THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST edit ion, published in three volumes, 1768- -I77I. SECOND , , ,, ten 99 1777- -1784. THIRD , , „ eighteen 99 I788- -1797. FOURTH , , „ twenty 99 l80I- -l8lO FIFTH , , ,, twenty 99 I8l5- -l8l7. SIXTH , , „ twenty 99 l823- -l824. SEVENTH , , „ twenty-one 99 I83O- -l842. EIGHTH , , „ twenty-two 9) l8S3- -i860 NINTH , , „ twenty-five 99 I37S- -I889. TENTH , , ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902- -I903. ELEVENTH , , published in twenty-nine volumes, IQIO- -I9II. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE All rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXIII REFECTORY to SAINTE-BEUVE New York Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. 342 Madison Avenue Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911,1 fcy The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company- INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXIII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,! WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. A. B. Chatwood, Ass.M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.Elec.E. ' ] Safes, Strong-rooms and Vaults Albert Charles Lewis Gotthilf Guenther, M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S. f Keeper of Zoological Department, British Museum, 1875-1895. Gold Medallist, J pontile*' TJUtnrv (i« hart} Royal Society, 1878. Author of Catalogue of Colubrine Snakes, Batrachia, Salientia, I ne P lue5 ' flMW J WM P an >- and Fishes in the British Museum ; &c. L HENRY AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D. f Rjphardcnn SamiiAf See the biographical article : Dobson, Henry Austin. \ «icnarason, Samuel. Anson Daniel Morse, M.A., LL.D. f Emeritus Professor of History at Amherst College, Mass. Professor at Amherst -i Republican Party. College, 1877-1908. I A. G.* Arthur Gamgee, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.P., LL.D., D.Sc. (1841-1909). .. fp«nrfr*timr Swtam- WW Formerly Fullerian Professor of Physiology, Royal Institution of Great Britain, and J Kespiratory System. Move- Professor of Physiology in the University of Manchester. Author of Text-Booh of 1 ments of Respiration, the Physiological Chemistry of the Animal Body: &c. L A.B. Cb, A. C. G. A. D. A. D. Mo A. Go.* Rev A. Ha. A. H.-S. A. H. Sm. A. M. C. A. M. F. D A. N. A. P. H. Alexander Gordon M. A J" Ribadeneira, Pedro A. Lecturer in Church History 111 the University of Manchester. \ A. H.* Albert Hauck, D.Th., D.Ph. Professor of Church History in the University of Leipzig, and Director of the Museum of Ecclesiastical Archaeology. Geheimer Kirchenrat of Saxony. Member of the Royal Saxon Academy of Sciences and Corresponding Member of the i Relics. Academies of Berlin and Munich. Author of Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands; &c. Editor of the new edition of Herzog's Realencyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche. '- Adolf Harnack, D.Ph. f Cft-.™,,, See the biographical article: Harnack, Adolf. \ «"»euius. Sir A. Houtum-Schindler, CLE. f „ . . General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. y «esnt. Arthur Hamilton Smith, M.A., F.S.A. r Keeper of the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the British Museum. J Ring (in part). Member of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of Catalogue of\ Greek Sculpture in the British Museum ; &c. L Agnes Mary Clerke. / Peffiomontanus See the biographical article : Clerke, A. M. \ "egiomontanus. Agnes Mary Frances Duclaux. f Rfinan See the biographical article: Duclaux, A. M. F. \ nouau - Alfred Newton, F.R.S. f Rhea; Rifleman-bird; See the biographical article: Newton, Alfred. 1 Roller (Bird); Ruff. Alfred Peter Hillier, M.D., M.P. r Author of South African Studies; The Commonweal; &c. Served in Kaffir War, 1878-1879. Partner with Dr L. S. Jameson in medical practice in South Africa till -i Rhodesia: History (in part). 1896. Member of Reform Committee, Johannesburg, and Political Prisoner at Pretoria, 1895-1896. M.P. for Hitchin division of Herts, 1910. L A. S. P.-P. Andrew Seth Pringle-Pattison, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. r Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford J «... «.!,„_,_. /•„ A „„,\ Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy. 1 Kem > lnomas V» part). Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos ; The Philosophical Radicals ; &c. t A. S. Wo. Arthur Smith Woodward, LL.D., F.R.S. f Reilt ji«. . m< lnrv a n aw* nJM - Keeper of Geology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Secretary of 1 Ke P ulcs • a lstor y } m P art ' am the Geological Society, London. [ ^Mial Characters. 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. V VI A. W. H.* A. W. R. G. Ba. C. B. P. C. E.* C. F. A. C. H. Ha. C. H. W. J. C. L. K. C. M. P. C. R. B. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES c. We. D. B. Ma D. C. T. D. F. T. D. H. D. H. M. D. LI. T. D. M. W. D. R.-M E. B. E. Cu. E. C. B. Arthur William Holland. Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. Alexander Wood Renton, M.A., LL.B. Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws of England. Cyril Bailey, M.A. Fellow, Tutor and Librarian of Balliol College, Oxford. Author of The Religion of A ncient Rome ; &c. Catherine Beatrice Phillips, B.A. (Mrs W. Alison Phillips). Associate of Bedford College, London. Charles Everitt, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Sometime Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford. Charles Francis Atkinson. Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London- (Royal Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. Carlton Huntley Hayes, A.M., Ph.D. Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member of the American Historical Association. Rev. Claude Hermann Walter Johns, M.A., Litt.D. Master of St Catharine's College, Cambridge. Canon of Norwich. Author of Assyrian Deeds and Documents. \ Regicide; Rienzi, Cola di. Rent. Roman Religion. Robes. Charles Lethbridge Kingseord, M.A., F.R.Hist.S. Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. of Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London. Editor Charles Murray Pitman. Sometime Scholar of New College, Oxford. versity Eight. Formerly Stroke of the Oxford Uni- Rowing. f Refraction: Refraction of \ Light. [Rifle {in part); 1 Rossbach. Rosary. J Sabbath: Babylonian and [ Assyrian. ("Richard II.; Richard III.; I Rivers, Richard Woodville, I Earl; I Russell, Bishop. r Charles Raymond Beazley, M.A., D.Litt., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S. Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. Cecil Weatherly. Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Duncan Black Macdonald, M.A., D.D. Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, Hartford, Conn. Author of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory; Selections from Ibn Khaldun; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam; &c. Rubruquis, William of {in part). \ Saddlery and Harness. J Rum, or Roum. David Croal Thomson. Formerly Editor of the Art Journal. Author of The Brothers Maris; School of Painters; Life of " Phiz " ; Life of Bewick ; &c. Donald Francis Tovey. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The' Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. David Hannay. Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal • Navy ; Life of Emilio Castelar ; &c. David Heinrich Muller, D.Ph. Professor of Semitic Languages in the University of Vienna. Hofrat of the Austrian ' Empire. Knight of the Order of Leopold. Author of Die Gesetze Hammurabi; &c. Daniel Lleufer Thomas. Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Rhondda. Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O. Extra Groom of the Bedchamber to H.M. King George V. Director of the Foreign Department of The Times, 1891-1899. Member of Institut de Droit International and Officier de 1' Instruction Publique of France. Joint-editor of New Volumes (10th ed.) of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Author of Russia; Egypt and Egyptian Question ; The Web of Empire ; &c. David Randall- Maciver, M.A., D.Sc Curatorof Egyptian Department, University of Pennsylvania. Formerly Worcester • Reader in Egyptology, University of Oxford. Author of Medieval Rhodesia ; &c. Edward Breck, M.A., Ph.D. Formerly Foreign Correspondent of the New York Herald and the New York Times. ■ Author of Fencing; Wilderness Pets; Sporting in Nova Scotia; &c. The Barbizon { Rousseau, Pierre E. T. Rhythm: in music; Rondo. Rigging. Sabaeans. Stipendiary Magistrate at Pontypridd and I Rhondda. Edmund Curtis, M.\. Keble College, Oxford. Lecturer on History in the University of Sheffield. Right Rev. Edward Cuthbert Butler, M.A., O.S.B., D.Litt. Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius,' in Cambridge Texts and Studies. Russia: History {in part). Rhodesia: Archaeology. Sabre-fencing. Robert Guiscard; Roger I. of Sicily; Roger II. of Sicily. Sabas, St. 23 INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES vn E. F. S. E. G. E. Gr. E. Ha. E. He. E. H. B. E. H. M. E. L. B. E. 0.* E. Pr. P. C. C. F. G. P. F. G. S. F. Ha. F. J. H. F. J. S. F. LI. G. F. L. L. *. p. F. R. C. F.We. Edward Fairbrother Strange. Assistant Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Member of . Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art subjects. Joint-editor of Bell's " Cathedral " Series. Edmund Gosse, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article: Gosse, Edmund Ernest Arthur Gardner, M.A. See the biographical article: Gardner, Percy. Rev. Edwin Hatch, M.A., D.D. See the biographical article: Hatch, Edwin. Repin, Ilja. Rhyme; Rhythm (in verse); Rimbaud, Jean; Rivers, Anthony Woodville, Earl; Rossetti, Christina; Runes, Runic Language and Inscriptions; . Rydberg, Abraham; Saga. Rhodes (in part). J Sacrifice: In the Christian \ Church. Edward Heawood, M.A. Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Society, London. ["Rudolf (Lake); Librarian of the Royal Geographical < Ruwenzori; s Sahara (in part). Sir Edward Herbert Bunbury, Bart., M.A., F.R.G.S. (d. 1895). f M.P, for Bury St Edmunds, 1 847-1 852. Author of A History of Ancient Geography; 1 Rhodes (in part). &c. l Russian Language. Ripley, George. Ellis Hovell Minns, M.A. University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. Edward Livermore Burlingame, A.M., Ph.D. Editor of Scribner's Magazine. Formerly on the Staff of New York Tribune. Edmund Owen, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. f Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, j Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Late Ex- -j Respiratory System: Surgery. aminer in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. Edgar Prestage. Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Ex- aminer in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Com- mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal " Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society; &c. Editor of Letters of a Portuguese Nun ; Azurara's Chronicles of Guinea ; &c. Resende, Andre de; Resende, Garcia de; Ribeiro, Bernardim; Sa de Miranda, Francisco de. Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare, M.A., D.Th. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford, > Editor of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle. Author of Myth, Magic and~) Sacrament. Morals; &c. [ Frederick Gymer Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S. r Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on J Reproductive System; Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women, 1 Respiratory System: Anatomy. London. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. [ F. G. Stephens. Formerly Art Critic of the Athenaeum. Author of Artists at Home; George Cruik- shank ; Memorials of W. Mulready ; French and Flemish Pictures ; Sir E. Land- ' seer; T. C. Hook, R.A.; &c. Frederic Harrison. See the_biographical article: Harrison, Frederic. Francis John Haverfield, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Censor, Student, Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Author of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain; &c. Frederick John Snell, M.A. Balliol College, Oxford. Author of The Age of Chaucer; &c. Francis Llewellyn Griffith, M.A., Ph.D., F.S.A. r Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey J Rosetta. and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial 1 German Archaeological Institute. [ Rossetti, Dante Gabriel (in part). Ruskin, John. Roman Army. Robin Hood (in part). Rhodes, Cecil. Lady Lugard. See the biographical article: Lugard, Sir F. J. D. Frank Podmore, M.A. (1856-1910). r • Sometime Scholar of Pembroke College, Oxford. Author of Modern Spiritualism ; J Retro-COgnition. Mesmerism and Christian Science; &c. Frank R. Cana. Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. Frederick Wedmore. See the biographical article: Wedmore, Frederick. I Rhodesia: History (in part); Sahara (in part). j Ribot, Theodule. viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES F. W. R.* Frederick William Rudler, I.S.O., F.G.S. f Rock-Crystal* Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. ■) Tj I1 j,- ]rt ' D ,',i,„ President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. I * u °eiure, KUDjr. G. A.* Gertrude Franklin Atherton. f , Author of Rezdnov; Ancestors; The Tower of Ivory; &c. "^Rezanov. G. Ch. George Chrystal, M.A., LL.D. f Professor of Mathematics and Dean of the Faculty of Arts, Edinburgh University, -s Riemann, Georg. Hon. Fellow and formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. I G. C. W. George Charles Williamson, Litt.D. f Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures ; Life of Richard J D „ t n u„ / n ■ 1 \ Cosway, R.A.; George Engleheart; Portrait Drawings; &c. Editor of the New 1 Kusseu > Jonn (fainter). Edition of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers. I G. Du. George Duthie, M.A., F.R.S. (Edin.). ("Rhodesia: Geography and Director of Education, Southern Rhodesia. I Statistics. G. J. T. George James Turner. f Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Selden -s Ridings. Society. [ G. R. P. George Robert Parkin, LL.D., C.M.G. J Rhodes, Cecil: Rhodes See the biographical article: Parkin, G. R. I Scholarships. r, c n c- ttt>t-»^t f Retz > Cardinal de; G. Sa. George Saintsbury, LL.D., D.C.L. J Bomanea . Ronsard- See the biographical article: Saintsbury, George E. B. 1 « omanee > Konsara, [Rousseau, Jean Jacques. G. Sn. Grant Showerman, A.M., Ph.D. r Professor of Latin at the University of Wisconsin. Member of the Archaeological J , Institute of America. Member of the American Philological Association. Author of 1 Rhea (Mythology). With the Professor ; The Great Mother of the Gods ; &c. [ H. B. Hilary Bauermann, F.G.S. (d. 1909). f Formerly Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Ordnance College, Woolwich. Author of t Safety-Lamp. A Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron. I H. Br. Henry Bradley, M.A., Ph.D. [ Joint-editor of the ifew English Dictionary (Oxford). Fellow of the British "! Riddles. Academy. Author of The Story of the Goths ; The Making of English ; &c. I H. B. M. The Very Rev. Canon H. B. Mackey, O.S.B. / Sacred Heart. Author of Four Essays on St Francis de Sales. { H. Ch. Hugh Chisholm, M.A. f Representation* Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the iith edition of ■< D . „ .' . the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Co-editor of the 10th edition. [ KOseoery, Jiari 01. H. De. Hippolyte Delehaye, S.J. f p ocn st . Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications: Analecta Bollandiana \ _ '*«,!«,.* and Acta Sanctorum. \ Rupert, St; Saint. H. E. Karl Hermann Ethe, M.A., Ph.D. [" _ .. Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Aberystwyth (University of J " uln, > Wales). Author of Catalogue of Persian Manuscripts in the India Office Library, 1 Sa'di. London (Clarendon Press) ; &c. I H. F. G. Hans Friedrich Gadow, F.R.S., Ph.D. _ C Rel)tiles . Anatomv and Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge, -j ' .', * Author of " Amphibia and Reptiles," in the Cambridge Natural History. L Distribution. H. F. P. Henry Francis Pelham, LL.D., D.C.L. J Rome: Ancient History See the biographical article: Pelham, H. F. \ (in part). H. Go. Henry Goudy, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. f Regius Professor of Civil Law, Oxford, and Fellow of All Souls' College. Author -| Roman Law. of The Law of Bankruptcy in Scotland ; &c. [ H. H. Henri Simon Hymans, Ph.D. f Keeper of the Bibliotheque Royale de Belgique, Brussels. Author of Rubens: sa\ Rubens {in part), vie et son ceuvre. I f Respiratory System: H. L. H. Harriet L. Hennessy, M.D. (Brux.), L.R.C.P.I., L.R.C.S.I. \ Pathology {in part); { Rheumatoid Arthritis. H. M. V. Herbert M. Vaughan, F.S.A. f Keble College, Oxford. Author of The Last of the Royal Stuarts; The Medici Popes; ■< St Davids. The Last Stuart Queen, (_ H. R. T. Henry Richard Tedder, F.S.A. f Pvmor Thnm ,. Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London. \ K y mer * Anomas. H. St. Henry Sturt, M.A. j R p, ativitv of Knowledee Author of Idola Theatri; The Idea of a Free Church; Personal Idealism. I Kelallv "y 0I »>nowieuge. H.S.J. Henry Stuart Jones, M.A. r Roman Art; Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Oxford, and Director of the British J Rome: Ancient City (in part), School at Rome. Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. _ Author | Christian Rome {in part) and of The Roman Empire; &c. " [ Ancient History {in part). H. S.-K. Sir Henry Seton-Karr, C.M.G., M.A. f „.„ M.P. for St Helen's. 1885-1906, Author of My Sporting Holidays; &c. I ™ ue " INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES IX H.Tr. H. W. C. D. H. W. S. H. Y. LA. J. A. H. Sir Henry Trotter, K.C.M.G., C.B. Lieutenant-Colonel, Royal Engineers. H.B.M. Consul-General for Roumania, . 1894-1906, and British Delegate on the European Commission of the Danube. Victoria Medallist, Royal Geographical Society, 1878. Henry William Carless Davis, M.A. Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. -Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, 1 895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. Rumania: History (in part). Richard, Earl of Cornwall; Richard I.; Richard of Devizes; Robert of Gloucester; Roger of Hoveden; Roger of Wendover. H. Wickham Steed. f Correspondent of The Times at Vienna. Correspondent of The Times at Rome, < Rjeasoli Baron. 1897-1902. (_ ' J. A. S. J. Bra. J. Bt. J. B. B. J. B. M J. D. B. J. E. C. J. F. H. B. J. F.-K. J. F. M. J. F. W. *J. G. J. G. H. J. H. A. H. J. H. M. J. H. R. Sir Henry Yule, K.C.S.I., C.B. See the biographical article: Yule, Sir Henry. Israel Abrahams, M.A. Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c. John Allen Howe, B.Sc. Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of The Geology of Building Stones. John Addington Symonds, LL.D. See the biographical article: Symonds, J. A. Joseph Braun, S.J. Author of Die Liturgische Gewandung ; &c. James Bartlett. Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c, at King's . College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of Junior Engineers. John Bagnall Bury, D.Litt., D.C.L. See the biographical article: Bury, J. B. James Bass Mullinger, M.A. Lecturer in History, St John's College, Cambridge. Formerly University Lecturer in History and President of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society. Birkbeck Lecturer • in Ecclesiastical History at Trinity College, Cambridge, 1890-1894. Author of History of the University of Cambridge ; The Schools of Charles the Great ; &c. James David Bourchier, M.A., F.R.G.S. King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. Rev. Joseph Estlin Carpenter, M.A., D.Litt., D.D., D.Th. Principal of Manchester College, Oxford. Author of The First Three Gospels, their Origin and Relations; The Bible in the Nineteenth Century; &c. Sir John Francis Harpin Broadbent, Bart., M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P., M.R.C.S. Physician to Out- Patients, St Mary's Hospital, London; Physician totheHamp- stead General Hospital; Assistant Physician to the London Fever Hospital. Author of Heart Disease and Aneurysm; &c. James Fitzmaurice-Kelly, Litt.D., F.R.Hist.S. Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c. James Fullarton Muirhead, LL.D. Editor of many of Baedeker's Guide Books. Author of America, the Land of Contrasts. John Forbes White, M.A., LL.D. (d. 1904). Joint-author of the Life and Art of G. P. Chalmers, R.S.A. ; &c. His Eminence Cardinal James Gibbons. See the biographical article : Gibbons, James. (Ricci, Matteo; Rubruquis, William of {in part). Ritual Murder; Sabbatai Sebi; Sabbation; L Sachs, Michael. Rhaetic. < Renaissance. -I Rochet. Roofs. Roman Empire, Later. Richard of Cirencester. Joseph G. Horner, A.M.I.Mech.E. Author of Plating and Boiler Making ; Practical Metal Turning ; &c. John Henry Arthur Hart, M.A. Fellow, Theological Lecturer and Librarian, St John's College, Cambridge. John Henry Middleton, M.A., Litt.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1 889-1 892. Art Director of the South Kensington Museum, 1 892-1 896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Times; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times. John Horace Round, M.A., LL.D. Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Feudal England ; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage and Pedigree. \ Ristitch, Jovan. -j Religion. 1 Rheumatism. Ruiz, Juan. Rhine (in part). -I Rembrandt (in part). /Roman Catholic Church: 1 United States. J Rolling-mill. -! Sadducees. Rietsehel, Ernst; Ring (in part) ; Rome: The Ancient City (in part); and Christian Rome (in part) ; Round Towers. Register. J. L. W. x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES J. H. R.* James Harvey Robinson, A.M., Ph.D. f Professor of History, Columbia University, New York. Author of Petrarch, the\ Reformation, The. First Modern Scholar ; History of Western Europe ; &c. I J. HI. R. John Holland Rose, M.A., Litt.D. f Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge J Reichstadt Duke of. University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I. ; Napoleonic 1 ' Studies ; The Development of the European Nations ; The Life of Pitt ; &c. L J. H. V. C. John Henry Verrinder Crowe. r Lieut.