the Gaisberg (4206 ft.), which is ascended by a rack-and-pinion railway, which starts from Parsch. At the foot of the Gaisberg is Aigen, a renowned castle and park. Three miles S. of Salzburg is the palace of Hellbrunn, built about 1615, which contains a famous mechanical theatre and some fine fountains. . About 2 m. to the S.W. ef Salzburg is the castle of Leopoldskron, and from this point the Leopoldskroner Moos stretches S. to the base of the Untersberg. A few peat-baths, as the Ludwigsbad and the Marienbad, are in the neighbourhood of Leopoldskron. Three and a half miles N. of Salzburg, at an altitude of 1720 ft., stands the pilgrimage church of Maria Plain, erected in 1674. The origin and development of Salzburg were alike ecclesiastical, and its history is involved with that of the archbishopric to which it gave its name. The old Roman town of Juvavum was laid in ruins, and the incipient Christianity of the district overwhelmed, by the pagan Goths and Huns. The nucleus of the present city was the monastery and bishopric founded here about 700 by St Rupert of Worms, who had been invited by Duke Theodo of Bavaria to preach Christianity in his land. The modern name of the town, due like several others in the district to the abundance of salt found there, appears before the end of the 8th century. After Charlemagne had taken possession of Bavaria in the 8th century, Bishop Arno of Salzburg was made an archbishop and papal legate. Thenceforward the dignity and power of the see steadily increased and in the course of time the archbishops obtained high secular honours. In 1278 Rudolph of Habsburg made them imperial princes. The strife between lord and people was always keen in Salzburg. Archbishop Leonhard II., who expelled the Jews from Salzburg in 1498, had to face a conspiracy of the nobles and was besieged in Hohen-Salzburg by the inhabitants in 1 5 1 1 . The Peasants' War also raged within the see in 1525 and 1526, and was only quelled with the aid of the Swabian League. From the beginning an orthodox stronghold of the Roman Catholic faith, Salzburg energetically opposed the Reformation. Under Archbishop Wolfgang Dietrich (d. 161 1 ) many Protestant citizens were driven from the town and their houses demolished. In spite, however, of rigorous persecution the new faith spread, and a new and more searching edict of expulsion was issued by Archbishop Leopold Anton von Firmian (d. 1744). The Protestants invoked the aid of Frederick William I. of Prussia, who procured for them permission to sell their goods and to emigrate ; and in 1731 and 1732 Salzburg parted with about 30,000 industrious and peaceful citizens, about 6000 of these coming from the capital. The last independent archbishop was Hieronymus von Colloredo (1732-1812), who ruled with energy and justice but without gaining popularity. By the peace of LuneVille (1802) the see was secularized and given to the archduke of Austria and grand-duke of Tuscany in exchange for Tuscany, its new owner being enrolled among the electoral princes. In the redistribution following the peace of Pressburg in_ 1805, Salzburg fell to Austria. Four years later it passed to Bavaria, but after the peace of Paris it was restored to Austria in 1816, except a portion on the left bank of the Salzach. Under the designation of a duchy the territory formed the department of Salzach in Uppe' Austria until 1849, when it was made a separate crownland, and finally in 1861 the management of its affairs was entrusted to a local diet. The actual duchy does not correspond exactly with "the old bishopric. Salzburg embraced at the time of the peace of Westphalia (1648) an area of 382 1 sq. m. with a population of 190,000. A part of its territory was ceded to Bavaria in 1 814, and when Salzburg became a separate crownland in 1849 several of its districts were added to Tirol. For the history of the archbishopric see Meiller, Regesta archi- episcoporum Salisburgensium, 1 106-1246 (Vienna, 1866); Dummler. Beilrdge zur Geschichte des Erzbistums von Salzburg im 9-12 Jafir- hundert (Vienna, 1859); the Sahburger Urkundenbuch, edited by W. Hauthaler (Salzburg, 1809); Pichler, Salzburgs Landesgeschichte (Salzburg, 1865) ; Doblhoff , Beitrdge zum QuelTenstudium Salzbur- gischer Landeskunde (Salzburg, 1 893-1 895); Greinz, .Die Erzdiozese Salzburg (Vienna, 1898) ; Rieder, Kurze Geschichte des Landes Salzburg (Vienna, 1905) ; E. Richter, Das Herzogtum Salzburg (1881) ; Thym, Das Herzogtum Salzburg (1901), and F. von Pichl, Kritische Abhandlungen uber die dlteste Geschichte Salzburgs (Innsbruck, 1889). For the town see Widmann, Geschichte Salzburgs (Gotha, 1907); F. von Zillner, Geschichte der Stadt Salzburg (Salzburg, 1 885-1 890); Trautwein, Salzburg (12th ed., Innsbruck, 1901); J. Meurer, Fuhrzr durch Salzburg (Vienna, 1889), and Purtscheller, Fiihrer durch Salzburg und Umgebung (Salzburg, 1905). See also C. F. Arnold, Die Ausrottung des Protestantismus in Salzburg unter Erzbischof Firmian (1900). SALZKAMMERGUT, a district of Austria in the S.W. angle of the duchy of Upper Austria situated between Salzburg and Styria. It forms a separate imperial domain of about 250 sq. m. and is famous for its fine scenery, which has gained for it the title of the "Austrian Switzerland"; but it owes its name (literally " salt-exchequer property ") and its economic import- ance to its valuable salt mines. It belongs to the region of the Eastern Alps, and contains the Dachstein group with the Dach- stein (9830 ft.) and the Thorstein (9657 ft.). In the Dachstein group are found the most easterly glaciers of the Alps, of which the largest is the Karls-Eisfeld, nearly 2j m. long and 15 m. broad; the Ischler Alps with the Gamsfeld (6640 ft.), the Hollengebirge with the great HollenkOgel (6106 ft.), and the Schafberg (5837 ft.), which is called the " Austrian Rigi." Then comes the Todtes Gebirge, with the Grosser Priel (8246 ft.) and the Traunstein (5446 ft.) on the E. shore of the Traun lake; the Pyhrgas group with the Grosser Pyhrgas (7360 ft.) and the Sengsen or Sensen group, with the Hoher Nock (6431 ft.). The chief lakes are the Traun-see or Lake of Gmunden (1383 ft. above sea-level, 9 sq. m. in extent, 623 ft. deep); the Hallstatter-see or Lake of Hallstatt (1629 ft. above sea-level, 35 sq. m. in extent, 409 ft. deep ); the Atter-see or Kammer-see (1527 ft. above sea- level, 18 sq. m. in extent, 560 ft. deep), the largest lake in Austria; the Mond-see (1560 ft. above the sea, 9 sq. m. in extent, 222 ft. deep) and the Aber-see or Lake of St Wolfgang (1742 ft. above sea-level, 5 J sq. m. in extent, 369 ft. deep). Salzkammergut had in 1900 a population of over 18,000. The capital of the district is Gmunden, and other places of importance are Ischl, Hallstatt and Ebensee (7656), which are important salt-mining centres. The salt extracted in Salzkammergut amounts to nearly 30% of the total Austrian production. Cattle- rearing and forestry form the other principal occupations of the inhabitants. See Kegele, Das Salzkammergut (Wien, 1897). SALZWEDEL, a town in the Prussian province of Saxony, in a plain on the navigable Jeetze, a tributary of the Elbe, 32 m. N.W. of Stendal and 106 m. by rail N.W. of Berlin, on the line to Bremen. Pop. (1905) 11,122. Salzwedel is partly surrounded by medieval walls and gates. The church of St Mary is a fine Gothic structure of the 13th century with five naves and a lofty spire. The old town hall, burnt down in 1895, has been replaced by a modern edifice. The industries include linen and damask weaving, tanning, brewing and the manufacture of pins, chemicals and machinery, and a brisk river trade is carried on in agri- cultural produce. Salzwedel, formerly Soltwedel, was founded by the Saxons, and was from 1070 to 11 70 the capital of the old or north Mark, also for a time called trie " mark of Soltwedel," the kernel of Brandenburg-Prussia. The old castle, perhaps founded by Charlemagne, was purchased in 1864 by the king of Prussia. Salzwedel was also a member of the Hanseatic League, and at the beginning of the 16th century seems to have transacted a great part of the inland commerce of North Germany. See Pohlmann, Geschichte der Stadt Salzwedel (Halle, 181 1), and Danneil, Geschichte der koniglichen Burg zu Salzwedel (Salzwedel, 1865). SAMAIN, ALBERT VICTOR (1858-1900), French poet, was born at Lille on the 4th of April 1858. He was educated at the lycee of that town, and on leaving it entered a bank as a clerk. He enjoyed no literary associations, and his talent developed slowly in solitude. About 1884 Samain went to Paris, having SAMANA RANGE— SAMARA 107 obtained a clerkship in the Prefecture de la Seine, which he held for most of his life. He presently began to send poems to the Mercitre de France, and these attracted attention. In 1893 he allowed a friend to print his earliest volume of poems, Au Jardin de I' infante, in a very small edition. This led to the sudden recog- nition of his talent, and to applause from critics of widely different schools. In 1897 this book was reprinted in a more popular form, with the addition of a section entitled L'Urne penchee. Samain's second volume, Auxflancs du vase, appeared in 1 898. His health began to fail and he withdrew to the country, where he died, in the neighbourhood of the village of Magny-les- Hameaux, on the 18th of August 1900. A third volume of his poems, Le Chariot d'or, appeared after his death, with a lyrical drama, Polyph'eme (rooi), which was produced at the Theatre de l'CEuvre in 1904. The fame of Samain rapidly advanced when he was dead, and the general public awakened to the fact that this isolated writer was a poet of rare originality. He cultivated a delicate, languid beauty of imagery and an exquisite sense of verbal melody without attempting any revolution in prosody or identifying himself with any theory. Samain had no great range of talent, nor was he ambitious of many effects. Samain's natural life was patiently spent in squalid conditions; he escaped from them into an imaginative world of the most ex- quisite refinement. He has been compared to Watteau and Schumann; in his own art he bore some resemblance to Charles Baudelaire, and to the English poet Arthur O'Shaughnessy. See also R. Doumic, " Trois Poetes," in the Revue des deux mondes (Oct. 1900); L. Bocquet, Albert Samain, sa vie, son muvre (1905); and E. W. Gosse, French Profiles (1905). (E. G.) SAMANA RANGE, a mountain ridge in Kohat district of the N.W. Frontier Province of India, commanding the S. boundary of Tirah. The ridge lies between the Khanki Valley on the N. and the Miranzai Valley on the S., and extends for some 30 m. W. from Hangu to the Samana Suk. It is some 6000 to 7000 ft. high. Beyond the Samana Suk lies the pass, known as the Chagru Kotal, across which the Tirah Expedition marched in 1897. On the opposite hill on the other side of this road is the famous position of Dargai (see Tirah Campaign). After the Miranzai Expedition of 1891 this range was occupied by British troops and eleven posts were established along its crest, the two chief posts being Fort Lockhart and Fort Gulistan. In 1897 all the forts on the Samana were attacked by the Orakzais, and this and the Afridi attack on the Khyber Pass were the two chief causes of the Tirah Expedition. When Lord Curzon reorganized the frontier in 1900, British garrisons were withdrawn from the Samana forts, which are now held by a corps of tribal police 450 strong, called the Samana Rifles. SAMANIDS, the first great native dynasty which sprang up in the 9th century in E. Persia, and, though nominally provincial governors under the suzerainty of the caliphs of Bagdad, suc- ceeded in a very short time in establishing an almost independent rule over Transoxiana and the greater part of Persia. Under the caliphate of Mamun, Saman, a Persian noble of Balkh, who was a close friend of the Arab governor of Khorasan, Asad b. Abdallah, was converted from Zoroastrianism to Islam. His son Asad, named after Asad b. Abdallah, had four sons who rendered distinguished services to Mamun. In return they all received provinces: Nuh obtained Samarkand; Ahmad, Ferghana; Yahya, Shash; Ilyas, Herat. Of these Ahmad and his second son Isma'il overthrew the Saffarids (q-v.) and the Zaidites of Tabaristan, and thus the Samanids established themselves with the sanction of the caliph Motamid in their capital Bokhara. The first ruler (874) was Nasr I. (Nasr or Nasir b. Ahmad b. Asad. b. Saman). He was succeeded by his brother Isma'il b. Ahmad (892). His descendants and successors, all renowned for the high impulse they gave both to the patriotic feelings and the national poetry of modern Persia (see Persia: Literature), were Ahmad b. Isma'il (907-913); Nasr II. b. Ahmad, the patron and friend of the great poet Rudagi (913-942) ; Nuh I- b. Nasr (942-954) ; Abdalmalik I. b. Nuh (954-961); Mansur I. b. Nuh. whose vizier Bal'aml translated Tabari's universal history into Persian (961- 976); Nuh II. b. Mansur, whose court-poet Daqiqi (DaV'rip) began the Shahnama (976-997); Mansur II. b. Nuh (997-^99) I and Abdalmalik II. b. Nuh (999), under whom the Samanid dynasty was conquered by the Ghaznevids. The rulers of this powerful house, whose silver dirhems had an extensive currency during the loth century all over the N. of Asia, and were brought, through Russiancaravans, even so far as to Pomerania, Sweden and Norway, where Samanid coins have been found in great number, were in their turn overthrown by a more youthful and vigorous race, that of Sabuktagln, which founded the