-Colonel, Royal Artillery. Commandant of the Royal Military College of RusSO-Turkish War* Canada. Formerly Chief Instructor in Military Topography and Military History \ i o _ o\ and Tactics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. Author of Epitome of the v. I °77 _ 7"A Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78; &c. (• J. J. L.* Rev. John James Lias, M.A. f Chancellor of Llandaff Cathedral. Formerly Hulsean Lecturer in Divinity and . Lady Margaret Preacher, University of Cambridge. Author of Miracles, Science 1 and Prayer ; &c. L J. J. T. Sir Joseph John Thomson, D.Sc., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S. Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics and Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- bridge. President of the British Association, 1909-1910. Author of A Treatise on ■ the Motion of Vortex Rings; Application of Dynamics to Physics and Chemistry; Recent Researches in Electricity and Magnetism ; &c. Reuseh, Franz H. Rontgen Rays. Jessie Laidlay Weston. f Round T h]p Th Author of Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory. ^nounu lauie, ine. J. Mt. James Mofeatt, M.A., D.D. Minister of the United Free Church of Scotland. Jowett Lecturer, London, 1907. -j Romans, Epistle to the. Author of Historical New Testament ; &c. [ J. S. P. John Smith Flett, D.Sc, F.G.S. f PetYographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edin- J Rhvolite burgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby ] Medallist of the Geological Society of London. I. J. S. H. John Scott Haldane, M.A. , M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. r Fellow of New College, Oxford, and University Reader in Physiology. Metro- Respiratory System: Physio- politan Gas Referee to the Board of Trade. Joint-editor and founder of the Journal s ;_,,., of Hygiene. Author of Blue-books on " The Causes of Death in Colliery Explo- ° sions "; &c. I J. S. R. James Smith Reid, M.A., LL.M., Litt.D., LL.D. [ ^ chl ' Friedrich W.; Professor of Ancient History and Fellow and Tutor of Gonville and Caius College, J "Unnken, Da Via; Cambridge. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Lecturer, of Christ's College. ] RutiliUS, Claudius Editor of Cicero's Academica; De Amicitia; &c. I Namatianus. J. T. Be. John Thomas Bealby. f Riga _(*» part) ; Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical < Russia: Geography and Magazine.' Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. [ Statistics (in part). J. T. S.* James Thomson Shotwell, Ph.D. J" Richelieu, Cardinal; Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. \ Sacrilege. J. W. James Williams, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. T Roman Catholic Church- All Souls' Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln 4 M0 ™,. 7* ln0UC ^ nuren - College. Barrister-at-Law of Lincoln's Inn. Author of Law of the Universities ; &c. I English Law. J. Wal.* James Walker, M.A. f Christ Church, Oxford. Demonstrator in the Clarendon Laboratory. Formerly J Dofrnntinn • n™,/,7„ P^/tW,™ Vice-President of the Physical Society. Author of The Analytical Theory of Light; \ Reftactl0n - DouUe Reaction. &c. I J. We. Julius Wellhausen, D.D. J «„;„,„ T m,„„„ to„„», See the biographical article: Wellhausen, Julius. ^KeiSKe, jonann jacoo J. W. H. John Wesley Hales, M.A. Emeritus Professor of English Literature at King's College, London. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Tutor, of Christ's College, Cambridge. Clark Lecturer in -J Robin Hood (in part), English Literature at Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of Shakespeare Essays and Notes; Folia Litteraria; &c. K. S. Kathleen Schlesinger. Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the - Orchestra. L. F. A. , Lawrence F. Abbott. f D ., _. , President of The Outlook Company, New York. \ "OOSevelt, Theodore. L. F. V.-H. Leveson Francis Vernon-Harcourt, M.A., M.Inst.CE. (1839-1907). r Professor of Civil Engineering at University College, London, 1882-1905. Author J River Engineering of Rivers and Canals ; Harbours and Docks, ; Civil Engineering as applied in Con- 1 struction ; &c. \_ L. J. S. Leonard James Spencer, M.A. r Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of J ] Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineral- 1 ogical Magazine. \_ L. L. S. Lionel Lancelot Shadwell, M.A. J n - , t . Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. One of H.M. Commissioners in Lunacy. -^ Kegisnauon. M.A. Matthew Arnold " f Sainte-Beuve. See the biographical article: Arnold, Matthew. ^ Regal; Rotta; Sackbut. Rutile. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES XI M.Cr. H.G. M. fla. M. H. S. M. 0. B. C. M.P,* N. W. T. 0, A. O.Ba. O.M.* P. A. A. P. A. K. P. C. M. P. Gi. P. G. K. P.V. R. A.N. R. C. J. R. H. C. Francis Marion Crawford. See the biographical article: Crawford, F. Marion. Moses Gaster, Ph.D. Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. Vice-President, Zionist Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine . Literature, 1886 and 1891. President, Folk-lore Society of England. Vice- President, Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian Popular Literature; &c. L J Rome: The Modem City. Rumania: Literature. Marcus Harxog, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S. Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork. Author of " Protozoa,' bridge Natural History; and papers for various scientific journals. . „ J Rhizopoda; in Cam- < n ... ' [ Rotifera. Marion H. Spielmann, F.S.A. Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of Fine Art Committee of Inter- national Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires, Rome and the Franco-British Exhibition, London. Author of History of " Punch " ; British Portrait Painting to the Opening of the Nineteenth Century ; Works of G. F. , Watts, R.A . ; British Sculpture and Sculptors of To-day; Henrietta Ronner; &c. Relief; Repousse; Roubiliac, Louis F. Maximilian Otto Bismarck Caspari, M.A. Reader in Ancient History at London University. University, 1 905-1 908. r Rhodes (in part) ; Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham -i Romanus I.-IV. (Eastern I Emperors). Retz, Seigneurs and Dukes of; Rouault, Joachim. Sacrifice. Russell, Lord William. Leon Jacques Maxime Prinet. r Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives. Auxiliary of the Institute J of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences). Author of L 'Industrie du sel 1 en Frenche-Comte; Francois I et le comte de Bourgogne; &c. I Northcote Whitridge Thomas, M.A. f Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the J Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference ; Kinship and 1 Marriage in Australia; &c. I Osmund Airy, M.A., LL.D. f H.M. Divisional Inspector of Schools and Inspector of Training Colleges, Board of J Education. Author of Louis XIV. and the English Restoration; Charles II.; &c. 1 Editor of the Lauderdale Papers ; &c. I Oswald Barron, F.S.A. f Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the-j Honourable Society of the Baronetage. [ Octave Maus, LL.D. Advocate of the Court of Appeal at Brussels. Director of L'Art Moderne and of the Libre Esthetique. President of the Association of Belgian writers. Officer of the - Legion of Honour. Author of Le Thedtre de Bayreuth; Aux Ambassadeurs; Malta, Constantinople et la Crimee ; &c. Philip A. Ashworth, M.A., Doc. Juris. New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Translator of H. R. von Gneist's History ■ of the English Constitution. Prince Peter Alexeivitch Kropotkin. See the biographical article: Kropotkin, Prince P. A. Peter Chalmers Mitchell, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc, LL.D. Secretary of the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Com- parative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1 888-1 89 1 . Author " of Outlines of Biology ; &c. Peter Giles, M.A., LL.D., Litt.D. r Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J e Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philological 1 ' Society. L 'Paul George Konody. fu. m i».»jt««j,™rt. Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of The Artist. \ KemDranai l*» m*). Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez: Life and Work- &c. [ Rubens (in part). Russell (Family). Rops, Felicien. Rhine (in part). ' Riga (in part) ; Russia: Geography and Statistics (in part). Regeneration of Lost Parts; Reproduction: of Animals. Pasquale Villari. See the biographical article: Villari, Pasquale. Reynold Alleyne Nicholson, M.A., Litt.D. Lecturer in Persian in the University of Cambridge. Sometime Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Professor of Persian at University College, London. , Author of Selected Poems from the Dlvani Shamsi Tabriz; A Literary History of the Arabs; &c. Sir Richard Claverhouse Jebb, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article: Jebb, Sir Richard Claverhouse. Rev. Robert Henry Charles, M.A., D.D., D.Litt. Grinfield Lecturer, and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford. Fellow of Merton College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Professor of Biblical Greek, Trinity College, Dublin. Author of Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life; Book of Jubilees ; &c. J Rimini; Rome: Roman Re- 1 public in the Middle Ages. Sabians. { Rhetoric. Revelation, Book of. Xll INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES R. J. M R. L.* R. N. B. R. R. M. R. S. C. R. W. F. H. S. A. C. stc. S. H. V.* S.N. T. As. T. A, I. T. Ba. T. B. L. T. H.* T. Wo. T. W.-D. W . A. B. C W. A. P. Ronald John McNeill, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Gazette, London. Formerly Editor of the'SJ James's Richmond, Earls and Dukes of; Richmond and Lennox, Duchess of; Saeheverell, William. Reindeer; Rhinoceros(w part) ; Rhytina; River-hog; Rocky Mountain Goat; Rodentia; Roe-buck; Rorqual. Repnin; Reuterholm, Baron; Sadolin, Jorgen. Religion: Primitive Religion; Ritual. Richard Lydekker,.F.R.S., F.Z.S., F.G.S. Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1 874-1 882. Author of Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum ; The Deer of all Lands ; &c. Robert Nisbet Bain (d. 1909). Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 15 13-1900; The First Romanovs, 1613-172$: Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796 ; &c. Robert Ranulph Marett, M.A. r Reader in Social Anthropology, Oxford University, and Fellow and Tutor of J Exeter College. Formerly Dean and Sub-Rector of Exeter College. Author of 1 The Threshold of Religion. [ Robert Seymour Conway, M.A., D.Litt. _ r Rome: Ancient History {in Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. J part) ; Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff, and Fellow of Gonville | Rutuli" Sabellic* and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. \_ e a v n - ' ' Robert William Frederick Harrison. J _ . _ . , _, Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Assistant Secretary of the Royal Society, London. \ KOvaI society, ine. Stanley Arthur Cook, M.A Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions; The Law of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c. Viscount St Cyres. See the biographical article: Iddesleigh, 1st Earl of. Sydney Howard Vines, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. Sherardian Professor of Botany, Oxford University, and Fellow of Magdalen College. Fellow of the University of London. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and - Lecturer, of Christ's College, Cambridge. President of the Linnean Society, 1900- 1904. Author of A Student's Text-Book of Botany; &c. Ruth, Book of (in part) ; Sabbath (in part). J Roman Catholic Church (in I part). Reproduction: of Plants; Sachs, Julius von. Simon Newcomb, D.Sc, L.L.D. See the biographical article : Newcomb, Simon. ("Refraction: Astronomical \ Refraction. Thomas Ashby, M.A., D.Litt. (Oxon.). Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of. the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topography of the Roman Campagna Regillus; Regium; Rovigo; Rusellae; Ruvo; St Bernard Passes (in part). Thomas Allan Ingram, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin. \ Sacrilege: English Law. Sir Thomas Barclay. r Member of the Institute of International Law. Officer of the Legion of Honour. J „ • a i e Author of Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Black- 1 Ke P nsals ' burn, 1910. [_ Thomas Bell Lightfoot, M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst. Mech.E. Author of Preservation of Foods by Cold ; &c. Thomas Harris, M.D., F.R.C.P. Formerly Hon. Physician to Manchester Royal Infirmary, and Lecturer on Diseases of the Respiratory Organs at Owens College, Manchester. Author of numerous " articles on diseases of the respiratory organs. Thomas Woodhouse. Head of the Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical College, Dundee. Walter Theodore Watts-Dunton. See the biographical article : Watts-Dunton, Walter Theodore. Rev. William Augustus Brevoort Coolidge, M.A., F.R.G.S., Ph.D. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's College, Lampeter, 1 880-1 881. Author of Guide du Haut Dauphine; The Range of- the Todt; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c. Walter Alison Phillips, M.A. Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Author of Modern Europe ; &c. 1 Refrigerating. Respiratory System: Pathology (in part). Rope and Rope-making; Sacking and Sack Manu- facture; Sailcloth. Rossetti, Dante Gabriel. "Referendum and Initiative; Reschen Scheideck; Rhine: Swiss Portion; Rhone; Rorschach; Rosa, Monte; Rovereto; St Bernard Passes (in part). ■ Rochet: Church of England,; Roman Catholic Church (in part) ; Russia: Government and Ad- ministration. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xm W. E. A. A. W. H. F. W. J. H.* W. M.-L. W. M. R. W. P. C. W. P. P. L. W. R. D. W. R. K. W. R. M. W. R. S. William Edmund Armytage Axon, LL.D. Formerly Deputy Chief Librarian of the Manchester Free Libraries. On Literary Staff of Manchester Guardian, 1 874-1905. Member of the Gorsedd, with the bardic name of Manceinion. Author of Annals of Manchester; &c. Sir William H. Flower, F.R.S. See the biographical article: Flower, Sir W. H. William James Hughan. Past S.G.D. of the Grand Lodge of England. of Freemasonry. i Roscoe, William. -T Rhinoceros (in part). Author of Origin of the English Rite -j Rosierucianism. WlLHELM MEYER-LUBKE, Ph.D. Hofrat of the Austrian Empire. Professor of Romance Philology in the University of Vienna. Author of Grammatik der Romanischen Sprachen ; &c. William Michael Rossetti. See the biographical article : Rossetti, Dante G. William Prideaux Courtney. See the biographical article: Courtney, Baron. William Pitt Preble Longfellow. Fellow of the American Institute of Architects. Editor of the American Architect. Author of Cyclopaedia of Architecture in Italy, Greece and the Levant; &c. Wyndham Rowland Dunstan, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Director of the Imperial Institute. President of the International Association of Tropical Agriculture. Member of the Advisory Committee for Tropical Agri- culture, Colonial Office. Romance Languages. f Ribera, Giuseppe; I Rosa, Salvator. fRosslyn, Earl of; I Russell, 1st Earl. •j Richardson, Henry Hobson. Rubber. Rt. Hon. Sir William Rann Kennedy, LL.D. Lord of Appeal. Hon. Fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge. Fellow of the , British Academy. Judge of King's Bench Division of High Court of Justice, 1892- \ Russell of Killowen, Lord. 1907. I William Richard Morfill, M.A. (d. 1010). Formerly Professor of Russian and the other Slavonic Languages in the University I „ . r ., . „ f rw„_.j r-..„.„. „r .,._ -r....„_.-._ Institution> Oxford. Author of Russia; 1 Russian Literature. of Oxford. Curator of the Taylorian Slavonic Literature; &c. William Robertson Smith, LL.D. See the biographical article : Smith, William Robertson. {Reuchlin; Ruth, Book of (in part); Sabbath (in part). PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES Reflection of Light. Regensburg. Regent. Reims. Renfrewshire. Rennes. Reporting. Republic. Resorcin. Retainer. Reunion. Reuss. Reynard the Fox. Rhine Province. Rhode Island. Rhodium. Rhubarb. Rice. Richmond (Surrey). Richmond (Va.). Rickets. Riding. Riesengebirge. Rinderpest. Rio de Janeiro. Rio Grande do Sul (State). Riot. Ripon. Roads and Streets. Rochester (Kent). Rochester (N.Y.). Rodney. Rodriguez. Roland, Legend of. Rome (N.Y.). Romulus. Root. Rosaceae. Roscommon, Co. Rose. Roses, Wars of the. Ross and Cromarty. Rostock. Rothschild. Rotterdam. Rouen. Roulette. Roussillon. Roxburghshire. Rubidium. Rubinstein. Rflgen. Running. Russo-Japanese War. Rutebeuf. Ruthenium. Rutland. Ryazan. Sacramento (Cal.). Saffron. Saint Albans. Saint Andrews. St Augustine (Fla.). St Denis. ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXIII REFECTORY (med. Lat. refectorium, from reficere, to refresh), the hall of a monastery, convent, &c, where the religious took their chief meals together. There frequently was a sort of ambo, approached by steps, from which to read the legenda sanctorum, &c, during meals. The refectory was generally situated by the side of the S. cloister, so as to be removed from the church but contiguous to the kitchen; sometimes it was divided down the centre into two aisles, as at Fountains Abbey in England, Mont St Michel in France and at Villiers in Belgium, and into three aisles as in St Mary's, York, and the Bernardines, Paris. The refectory of St Martin-des-Champs in Paris is in two aisles, and is now utilized as the library of the Ecole des Arts et Metiers. Its wall pulpit, with an arcaded staircase in the thickness of the wall, is still in perfect preservation. REFEREE, a person to whom anything is referred ; an arbitrator. The court of referees in England was a court to which the House of Commons committed the decision of all questions as to the right of petitioners to be heard in opposition to private bills. As originally constituted the referees consisted of the chairman of ways and means, and other members, the Speaker's counsel and several official referees not members of the House of Commons. In 1903 the appointment of official referees was discontinued. The court now consists of the chairman of ways and means, the deputy chairman and not less than seven other members of the House appointed by the Speaker, and its duty, as defined by a standing order, is to decide upon all petitions against private bills, or against provisional orders or provisional certificates, as to the rights of the petitioners to be heard upon such petitions. In the high court of justice, under the Judicature Act 1873, cases may be sub- mitted to three official referees, for trial, inquiry and report, or .assessment of damages. Inquiry and report may be directed "n any case, trial only by consent of the parties, or in any matter requiring any prolonged examination of documents or accounts, or any scientific or local investigation which cannot be tried in *ie ordinary way. REFERENDUM and INITIATIVE, two methods by which the wishes of the general body of electors in a constitutional xxm. 1 state may be expressed with regard to proposed legislation. They are developed to the highest extent in Switzerland, and are best exemplified in the Swiss federal and cantonal constitu- tions. By these two methods the sovereign people in Switzerland (whether in the confederation or in one of its cantons) approve or reject the bills and resolutions agreed upon by the legislative authority (Referendum), or compel that authority to introduce bills on certain specified subjects (Initiative) — in other words, exercise the rights of the people as regards their elected repre- sentatives at times other than general elections. The Referendum means " that which is referred " to the sovereign people, and prevailed (up to 1848) in the federal diet, the members of which were bound by instructions, all matters outside which being taken " ad referendum." A similar system obtained previously in the formerly independent confederations of the Grisons and of the Valais, in the former case not merely as between the Three Leagues, and even the bailiwicks of each within its respective league, but also (so far as regards the upper Engadine) the communes making up a bailiwick, though in the Valais the plan prevailed only as between the seven Zehnten or bailiwicks. The Initiative, on the other hand, is the means by which the sovereign people can compel its elected representatives to take into consideration either some specified object or a draft bill relating thereto, the final result of the deliberations of the legislature being subject by a referendum vote to the approval or rejection of the people. These two institutions therefore enable the sovereign people to control the decisions of the legislature, without having recourse to a dissolution, or waiting for the expiration of its natural term of office. As might have been expected, both had been adopted by different cantons before they found their way into the federal constitution, which naturally has to take account of the sovereign rights of the cantons of which it is composed. Further, they (at any rate the referendum) were employed in the case of con- stitutional matters relating to cantonal constitutions before being applied to all or certain specified laws and resolutions. Finally, the action of both has been distinctly conservative in the case of the confederation, though to a less marked degree in the case of the cantons. 