illustrious Ghaznevid dynasty and the Mussulman empire of India. Under Abdalmalik I. a Turkish slave, Alptagin, had been entrusted with the government of Bok- hara, but, showing himself hostile to Mansur I., he was compelled to fly and to take refuge in the mountainous regions of Ghazni, where he soon established a semi-independent rule, to which, after his death in 977 (367 a.h.), his son-in-law Sabuktagin, likewise a former Turkish slave, succeeded. Nuh II., in order to retain at least a nominal sway over those Afghan territories, confirmed him in his high position and even invested Sabuktagln's son Mahmud with the governorship of Khorasan, in reward for the powerful help they had given him in his desperate struggles with a confederation of dis- affected nobles of Bokhara under the leadership of Fa'iq and the troops of the Dailamites, a dynasty that had arisen on the shores of the Caspian Sea and wrested already from the hands of the Samanids all their western provinces. Unfortunately, Sabuktagin died in the same year as Nuh II. (997, 387 a.h.) ; and Mahmud {q,v.), confronted with an internal contest against his own brother Isma'il, had to withdraw his attention for a short time from the affairs in Khorasan and Transoxiana. This interval sufficed for the old rebel leader Fa'iq, supported by a strong Tatar army under the Ilek Khan Abu'l Hosain Nasr I., to turn Nuh's successor Mansur II. into a mere puppet, to concentrate all the power in his own hand, and to induce even his nominal master to reject Mahmfld's application for a continuance of his governorship in Khorasan. Mahmfld refrained for the moment from vindicating his right; but, as soon as, through court intrigues, Mansur II. had been dethroned, he took possession of . Khorasan, deposed Mansur's successor Abdalmalik II., and assumed as an independent monarch for the first time in Asiatic history the title of " sultan." The last prince of the house of Saman, Montasir, a bold warrior and a poet of no mean talent, carried on for some years a kind of guerilla warfare against both Mahmud and the Ilek Khan, who had occupied Transoxiana, till he was assassinated in 1005 (395 a.h.). Transoxiana itself was annexed to the Ghaznevid realm eleven years later, 1016 (407 a.h.). See S. Lane Poole, Mahommedan Dynasties (1894), pp. 131-133; Stockvis, Manuel d'histoire (Leiden, 1888), vol. i. p. 113; also articles Caliphate and Persia : History, section B, and for the later period Mahmud, Seljuks, Mongols. SAMANIEGO, FELIX MARIA, DE (1745-1801), Spanish fabulist, was born at Laguardia (Alava) on the 1 2th of October 1745, and was educated at Valladolid. A government appoint- ment was secured for him by his uncle the count de Pefiaflorida. His Fdbulas (1781-1784), one hundred and fifty-seven in number, were originally written for the boys educated in the school founded by the Biscayan Society. In the first instalment of his fables he admits that he had taken Iriarte for his model, a statement which proves that he had read Iriarte's fables in manuscript; he appears, however, to have resented their publication in 1782, and this led to a rancorous controversy between the former friends. Samaniego holds his own in the matters of quiet humour and careless grace, and his popularity continues. He died at Laguardia on the nth of August 1801. SAMARA, a government of S.E. Russia, on the W. side of the lower Volga, bounded on the N. by the governments of Kazan and Ufa, on the W. by Simbirsk and Saratov, on the E. by Ufa and Orenburg, and on the S. by Astrakhan, the Kirghiz Steppes and the territory of the Ural Cossacks. The area is 58,302 sq. m., and the population, in 1897, 2,763,478. A line drawn E. from the great bend of the Volga — the Samarskaya Luka — would divide the government into two parts, differing in orographical character. In the N. are flat hills and plateaus intersected by deep rivers. In their highest parts these elevations rise about 1000 ft. above the sea, while the level of the Volga at Samara is only 43 ft. S. of the Samarskaya Luka the country assumes the character of a low, flat steppe, recently emerged from the post-Pliocene Aral-Caspian basin. The government is built up chiefly of Carboniferous sandstones, conglomerates, clay slates and limestones, representing mostly deep-sea deposits. The Permian formation appears along the rivers Sok and Samara, and is represented by limestones, sands and marls contain- ing gypsum, all of marine origin, and by continental deposits dating from the same period; sandstones impregnated with petroleum also occur. In the N. these deposits are covered with io8 SAMARA— SAMARIA " variegated marls " and with a variety of Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous deposits. The Tertiary formation (Eocene) appears only at Novo-uzensk; the remainder of a vast sheet of this formation, which at one time covered all the region between the Volga and the Urals, was removed during the Glacial period. Post-Tertiary Caspian deposits penetrate far into the government along the main valleys, and a thick layer of loess occurs in the N. Selenites, rock-crystal and agates are found, as also copper ores, rock-salt and sandstone extracted for building purposes. The soil is on the whole very fertile. All the N. of the government is covered with a thick sheet of black earth; this becomes thinner towards the S., clays — mostly fertile — cropping out from under- neath it; salt clays appear in the S.E. Samara is inadequately drained, especially in the S. The Volga flows for 550 m. along its W. border. Its tributaries, the Great Cheremshan (220 m.), the Sok (195 m.), the Samara (340 m.), with its tributaries, are not navigable, partly on account of their shallowness and partly because of water-mills. When the water is high, boats can penetrate up some of them 15 to 30 m. The Great Irgiz alone, which has an exceedingly winding course of 335 m., is navigated to Kushum, and rafts are floated from Nikolayevsk. The banks of both Karamans are densely peopled. The Great and Little Uzefi drain S.E. Samara and lose themselves in the Kamysh sands before reaching the Caspian. Salt marshes occur in the S.E. The whole of the region is rapidly drying up. The forests, which are disappearing, are extensive only in the N. Altogether they cover 8% of the surface; prairie and grazing land occupies 32%, and 12% is uncultivable. The climate is one of extremes, especially in the steppes, where the depressing heat and drought of summer are followed in winter by severe frosts, often accompanied by snowstorms. The average temperature at Samara (53° n' N.) is only 39°-2 (January, o°-3; July, 7o°-4). The population, which was 1,388,500 in 1853, numbered 2,763,478 in 1897, of whom 1,398,263 were women and 159,485 lived in towns. The estimated pop. in 1906 was 3,276,500. Great and Little Russians formed 69% of the inhabitants; Mordvinians 8-6%, Chuvashes and Votiaks 2-3%, Germans 8-i%, Tatars 3-6% and Bashkirs 2%. The Great Russians immigrated in compact masses. A special feature of Samara is its German colonists, from Wurttemberg, Baden, Switzerland and partly also from Holland and the Palatinate, whose immigra- tion dates from the time of Catherine II. in 1762. Favoured as they were by free and extensive grants of land, by exemption from military service and by self-government, they have developed into wealthy colonies of Roman Catholics, Protestants, Unitarians, Anabaptists, Moravians and Mennonites. As regards religion, the great bulk of the population are Orthodox Greeks; the Nonconformists, who are settled chiefly on both the rivers Uzefi, number officially 100,000, but their real numbers are higher; next come Mahommedans, 12%; various Protestant sects, 5%; "Roman Catholics, about 2%;' and some 4000 pagans. ' ' * The chief occupation is agriculture — wheat, rye, oats, millet, oil-yielding plants, potatoes and tobacco being the principal crops. Owing to its great fertility, Samara usually has a surplus of grain for export, varying from ij to 4 million quarters (ex- clusive of oats) annually. Notwithstanding this production, the government is periodically liable to famine to such an extent that men die by thousands of hunger-typhus, or are forced to go by thousands in search of employment on the Volga. The population have no store of corn, or reserve capital for years of scarcity, and some 210,000 males have each an average of only four acres of arable and pasture land. But even this soil, al- though all taxed as arable, is often of such quality that only 50% to 55% of it is under crops, while the peasants are compelled to rent from two to two and a half million acres for tillage from large proprietors. Over 85 million acres, or not far short of one-quarter of the total area of the government, purchased from the crown or from the Bashkirs — very often at a few pence per acre — are in the hands of no more than 1704 persons. The general impoverishment may be judged from the death-rate, 46 to 48 per thousand. Out of the total area, 4,143,800 acres belong to the crown, 7,979,000 to private persons and 22,486,700 acres to the peasants, who rent, moreover, about 6j million acres. Water melons and sunflowers are extensively cultivated, and gardening is widely engaged in; mustard and inferior qualities of tobacco are grown. Hemp-seed, linseed, and other oil-seeds and bran are exported, as well as cereals and flour. Livestock are extensively bred. Bee-keeping is another pursuit that is widely followed. The export of poultry, especially of geese, has increased greatly. The principal manufactures are Hour- mills, tanneries, distilleries, candle and tallow works, breweries and sugar refineries. Petty domestic industries, especially the weaving of woollen cloth, are carried on in the S. Both the external and the internal trade are very flourishing, nearly 250 fairs being held in the government every year; the chief are those at Novo-uzensk and Bugulma. Owing to the efforts of the local zemslvos there are more than the average number of primary schools, namely, one for every 1810 inhabitants. The govern- ment is divided into seven districts, the chief towns of which are Samara, Bugulma, Buguruslan, Buzuluk, Nikolayevsk, Novo-Uzen and Stavropol. The Sergiyevsk sulphurous mineral springs, 57 m. from Buguruslan, are visited by numbers of patients. The territory now occupied by Samara was until the 18th century the abode of nomads. The Bulgarians who occupied it until the 13 th century were followed by Mongols of the Golden Horde. The Russians penetrated thus far in the 16th century, after the conquest of the principalities of Kazan and Astrakhan. To secure communication between these two cities, the fort of Samara was erected in 1586, as well as Saratov, Tsaritsyn and the first line of Russian forts, which extended from Byelyi-yar on the Volga to the neighbourhood of Menzelinsk near the Kama. In 1670 Samara was taken by the insurgent leader Stenka Razin. In 1732 the line of forts was removed a little farther E., and the Russian colonists advanced E. as the forts were pushed forwards. In 1762, on the invitation of Catherine II., emigrants from various parts of Germany settled in this region, as also did the Raskolniks, whose communities on the Irgiz became the centre of a formidable insurrection in 1775 under Pugachev. At the end of the 18th century Samara became an important centre for trade. In the first half of the 19th century the region was rapidly colonized by Great and Little Russians. In 1847-1850 the government introduced about 120 Polish families; in 1857- 1859 Mennonites from Danzig founded settlements; and in 1859 a few Circassians were brought hither by government; while the influx of Great Russian peasants still goes on. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.) SAMARA, a town of E. Russia, capital of the government of the same name, 305 m. by river S.S.E of Kazan and 261 m. by rail W.N.W of Orenburg. Its population, which was 63,479 in 1883, numbered 91,672 in 1897. Owing to its situation on the left bank of the Volga, at the convergence of the Siberian and Central Asian railways, it has great commercial importance, especially as a depot for cereals and a centre for flour-milling. A considerable trade is also carried on in animal products, par- ticularly hides. The other industries include iron-foundries, soap, candles, vehicles and glue factories, cooperages, tanneries, breweries and brick-works. The port is the best on the Volga. Three great fairs are held every year. The city, which gives title to a bishop of the Orthodox Greek Church, has three cathedrals, built in 1685, 1730-1735 and 1894 respectively, three public libraries, and a natural history and archaeological museum. It is famous for its kumis (mare's milk) cures. Its foundation took place in 1 586-1 59 1 for the purpose of protecting the Russian frontier against the Bashkirs, the Kalmucks and the Nogai Tatars. SAMARIA, an ancient city of Palestine. The name Samaria is derived through the Gr. 2a/udp€ia from the Hebrew frqV, " an outlook hill," or rather from the Aramaic form \r®f, whence also comes the Assyrian form Samirina. According to 1 Kings xvi. 24, Omri, king of Israel, bought Samaria from a SAMARITANS 109 certain Shemer (whose name is said to be the origin of that of the city), and transferred thither his capital from Tirzah. But the city, as a superficial inspection of the site shows, must have existed as a settlement long before Omri, as potsherds of earlier date lie scattered on the surface. The city was occupied by Ahab, who