11 REFLECTION OF LIGHT Two forms of the Referendum should be carefully distin- guished : the facultative or optional (brought into play only on the demand of a fixed number of citizens), and the obligatory or compulsory (which obtains in all cases that lie within its sphere as defined in the constitution). The Initiative exists only in the facultative form, being exercised when a certain number of citizens demand it. Both came into common use during the Liberal reaction in Switzerland after the Paris revolution of July 1830. In 1831 St Gall first adopted the " facultative referendum " (then and for some time after called the " Veto "), and its example was followed by several cantons before 1848. The "obligatory referendum " appears first in 1852 and 1854 respectively in the Valais and the Grisons, when the older system was reformed, but in its modern form it was first adopted in 1863 by the canton of rural Basel. The Initiative was first adopted in 1845 by Vaud. Of course the cantons with Landsgemeinden, Uri, Unterwalden, Appenzell and Glarus (where the citizens appear in person) possessed both from time immemorial. Excluding these there were at the end of 1907 9j cantons, which had the " obligatory referendum " (Aargau, rural Basel, Bern, the Grisons, Schaffhausen, Schwyz, Soleure, Thurgau, the Valais and Zurich), while 7 J cantons possess only the " facultative referendum " (Basel town, Geneva, Lucerne, Neuchatel, St Gall, Ticino, Vaud and Zug). Fribourg alone had neither, save an obligatory referendum (like all the rest) as to the revision of the cantonal constitution. As regards the Initiative, all the cantons have it as to the revision of the cantonal constitution; while all but Fribourg have it also as to bills or legislative projects. In the case both of the facultative referendum and of the Initiative each canton fixes the number of citizens who have a right to exercise this power. The con- stitution of the Swiss confederation lags behind those of the cantons. It is true that both in 1848 (art. 113) and in 1874 (art. 120) it is provided that a vote on the question whether the constitution shall be revised must take place if either house of the federal legislature or 50,000 qualified voters demand it — of course a popular vote (obligatory referendum) must take place on the finally elaborated project of revision. But as regards bills the case is quite different. The " facultative referendum " was not introduced till 1874 (art. 89) and then only as regards all bills and resolutions not being of a pressing nature, 8 cantons or 30,000 qualified voters being entitled to ask for such a popular vote. But the Initiative did not appear in the federal constitution till it was inserted in 1891 (art. 121), and then merely in the case of a partial (not a total) revision of the constitution, if 50,000 qualified voters require it, whether as regards a subject in general or a draft bill, — of course the federal legislature had an Initiative in this matter in 1848 already. The results of the working of these two institutions in federal matters up to the end of 1908 are as follows. Excluding the votes by which the two federal constitutions of 1848 and 1874 were adopted, there have been 30 (10 of them between 1848 and 1874) votes (obligatory referendum) as to amendments of the federal constitution; in 15 cases only (of which only one was before 1874) did the people accept the amendment proposed. In the case of bills there have been 30 votes (very many bills have not been attacked at all), all of course since the facultative referendum was introduced in 1874; in n cases only have the people voted in the affirmative. Finally, with regard to the Initiative, there have been 7 votes, of which two only were in the affirmative. Thus, between 1874 and 1907, of 57 votes 27 only were in the affirmative, while if we include the 10 votes between 1848 and 1874 the figures are respectively 67 and 28, one only having been favourable during that period. The result is to show that the people, voting after mature reflection, are far less radically disposed than has sometimes been imagined. The method of referendum by itself is also in use in some of the' states of the American Union (see United States) and in Australia, and under the name of plebiscite has been employed in France; but it is best studied in the Swiss con- stitution. Q \ T /? M K N S Fig. 1. Authorities.— W. A. B. Coolidge, "The Early History of the Referendum " (article in the English Historical Review for October 1891); T. Curti, Die schweizeriscken Volksrechte, 1848 bis igoo (Bern, 1900) (Fr. trans, by J. Ronjat with additions by the author, Paris, 1905) — Curti's earlier work, Geschichte d. schweiz. Volks- gesetzgebung (Bern, 1882), is not entirely superseded by his later one; S. Deploige, The Referendum in Switzerland, Engl, trans, with additional notes (London, 1898); N. Droz, "The Referendum in Switzerland " (article in the Contemporary Review, March 1895); J. M. Vincent, Government in Switzerland, chaps, v. and xiv. (New York and London, 1900). See also, for the United States and generally, the American works on the Referendum by E. P. Ober- holtzer (1893 and 1900). (W. A. B. C.) REFLECTION OF LIGHT. When a ray of light in a homo- geneous medium falls upon the bounding surface of another medium, part of it is usually turned back or reflected and part is scattered, the remainder traversing or being absorbed by the second medium. The scattered rays (also termed the irregu- larly or diffusely reflected rays) play an important part in rendering objects visible — in fact, without diffuse reflection non-luminous objects would be invisible; they are occasioned by irregularities in the surface, but are governed by the same law as holds for regular reflection. This law is: the incident and reflected rays make equal angles with the normal to the reflecting surface at the point of incidence, and are coplanar with the normal. This is equivalent to saying that the path of the ray is a minimum. 1 In fig. 1 , MN represents the section of a plane mirror; OR is the in- cident ray, RP the reflected ray, and TR the normal at R. Then the law states that the angle of incidence ORT equals the angle of reflection PRT, and that OR, RT and RP are in the same plane. This natural law is capable of ready experimental proof (a simple one is to take the altitude of a star with a meridian circle, its depression in a horizontal re- flecting surface of mercury and the direction of the nadir), and the most delicate instruments have failed to detect any divergence from it. Its explanation by the Newtonian corpuscular theory is very simple, for we have only to assume that at the point of impact the perpendicular velocity of a corpuscle is reversed, whilst the horizontal velocity is unchanged (the mirror being assumed horizontal). The wave-theory explanation is more complicated, and in the simple form given by Huygens incomplete. The theory as developed by Fresnel shows that regular reflection is due to a small zone in the neighbourhood of the point R (above), there being destructive interference at all other points on the mirror; this theory also accounts for the polarization of the reflected light when incident at a certain angle (see Polarization or Light). The smoothness or polish of the sur- face largely controls the reflecting power, for, obviously, crests and furrows, if of sufficient magnitude, disturb the phase relations. The permissible deviation from smoothness depends on the wave-length of the light employed: it appears that surfaces smooth to within |th of a wave-length reflect regularly; hence long waves may be regularly reflected by a surface which diffuses short waves. Also the obliquity of the incidence would diminish the effect of any irregularities; this is experi- mentally confirmed by observing the images produced by matt surfaces or by smoked glass at grazing incidence. We now give some elementary constructions of reflected rays, or, what comes to the same thing, of images formed by mirrors. 1. If O be a luminous point and OR a ray incident at R on the plane mirror MN (fig. 1) to determine the reflected ray and the image of O. If RP be the reflected ray and RT perpendicular 1 This principle of the minimum path, however, only holds for plane and convex surfaces; with concave surfaces it may be a maximum in certain cases. REFLECTION OF LIGHT 0„ — i — .£— 2l J& to MN, then, by the law of reflection, angle ORT=TRP or ORM = PRN. Hence draw OQ perpendicular to MN, and produce it to S, making QS = OQ; join SR and produce to P. It is easily seen that PR and OR are equally in- clined to RT (or MN). A point-eye at P would see a point object at S, i.e. at a distance below the mirror equal to its height above. If the object be a solid, then the images of its cor- ners are formed by taking points at the same distances below as the corners are above the mirror, and joining these points. The eye, however, sees the image per- verted, i.e., in the same relation as the left hand to the F IG - 2 - right. Fig. 2 shows how an extended object is viewed in a mirror by a natural eye. 2. If A, B be two parallel plane mirrors and O a luminous point between them (fig. 3) to determine the images of O all the B images must lie on the line (pro- duced) PQ passing through and perpendicular to the mirrors. Let OP = p, OQ = g. F Then if O' be * IG - 3- the image of O in A, 00' = 2/>; now O' has an image O* in B, such that 00" =OQ+QO" =q+q+2p = 2p+2q; similarly O" has an image O'" in A, such that 00'" = 4^+20. In the same way O forms an image Oi in B such that OOi = 2q ; Oi has an image Oh in A, such that 00n = 2p-\-2q; On has an image Om in B, such that 00m = 2^+42, and so on. Hence there are an infinite number of images at definite distances from the mirrors. This explains the vistas as seen, for example, between two parallel mirrors at the ends of a room. 3. If A, B be two plane mirrors inclined at an angle 0, and inter- secting at C, and O a luminous point between them, determine the position and number of images. Call arc OA = o, 0B=/3. The image of O in A, i.e. a', is such that Oa' is perpendicular to CA, and Oa' = 2a. Also Ca' = CO; and it is easily seen that all the images lie on a circle of centre C and radius CO. The image a' forms an image a" in B such that Oa" = OB-r-Ba"=|S-|-Ba'=/S-|-OB+Oa' = 2/S+2a = 20. Also a" forms an image a'" in A such that Oa'"=OA-|-Aa' = 2a-|-20. And gener- ally Oa 2n = 2ra0, Oa 2 " +1 = 2n0-|-2a. In the same way it can be shown that the image first formed in B gives foci of the general distances: Ob in = 2nB, Ofc 2n+1 = 2n0-|-2/3. The number of images is limited, for when any one falls on the arc ab between the mirrors produced, it lies behind both mirrors, and hence no further image is possible. Suppose a" n be the first image to fall on this arc, then arc Oa 2n >OBa, i.e. 2n0>x— a or 2n> (x- a)/0. Similarly if a 2 "" 1 " 1 be the first to fall on ab, we obtain 2w+i> (x — a)/0. Hence in both cases the number of images is the integer next greater than (x — a)/$. In the same way it can be shown that the number of images of the 6 series is the integer next greater than (x — /S)/0. If x/0 be an integer, then the number ot images of each series is x/9, for o/0 and 0/0 are proper fractions. But an image of each series coincides; for if x/0 = 2n, we have Oa 2n -|-O6 2n = 2n0-)-2n0 = 2x i.e. a 2 " and 6 2n coincide; and if x/0 = 2re+i, we have Oa 2n+1 -|- O& 2 »+ 1 = 4n0+2(a+/3) = (4tt+2) = 2x, i.e. a 2o+1 and 6 2n+1 coincide. Hence the number of images, including the luminous point, is 2x/0. This principle is utilized in the kaleidoscope (q.v.), which produces five images by means of its mirrors inclined at 60° (fig. 4). Fig. 5 shows the seven images formed by mirrors inclined at 45°. 4. To determine the reflection at a spherical surface. Let APB (fig. 6) be a section of a concave spherical mirror through its centre and luminous point U. If a ray, say UP, meet the surface, it will be reflected along PV, which is coplanar with UP and the normal PO at P, and makes the angle VPO = UPO. Hence VO/VP=OU/UP. This expression may be simplified if we assume P to be very close to A, i.e. that the ray UP is very slightly inclined to the axis. Writing A for P, we have VO/AV = OU/AU; and calling AU = m, AV = n and A0 = r, this reduces to « _1 +ir 1 = 2»^ 1 . This formula connects the distances of the object and image formed by a spherical concave mirror with the radius of the mirror. Points satisfying this relation are called " conjugate foci," for obviously they are reciprocal, i.e. u and v can be interchanged in the formula. PlG. 4, If « be infinite, as, for example, if the luminous source~.be a star, then ir 1 = 2r- 1 , i.e. v = §r. This value is called the focal length of Fig. 6. the mirror, and the corresponding point, usually denoted by F, is called the " principal focus." This formula requires modifica- tion for a convex mirror. If u be always considered as positive (v may be either positive or negative), r must be regarded as positive with concave mirrors and negative with convex. Similarly the focal length, having the same sign as r, has different signs in the two cases. In this formula all distances are measured from the mirror; but it is sometimes more convenient to measure from the principal focus. If the distances of the object and image from the principal focus be x and y, then u = x+f and v = y+f (remembering that j is positive for concave and negative for convex mirrors). Sub- stituting these values in_«- 1 -(-!r 1 =/- 1 and reducing we obtain xy=p-. Since f 2 is always positive, x and y must have the same sign, i.e. the object and image must lie on the same side of the principal focus. We now consider the production of the image of a small object placed symmetrically and perpendicular to the axis of a concave (fig. 7) and a convex mirror (fig. 8). Let PQ be the object and A the vertex of the mirror. Consider the point P. Now a ray through P and parallel to the axis after meeting the mirror at M is reflected through the focus F. The line MF must therefore contain the image of P. Also a ray through P and also through the centre of curva- ture C of the mirror is reflected along the same path ; this also con- tains the image of P. Hence the image is at P, the intersection of the lines MF and PC. Similarly the image of any other point can be found, and the final image deduced. We notice that in fig. 6 the image is inverted and real, and in fig. 7 erect and virtual. The " magnification " or ratio of the size of the image to the object can be deduced from the figures by elementary geometry; it equals the ratio of the distances of the image and object from the mirror or from the centre of curvature of the mirror. The positions and characters of the images for objects at varying REFORMATION, THE distances are shown in the table (F is the principal focus and C the centre of curvature of the mirror MA). Concave Mirror Position of Object.^ Position of Image. Character of Image. oo Between °o and C C Between C and F Between F and A A F Between F and C C Between C and oo Between A and - °° A Real. Real.inverted, diminished „ „ same size „ „ magnified Virtual, erect, magnified Erect, same size Convex Mirror Position of Object. Position of Image. Character of Image. CO Between oo and A A Between F and A A Virtual Virtual, erect, diminished Erect, same size The above discussion of spherical mirrors assumes that the mirror has such a small aperture that the reflected rays from any point unite in a point. This, however, no longer holds when the mirror has a wide aperture, and in general the reflected rays envelop a caustic (q.v., see also Aberration). The only mirror which can sharply reproduce an object-point as an image-point has for its section an ellipse, which is so placed that the object and image are at its foci. This follows from a property of the curve, viz. the sum of the focal distances is constant, and that the focal vectores are equally inclined to the normal at the point. More important than the elliptical mirror, however, is the parabolic, which has the pro- perty of converting rays parallel to .the axis into a pencil through its focus; or, inversely, rays from a source placed at the focus are con- verted into a parallel beam; hence the use of this mirror in search- lights and similar devices. REFORMATION, THE. The Reformation, as commonly understood, means the religious and political revolution of the 1 6th century, of which the immediate result was the partial dis- ruption of the Western Catholic Church and the establishment of various national and territorial churches. These agreed in repudiating certain of the doctrines, rites and practices of the medieval Church, especially the sacrifice of the Mass and the headship of the bishop of Rome, and, whatever their official designations, came generally to be known as " Pro- testant." In some cases they introduced new systems of ecclesiastical organization, and in all they sought to justify their innovations by an appeal from the Church's tradition to the Scriptures. The conflicts between Catholics and Pro- testants speedily merged into the chronic political rivalries, domestic and foreign, which distracted the European states; and religious considerations played a very important part in diplomacy and war for at least a century and a half, from the, diet of Augsburg in 1530 to the English revolution and the league of Augsburg, 1688-89. The terms " Reformation " and "Protestantism" are inherited by the modern historian; they are not of his devising, and come to him laden with re- miniscences of all the exalted enthusiasms and bitter anti- pathies engendered by a period of fervid religious dissension. The unmeasured invective of Luther and Aleander has not ceased to reecho, and the old issues are by no means dead. The heat of controversy is, however, abating, and during the past thirty or forty years both Catholic and Protestant The lie- investigators have been vying with one another in formation adding to our knowledge and in rectifying old mis- chfslve'iya ta ^ es ; while an ever-increasing number of writers Religious pledged to neither party are aiding in developing an Revoiu- idea of the scope and nature of the Reformation which tion. differs radically from the traditional one. We now appreciate too thoroughly the intricacy of the medieval Church; its vast range of activity, secular as well as religious; the inextricable interweaving of the civil and ecclesiastical govern- ments; the slow and painful process of their divorce as the old ideas of the proper functions of the two institutions have changed in both Protestant and Catholic lands: we perceive all too clearly the limitations of the reformers, their distrust of reason and criticism — in short, we know too much about medieval institutions and the process of their disintegration longer to see in the Reformation an abrupt break in the general history of Europe. No one will, of course, question the importance of the schism which created the distinction between Protestants and Catholics, but it must always be remembered that the religious questions at issue comprised a relatively small part of the whole compass of human aspirations and conduct, even to those to whom religion was especially vital, while a large majority of the leaders in literature, art, science and public affairs went their way seemingly almost wholly unaffected by theological problems. That the religious elements in the Reformation have been greatly overestimated from a modern point of view can hardly be questioned, and one of the most distinguished students of Church history has ventured the assertion that " The motives, both remote and proximate, which led to the Lutheran revolt were largely secular rather than spiritual." " We may," continues Mr H. C. Lea, " dismiss the religious changes incident to the Reformation with the remark that they were not the object sought, but the means for attaining the object. The existing ecclesiastical system was the practical evolution of dogma, and the overthrow of dogma was the only way to obtain permanent relief from the intolerable abuses of that system " (Cambridge Modern History, i. 653). It would perhaps be nearer the truth to say that the secular and spiritual interests inter- mingled and so permeated one another that it is almost im- possible to distinguish them clearly even in thought, while in practice they were so bewilderingly confused that they were never separated, and were constantly mistaken for one another. The first step in clarifying the situation is to come to a full realization that the medieval Church was essentially an inter- national slate, and that the character of the Protestant secession from it was largely determined by this fact. * esen »- As Maitland suggests: " We could frame no ac- fthe ceptable definition of a State which would not com- medieval prehend the Church. What has it not that a State f b "^ b should have ? It has laws, law givers, law courts, state. lawyers. It uses physical force to compel men to obey the laws. It keeps prisons. In the 13th century, though with squeamish phrases, it pronounced sentence of death. It is no voluntary society; if people are not born into it they are baptized into it when they cannot help them- selves. If they attempt to leave they are guilty of crimen laesae majestatis, and are likely to be burned. It is supported by involuntary contributions, by tithe and tax " (Canon Law in the Church of England, p. 100). The Church was not only organized like a modern bureaucracy, but performed many of the functions of a modern State. It dominated the intellectual and profoundly affected the social interests of western Europe. Its economic influence was multiform and incalculable, owing to its vast property, its system of taxation and its encourage- ment of monasticism. When Luther made his first great appeal to the German people in his Address to the German Nobility, he scarcely adverts to religious matters at all. He deals, on the contrary, almost exclusively with the social, financial, educational, industrial and general moral problems of the day. If Luther, who above all others had the religious issue ever before him, attacks the Church as a source of worldly disorder, it is not surprising that his contemporary Ulrich von Hutten should take a purely secular view of the issues involved. Moreover, in the fascinating collection of popular satires and ephemeral pamphlets made by Schade, one is constantly im- pressed with the absence of religious fervour, and the highly secular nature of the matters discussed. The same may be said of the various Gravamina, or lists of grievances against the papacy drafted from time to time by German diets. But not only is the character of the Reformation differently conceived from what it once was; our notions of the process of change are being greatly altered. Formerly, mstoric writers accounted for the Lutheran movement by so contlnu- magnifying the horrors of the pre-existing regime ity of the that it appeared intolerable, and its abolition con- ^ etormam sequently inevitable. Protestant writers once con- tented themselves with a brief caricature 01 the Church, 23 REFORMATION, THE a superficial account of the traffic in indulgences, and a rough and ready assumption, which even Kostlin makes, that the darkness was greatest just before the dawn. Unfortunately this crude solution of the problem proved too much; for conditions were no worse immediately before the revolt than they had been for centuries, and German complaints of papal tyranny go back to Hildegard of Bingen and Walther von der Vogelweide, who antedated