here built a temple to " Baal " (1 Kings xvi. 32) and a palace of ivory (1 Kings xxii. 39). It sustained frequent sieges during the troubled history of the Israelite kingdom. Ben-Hadad II. of Syria assaulted it in the reign of Ahab, but was repulsed and obliged to allow the Israelite traders to establish a quarter in Damascus, as his predecessor Ben-Hadad I. had done in Samaria (f Kings xx. 34). Ben-Hadad II. in the time of Jehoahaz again besieged Samaria, and caused a famine in the city; but some panic led them to raise the siege (2 Kings vi., vii.). The history of the city for the following 120 years is that of Israel (see Jews). In 727 died Tiglath-Pileser, to whom the small kingdoms of W. Asia had been in vassalage; in the case of Israel at least since Menahem (2 Kings xv. 19). He was succeeded by Shal- maneser IV., and the king of Israel, with the rest, attempted to revolt. Shalmaneser accordingly invaded Syria, and in 724 began a three-years' siege of Samaria (2 Kings xvii. 5). He died before it was completed, but it was finished by Sargon, who reduced the city, deported its inhabitants, and established within it a mixed multitude of settlers (who were the ancestors of the modern Samaritans). These people themselves seem to have joined a revolt against the Assyrians, which was soon quelled. The next event we hear of in the history of the city is its conquest by Alexander the Great (331 B.C.), and later by Ptolemy Lagi and Demetrius Poliorcetes. It quickly recovered from these injuries: when John Hyrcanus besieged it in 120 B.C. it was " a very strong city " which offered a vigorous resistance (Jos. Ant. xiii. x. 2). It was rebuilt by Pompey, and restored by Aulus Gabinius: but it was to Herod that it owed much of its later glory. He built a great temple, a hippodrome and a street of columns surrounding the city, the remains of which still arrest the attention. It was renamed by him Sebasle, in honour of Augustus: this name still survives in the modern name Sebusteh. 1 Philip here preached the gospel (Acts viii. 5) . The rise of Neapolis (Shechem) in the neighbourhood caused the decay of Sebaste. It was quite small by the time of Eusebius. The crusaders did some- thing to develop it by establishing a bishopric with a large church, which still exists (as a mosque) ; here were shown the tombs of Elisha, Obadiah and St John the Baptist. From this time onward the village dwindled to the poor dirty place it is to-day. The site of Samaria is an enormous mound of accumulation, one of the largest in Palestine. In some places it is estimated the debris is at least 40 ft. deep. The crusaders' church remains almost intact, and numerous fragments of carved stone are built into the village houses, beneath which in some places are some interesting tombs. The hippodrome remains in the valley below, and the columns of the street of columns are in very good order. The walls can be traced almost all round the town: at the end of the mound opposite the modern village are the dilapidated ruins of a large gate. The site stands in the very centre of Palestine, and, built on a steep and almost isolated hill, with a long and spacious plateau for its summit, is naturally a position of much strength, commanding two of the most important roads — the great N. and S. road which passes immediately under the E. wall, and the road from Shechem to the maritime plain which runs a little to the W. of the city. The hill of Samaria is separated from the surrounding mountains (Amos iii. 9) by a rich and well-watered plain, from which it rises in successive terraces of fertile soil to a height of 400 or 500 ft. Only on the E. a narrow saddle, some 200 ft. beneath the plateau, runs across the plain towards the mountains; it is at this point that the traveller coming from Shechem now ascends the hill to the village of Sebusteh, which occupies only the extreme E. of a terrace beneath the hill-top, behind the crusaders' church, which is the first thing that attracts the eye as one approaches the town. The hiil-top, the longer axis of which runs W. from the village, rises 1450 ft. above the sea, and commands a superb view towards the Mediterranean, the mountains of Shechem and Mount Hermon. Excavations under the auspices of Harvard University began here in 1908. (R. A. S. M.) 1 Accentuated on the second syllable. Guide- and travel-books generally spell the name Sebastlyeh, which is not a correct rendering of the local pronunciation. SAMARITANS. This term, which primarily means " in- habitants of Samaritis, or the region of Samaria," is specially used, in the New Testament and by Josephus, as the name of a peculiar religious community which had its headquarters in the Samaritan country, and is still represented by a few families at Nablus, the ancient Shechem. By the Jews they are called Shomronim, a gentilic form from Shomron = Samaria; among themselves they sometimes use the name Shemerem (=Heb. Shomerim) which is explained to mean " Keepers," sc. of the Law, but they usually style themselves " Israel " or " Children of Israel." They claim to be descendants of the ten tribes, and to possess the orthodox religion of Moses, accepting the Pentateuch and transmitting it in a Hebrew text which for the most part has only slight variations from that of the Jews. But they regard the Jewish temple and priesthood as schis- matical, and declare that the true sanctuary chosen by God is not Zion but Mount Gerizim, over against Shechem (St John iv. 20). The sanctity of this site they prove from the Pentateuch, reading Gerizim for Ebal in Deut. xxvii. 4. With this change the chapter is interpreted as a command to select Gerizim as the legitimate sanctuary (cf. verse 7). Moreover, in Exod. xx. 17 and Deut. v. 21 a commandment (taken from Deut. xxvii.) is found in the Samaritan text, at the close of the decalogue, giving directions to build an altar and do sacrifice on Gerizim, from which of course it follows that not only the temple of Zion but the earlier shrine at Shiloh and the priesthood of Eli were schismaticaL Such at least is the express statement of the later Samaritans: in earlier times, as they had no sacred books except the Penta- teuch, they probably ignored the whole history between Joshua and the captivity, thus escaping many difficulties. According to modern views the books of Moses were not reduced to their present form till after the exile, when their regulations were clearly intended to apply to the rebuilt temple of Zion. The Samaritans must in that case have derived their Pentateuch from the Jews after Ezra's reforms of 444 B.C. Before that time Samaritanism cannot have existed in the form in which we know it, but there must have been a community ready to accept the Pentateuch. The city of Samaria had been taken by Assyria (2 Kings xvii. 6 sqq. and xviii. 9-11) in 722 B.C., and the inhabitants deported, but in point of fact the district of Mount Ephraim was not entirely stripped of its old Hebrew population by this means. In the Annals of Sargon the number of the exiles is put at 27,290, representing no doubt the more prominent of the inhabitants, for this number cannot include the whole of N. Israel. The poorer sort must have remained on the land, and among them the worship of Jehovah went on as before - at the old shrines of N. Israel, but probably corrupted by the religious rites of the new settlers. The account of the country given in 2 Kings xvii. 25 seq. dwells only on the partial adoption of Jehovah-worship by the foreigners settled in the land, and by no means implies that these constituted the whole population. Josiah extended his reforms to Bethel and other Samaritan cities (2 Kings xxiii. 19), and the narrative shows that at that date things were going on at the N. sanctuaries much as they had done in the time of Amos and Hosea. To a considerable extent his efforts to make Jerusalem the sanctuary of Samaria as well as of Judah must have been successful, for in Jer. xli. 5 we find fourscore men from Shechem, Shiloh and Samaria making a pilgrimage to " the house of Jehovah," after the catastrophe of Zedekiah. It is therefore not surprising that the people of this district came to Zerubbabel and Jeshua after the restoration, claiming to be of the same religion with the Jews and asking to be associated in the rebuilding of the Temple. They were re- jected by the leaders of the new theocracy, who feared the result of admitting men of possibly mixed blood and of certainly questionable orthodoxy; and so the Jehovah-worshippers of Samaria were driven to the ranks of " the adversaries of Judah and Benjamin " (Ezra iv.). Nevertheless, down to the time of Nehemiah, the breach was not absolute; but the expulsion from Jerusalem in 432 B.C. of a man of high-priestly family (Neh. xiii. 28), who had married a daughter of Sanballat, made it so. It can hardly be doubted that this priest is the Manasseh of Josephus I IO SAMARITANS (Ant. xi. 8), who carried the Pentateuch to Shechem, and for whom the temple of Gerizim was perhaps built. For, though the story in Josephus is put a century too late and is evidently based on a confusion, it agrees with Neh. xiii. in essentials too closely to be altogether rejected, 1 and supplies exactly what is wanted to explain the existence in Shechem of a community bitterly hostile to the Jews, yet constituted in obedience to Ezra's Pentateuch. It is remarkable that, having got the Pentateuch, they followed it with a fidelity as exact as that of the Jews, except in regard to the sanctuary on Mt Gerizim. The text of the sacred book was transmitted with as much conscientiousness as was observed by Jewish scribes; 2 and even from the unwilling witness of the Jews 3 we gather that they fulfilled all righteousness with scrupulous punctiliousness so far as the letter of the law was concerned. They did not however, receive the writings even of the prophets of N. Israel (all of which are preserved to us only by the Jews) nor the later oral law 4 as developed by the Pharisees. But although these differences separated the two communities, their internal development and external history ran parallel courses till the Jewish state took a new departure under the Maccabees. The religious resemblance between the two bodies was increased by the institution of the synagogue, from which there grew up a Samaritan theology and an exegetical tradition. The latter is embodied in the Samaritan Targum, or Aramaic version of the Pentateuch, which in its present form is probably not much earlier than the 4th century a.d., but in general is said to agree with the readings of Origen's to Xanapevrutov. Whether the latter represents a complete translation of the Law into Greek may be doubted, but at any rate the Samaritans began already in the time of Alexander to be influenced by Hellenism. They as well as Jews were carried to Egypt by Ptolemy Lagi, and the rivalry of the two parties was continued in Alexandria (Jos. Ant. xii. 1.1), where such a translation may have been produced. Of the Samaritan contributions to Hel- lenistic literature some fragments have been preserved in the remains of Alexander Polyhistor. 5 'There are, however, many difficulties in the story, which is not rendered clearer by references to Sanballat in the documents from Elephantine (dated in 408/407 B.C.) published by Sachau in the Abhandlungen d. Kgl. preuss. Akad. d. Wiss. for 1907. 2 This appears by the frequent agreement of the Samaritan Pentateuch with the Septuagint. The Samaritan character is an independent development of the old Hebrew writing, as it was about the time when they first got the Pentateuch, and this in iUelf is an indication that from the first their text ran a separate course. Differences between MSS. existed down to the time of the Massoretes (see art. Hebrew), and it was from one of these divergent texts that the Samaritan was derived, the Septuagint from another. But while the Jews constantly revised their text with skill and success, the rigid conservatism of the Samaritans prevented any changes except the corruptions naturally due to human infirmity. The story that they possess a copy of the Law written by Abisba, the great-grandson of Aaron, seems to have aroused a strangely widespread interest, so that tourists invariably ask to see it and usually claim to have succeeded in doing so. Considering the extreme reverence with which it is regarded, it may safely be said that this manuscript is never shown to them. The origin of the legend is no doubt due to a pious fraud. It is first mentioned by Abu'1-fatb in 1355, from which year its " invention " dates. Obviously an old copy would be chosen for the purpose of such a discovery, but it is unlikely to be earlier than the 10th or nth century a.d. 3 Not, indeed, without exceptions, nor at all periods, but such is the general intention of the Massekheth Kuthim; see Montgomery, Samaritans, cap. x. 4 For details see Nutt, Fragments, p. 37, and more fully, Mont- gomery, I.e. No doubt, in addition to the legal ordinances, the Samaritans retained sx>me ancient traditional practices (cf. Gaster in Transactions of the 3rd Internat. Congr. for the History of Religions, i. p. 299, Oxford, 1908), or introduced some new observances. Their Passover, for instance, has some peculiar features, one of which, the application of the sacrificial blood to the faces of the children, has a parallel in the old Arabic 'aqiqah. See the account of an eye- witness (Professor Socin) in Baedeker's Palestine; Mills, Three Months' Residence at Nablus (London, 1864), p. 248; Stanley, The Jewish Church i. app. iii. 6 Chiefly in quotations by Eusebius (Praep. Ev., ed. Gifford, Oxon., 1903, bk. ix. 17). See Freudenthal, Hellenistische Studien, i., ii. (Breslau, r875); Schiirer, History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ (Eng. ed., 1891), ii. 3. p. 197. The troubles that fell upon the Jews under Antiochus Epi- phanes were not escaped by the Samaritans (2 Mace. v. 23; vi. 2), for the account in Josephus (Ant. xii. 5. 