Luther by more than three centuries. So a new theory is logically demanded to explain why these conditions, which were chronic, failed to produce a change long before it actually occurred. Singularly enough it is the modern Catholic scholars, Johannes Janssen above all, who, in their efforts further to discredit the Protestant revolt by rehabilitating the institutions which the reformers attacked, have done most to explain the success of the Reformation. A humble, patient Bohemian priest, Hasak, set to work toward half a century ago to bring together the devotional works published during the seventy years immediately succeeding the invention of printing. Every one knows that one at least of these older books, The German Theology, was a great favourite of Luther's; but there are many more in Hasak's collection which breathe the same spirit of piety and spiritual emulation. Building upon the founda- tions laid by Hasak and other Catholic writers who have been too much neglected by Protestant historians, Janssen pro- duced a monumental work in defence of the German Church before Luther's defection. He exhibits the great achievements of the latter part of the 15th and the early portion of the 16th centuries; the art and literature, the material prosperity of the towns and the fostering of the spiritual fife of the people. It may well be that his picture is too bright, and that in his obvious anxiety to prove the needlessness of an ecclesiastical revolution he has gone to the opposite extreme from the Pro- testants. Yet this rehabilitation of pre-Reformation Germany cannot but make a strong appeal to the unbiased historical student who looks to a conscientious study of the antecedents of the revolt as furnishing the true key to the movement. Outwardly the Reformation would seem to have begun when, on the 10th of December 1520, a professor in the university Revolt °^ Wittenberg invited all the friends of evangelical of the truth among his students to assemble outside the various wall at the ninth hour to witness a pious spectacle — a, ™™* fl the burnin g of the "godless book of the papal meats decrees." He committed to the flames the whole from the body of the canon law, together with an edict of papal the head of the Church which had recently been moaarc y. j ssue( j against his teachings. In this manner Martin Luther, with the hearty sympathy of a considerable number of his countrymen, publicly proclaimed and illustrated his repudiation of the papal government under which western Europe had lived for centuries. Within a genera- tion after this event the states of north Germany and Scandinavia, England, Scotland, the Dutch Netherlands and portions of Switzerland, had each in its particular manner permanently seceded from the papal monarchy. France, after a long period of uncertainty and disorder, remained faithful to the bishop of Rome. Poland, after a defection of years, was ultimately recovered for the papacy by the zeal and devo- tion of the Jesuit missionaries. In the Habsburg hereditary dominions the traditional policy and Catholic fervour of the ruling house resulted, after a long struggle, in the restoration of the supremacy of Rome; while in Hungary the national spirit of independence kept Calvinism alive to divide the religious allegiance of the people. In Italy and Spain, on the other hand, the rulers, who continued loyal to the pope, found little difficulty in suppressing any tendencies of revolt on the part of the few converts to the new doctrines. Individuals, often large groups, and even whole districts, had indeed earlier rejected some portions of the Roman Catholic faith, or refused obedience to the ecclesiastical government; but previously to the burning of the canon law by Luther no prince had openly and permanently cast off his allegiance to the international ecclesiastical state of which the bishop of Rome was head. Now, a prince or legislative assembly that accepted the doctrine of Luther, that the temporal power had been " ordained by God for the chastisement of the wicked and the protection of the good " and must be permitted to exercise its functions " un- hampered throughout the whole Christian body, without respect to persons, whether it strikes popes, bishops, priests, monks, nuns, or whoever else " — such a government could proceed to ratify such modifications of the Christian faith as appealed to it in a particular religious confession; it could order its subject to conform to the innovations, and could expel, persecute or tolerate dissenters, as seemed good to it. A " reformed " prince could seize the property of the monasteries, and appro- priate such ecclesiastical foundations as he desired. He could make rules for the selection of the clergy, disregarding the ancient canons of the Church and the claims of the pope to the right of ratification. He could cut off entirely all forms of papal taxation and put an end to papal jurisdiction. The personnel, revenue, jurisdiction, ritual, even the faith of the Church, were in this way placed under the complete control of the territorial governments. This is the central and sig- nificant fact of the so-called Reformation. Wholly novel and distinctive it is not, for the rulers of Catholic countries, like Spain and France, and of England (before the publication of the Act of Supremacy) could and did limit the pope's claims to unlimited jurisdiction, patronage 'and taxation, and they introduced the placet forbidding the publication within their realms of papal edicts, decisions and orders, without the express sanction of the government — in short, in many ways tended to approach the conditions in Protestant lands. The Reforma- tion was thus essentially a stage in the disengaging of the modern state from that medieval, international ecclesiastical state which had its beginning in the ecclesia of the Acts of the Apostles. An appreciation of the issues of the Reformation— or Protestant revolt, as it might be more exactly called — depends therefore upon an understanding of the development of the papal monarchy, the nature of its claims, the relations it established with the civil powers, the abuses which developed in it and the attempts to rectify them, the sources of friction between the Church and the government, and finally the process by which certain of the European states threw off their allegiance to the Christian commonwealth, of which they had so long formed a part. It is surprising to observe how early the Christian Church assumed the form of a state, and how speedily upon entering into its momentous alliance with the Roman imperial Character government under Constantine it acquired the chief otthe privileges and prerogatives it was so long to retain. Monarchy In the twelfth book of the Theodosian Code we see and its the foundations of the medieval Church already laid; claims. for it was the 4th, not the 13th century that established the principle that defection from the Church was a crime in the eyes of the State, and raised the clergy to a privileged class, exempted from the ordinary taxes, permitted under restrictions to try its own members and to administer the wealth which flowed into its coffers from the gifts of the faithful. The bishop of Rome, who had from the first probably enjoyed a leading position in the Church as " the successor of the two most glorious of the apostles," elaborated his claims to be the divinely appointed head of the ecclesiastical organization. Siricius (384-380), Leo the Great (440-461), and Gelasius I. (492-496) left little for their successors to add to the arguments in favour of the papal supremacy. In short, if we recall the characteristics of the Church in the West from the times of Con- stantine to those of Theodoric — its reliance upon the civil power for favours and protection, combined with its assumption of a natural superiority over the civil power and its innate tendency to monarchical unity — it becomes clear that Gregory VII. in his effort in the latter half of the nth century to establish the papacy as the great central power of western Europe was in the main only reaffirming and developing old claims in a new world. His brief statement of the papal powers as he REFORMATION, THE conceived them is found in his Dictatus. The bishop of Rome, who enjoys a unique title, that of "pope," may annul the decrees of all other powers, since he judges all but is judged by none. He may depose emperors and absolve the subjects of the unjust from their allegiance. Gregory's position was almost inexpugnable at a time when it was conceded by practically all that spiritual concerns were incalculably more momentous than secular, that the Church was rightly one and indivisible, with one divinely revealed faith and a system of sacraments abso- lutely essential to salvation. No one called in question the claim of the clergy to control completely all " spiritual " matters. Moreover, the mightiest secular ruler was but a poor sinner dependent for his eternal welfare en the Church and its head, the pope, who in this way necessarily exercised an indirect control over the civil government, which even the emperor Henry IV. and William the Conqueror would not have been disposed to deny. They would also have conceded the pope the right to play the r61e of a secular ruler in his own lands, as did the German bishops, and to dispose of such fiefs as reverted to him. This class of prerogatives, as well as the right which the pope claimed to ratify the election of the emperor, need not detain us, although they doubtless served in the long run to weaken the papal power. But the pope laid claim to a direct power over the civil governments. Nicholas II. (1058-1061) declared that Jesus had conferred on Peter the control (jura) of an earthly as well as of a heavenly empire; and this phrase was embodied in the canon law. Innocent III., a century and a half later, taught that James the brother of the Lord left to Peter not only the government of the whole Church, but that of the whole world (totum seculum gubemandum) } So the power of the pope no longer rested upon his headship of the Church or his authority as a secular prince, but on a far more comprehensive claim to universal dominion. There was no reason why the bishop of Rome should justify such acts as Innocent himself performed in deposing King John of England and later in annulling Magna Carta; or Gregory IV. when he struck out fourteen articles from the Sachsenspiegel; or Nicholas V. when he invested Portugal with the right to sub- jugate all peoples on the Atlantic coast; or Julius II. when he threatened to transfer the kingdom of France to England ; or the conduct of those later pontiffs who condemned the treaties of Westphalia, the Austrian constitution of 1867 and the establishment of the kingdom of Italy. The theory and practice of papal absolutism was successfully promulgated by Gratian in his Decretum, completed at Bologna about 1142. This was supplemented by later collections composed mainly of papal decretals. (See Canon Law and Decretals, False.) As every fully equipped university had its faculty of canon law in which the Corpus juris canonici was studied, Rashdall is hardly guilty of exaggeration when he says: " By means of the happy thought of the Bolognese monk the popes were enabled to convert the new-born universities — the offspring of that intellectual new birth of Europe which might have been so formidable an enemy to the papal pretensions — into so many engines for the propagation of Ultramontane ideas." Thomas Aquinas was the first theologian to describe the Church as a divinely organized absolute monarchy, whose head con- centrated in his person the entire authority of the Church, and was the' source of all the ecclesiastical law (conditor juris), issuing the decrees of general councils in his own name, and claiming the right to revoke or modify the decrees of former councils — indeed, to make exceptions or to set aside altogether anything which did not rest upon the dictates of divine or natural law. In practice the whole of western Europe was subject to the jurisdiction of one tribunal of last resort, the Roman Curia. The pope claimed the right to tax church property throughout Christendom. He was able to exact an oath of fidelity from the archbishops, named many of the bishops, and asserted the right to transfer and dispose them. The organs of this vast monarchy were the papal Curia, which first appears distinctly in the nth century (see Cukia Romana), 'See further, Innocent III. and the legates, who visited the courts of Europe as haughty representatives of the central government of Christendom. It should always be remembered that the law of the Church was regarded by all lawyers in the later middle ages as the law common to all Europe (jus commune). The laws of Relations the Carolingian empire provided that one excom- "tthe municated by the Church who did not make his peace ticai'and within a year and a day should be outlawed, and this civil gov general principle was not lost sight of. It was a capital emments. offence in the eyes of the State to disagree with the teachings of the Church, and these, it must be remembered, included a recognition of the papal supremacy. The civil authorities burnt an obstinate heretic, condemned by the Church, without a thought of a new trial. The emperor Frederick IL's edicts and the so-called etablissemenls of St Louis provide that the civil officers should search out suspected heretics and deliver them to the ecclesiastical judges. The civil government recognized monastic vows by regarding a professed monk as civilly dead and by pursuing him and returning him to his monastery if he violated his pledges of obedience and ran away. The State recognized the ecclesiastical tribunals and accorded them a wide jurisdiction that we should now deem essentially secular in its nature. The State also admitted that large classes of its citizens — the clergy, students, crusaders, widows and the miserable and helpless in general — were justiceable only by Church tribunals. By the middle of the 13th century many lawyers took the degree of doctor of both laws (J.U.D.), civil and canon, and practised both. As is well known, temporal rulers constantly selected clergymen as their most trusted advisers. The existence of this theocratic international state was of course conditioned by the weakness of the civil govern- ment. So long as feudal monarchy continued, the Church supplied to some extent the deficiencies of the turbulent and ignorant princes by endeavouring to maintain order, administer justice, protect the weak and encourage learning. So soon as the modern national state began to gain strength, the issue between secular rulers and the bishops of Rome took a new form. The clergy naturally stoutly defended the powers which they had long enjoyed and believed to be rightly theirs. On the other hand, the State, which could count upon the support of an • ever-increasing number of prosperous and loyal subjects, sought to protect its own interests and showed itself less and less inclined to tolerate the extreme claims of the pope. Moreover, owing to the spread of education, the king was no longer obliged to rely mainly upon the assistance of the clergy in conducting his government. The chief sources of friction between Church and State were four in number. First, the growth of the practice of " reserva- tion " and " provision," by which the popes assumed the right to appoint their own nominees to vacant sees and other benefices, in defiance of the claims of the crown, the chapters and private patrons. In the case of wealthy bishoprics or abbacies this involved a serious menace to the secular authority. Both pope and king were naturally anxious to place their own friends and supporters in these influential positions. The pope, moreover, had come to depend to a considerable extent for his revenue upon the payments made by his nominees, which represented a corresponding drain on the resources of the secular states. Secondly, there was the great question, how far the lands and other property of the clergy should be subject to taxation. Was this vast amount of property to increase indefinitely without contribution to the maintenance of the secular government? A decretal of Innocent III. permitted the clergy to make voluntary contributions to the king when there was urgent necessity, and the resources of the laity had proved inadequate. But the pope maintained that, except in the most critical cases, his consent must be obtained for such grants. Thirdly, there was the inevitable jealousy between the secular and ecclesiastical courts and the serious problem of the exact extent of the original and appellate jurisdiction of the Roman Curia. Fourthly, and lastly, there was the most fundamental difficulty of all, the extent to which the pope, as the universally acknowledged head REFORMATION, THE of the Church, was justified in interfering in the internal affairs of particular states. Unfortunately, most matters could be viewed from both a secular and religious standpoint; and even in purely secular affairs the claims of the pope to at least indirect control were practically unlimited. The specific nature of the abuses which flourished in the papal monarchy, the unsuccessful attempts to remedy them, and the measures taken by the chief European states to protect themselves will become apparent as we hastily review the principal events of the 14th and 15th centuries. As one traces the vicissitudes of the papacy during the two centuries from Boniface VIII. to Leo X. one cannot fail to be The impressed with the almost incredible strength of the papacy In ecclesiastical state which had been organized and the 14th fortified by Gregory VII., Alexander III., Innocent III. century. anc j Q re g 0r y jx. In spite of the perpetuation of all the old abuses and the continual appearance of new devices for increasing the papal revenue; in spite of the jealousy of kings and princes, the attacks of legists and the preaching of the heretics; in spite of seventy years of exile from the holy city, forty years of distract- ing schism and discord, and thirty years of conflict with stately oecumenical councils deliberating in the name of the Holy Spirit and intent upon permanently limiting the papal prerogatives; in spite of the unworthy conduct of some of those who ascended the papal throne, their flagrant political ambitions, and their greed; in spite of the spread of knowledge, old and new, the development of historical criticism, and philosophical speculation; in spite, in short, of every danger which could threaten the papal monarchy, it was still intact when Leo X. died in 1521. Nevertheless, permanent if partial dissolution was at hand, for no one of the perils which the popes had seemingly so successfully overcome had failed to weaken the constitution of their empire; and it is impossible to comprehend its comparatively sudden disintegration without reckoning with the varied hostile forces which were accumulating and com- bining strength during the 14th and 15th centuries. The first serious conflict that arose between the developing modern state and the papacy centred about the pope's claim that the property of the clergy was normally exempt from royal taxation. Boniface VIII. was forced to permit Edward I. and Philip the Fair to continue to demand and receive subsidies granted by the clergy of their realms. Shortly after the bitter humiliation of Boniface by the French government and his death in 1303, the bishop of Bordeaux was elected pope as Clement V. (1305)- He preferred to remain in France, and as the Italian cardinals died they were replaced by Frenchmen. The papal court was presently established at Avignon, on the confines of France, where it remained until 1377. While the successors of Clement V. were not so completely under the control of the French kings as has often been alleged, the very proximity of the curia to France served inevitably to intensify national jealousies. The claims of John XXII. (1316-1334) to control the election of the emperor called forth the first fundamental and critical attack on the papal monarchy, by Marsiglio of Padua, who declared in his Defensor pads (1324) that the assumed supremacy of the bishop of Rome was without basis, since it was very doubtful if Peter was ever in Rome, and in any case there was no evidence that he had transmitted any exceptional prerogatives to succeeding bishops. But Marsiglio's logical and elaborate justification for a revolt against the medieval Church produced no perceptible effects. The removal of the papal court from Rome to Avignon, however, not only reduced its prestige but increased the pope's chronic financial embarrassments, by cutting off the income from his own dominions, which he could no longer control, while the unsuccessful wars waged by John XXII., the palace building and the notorious luxury of some of his successors, served enormously to augment the expenses. Various devices were resorted to, old and new, to fill the treasury. The fees of the Curia were raised for the numberless favours, dispensations, absolutions, and exemptions of all kinds which were sought by clerics and laymen. The right claimed by the pope to fill benefices of all kinds was extended, and the amount contributed to the pope by his nominees amounted to from a third to a half of the first year's revenue (see Annates). Boni- face VIII. had discovered a rich source of revenue in the jubilee, and in the jubilee indulgences extended to those who could not come to Rome. Clement VI. reduced the period between these lucrative occasions from one hundred to fifty years, and Urban VI. determined in 1389 that they should recur at least once in a generation (every thirty-three years). Church offices, high and low, were regarded as investments from which the pope had his commission. England showed itself better able than other countries to defend itself against the papal control of church preferment. From 1343 onward, statutes were passed by parliament England forbidding any one to accept a papal provision, and and the cutting off all appeals to the papal curia or ecclesias- papacy In tical courts in cases involving benefices. Neverthe- the j^ tb less, as a statute of 1379 complains, benefices continued to be given " to divers people of another language and of strange lands and nations, and sometimes to actual enemies of the king and of his realm, which never made residence in this same, nor cannot, may not, nor will not in any wise bear and perform the charges of the same benefice in hearing