5), which makes them voluntarily exchange their religion for the worship of the Grecian Zeus, is evidently coloured to suit the author's hostility. Under the Maccabees their relations with Judaea became very bitter. They suffered severely at the hands of Hyrcanus, and the temple on Mt Gerizim was destroyed. Although this treat- ment established an unalterable enmity to the Jews, as we see in the New Testament, in Josephus and in Jewish tradition, the two sects had too much in common not to unite occasionally against a common enemy, and in the struggles of the Jews with Vespasian the Samaritans took part against the Romans. They were not, however, consistent, for under Hadrian they helped the Romans against the Jews and were allowed to rebuild their temple on Mt Gerizim. They seem to have shared in the Jewish dispersion, since in later times we hear of Samaritans and their synagogues in Egypt, in Rome and in other parts of the empire. In the 4th century they enjoyed a certain degree of prosperity, according to their own chronicles, under Baba the Great, who (re-) established their religious and social organization. In 484, in consequence of attacks on the Christians, the Gerizim temple was finally destroyed by the Romans,' and an insurrection in 529 was suppressed by Justinian so effectively that, while retaining their distinctive religion, they became henceforth politically merged in the surrounding population, with a merely domestic history. They are mentioned in later times by the Jewish travellers Benjamin of Tudela (n 73) and Obadiah Bertinoro (1488 in Egypt), by Sir John Maundeville and others, but little was known of them in Europe till Scaliger opened communications with them in 1583. 6 In consequence of the interest thus aroused, the traveller Pietro della Valle visited them in 161 6 and succeeded in obtaining a copy of their Pentateuch and of their Targum. Towards the end of the same century Robert Huntington (after- wards bishop of Raphoe), who was chaplain to the Turkey merchants at Aleppo, interested himself in them 7 and acquired some interesting manuscripts now in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. Since his time there has been intermittently a good deal of correspondence with them, 8 and in recent years owing to the increased facilities for travelling they have been much visited by tourists, not altogether for their good, as well as by scholars. At the present day they live only at Nablus. (Shechem), about 150 in number, the congregations formerly existing in Gaza, Cairo, Damascus and elsewhere having long since died out. Politically they are under the Turkish governor of Nablus; their ecclesiastical head is the " Priest-levite " (in rpoo Jacob b. Aaron), who claims descent from Uzziel the younger son of Kohath (Exod. vi. 18). The line of the high-priests, so called as being descended from Aaron, became extinct in 1623. In religion, since they recognize no sacred book but the Pentateuch, they agree with the Jews in such doctrines and observances only as are enjoined in the law of Moses. They do not therefore observe the feast of Purim, nor the fast of the 9th of Ab, nor any of the later rabbinical extensions or modifications of the law. It is this con- servatism which has caused them to be confused with the Sadducees, who likewise rejected the later traditional teaching; but it is not correct to say that they deny the resurrection (as Epiphanius, Haeres. ix., and others) and the existence of angels (Leontius, de Sectis, ii. 8), or that they are entirely free from later religious de- velopments. Briefly summarized, their creed is as follows: (a) God is one, and in speaking of Him all anthropomorphic expressions are to be avoided: creation was effected by his word: divine appearances in the Pentateuch are to be explained as vicarious, by means of angels (so as early as the 4th century a.d.) ; (b) Moses is the only prophet: all who have since claimed to be so are deceivers; (c) the Law, which was created with the world, is the only divine revelation; (d) Mt Gerizim is the house of God, the only centre of worship; (e) there will be a day of judgment. Closely connected with this are the doctrines (also found in the 4th century) of a future life and of a messiah (Ta'eb), who shall end the period of God's displeasure (Fanuta) under which his people have suffered since the schism of Eli and the disappearance of the Ark, and shall restore Israel to favour (Re'uta, Ridwan). 6 See Eichhorn's Repertorium, xiii. p. 257. 7 See his letters ed. by T. Smith (London, 1704). 8 See especially de Sacy in Notices et extraits, xii. The later letters are of less interest. SAMARIUM— SAMARKAND in The Samaritan language properly so called is a dialect of Palestinian Aramaic, of which the best examples are found in the literature of the 4th century a.d. An archaic alphabet, derived from the old Hebrew, was retained, and is still used by them for writing Aramaic, Hebrew and sometimes even Arabic. After the Moslem conquest of Syria in 632 the native dialect of Aramaic gradually died out, and by the nth century Arabic had become the literary as well as the popular language In the Liturgy Hebrew was no doubt used from the earliest times side by side with Aramaic, and after the nth century it became, in a debased form, the only language for new liturgical compositions. The literature of the Samaritans is, like that of the Jews, almost entirely of a religious character Reference has been made above to Samaritan Hellenistic works which have perished except for a few fragments. According to Samaritan tradition, their books were destroyed under Hadrian and Commodus, but of the language and contents of them nothing is recorded There can be no doubt that some, perhaps much, of the literature has been lost, for nothing r is extant which can be dated before the 4th century a.d The Targum, or Samaritan-Aramaic version of the Pentateuch was most probably written down about that time, though it was clearly based on a much older tradition and must have undergone various recensions. To the same period belong the liturgical compositions of Amram Darah and Marqah, and the latter's midrashic commentary (called the " Book of Wonders ") on parts of the Pentateuch, all in Aramaic. With the possible exception of one or two hymns there is