confessions, preaching or teaching the people." When, in 1365, Innocent VI. demanded that the arrears of the tribute promised by King John to the pope should be paid up, parliament abrogated the whole contract on the ground that John had no right to enter into it. A species of anti-clerical movement, which found an unworthy leader in John of Gaunt, developed at this time. The Good Parliament of 1376 declared that, in spite of the laws restricting papal pro- visions, the popes at Avignon received five times as much revenue from England as the English kings themselves. Secularization was mentioned in parliament. Wycliffe began his public career in 1366 by proving that England was not bound to pay tribute to the pope. Twelve years later he was, like Marsiglio, attacking the very foundations of the papacy itself, as lacking all scriptural sanction. He denounced the papal government as utterly degraded, and urged that the vast property of the Church, which he held to be the chief cause of its degradation, should be secularized and that the clergy should consist of " poor priests," supported only by tithes and alms. They should preach the gospel and encourage the people to seek the truth in the Scriptures themselves, of which a translation into English Was completed in 1382. During the later years of his life he attacked the doctrine of transubstantiation, and all the most popular institutions of the Church — indulgences, pilgrimages, invocation of the saints, relics, celibacy of the clergy, auricular confession, &c. His opinions were spread abroad by the hundreds of sermons and popular pamphlets written in English for the people (see Wycliffe). For some years after Wycliffe's death his followers, the Lollards, continued to carry on his work; but they roused the effective opposition of the conservative clergy, and were subjected to a persecution which put an end to their public agitation. They rapidly disappeared and, except in Bohemia, Wycliffe's teachings left no clearly traceable impressions. Yet the discussions he aroused, the attacks he made upon the institutions of the medieval Church, and especially the position he assigned to the Scriptures as the exclusive source of revealed truth, serve to make the develop- ment of Protestantism under Henry VIII. more explicable than it would otherwise be. Wycliffe's later attacks upon the papacy had been given point by the return of the popes to Rome in 1377 and the opening of the Great Schism which was to endure The q^^ for forty years. There had been many anti-popes in Schism the past, but never before had there been such pro- U377- longed and genuine doubt as to which of two fines ^' of popes was legitimate, since in this case each was supported by a college of cardinals, the one at Rome, the other at Avignon. Italy, except Naples, took the side of the Italian pope; France, of the Avignon pope; England, in its hostility to France, 8 REFORMATION, THE sided with Urban VI. in Rome, Scotland with Clement VII., his rival; Flanders followed England; Urban secured Germany, Hungary and the northern kingdoms; while Spain, after re- maining neutral for a time, went over to Clement. Western Christendom had now two papal courts^to support. The schism extended down to the bishoprics, and even to the monasteries and parishes, where partisans of the rival popes struggled to obtain possession of sees and benefices. The urgent necessity for healing the schism, the difficulty of uniting the colleges of cardinals, and the prolonged and futile negotiations carried on between the rival popes inevitably raised the whole question of the papal supremacy, and led to the search for a still higher ecclesiastical authority, which, when the normal system of choosing the head of the Church broke down, might re-establish that ecclesiastical unity to which all Europe as yet clung. The idea of the supreme power on earth of a general council of Christendom, deliberating in the name of the Holy Spirit, convoked, if necessary, independently of the popes, was de- fended by many, and advocated by the university of Paris. The futile council of Pisa in 1409, however, only served to increase to three the number of rival representatives of God on earth. The considerable pamphlet literature of the time substantiates the conclusion of an eminent modern Catholic historian, Ludwig Pastor, who declares that the crisis through which the church passed in this terrible period of the schism was the most serious in all its history. It was at just this period, when the rival popes were engaged in a life-and-death struggle, that heretical movements appeared in England, France, Italy, Germany, and especially in Bohemia, which threatened the whole ecclesiastical order. The council of Constance assembled in 1414 under auspices hopeful not only for the extinction of the schism but for the T . general reform of the Church. Its members showed The ° ...... . councils no patience with doctrinal innovations, even such of Con- moderate ones as John Huss represented. They s( *"g . turned him over to the secular arm for execution, although they did not thereby succeed in check- ing the growth of heresy in Bohemia (see Huss). The healing of the schism proved no very difficult matter; but the council hoped not only to restore unity and suppress heresy, but to re-establish general councils as a regular element in the legislation of the Church. The decree Sacrosancta (April 1415) proclaimed that a general council assembled in the Holy Spirit and representing the Catholic Church militant had its power immediately from Christ, and was supreme over every one in the Church, not excluding the pope, in all matters pertaining to the faith and reformation of the Church of God in head and members. The decree Frequens (October 141 7) provided for the regular convocation of councils in the future. As to ecclesiastical abuses the council could do very little, and finally satisfied itself with making out a list of those which the new pope was required to remedy in co-operation with the deputies chosen by the council. The list serves as an excellent summary of the evils of the papal monarchy as recognized by the unim- peachably orthodox. It included: the number, character and nationality of the cardinals, the abuse of the " reserva- tions " made by the apostolic see, the annates, the collation to benefices, expectative favours, cases to be brought before the papal Curia (including appeals), functions of the papal chancery and penitentiary, benefices in commendam, con- firmation of elections, income during vacancies, indulgences, tenths, for what reasons and how is a pope to be corrected or deposed. The pope and the representatives of the council made no serious effort to remedy the abuses suggested under these several captions; but the idea of the superiority of a council over the pope, and the right of those who felt aggrieved by papal decisions to appeal to a future council, remained a serious menace to the theory of papal absolutism. The decree Frequens was not wholly neglected; though the next council, at Siena, came to naught, the council at Basel, whose chief business was to put an end to the terrible religious war that had been raging between the Bohemians and Germans, was destined to cause Eugenius IV. much anxiety. It reaffirmed the decree Sacrosancta, and refused to recognize the validity of a bull Eugenius issued in December 143 1 dissolving it. Two years later political reverses forced the pope to sanction the existence of the council, which not only concluded a treaty with the Bohemian heretics but abolished the papal fees for appointments, confirmation and consecration— above all, the annates — and greatly reduced papal reservations; it issued indulgences, imposed tenths, and established rules for the government of the papal states. France, however, withdrew its support from the council, and in 1438, under purely national auspices, by the famous Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, ad- justed the relations of the Gallican Church to the papacy; and Eugenius soon found himself in a position to repudiate the council and summoned a new one to assemble in 1438 at Ferrara under his control to take up the important question of the pending union with the Greek Church. The higher clergy deserted the council of Basel, and left matters in the hands of the lower clergy, who chose an anti-pope; but the rump council gradually lost credit and its lingering members were finally dispersed. The various nations were left to make terms with a reviving papacy. England had already taken measures to check the papal claims. France in the Pragmatic Sanction reformulated the claim of the councils to be superior to the pope, as well as the decision of the council of Basel in regard to elections, annates and other dues, limitations on ecclesi- astical jurisdiction, and appeals to the pope. While the canonical elections were re-established, the prerogatives of the crown were greatly increased, as in England. In short, the national ecclesiastical independence of the French Church was established. The German diet of Regensburg (1439) ratified in the main the decrees of the council of Basel, which clearly gratified the electors, princes and prelates; and Germany for the first time joined the ranks of the countries which subjected the decrees of the highest ecclesiastical instance to the placet or approval of the civil authorities. But there was no strong power, as in England and France, to attend to the execution of the provisions. In 1448 Eugenius's successor, Nicholas V., concluded a con- cordat with the emperor Frederick III. as representative of the German nation. This confined itself to papal appointments and the annates. In practice it restored and'the the former range of papal reservations, and extended papacy in the papal right of appointment to all benefices (except thelsth the higher offices in cathedrals and collegiate churches) which fell vacant during the odd months. It also accorded him the right to confirm all newly elected prelates and to receive the annates. Nothing was said in the concordat of a great part of the chief subjects of complaint. This gave the princes an excuse for the theory that the decrees of Constance and Basel were still in force, limiting the papal prerogatives in all respects not noticed in the concordat. It was Germany which gave the restored papacy the greatest amount of anxiety during the generation following the dissolution of the council of Basel. In the " recesses " or formal statements issued at the con- clusion of the sessions of the diet one can follow the trend of opinion among the German princes, secular and ecclesiastical. The pope is constantly accused of violating the concordat, and constant demands are made for a general council, or at least a national one, which should undertake to remedy the abuses. The capture of Constantinople by the Turks afforded a new excuse for papal taxation. In 1453 a crusading bull was issued imposing a tenth on all benefices of the earth to equip an expedition against the infidel. The diet held at Frankfort in 1456 recalled the fact that the council of Constance had for- bidden the pope to impose tenths without the consent of the clergy in the region affected, and that it was clear that he proposed to " pull the German sheep's fleece over its ears." A German correspondent of Aeneas Sylvius assures him in 1457 that " thousands of tricks are devised by the Roman see which enables it to extract the money from our pockets very REFORMATION, THE neatly, as if we were mere barbarians. Our nation, once so famous, is a slave now, who must pay tribute, and has lain in the dust these many years bemoaning her fate." Aeneas Sylvius issued, immediately after his accession to the papacy as Pius II. the bull Execrabilis forbidding all appeals to a future council. This seemed to Germany to cut off its last hope. It found a spokesman in the vigorous Gregory of Heimburg, who accused the pope of issuing the bull so that he and his cardinals might conveniently pillage Germany unhampered by the threat of a council. " By forbidding appeals to a council the pope treats us like slaves, and wishes to take for his own pleasures all that we and our ancestors have accumulated by honest labour. He calls me a chatterer, although he himself is more talkative than a magpie." Heimburg's denunciations of the pope were widely circulated, and in spite of the major excom- munication he was taken into the service of the archbishop of Mainz and was his representative at the diet of Nuremberg in 1462. It is thus clear that motives which might ultimately lead to the withdrawal of a certain number of German princes from the papal ecclesiastical state were accumulat- ing and intensifying during the latter half of the 15th century. It is impossible to review here the complicated political history of the opening years of the 16th century. The Con- names of Charles VIII. and Louis XII. of France, of ditioas la Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, of Henry VII. and a uh" ny Henr y VIIL of England, of Maximilian the German opening ot ki n g> of Popes Alexander VI., Julius II. and Leo X., the 16m stand for better organized civil governments, with century. growing powerful despotic heads; for a perfectly worldly papacy absorbed in the interests of an Italian prin- cipality, engaged in constant political negotiations with the European powers which are beginning to regard Italy as their chief field of rivalry, and are using its little states as convenient counters in their game of diplomacy and war. It was in Ger- many, however, seemingly the weakest and least aggressive of the European states, that the first permanent and successful revolts against the papal monarchy occurred. Nothing came of the lists of German gravamina, or of the demands for a council, so long as the incompetent Frederick III. continued to reign. His successor, Maximilian, who was elected emperor in 1493, was mainly preoccupied with his wars and attempts to reform the constitution of the empire; but the diet gave some attention to ecclesiastical reform. For instance, in 1501 it took measures to prevent money raised by the granting of a papal indulgence from leaving the country. After the disruption of the league of Cambray, Maximilian, like Louis XII., was thrown into a violent anti-curial reaction, and in 1510 he sent to the well-known humanist, Joseph Wimpheling, a copy of the French Pragmatic Sanction, asking his advice and stating that he had determined to free Germany from the yoke of the Curia and prevent the great sums of money from going to Rome. Wimpheling in his reply rehearsed the old grievances and complained that the contributions made to the pope by the archbishops on receiving the pallium was a great burden on the people. He stated that that of the archbishop of Mainz had been raised from ten to twenty-five thousand gulden, and that there had been seven vacancies within a generation, and consequently the subjects of the elector had been forced to pay that amount seven times. But Wimpheling had only some timid suggestions to make, and, since Maximilian was once more on happy terms with the pope, political considerations served to cool completely his momentary ardour for ecclesiastical reform. In 15 14 the archbishopric of Mainz fell vacant again, and Albert of Brandenburg, already archbishop of Magdeburg and administrator of Halberstadt, longing to add it to his possessions, was elected. After some scandalous negotiations with Leo X. it was arranged that Albert should pay 14,000 ducats for the papal confirmation and 10,000 as a " composition " for permission to continue to hold, against the rules of the Church, his two former archbishoprics. Moreover, in order to permit him to pay the sums, he was to have half the proceeds in his provinces from an indulgence granted to forward the rebuilding of St Peter's. A Dominican monk, Johann Tetzel, was selected to proclaim the indulgence (together with certain supplementary graces) in the three provinces of the elector. This suggestion came from the curia, not the elector, whose representatives could not suppress the fear that the plan would arouse opposition and perhaps worse. Tetzel's preaching and the exaggerated claims that he was re- ported to be making for the indulgences attracted the attention of an Augustinian friar, Martin Luther, who had for some years been lecturing on theology at the university of Wittenberg. He found it impossible to reconcile Tetzel's views of indulgences with his own fundamental theory of salvation. He accordingly hastily drafted ninety-five propositions relating to indulgences, and posted an invitation to those who wished to attend a disputation in Wittenberg on the matter, under his presidency. He points out the equivocal character of the word poenitentia, which meant both "penance" and "penitence"; he declared that " true contrition seeks punishment, while the ampleness of pardons relaxes it and causes men to hate it." Christians ought to be taught that he who gives to a poor man or lends to the needy does better than if he bought pardons. He concludes with certain " keen questionings of the laity," as, Why does not the pope empty purgatory forthwith for charity's sake, instead of cautiously for money ? Why does he not, since he is rich as Croesus, build St Peter's with his own money instead of taking that of poor believers ? It was probably these closing reflections which led to the translation of the theses from Latin into German, and their surprising circulation. It must not be assumed that Luther's ninety-five theses produced any con- siderable direct results. They awakened the author himself to a consciousness that his doctrines were after all incompatible with some of the Church's teachings, and led him to consider the nature of the papal power which issued the indulgence. Two or three years elapsed before Luther began to be generally known and to exercise a perceptible influence upon affairs. In July 1518 a diet assembled in Augsburg to consider the new danger from the Turks, who were making rapid conquests under Sultan Selim I. The pope's representative, The diet ot Cardinal Cajetan, made it clear that the only safety Augsburg lay in the collection of a tenth from the clergy otisis. and a twentieth from laymen; but the diet appointed a committee to consider the matter and explain why they pro- posed to refuse the pope's demands. Protests urging the diet not to weaken came in from all sides. There was an especially bitter denunciation of the Curia by some unknown writer. He claims that " the pope bids his collectors go into the whole world, saying, ' He that believeth, and payeth the tenths, shall be saved.' But it is not necessary to stand in such fear of the thunder of Christ's vicar, but rather to fear Christ Himself, for it is the Florentine's business, not Christ's, that is at issue." The report of the committee of the diet was completed on the 27th of August 1518. It reviews all the abuses, declares that the German people are the victims of war, devastation and dearth, and that the common man is beginning to comment on the vast amount of wealth that is collected for expeditions against the Turk through indulgences or otherwise, and yet no expedition takes place. This is the first recognition in the official gravamina of the importance of the people. Shortly after the committee submitted its report the clergy of Liege presented a memorial which, as the ambassador from Frankfort observed, set forth in the best Latin all the various forms of rascality of which the curtizanen (i.e. curiales, officials of the curia) were guilty. From this time on three new streams begin to reinforce the rather feeble current of official efforts for reform. The common man, to whom the diet of Augsburg alludes, had long been raising his voice against the "parsons" (Pfaffen); the men of letters, Brand, Erasmus, Reuchlin, and above all Ulrich von Hutten, contributed, each in their way, to discredit the Roman Curia; and lastly, a new type of theology, repre- sented chiefly by Martin Luther, threatened to sweep away the very foundations of the papal monarchy. IO REFORMATION, THE The growing discontent of the poor people, whether in country or town, is clearly traceable in Germany during the 15th century, . and revolutionary agitation was chronic in southern of the Germany at least during the first two decades of the masses 1 6th. The clergy were satirized and denounced in 10 the popular pamphlets and songs. The tithe was an Germany, oppressive form of taxation, as were the various fees demanded for the performance of the sacraments. The so-called " Reformation of Sigismund," drawn up in 1438, had demanded that the celibacy of the clergy should be abandoned and their excessive wealth reduced. " It is a shame which cries to heaven, this oppression by tithes, dues, penalties, excommunication, and tolls of the peasant, on whose labour all men depend for their existence." In 1476 a poor young shepherd drew thousands to Nicklashausen to hear him denounce the emperor as a rascal and the pope as a worthless fellow, and urge the division of the Church's property among the members of the community. The "parsons" must be killed, and the lords reduced to earn their bread by daily labour. An apoca- lyptic pamphlet of 1508 shows on its cover the Church upside down, with the peasant performing the services, while the priest guides the plough outside and a monk drives the horses. Doubtless the free peasants of Switzerland contributed to stimulate disorder and discontent, especially in southern Germany. The conspiracies were repeatedly betrayed and the guilty parties terribly punished. That discovered in 1517 made a deep impression on the authorities by reason of its vast extent, and doubtless led the diet of Augsburg to allude to the danger which lay in the refusal of the common man to pay the ecclesiastical taxes. " It was into this mass of seething discontent that the spark of religious protest fell — the one thing needed to fire the train and kindle the social conflagration. This was the society to which Luther spoke, and its discontent was the sounding board which made his words reverberate." x On turning from the attitude of the peasants and poorer townspeople to that of the scholars, we find in their writings Attitude a good deal of harsh criticism of the scholastic theology, ot the satirical allusions to the friars, and, in Germany, sharp human- denunciations of the practices of the Curia. But there are many reasons for believing that the older estimate of the influence of the so-called Renaissance, or " new learning," in promoting the Protestant revolt was an exaggerated one. The class of humanists which had grown up in Italy during the 15th century, and whose influence had been spreading into Germany, France and England during the generation immedi- ately preceding the opening of the Protestant revolt, repre- sented every phase of religious feeling from mystic piety to cynical indifference, but there were very few anti-clericals among them. The revival of Greek from the time of Chryso- loras onward, instead of begetting a Hellenistic spirit, trans- ported the more serious-minded to the nebulous shores of Neo- Platonism, while the less devout became absorbed in scholarly or literary ambitions, translations, elegantly phrased letters, clever epigrams or indiscriminate invective. It is true that Lorenzo Valla (d. 1457) showed the Donation of Constantine to be a forgery, denied that Dionysius the Areopagite wrote the works ascribed to him, and refuted the commonly accepted notion that each of the apostles had contributed a sentence to the Apostles' Creed. But such attacks were rare and isolated and were not intended to effect a breach in the solid ramparts of the medieval Church, but rather to exhibit the ingenuity of the critic. In the libraries collected under humanistic influences the patristic writers, both Latin and Greek, and the scholastic doctors are conspicuous. Then most of the humanists were clerics, and in Italy they enjoyed the patronage of the popes. They not unnaturally showed a tolerant spirit on the whole toward existing institutions, including the ecclesiastical abuses, and, in general, cared little how long the vulgar herd was left in the superstitious darkness which befitted their estate, so long as the superior man was permitted to hold discreetly any views he pleased. Of this attitude Mutian (1471-1526), 'Lindsay. the German humanist who perhaps approached most nearly the Italian type, furnishes a good illustration. He believed that Christianity had existed from all eternity, and that the Greeks and Romans, sharing in God's truth, would share also in the celestial joys. Forms and ceremonies should only be judged as they promoted the great object of life, a clean heart and a right spirit, love to God and one's neighbour. He defined faith as commonly understood to mean " not the conformity of what we say with fact, but an opinion upon divine things founded upon credulity which seeks after profit." " With the cross, " he declares, " we put our foes to flight, we extort money, we consecrate God, we shake hell, we work miracles." These reflections were, however, for his intimate friends, and like him, his much greater contemporary, Erasmus, abhorred anything suggesting open revolt or revolution. The Erasmus extraordinary popularity of Erasmus is a sufficient (Rev- indication that his attitude of mind was viewed with lS36 )- sympathy by the learned, whether in France, England, Germany, Spain or Italy. He was a firm believer in the efficacy of culture. He maintained that old prejudices would disappear with the progress of knowledge, and that superstition and mechanical devices of salvation would be insensibly abandoned. The laity should read their New Testament, and would in this way come to feel the true significance of Christ's life and teachings, which, rather than the Church, formed the centre of Erasmus's religion. The dissidence of dissent, however, filled him with uneasiness, and he abhorred Luther's denial of free will and his exaggerated notion of man's utter depravity; in short, he did nothing whatever to promote the Protestant revolt, except so far as his frank denuncia- tion and his witty arraignment of clerical and monastic weaknesses and soulless ceremonial, especially in his Praise of Folly and Col- loquies, contributed to bring the faults of the Church into strong relief, and in so far as his edition of the New Testament furnished a simple escape from innumerable theological complications. A peculiar literary feud in Germany served, about 1515, to throw into sharp contrast the humanistic party, which had been gradually developing during the previous fifty years, and the conservative, monkish, scholastic group, who found their leader among the Dominicans of the university of Cologne. Johann Reuchlin, a well-known scholar, who had been charged by the Dominicans with heresy, not only received the support of the newer type of scholars, who wrote him encouraging letters which he published under the title Epistolae clarorum virorum, but this collection suggested to Crotus Rubianus and Ulrich von Hutten one of the most successful satires of the ages, the Epistolae obscurorum virorum. As Creighton well said, the chief importance of the " Letters of Obscure Men " lay in its success in popularizing the conception of a stupid party which was opposed to the party of progress. At the same time that the Neo-Platonists, like Ficino and Pico de la Mirandola, and the pantheists, whose God was little more than a reverential conception of the universe at large, and the purely worldly humanists, like Celtes and Bebel, were widely diverging each by his own particular path from the ecclesiastical Weltanschauung of the middle ages, Ulrich von Hutten was busy attacking the Curia in his witty Dialogues, in the name of German patriotism. He, at least, among the well-known scholars eagerly espoused Luther's cause, as he understood it. A few of the humanists became Protestants — Melanchthon, Bucer, Oecolampadius and others — but the great majority of them, even if attracted for the moment by Luther's denunciation of scholasticism, speedily repudiated the movement. In Socinianism (see below) we have perhaps the only instance of humanistic antecedents leading to the formation of a religious sect. A new type of theology made its appearance at the opening of the 1 6th century, in sharp contrast with the Aristotelian scholasticism of the Thomists and Scotists. This was Th new due to the renewed enthusiasm for, and appreciation of, theology St Paul with which Erasmus sympathized, and which and found an able exponent in England in John Colet and j" *?~ in France in Lefevre of Staples (Faber Stapulensis) . Luther was reaching somewhat similar views at the same time, REFORMATION, THE ii although in a strikingly different manner and with far more momentous results for the western world. Martin Luther was beyond doubt the most important single figure in the Protestant revolt. His influence was indeed by no means so decisive and so pervasive as has commonly been supposed, and his attacks on the evils in the Church were no bolder or more comprehensive than those of Marsiglio and Wycliffe, or of several among his con- temporaries who owed nothing to his example. Had the German princes not found it to their interests to enforce his principles, he might never have been more than the leader of an obscure mystic sect. He was, moreover, no statesman. He was recklessly impetuous in his temperament, coarse and grossly superstitious according to modern standards. Yet in spite of all these allowances he remains one of the great heroes of all history. Few come in contact with his writings without feeling his deep spiritual nature and an absolute genuineness and marvellous individuality which seem never to sink into mere routine or affectation. In his more important works almost every sentence is alive with that autochthonic quality which makes it unmistakably his. His fundamental religious con- ception was his own hard-found answer to his own agonized question as to the nature and assurance of salvation. Even if others before him had reached the conviction that the Vulgate's word justitia in Romans i. 16-17 meant " righteousness " rather than " justice " in a juridical sense, Luther exhibited supreme religious genius in his interpretation of " God's righteousness " (Gerechtigkeit) as over against the " good works " of man, and in the overwhelming importance he attached to the promise that the just shall live by faith. It was his anxiety to remove everything that obscured this central idea which led him to revolt against the ancient Church, and this conception of faith served, when he became leader of the German Protestants, as a touchstone to test the expediency of every innovation. But only gradually did he come to realize that his source of spiritual consolation might undermine altogether the artfully constructed fabric of the medieval Church. As late as 1516 he declared that the life of a monk was never a more enviable one than at that day. He had, however, already begun to look sourly upon Aristotle and the current scholastic theology, which he believed hid the simple truth of the gospel and the desperate state of mankind, who were taught a vain reliance upon outward works and ceremonies, when the only safety lay in throwing oneself on God's mercy. He was suddenly forced to take up the consideration of some of the most fundamental points in the orthodox theology by the appearance of Tetzel in 1517. In his hastily drafted Ninety-five Theses he sought to limit the potency of indulgences, and so indirectly raised the question as to the power of the pope. He was astonished to observe the wide circulation of the theses both in the Latin and German versions. They soon reached Rome, and a Dominican monk, Prierius, wrote a reply in defence of the papal power, in an insolent tone which first served to rouse Luther's suspicion of the theology of the papal Curia. He was summoned to Rome, but, out of consideration for his patron, the important elector of Saxony, he was permitted to appear before the papal legate during the diet of Augsburg in 1518. He boldly contradicted the legate's theological statements, refused to revoke anything and appealed to a future council. On returning to Wittenberg, he turned to the canon law, and was shocked to find it so completely at variance with his notions of Christianity. He reached the conclusion that the papacy was but four hundred years old. Yet, although of human origin, it was established by common consent and with God's sanction, so that no one might withdraw his obedience without offence. It was not, however, until 1520 that Luther became in a sense the leader of the German people by issuing his three great pamphlets, all of which were published in German as well as in Latin — his Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, his Babylonish Captivity of the Church, and his Freedom of the Christian. In the first he urged that, since the Church had failed to reform itself, the secular government should come to the rescue. " The Romanists have with great dexterity built themselves about with three walls, which have hitherto protected them against reform; and thereby is Christianity fearfully fallen. In the first place, when the temporal power has pressed them hard, they have affirmed and maintained that the temporal power has no jurisdiction over them — that, on the contrary, the spiritual is above the temporal. Secondly, when it was proposed to admonish them from the Holy Scriptures they said, ' It beseems no one but the pope to interpret the Scriptures,' and, thirdly, when they were threatened with a council, they invented the idea that no one but the pope can call a council. Thus they have secretly stolen our three rods that they may go unpunished, and have entrenched themselves safely behind these three walls in order to carry on all the rascality and wickedness that we now see." He declares that the distinction between the " spiritual estate," composed of pope, bishops, priests and monks, as over against the " temporal estate " composed of princes, lords, artisans and peasants, is a very fine hypocritical invention of which no one should be afraid. " A cobbler, a smith, a peasant, every man has his own calling and duty, just like the conse- crated priests and bishops, and every one in his calling or office must help and serve the rest, so that all may work together for the common good." After overthrowing the other two walls, Luther invites the attention of the German rulers to the old theme of the pomp of the pope and cardinals, for which the Germans must pay. " What the Romanists really mean to do, the 'drunken Germans' are not to see until they have lost everything. ... If we rightly hang thieves and behead robbers, why do we leave the greed of Rome unpunished ? for Rome is the greatest thief and robber that has ever appeared on earth, or ever will; and all in the holy names of the Church and St Peter." After proving that the secular rulers were free and in duty bound to correct the evils of the Church, Luther sketches a plan for preventing money from going to Italy, for reducing the number of idle, begging monks, harmful pilgrimages and excessive holidays. Luxury and drinking were to be sup- pressed, the universities, especially the divinity schools, re- organized, &c. Apart from fundamental rejection of the papal supremacy, there was little novel in Luther's appeal. It had all been said before in the various protests of which we have spoken, and very recently by Ulrich von Hutten in his Dialogues, but no one had put the case so strongly, or so clearly, before. In addressing the German nobility Luther had refrained from taking up theological or religious doctrines; but in Sep- tember 1520 he attacked the whole sacramental system of the medieval Church in his Babylonish Captivity of the Church. Many reformers, like Glapion, the Franciscan confessor of Charles V., who had read the Address with equanimity if not approval, were shocked by Luther's audacity in rejecting the prevailing fundamental religious conceptions. Luther says: " I must begin by denying that there are seven sacraments, and must lay down for the time being that there are only three — baptism, penance and the bread, and that by the court of Rome all these have been brought into miserable bondage, and the Church despoiled of her liberty." It is, however, in the Freedom of the Christian that the essence of Luther's religion is to be found. Man cannot save himself, but is saved then and there so soon as he believes God's promises, and to doubt these is the supreme crime. So salvation was to him not a painful progress toward a goal to be reached by the sacraments and by right conduct, but a state in which man found himself so soon as he despaired absolutely of his own efforts, and threw himself on God's assurances. Man's utter incapacity to do anything to please God, and his utter personal dependence on God's grace seemed to render the whole system of the Church well-nigh gratuitous even if it were purged of all the " sophistry " which to Luther seemed to bury out of sight all that was essential in religion. Luther's gospel was one of love and confidence, not of fear and trembling, and came as an overwhelming revelation to those who understood and accepted it. The old question of Church reform inevitably reappeared 12 REFORMATION, THE when the young emperor Charles V. opened his first imperial diet at Worms early in 1521, and a committee of German princes drafted a list of gravamina, longer and bitterer than The edict any preceding one. While the resolute papal nuncio of Worms, Aleander was indefatigable in his efforts to induce the 1521. fa et t0 con( j emn Luther's teachings, his curious and instructive despatches to the Roman Curia complain constantly of the ill-treatment and insults he encountered, of the readiness of the printers to issue innumerable copies of Luther's pamphlets and of their reluctance to print anything in the pope's favour. Charles apparently made up his mind immediately and once for all. He approved the gravamina, for he believed a thorough reform of the Church essential. This reform he thought should be carried out by a council, even against the pope's will; and he was destined to engage in many fruitless negotiations to this end before the council of Trent at last assembled a score of years later. But he had no patience with a single monk who, led astray by his private judgment, set himself against the faith held by all Christians for a thousand years. " What my fore- fathers established at the council of Constance and other councils it is my privilege to maintain," he exclaims. Although, to Aleander's chagrin, the emperor consented to summon Luther to Worms, where he received a species of ovation, Charles readily approved the edict drafted by the papal nuncio, in which Luther is accused of having " brought together all previous heresies in one stinking mass," rejecting all law, teaching a life wholly brutish, and urging the lay people to bathe their hands in the blood of priests. He and his adherents were outlawed; no one was to print, sell or read any of his writings, " since they are foul, harmful, suspected, and come from a notorious and stiff-necked heretic." The edict of Worms was entirely in harmony with the ljiws of Western Christendom, and there were few among the governing classes in Germany at that time who really understood or approved Luther's fundamental ideas; nevertheless — if we except the elector of Brandenburg, George of Saxony, the dukes of Bavaria, and Charles V.'s brother Ferdinand — the princes, including the ecclesiastical rulers and the towns, commonly neglected to publish the edict, much less to enforce it. They were glad to leave Luther unmolested in order to spite the " Curtizanen," as the adherents of the papal Curia were called. The emperor was forced to leave Germany immediately after the diet had dissolved, and was prevented by a succession of wars from returning for nearly ten years. The governing council, which had been organized to represent him in Germany, fell rapidly into disrepute, and exercised no restraining influence on those princes who might desire to act on Luther's theory that the civil government was supreme in matters of Church reform. The records of printing indicate that religious, social and economic betterment was the subject of an ever-increasing Wide number of pamphlets. The range of opinion was diyerg- wide. Men like Thomas Murner, for instance, heartily ence of denounced " the great Lutheran fool," but at the same opinion la t j me D ;tterly attacked monks and priests, and popular- ized the conception of the simple man with the hoe (Karsthans). Hans Sachs, on the other hand, sang the praises of the " Wittenberg Nightingale," and a considerable number of prominent men of letters accepted Luther as their guide — • Zell and Bucer, in Strassburg, Eberlin in Ulm, Oecolampadius in Augsburg, Osiander and others in Nuremberg, Pellicanus in Nordlingen. Moreover, there gradually developed a group of radicals who were convinced that Luther had not the courage of his convictions. They proposed to abolish the " idolatry " of the Mass and all other outward signs of what they deemed the old superstitions. Luther's colleague at Wittenberg, Carlstadt (q.v.), began denouncing the monastic life, the celi- bacy of the clergy, the veneration of images; and before the end of 1521 we find the first characteristic outward symptoms of Protestantism. Luther had meanwhile been concealed by his friends in the Wartburg, near Eisenach, where he busied himself with a new German translation of the New Testament, to be followed in a few years by the Old Testament. The Bible had long been available in the language of the people, and there are indications that the numerous early editions of the Scriptures were widely read. Luther, however, possessed resources of style which served to render his version far superior to the older one, and to give it an important place in the develop- ment of German literature, as well as in the history of the Protestant churches. During his absence two priests from parishes near Wittenberg married; while several monks, throwing aside their cowls, left their cloisters. Melanchthon, who was for a moment carried away by the movement, partook, with several of his students, of the communion under both kinds, and on Christmas Eve a crowd invaded the church of All Saints, broke the lamps, threatened the priests and made sport of the venerable ritual. Next day, Carlstadt, who had laid aside his clerical robes, dispensed the Lord's Supper in the " evangelical fashion." At this time three prophets arrived from Zwickau, eager to hasten the movement of emancipation. They were weavers who had been associated with Thomas Miinzer, and like him looked forward to a very radical reform of society. They rejected infant baptism, and were among the forerunners of the Anabaptists. In January 1522, Carlstadt induced the authorities of Witten- berg to publish the first evangelical church ordinance. The revenues from ecclesiastical foundations, as well as those from the industrial gilds, were to be placed in a ^staal" common chest, to be in charge of the townsmen and the Revolt magistrates. The priests were to receive fixed salaries; begins in begging, even by monks and poor students, was pro- ffJi ony ' hibited; the poor, including the monks, were to be supported from the common chest. The service of the Mass was modified, and the laity were to receive the elements in both kinds. Reminders of the old religious usages were to be done away with, and fast days were to be no longer observed. These measures, and the excitement which followed the arrival of the radicals from Zwickau, led Luther to return to Wittenberg in March 1522, where he preached a series of sermons attacking the impatience of the radical party, and setting forth clearly his own views of what the progress of the Reformation should be. " The Word created heaven and earth and all things; the same Word will also create now, and not we poor sinners. Faith must be unconstrained and must be accepted without compulsion. To marry, to do away with images, to become monks and nuns, or for monks and nuns to leave their convent, to eat meat on Friday or not to eat it, and other like things — all these are open questions, and should not be forbidden by any man .... What we want is the heart, and to win that we must preach the gospel. Then the Word will drop into one heart to-day and to-morrow into another, and so will work that each will forsake the Mass." Luther succeeded in quieting the people both in Wittenberg and the neighbour- ing towns, and in preventing the excesses which had threatened to discredit the whole movement. In January 1522, Leo X. had been succeeded by a new pope, Adrian VI., a devout Dominican theologian, bent on reforming the Church, in which, as he injudiciously Adrian VI. confessed through his legate to the diet at Nuremberg, 