nothing further till the nth century when there appears the Arabic version of the Pentateuch, usually ascribed to Abu Sa'id, but perhaps really by Abu'l-hasan 2 of Tyre, who also wrote three Arabic treatises, still extant, on theological subjects, besides some hymns. Of the same date (1053) is an anonymous commentary 3 on Genesis, preserved in the Bodleian Library at Oxford (MS. Opp. add. 4 , 99), interesting because it quotes from books of the Bible other than the Pentateuch. In the 12th century, Munajja 4 and his son Sadaqah wrote on theologv; the earlier part of the chronicle called al-Taulidah 6 was compiled, in Hebrew (1149); and about the same time treatises on Grammar 6 by Abu Sa'id and Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Faraj. The next 100 years were rather barren. Ghazal ibn-al-Duwaik, who wrote on the story of Balak and on the restoration of the kingdom to Israel, is said to have lived in the 13th century, and another chronicle (in Arabic), called the Book of Joshua, is dated about the same time by T. W. J. Juynboll. 7 In the second half of the 14th century lived three important liturgical writers, Abisha b. Phinehas (ob. 1376), Abdallah b. Solomon and Sa'd-allah (or Sa'd-ed-din) b. Sadaqah: Abu'1-fath, who composed his chronicle 8 in 1355: a high priest Phinehas, author of a lexicon: and the anonymous writer of the commentary on the Kitab al-asatir, 9 a work, ascribed to Moses, containing legends of the Patriarchs. Another famous liturgist Abraham Qabazi lived in the early part of the 16th century, and. his pupil Isma'il Rumaihi in 1537 wrote a work on the praise of Moses. Probably about the same time, or a little later, is another anonymous commentary on Genesis in the Huntington Collection in the Bodleian Library (MS. Hunt. 301). Several members of the Danfi family were prominent in the 18th century as liturgists, among them Abraham b. Jacob, who also wrote a commentary 10 on Gen.-Num., and of the levitical family Ghazal ibn Abi Sarur, who commented on Gen.-Exod. Another Ghazal (=Tabiah n. Isaac), priest-levite, who died in 1786, was a considerable writer of liturgy. Subsequent authors are few and of little interest. Mention need only be made of the chronicle u written (i.e. compiled) in Hebrew by Ab Sakhwah ( = Murjan 12 ) b. As'ad, of the Danfi family, in 1900, chiefly on the basis of al-Taulidah and Abul-fath; an Arabic chronicle 13 by Phinehas b. Isaac (ob. 1 Except, of course, the Pentateuch itself (see Bible) which cannot be properly regarded as a Samaritan work. 2 So Kahle, see the bibliography. 3 See Xeubauer in Journ. asiat. (1873), p. 341. 4 See Wreschner, Samaritanische Traditionen (Berlin, 1888). 6 Ed. by Neubauer in Journ. asiat. (1869). The chronicle was continued in 1346, and was subsequently brought down to 1856- 1857 bv the present priest. 6 See Noldcke, Gbtt. Gel. Nachr. (1862), Nos. 17, 20. 7 Chronicon Sam. . . . Liber Josuae (Lugd. Bat., 1848). It narrates the history from the death of Moses to the 4th century a.d. and is derived from sources of various dates. A Hebrew book of Joshua announced by Gaster in The Times of June 9, 1908, and published in ZDMG, vol. 62 (1908) pt. ii., is a modern compilation; see Yahuda in Sitzgsber. d. Kgl. Preuss. Akad. (1908), p. 887j and Gastcr's reply in ZDMG, 62, pt. iii. 8 Ed. by Vilmar (Gotha, 1865). Partly translated by Payne Smith in Heidenheim's Vierteljahrsschrift, vol. ii. 9 Translated by Leitner in Heid. Viert. iv. 184, &c. 1!) An account of the work (of which the only MS. is in Berlin) was given by Geiger in ZDMG, xx. p. 143 and later. Parts of it were published as dissertations by Klumel in 1902 and Hanover 1904. 11 Ed. by E. N. Adler and M. Seligsohn in the Revue des etudes juives, vols. 44-46. 15 The same who compiled Caster's book of Joshua. 13 Mentioned by Yahuda, op. oil. p. 895, as existing in a Berlin MS. 1898) of the levitical family; and a theological work, 14 also in Arabic, by the present priest-levite, Jacob b. Aaron. Bibliography. — General: Nutt, Fragments of a Samaritan. Targum . . . with . . . a Sketch of Sam. History, &c. (London, 1874); Montgomery, The Samaritans (Philadelphia, 1907), an ex- cellent account with full bibliography; Petermann, Brevis ling, sam. grammatica (Porta Lingg. Orient.), Leipzig, 1873; Stein- schneider, Die arabische Literatur d. Juden, p. 319 sqq. (Frankfurt, 1902). . Texts: the Pentateuch in the Paris and London Polyglotts; separately by Blayney (Oxford, 1790). A critical edition is in prepara- tion by the Freiherr von Gall. Targum in the Polyglotts; reprinted in square character by Brilll (Frankfurt, 1874-1879); with critical apparatus by Petermann and Vollers (Berolini, 1872-1891); cf. also Nutt, op. cit.; Kohn, " Zur Sprache . . . der Samaritaner," pt. ii. (Leipzig, 1876) (in Abhandlungen f. d. Kunde d. Morgenlandes, v. 4); Kahle, Textkritische . . . Bemerkungen . . . (Leipzig, 1898) and Zeitsch. f. Assyr. xvi., xvii. Arabic version, ed. by Kuenen (Gen.- Lev.), Lugd. Bat. (1851); cf. Bloch, Die Sam.-arab. Pent.-iiberset- zung, Deut. i.-xi. (Berlin, 1901); Kahle, Die arab. Bibeliibersetzungen (Leipzig, 1904) ; Heidenheim, Der Commentar Marqahs (Weimar, 1896). Parts also in dissertations by Baneth (1888), Munk (1890), Emmerich (1897), Hildesheimer (1898). Various texts and transla- tions, mostly liturgical, in Heidenheim's Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift (Gotha, 1864-1865, Zurich 1867- ?) often incorrect, cf. Geiger in ZDMG, xvi.-xxii. Cowley, The Samaritan Liturgy (Oxford, 1909), text and introduction. For editions of other works see the foregoing footnotes. (A. Cy.) SAMARIUM [symbol Sm, atomic weight 150-4 (0=i6)], a rare. earth metal (see Rare Earths). The separation has been worked at by A. v. Welsbach, L. de Boisbaudran, Urbain and Lacombe {Comptes rendus, 1903, 137, pp. 568, 792); Demarcay (ibid. 1000, 130, p. 1019); Benedicks; Feit and Przibylla (Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1905, 43, p. 202) and others. The metal may be obtained by reduction of its oxide with magnesium. It combines with hydrogen. to form a hydride. The salts are mostly of a yellowish colour. Tht chloride, SmCIs. 6H 2 0,is a deliquescent solid which when heated in hydrochloric acid gas to 180 C. yields the anhydrous chloride. This anhydrous chloride is reduced to a lower chloride, of composition SmCl 2 , when heated to a high temperature in a current of hydrogen or ammonia (Matignon and Cazes, Comptes rendus, 1906, 142, p. 183). The chloride, SmCl 2 , is a brown crystalline powder which is decom- posed by water with liberation of hydrogen and the formation of the oxide, Sm 2 03, and an oxychloride, SmOCl. The fluoride, SmF3.H 2 0, was prepared by H. Moissan by acting with fluorine on' the carbide. The sulphate, Sm 2 (SO