1S22- the Roman Curia had perhaps been the chief source lS23 - of " that corruption which had spread from the head to the members." The Lutheran heresy he held to be God's terrible judgment on the sins of the clergy. The diet refused to accede to the pope's demand" that the edict of Worms should be enforced, and recommended that a Christian council should be summoned in January, to include not only ecclesiastics but laymen, who should be permitted freely to express their opinions. While the diet approved the list of abuses drawn up at Worms, it ordered that Luther's books should no longer be published, and that Luther himself should hold his peace, while learned men were to admonish the erring preachers. The decisions of this diet are noteworthy, since they probably give a very fair idea of the prevailing opinion of the ruling classes in Germany. They refused to regard Luther as in any way their leader, or even to recognize him as a discreet REFORMATION, THE *3 and south la 1524. person. On the other hand, they did not wish to take the risk of radical measures against the new doctrines, and were glad of an excuse for refusing the demands of the pope. Adrian soon died, worn out by his futile attempts to correct the abuses at home, and was followed by Clement VII., a Medici, less gifted but not less worldly in his instincts than LeoX. Clement sent one of his ablest Italian diplomatists, Cam- peggio, to negotiate with the diet which met at Spires in 1524. He induced the diet to promise to execute the edict of B ****" Worms as far as that should be possible; but it was there- generally understood that it .was impossible. The Ugious diet renewed the demand for a general council to meet cleft be- j n a German town to settle the affairs of the Church German m Germany, and even proposed the convocation of states of a national council at Spires in November, to effect the north a temporary adjustment. In this precarious situation Campeggio, realizing the hopelessness of his attempt to induce all the members of the diet to co-operate with him in re-establishing the pope's control, called together at Regensburg a certain number of rulers whom he believed to be rather more favourably disposed toward the pope than their fellows. These included Ferdinand, duke of Austria, the two dukes of Bavaria, the archbishops of Salzburg and Trent, the bishops of Bamberg, Spires, Strassburg and others. He induced these to unite in opposing the Lutheran . heresy on condition that the pope would issue a decree providing for some of the most needed reforms. There was to be no more financial oppres- sion on the part of the clergy, and no unseemly payments for performing the church services. Abuses arising from the granting of indulgences were to be remedied, and the excessive number of church holidays, which seriously interfered with the industrial welfare of Germany, was to be reduced. The states in the Catholic League were permitted to retain for their own uses about one-fifth of the ecclesiastical revenue; the clergy was to be subjected to careful discipline; and only authorized preachers were to be tolerated, who based their teachings on the works of the four Latin Church fathers. Thus the agree- ment of Regensburg is of great moment in the development of the Protestant revolt in Germany. For Austria, Bavaria and the great ecclesiastical states in the south definitely sided with the pope against Luther's heresies, and to this day they still remain Roman Catholic. In the north, on the other hand, it became more and more apparent that the princes were drift- ing away from the Roman Catholic Church. Moreover, it should be noted that Campeggio's diplomacy was really the beginning of an effective betterment of the old Church, such as had been discussed for two or three centuries. He met the long-standing and general demand for reform without a revolu- tion in doctrines or institutions. A new edition of the German Bible was issued with the view of meeting the needs of Catholics, a new religious literature grew up designed to sub- stantiate the beliefs sanctioned by the Roman Church and to carry out the movement begun long before toward spiritual- izing its institutions and rites. In 1525 the conservative party, which had from the first feared that Luther's teaching would result in sedition, received The a new and terrible proof, as it seemed to them, of the Peasant noxious influence of the evangelical preachers. The Revolt, peasant movements alluded to above, which had caused ls2S ' so much anxiety at the diet of Augsburg in 1518, cul- minated in the fearful Peasant Revolt in which the common man, both in country and town, rose in the name of " God's justice " to avenge long-standing wrongs and establish his rights. Luther was by no means directly responsible for the civil war which followed, but he had certainly contributed to stir up the ancient discontent. He had asserted that, owing to the habit of foreclosing small mortgages, " any one with a hundred gulden could gobble up a peasant a year." The German feudal lords he pronounced hangmen, who knew only how to swindle the poor man — " such fellows were formerly called scoundrels, but now we must call them ' Christians and revered princes.'" Yet in spite of this harsh talk about princes, Luther relied upon them to forward the reforms in which he was interested, and he justly claimed that he had greatly increased their powers by reducing the authority of the pope and subjecting the clergy in all things to the civil government. The best known statement of the peasants' grievances is to be found in the famous " Twelve Articles " drawn up in 1524. They certainly showed the unmistakable influence of the evangelical teaching. The peasants demanded that the gospel should be taught them as a guide in life, and that each community should be permitted to choose its pastor and depose him if he conducted himself improperly. " The pastor thus chosen should teach us the gospel pure and simple, without any addition, doctrine or ordinance of man." The old tithe on grain shall continue to be paid, since that is established by the Old Testament. It will serve to support the pastor, and what is left over shall be given to the poor. Serfdom is against God's word, "since Christ has delivered and redeemed us all without exception, by the shedding of. his precious blood, the lowly as well as the great." Protests follow against hunting and fishing rights, restrictions on wood-cutting, and ex- cessive demands made on peasants. " In the twelfth place," the declaration characteristically concluded, " it is our con- clusion and final resolution that if one or more of the articles here set forth should not be in agreement with the word of God, as we think they are, such articles will we willingly retract if it be proved by a clear explanation of Scripture really to be against the word of God." More radical demands came from the working classes in the towns. The articles of Heilbronn demanded that the property of the Church should be con- fiscated and used for the community; clergy and nobility alike were to be deprived of all their privileges, so that they could no longer oppress the poor man. The more violent leaders, like Miinzer, renewed the old cry that the parsons must be slain. Hundreds of castles and monasteries were destroyed by the frantic peasantry, and some of the nobles were murdered with shocking cruelty. Luther, who believed that the peasants were trying to cloak their dreadful sins with excuses from the gospel, exhorted the government to put down the in- surrection. " Have no pity on the poor folk; stab, smite, throttle, who can!" To him the peasants' attempt to abolish serfdom was wholly unchristian, since it was a divinely sanctioned institution, and if they succeeded they would " make God a liar." The German rulers took Luther's advice with terrible literalness, and avenged themselves upon the peasants, whose lot was apparently worse afterwards than before. The terror inspired by the Peasant War led to a new alliance, the League of Dessau, formed by some of the leading rulers of central and northern Germany, to stamp out the . " accursed Lutheran sect." This included Luther's old anceot enemy, Duke George of Saxony, the electors of Bran- an evan- denburg and Mainz, and two princes of Brunswick. geHcal The rumour that the emperor was planning to return y ' to Germany in order to root out the growing heresy, led a few princes who had openly favoured Luther to unite also. Among these the chief were the new elector of Saxony, John (who, unlike his brother, Frederick the Wise, had openly espoused the new doctrines), and the energetic Philip, landgrave of Hesse. The emperor did not return, and since there was no one to settle the religious question in Germany, the diet of Spires (1526) determined that, pending the meeting of the proposed general council, each prince, and each knight and town owing immediate allegiance to the emperor, should decide individually what particular form of religion should prevail within the limits of their territories. Each prince was " so to live, reign and conduct himself as he would be willing to answer before God and His Imperial Majesty." While the evangelical party still hoped that some form of religion might be agreed upon which would prevent the disruption of the Church, the conservatives were confident that the heretics H REFORMATION, THE would soon be suppressed, as they had so often been in the past. The situation tended to become more, rather than less, complicated, and there was every variety of reformer and every degree of conservatism, for there were no standards for those who had rejected the papal supremacy, and even those who continued to accept it differed widely. For example, George of Saxony viewed Aleander, the pope's nuncio, with almost as much suspicion as he did Luther himself. The religious ideas in South Germany were affected by the de- velopment of a reform party in Switzerland, under the influence _ of Zwingli, who claimed that at Einsiedeln, near the and the lake of Zurich, he had begun to preach the gospel of Reforms- Christ in the year isr6 " before any one in my locality tlonia nac j so mucn as heard the name of Luther." Three land, years later he became preacherin the cathedral of Zurich. Here he began to denounce the abuses in the Church, as well as the traffic in mercenaries which had so long been a blot upon his country's honour. From the first he combined religious and political reform. In 1523 he prepared a complete statement of his beliefs, in the form of sixty-seven theses. He maintained that Christ was the only high priest and that the gospel did not gain its sanction from the authority of the Church. He denied the existence of purgatory, and rejected those practices of the Church which Luther had already set aside. Since no one presented himself to refute him, the town council ratified his conclusions, so that the city of Zurich prac- tically withdrew from the Roman Catholic Church. Next year the Mass, processions and the images of saints were abolished. The shrines were opened and the relics burned. Some other towns, including Bern, followed Zurich's example, but the Forest cantons refused to accept the innovations. In 1525 a religious and political league was arranged between Zurich and Constance, which in the following year was joined by St Gallen, Biel, Miihlhausen, Basel and Strassburg. Philip of Hesse was attracted by Zwingli's energy, and was eager that the northern reformers should be brought into closer relations with the south. But the league arranged by Zwingli was directed against the house of Habsburg, and Luther did not _ . u deem it right to oppose a prince by force of arms. and Moreover, he did not believe that Zwingli, who con- Luther. ceived the eucharist to be merely symbolical in its r/ie character, " held the whole truth of God." Never- ' Articles! theless, Philip of Hesse finally arranged a religious conference in the castle of Marburg (1529) where Zwingli and Luther met. They were able to agree on fourteen out of the fifteen " Marburg Articles," which stated the chief points in the Christian faith as they were accepted by both. A fundamental difference as to the doctrine of the eucharist, however, stood in the way of the real union. The diet of Spires (1529) had received a letter from the emperor directing it to look to the enforcement of the edict of The diet Worms against the heretics. No one was to preach of Spires, against the Mass, and no one was to be prevented from 1529, and attending it freely. This meant that the evangelical t t he t "£f'„ princes would be forced to restore the most character- istic Catholic rite. As they formed only a minority in the diet, they could only draw up a protest, which was signed by John Frederick of Saxony, Philip of Hesse, and fourteen of the three towns, including Strassburg, Nuremberg and Ulm. In this they claimed that the majority had no right to abrogate the stipulations of the former diet of Spires, which permitted each prince to determine religious matters provisionally for him- self, for all had unanimously pledged themselves to observe that agreement. They therefore appealed to the emperor and to a future council against the tyranny of the majority. Those who signed this appeal were called Protestants, a name which came to be generally applied to those who rejected the supremacy of the pope, the Roman Catholic conceptions of the clergy and of the Mass, and discarded sundry practices of the older Church, without, however, repudiating the Catholic creeds. During the period which had elapsed since the diet of Worms, the emperor had resided in Spain, busy with a series of wars, waged mainly with the king of France. 1 In 1530 the Tnedlet emperor found himself in a position to visit Germany and con- once more, and summoned the diet to meet at Augsburg, fession ot with the hope of settling the religious differences and Augsburg, bringing about harmonious action against the Turk. The Protestants were requested to submit a statement of their opinions, and on June 25th the " Augsburg Confession " was read to the diet. This was signed by the elector of Saxony and his son and successor, John Frederick, by George, margrave of Brandenburg, two dukes of Liineburg, Philip of Hesse and Wolfgang of Anhalt, and by the representatives of Nuremberg and Reutlingen. The confession was drafted by Melanchthon, who sought consistently to minimize the breach which separated the Lutherans from the old Church. In the first part of the confession the Protestants seek to prove that there is nothing in their doctrines at variance with those of the universal Church " or even of the Roman Church so far as that appears in the writings of the Fathers." They made it clear that they still held a great part of the beliefs of the medieval Church, especially as represented in Augustine's writings, and repudiated the radical notions of the Anabaptists and of Zwingli. In the second part, those practices of the Church are enumerated which the evangelical party rejected; the celibacy of the clergy, the Mass, as previously understood, auricular confession, and monastic vows, the objections to which are stated with much vigour. " Christian perfection is this: to fear God sincerely, to trust assuredly that we have, for Christ's sake, a gracious and merciful God; to ask and look with confidence for help from him in all our affairs, accordingly to our calling, and outwardly to do good works diligently, and to attend to our vocation. In these things doth true perfection and a true worship of God consist. It doth not consist in going about begging, or in wearing a black or a grey cowl." The Protestant princes declared that they had no intention of depriving the bishops of their jurisdiction, but this one thing only is requested of them, " that they would suffer the gospel to be purely taught, and would relax a few observances in which we cannot adhere without sin." The confession was turned over to a committee of conserva- tive theologians, including Eck, Faber and Cochlaeus. Their refutation of the Protestant positions seemed needlessly Course ot sharp to the emperor, and five drafts were made of it. events in Charles finally reluctantly accepted it, although he Germany, would gladly have had it milder,, for it made reconcilia- }£j!~ tion hopeless. The majority of the diet approved a recess, allowing the Protestants a brief period of immunity until the 15th of April 1531, after which they were to be put down by force. Meanwhile, they were to make no further innovations, they were not to molest the conservatives, and were to aid the emperor in suppressing the doctrines of Zwingli and of the Anabaptists. The Lutheran princes protested, together with fourteen cities, and left the diet. The diet thereupon decided that the edict of Worms should at last be enforced. All Church property was to be restored, and, perhaps most important of all, the jurisdiction of the Imperial court (Reichskammergericht), which was naturally Catholic in its sympathies, was extended to appeals involving the seizure of ecclesiastical benefices, contempt of episcopal decisions and other matters deeply affect- ing the Protestants. In November the Protestants formed the Schmalkaldic League, which, after the death of Zwingli, in 1531, was joined by a number of the South German towns. The period of immunity assigned to the Protestants passed by; but they were left unmolested, for the emperor was involved in many difficulties, and the Turks were threatening Vienna. Consequently, at the diet of Nuremberg (1532) a recess was drafted indefinitely extending the religious truce and quashing such cases in the Reichskammergericht as involved Protestant 1 In 1527 the pope's capital was sacked by Charles's army. This was, of course, but an incident in the purely political relations of the European powers with the pope, and really has no bearing upon the progress of the Protestant revolt. REFORMATION, THE i5 innovations. The conservatives refused to ratify the recess, which was not published, but the Protestant states declared that they would accept the emperor's word of honour, and furnished him with troops for repelling the Mahommedans. The fact that the conservative princes, especially the dukes of Bavaria, were opposed to any strengthening of the emperor's power, and were in some cases hereditary enemies of the house o£ Habsburg, served to protect the Protestant princes. In 1534 the Schmalkaldic League succeeded in restoring the banished duke of Wurttemberg, who declared himself in favour of the Lutheran reformation, and thus added another to the list of German Protestant states. In 1 539 George of Saxony died, and was succeeded by his brother Henry, who also accepted the new faith, and in the same year the new elector of Brandenburg became a Protestant. Indeed, there was reason to believe at this time that the archbishops of Mainz, Trier and Cologne, as well as some other bishops, were planning the secularization of their principalities. To the north, Lutheran influence had spread into Denmark; Sweden and Norway were also brought within its sphere. Denmark, Christian II. of Denmark, a nephew of the elector of Norway Saxony, came to the throne in 1513, bent on bringing Sweden Sweden and Norway, over which he nominally ruled in become accordance with the terms of the Union of Kalmar Protest- (1397), completely under his control. In order to do *"** this it was necessary to reduce the power of the nobility and clergy, privileged classes exempt from taxation and rivals of the royal power. Denmark had suffered from all the abuses of papal provisions, and the nuncio of Leo X. had been forced in 1518 to flee from the king's wrath. Christian II. set up a supreme court for ecclesiastical matters, and seemed about to adopt a policy similar to that later pursued by Henry VIII. of England, when his work was broken off by a revolt which compelled him to leave the country. Lutheranism continued to make rapid progress, and Christian's successor permitted the clergy to marry, appropriated the annates and protected the Lutherans. Finally Christian III., an ardent Lutheran, ascended the throne in 1536; with the sanction of the diet he severed, in 1537, all connexion with the pope, introducing the Lutheran system of Church government and accepting the Augsburg Confession. 1 Norway was included in the changes, but Sweden had won its independence of Denmark, under Gustavus Vasa, who, in 1523, was proclaimed king. He used the Lutheran theories as an excuse for overthrowing the ecclesi- astical aristocracy, which had been insolently powerful in Sweden. In 1527, supported by the diet, he carried his measures for secularizing such portions of the Church property as he thought fit, and for subjecting the Church to the royal power (Ordinances of Vesteras); but many of the old religious cere- monies and practices were permitted to continue, and it was not until 1592 that Lutheranism was officially sanctioned by the Swedish synod. 2 Charles V., finding that his efforts to check the spread of the religious schism were unsuccessful, resorted once more to The conferences between Roman Catholic and Lutheran Council theologians, but it became apparent that no permanent of Trent, compromise was possible. The emperor then succeeded in disrupting the Schmalkaldic League by winning over, on purely political grounds, Philip of Hesse and young Maurice of Saxony, whose father, Henry, had died after a very brief reign. Charles V. had always exhibited the greatest confidence in the proposed general council, the summoning of which had hitherto been frustrated by the popes, and at last, in 1545, the council was summoned to meet at Trent, which lay con- veniently upon the confines of Italy and Germany (see Trent, Council of). The Dominicans and, later, members of the newly born Order of Jesus, were conspicuous, among the 1 The episcopal office was retained, but the " succession " broken, the new Lutheran bishops being consecrated by Buggenhagen, who was only in priest's orders. 2 The episcopal system and succession were maintained, and the " Mass vestments " {i.e. alb and chasuble) remain in use to this day. theological deputies, while the Protestants, though invited, refused to attend. It was clear from the first that the decisions of the council would be uncompromising in character, and that the Protestants would certainly refuse to be bound by its decrees. And so it fell out. The very first anathemas of the council were directed against those innovations which the Protestants had most at heart. The emperor had now tried threats, conferences and a general council, and all had failed to unify the Church. Maurice of Saxony, without surrendering his religious beliefs, had become the political friend of the emperor, who had promised him the neighbouring electorate of Saxony. Events John Frederick, the elector, was defeated at Miihlberg, cuiminat- April 1547, and taken prisoner. Philip of Hesse ^.glf'J" also surrendered, and Charles tried once more to peaceo f establish a basis of agreement. Three theologians, in- Augsburg, eluding a conservative Lutheran, were chosen to draft tsss. the so-called " Augsburg Interim." This reaffirmed the seven sacraments, transubstantiation and the invocation of saints, and declared the pope head of the Church, but adopted Luther's doctrine of justification by faith in a conditional way, as well as the marriage of priests, and considerably modified the theory and practice of the Mass. For four years Charles, backed by the Spanish troops, made efforts to force the Protestant towns to observe the Interim, but with little success. He rapidly grew extremely unpopular, and in 1552 Maurice of Saxony turned upon him and attempted to capture him at Innsbruck. Charles escaped, but Maurice became for the moment leader of the German princes who gathered at Passau (August 1552) to discuss the situation. The settlement, however, was deferred for the meeting of the diet, which took place at Augsburg, 1555. There was a general anxiety to conclude a peace — " bestdndiger, beharrlicher, un- bedingter, fiir und fur ewig wahrender ." There was no other way but to legalize the new faith in Germany, but only those were to be tolerated who accepted the Augsburg Confession. This excluded, of course, not only the Zwinglians and Ana- baptists, but the ever-increasing Calvinistic or " Reformed " Church. The principle cujus regio ejus religio was adopted, according to which each secular ruler might choose between the old faith and the Lutheran. His decision was to bind all his sub- jects, but a subject professing another religion from his prince was to be permitted to leave the country. The ecclesiastical rulers, however, were to lose their possessions if they abandoned the old faith. 3 Freedom of conscience was thus established for princes alone, and their power became supreme in religious as well as secular matters. The Church and the civil government had been closely associated with one another for centuries, and the old system was perpetuated in the Protestant states. Scarcely any one dreamed that individual subjects could safely be left to believe what they would, and permitted, so long as they did not violate the law of the land, freely to select and practise such religious rites as afforded them help and comfort. During the three or four years which followed the signing of the Augsburg Confession in 1530 and the formation of the Schmalkaldic League, England, while bitterly de- Religious nouncing and burning Lutheran heretics in the name sit "^ t, o" of the Holy Catholic Church, was herself engaged in |"^T/ A/ , severing the bonds which had for well-nigh a thousand ope ningot years bound her to the Apostolic See. An in- theKtb dependent national Church was formed in 1534, century. which continued, however, for a time to adhere to all the characteristic beliefs of the medieval Catholic Church, excepting alone the headship of the pope. The circum- stances which led to the English schism are dealt with elsewhere (see England, Church of), and need be reviewed here only in the briefest manner. There was some heresy in England during the opening decades of the 16th century, survivals of the Lollardy which now and then brought a victim to the stake. There was also the old discontent among the orthodox in regard to the Church's exactions, bad clerics and 3 This so-called " ecclesiastical reservation " was not included in the main peace. l6 REFORMATION, THE dissolute and lazy monks. Scholars, like Colet, read the New Testament in Greek and lectured on justification by faith before they knew of Luther, and More included among the institutions of Utopia a rather more liberal and enlightened religion than that which he observed around him. Erasmus was read and approved, and his notion of reform by culture no doubt attracted many adherents among English scholars. Luther's works found their way into England, and were read and studied at both Oxford and Cambridge. In May 1521 Wolsey attended a pom- pous burning of Lutheran tracts in St Paul's churchyard, where Bishop Fisher preached ardently against the new German heresy. Henry VIII. himself stoutly maintained the headship of the pope, and, as is well known, after examining the arguments of Luther, published his Defence of the Seven Sacraments in 15 21, which won for him from the pope the glorious title of " Defender of the Faith. " The government and the leading men of letters and prelates appear therefore to have harboured no notions of revolt before the matter of the king's divorce became prominent in 1527. Henry's elder brother Arthur, a notoriously sickly youth of scarce fifteen, had been married to Catherine, daughter of „ Ferdinand and Isabella, but had died less than five Yin. months after the marriage (April 1502), leaving and the doubts as to whether the union had ever been physi- divorce cally consummated. Political reasons dictated an case ' alliance between the young widow and her brother-in- law Henry, prince of Wales, nearly five years her junior; Julius II. was induced reluctantly to grant the dispensation necessary on account of the relationship, which, according to the canon law and the current interpretation of Leviticus xviii. 16, stood in the way of the union. The wedding took place some years later (1509), and several children were born, none of whom survived except the princess Mary. By 1527 the king had become hopeless of having a male heir by Catherine. He was tired of her, and in love with the black-eyed Anne Boleyn, who refused to be his mistress. He alleged that he was beginning to have a horrible misgiving that his marriage with Catherine had been invalid, perhaps downright " incestuous. " The negotiations with Clement VII. with the hope of obtaining a divorce from Catherine, the reluctance of the pope to impeach the dispensation of his predecessor Julius II., and at the same time to alienate the English queen's nephew Charles V., the futile policy of Wolsey and his final ruin in 1529 are described elsewhere (see English History; Henry VIII. ; Catherine of Aragon). The king's agents secured the opinion of a number of prominent universities that his marriage was void, and an assembly of notables, which he summoned in June 1530, warned the pope of the dangers involved in leaving the royal succession in uncertainty, since the heir was not only a woman, but, as it seemed to many, of illegitimate birth. Henry's next move was to bring a monstrous charge against the clergy, accusing them of having violated the ancient laws Beginning of praemunire in submitting to the authority of papal of Eng- legates (although he himself had ratified the appoint- 4"o« ment of Wolsey as legate a latere). The clergy of the against province of Canterbury were fined £100,000 and com- papacy. pelled to declare the king " their singular protector and only supreme lord, and, as far as that is permitted by the law of Christ, the supreme head of the Church and of the clergy." This the king claimed, perhaps with truth, was only a clearer statement of the provisions of earlier English laws. The following year, 1532, parliament presented a petition to the king (which had been most carefully elaborated by the monarch's own advisers) containing twelve charges against the bishops, relating to their courts, fees, injudicious appointments and abusive treatment of heretics, which combined to cause an unprecedented and " marvellous disorder of the godly quiet, peace and tranquillity" of the realm. For the remedy of these abuses parliament turned to the king, " in whom and by whom the only and sole redress, reformation and remedy herein absolutely rests and remains." The ordinaries met these accusations with a lengthy and dignified answer; but this did not satisfy the king, and convocation was compelled on the 15th of May 1532, further to clarify the ancient laws of the land, as understood by the king, in the very brief, very humble and very pertinent document known as the " Submission of the Clergy." Herein the king's " most humble subjects daily orators, and bedesmen " of the clergy of England, in view of his goodness and fervent Christian zeal and his learning far exceeding that of all other kings that they have read of, agree never to assemble in convocation except at the king's summons, and to enact and promulgate no constitution or ordinances except they receive the royal assent and authority. Moreover, the existing canons are to be subjected to the examination of a commission appointed by the king, half its members from parliament, half from the clergy, to abrogate with the king's assent such provisions as the majority find do not stand with God's laws and the laws of the realm. This appeared to place the legislation of the clergy, whether old or new, entirely under the monarch's control. A few months later Thomas Cranmer, who had been one of those to discuss sympathetically Luther's works in the little circle at Cambridge, and who believed the royal supremacy would tend to the remedying of grave abuses and that the pope had acted ultra vires in issuing a dispensation for the king's marriage with Catherine, was induced by Henry to succeed Warham as archbishop of Canterbury. About the same time parliament passed an interesting and important statute, forbidding, unless the king should wish to suspend the operation of the law, the payment to the pope of the annates. This item alone amounted during the previous forty-six years, the parliament declared, " at the least to eight score thousand pounds, besides other great and intolerable sums which have yearly been conveyed to the said court of Rome by many other ways and means to the great impoverishment of this realm." The annates were thereafter to accrue to the king; and bishops and archbishops were thenceforth, in case the pope refused to confirm them, 1 to be consecrated and invested within the realm, " in like manner as divers other archbishops and bishops have been heretofore in ancient times by sundry the king's most noble progenitors." No censures, excommunications or interdicts with which the Holy Father might vex or grieve the sovereign lord or his subjects, should be published or in any way impede the usual performance of the sacraments and the holding of the divine services. In February parliament discovered that " by divers sundry old authentic histories and chronicles " it was manifest that the realm of England was an empire governed by one supreme head, the king, to whom all sorts and degrees of people — both clergy and laity- ought to bear next to God a natural and humble obedience, and that to him God had given the authority finally to deter- mine all causes and contentions in the realm, " without restraint, or provocation to any foreign princes or potentates of the world." The ancient statutes of the praemunire and provisors are recalled and the penalties attached to their violation re-enacted. All appeals were to be tried within the realm, and suits begun before an archbishop were to be deter- mined by him without further appeal. Acting on this, Cranmer tried the divorce case before his court, which declared the marriage with Catherine void and that with Anne Boleyn, which had been solemnized privately in January, valid. The pope replied by ordering Henry under pain of excommuni- cation to put away Anne and restore Catherine, his legal wife, within ten days. This sentence the emperor, all the Christian princes and the king's own subjects were summoned to carry out by force of arms if necessary. As might have been anticipated, this caused no break in the policy of the English king and his parliament, and a series of famous acts passed in the year 1534 completed and Secession confirmed the independence of the Church of England, of Eng- which, except during five years under Queen Mary, ^".J^/ was thereafter as completely severed from the papal monarchy, monarchy as the electorate of Saxony or the duchy 1534. of Hesse. The payment of annates and of Peter's pence 1 Cranmer himself had taken the oath of canonical obedience to the Holy See and duly received the pallium. REFORMATION, THE 17 was absolutely forbidden, as well as the application to the bishop of Rome for dispensations. The bishops were thereafter to be elected by the deans and chapters upon receiving the king's congS d'eslire (q.v.). The Act of Succession provided that, should the king have no sons, Elizabeth, Anne's daughter, should succeed to the crown. The brief Act of Supremacy confirmed the king's claim to be reputed the " only supreme head in earth of the Church of England "; he was to enjoy all the honours, dignities, jurisdictions and profits thereunto appertaining, and to have full power and authority to reform and amend all such errors, heresies and abuses, as by any manner of spiritual authority might lawfully be reformed, or amended, most to the pleasure of Almighty God, and the increase of virtue in Christ's religion, " foreign authority, prescription, or any other thing or things to the contrary hereof, notwithstanding." The Treasons Act, terrible in its operation, included among capital offences that of declaring in words or writing the king to be " a heretic, schismatic, tyrant, infidel or usurper." The convocations were required to abjure the papal supremacy by declaring " that the bishop of Rome has not in Scripture any greater jurisdiction in the kingdom of England than any other foreign bishop." The king had now clarified the ancient laws of the realm to his satisfaction, and could proceed to abolish superstitious rites, remedy abuses, and seize such por- tions of the Church's possessions, especially pious and monastic foundations, as he deemed superfluous for the maintenance of religion. In spite of the fact that the separation from Rome had been carried out during the sessions of a single parliament, and The that there had been no opportunity for a general reform expression of opinion on the part of the nation, there of the j s no reason to suppose that the majority of the clwrch people, thoughtful or thoughtless, were not ready to under reconcile themselves to the abolition of the papal Henry supremacy. It seems just as clear that there was vm. n0 strong evangelical movement, and that Henry's pretty consistent adherence to the fundamental doctrines of the medieval Church was agreeable to the great mass of his subjects. The ten " Articles devised by the Kyng's Tlighnes Majestie to stablysh Christen quietness " (1536), together with the " Injunctions " of 1536 and 1538, are chiefly noteworthy for their affirmation of almost all the current doctrines of the Catholic Church, except those relating to the papal supremacy, purgatory, images, relics and pilgrimages, and the old rooted distrust of the Bible in the vernacular. The clergy were bidden to exhort their hearers to the " works of charity, mercy and faith, specially prescribed and commanded in Scripture, and not to repose their trust or affiance in any other works devised by men's phantasies beside Scripture; as in wandering to pilgrimages, offering of money, candles or tapers to images or relics, or kissing or licking the same, saying over a number of beads, not understood or minded on, or in such-like superstition." To this end a copy of the whole English Bible was to be set up in each parish church where the people could read it. During the same years the monasteries, lesser and greater, were dissolved, and the chief shrines were despoiled, notably that of St Thomas of Canter- bury. Thus one of the most important of all medieval ecclesi- astical institutions, monasticism, came to an end in England. Doubtless the king's sore financial needs had much to do with the dissolution of the abbeys and the plundering of the shrines, but there is no reason to suppose that he Was not fully con- vinced that the monks had long outlived their usefulness and that the shrines were centres of abject superstition and ecclesi- astical deceit. Henry, however, stoutly refused to go further in the direction of German Protestantism, even with the prospect of forwarding the proposed union between him and the princes of the Schmalkaldic League. An insurrection of the Yorkshire peasants, which is to be ascribed in part to the distress caused by the enclosure of the commons on which they had been wont to pasture their cattle, and in part to the destruction of popular shrines, may have caused the king to defend his orthodoxy by introducing into parliament in 1539 the six questions. These parliament enacted into the terrible statute of " The Six Articles," in which a felon's death was prescribed for those who obstinately denied transubstantiation, demanded the communion under both kinds, questioned the binding character of vows of chastity, or the lawfulness of private Masses or the expediency of auricular confession. On the 30th of July 1540 three Lutheran clergymen were burned and three Roman Catholics beheaded, the latter for denying the king's spiritual supremacy. The king's ardent desire that diversities of minds and opinions should be done away with and unity be " charitably established " was further promoted by publishing in 1543 A Necessary Doctrine and Erudition for any Christian Man, set forth by the King's Majesty of England, in which the tenets of medieval theology, except for denial of the supremacy of the bishop of Rome and the unmistakable assertion of the supremacy of the king, were once more restated. Henry VIII. died in January 1547, having chosen a council of regency for his nine-year-old son Edward, the members of which were favourable to further religious innova- England tions. Somerset, the new Protector, strove to govern becomes on the basis of civil liberty and religious tolerance. Protestant The first parliament of the reign swept away almost SJJ^ all the species of treasons created during the previous vi., two centuries, the heresy acts, including the Six 1S47- Articles, all limitations on printing the Scriptures in ISS3. English and reading and expounding the same — indeed " all and every act or acts of parliament concerning doctrine or matters of religion." These measures gave a great impetus to religious discussion and local innovations. Representatives of all the new creeds hastened from the Continent to England, where they hoped to find a safe and fertile field for the particular seed they had to plant. It is impossible exactly to estimate the influence which these teachers exerted on the general trend of religious opinion in England; in any case, however, it was not unimportant, and the Articles of Religion and official homilies of the Church of England show unmistakably the influence of Calvin's doctrine. There was, however, no such sudden breach with the traditions of the past as characterized the Reformation in some con- tinental countries. Under Edward VI. the changes were continued on the lines laid down by Henry VIII. The old hierarchy continued, but service books in English were sub- stituted for those in Latin, and preaching was encouraged. A royal visitation, beginning in 1547, discovered, however, such a degree of ignorance and illiteracy among the parish clergy that it became clear that preaching could only be gradually given its due place in the services of the Church. Communion under both kinds and the marriage of the clergy were sanctioned, thus gravely modifying two of the fundamental institutions of the medieval Church. A conservative Book of Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments and other Rites and Ceremonies after the Use of the Church of England — commonly called the First Prayer Book of Edward VI. — was issued in 1549. This was based upon ancient " uses," and represented no revolutionary change in the traditions of the " old religion." It was followed, however, in 1552 by the second Prayer Book, which was destined to be, with some modifications, the permanent basis of the English service. This made it clear that the communion was no longer to be regarded as a propitiatory sacrifice, the names " Holy Communion " and " Lord's Supper " being definitively sub- stituted for " Mass " (q.v.), while the word " altar " was replaced by " table." In the Forty-two Articles we have the basis of Queen Elizabeth's Thirty-nine Articles. Thus during the reign of Edward we have not only the. founda- tions of the Anglican Church laid, but there appears the beginning of those evangelical and puritanical sects which were to become the " dissenters " of the following centuries. i8 REFORMATION, THE With the death of Edward there came a period of reaction lasting for five years. Queen Mary, unshaken in her attach- Catboiic ment to the ancient faith and the papal monarchy, reaction was a bi e with the sanction of a subservient parlia- "lUan ment to turn back the wheels of ecclesiastical legis- 1553- lation, to restore the old religion, and to reunite the 1558. English Church with the papal monarchy; the pope's legate, Cardinal Pole, was primate of all England. Then, the ancient heresy laws having been revived, came the burnings of Rogers, Hooker, Latimer, Ridley, Cranmer and many a less noteworthy champion of the new religion. It would seem as if this sharp, uncompromising reaction was what was needed to produce a popular realization of the contrast between the Ecdesia anglicana of Henry VIII. and Edward VI., and the alternative of " perfect obedience to the See Apostolic." Elizabeth, who succeeded her sister Mary in 1558, was sus- pected to be Protestant in her leanings, and her adviser, Cecil, Settle- had received his training as secretary of the Protector meat Somerset; but the general European situation as under we n as t ne young queen's own temperament pre- a e ' eluded any abrupt or ostentatious change in religious matters. The new sovereign's first proclamation was directed against all such preaching as might lead to contention and the breaking of the common quiet. In 1559 ten of Henry VIII. 's acts were revived. On Easter Sunday the queen ventured to display her personal preference for the Protestant conception of the eucharist by forbidding the celebrant in her chapel to elevate the host. The royal supremacy was reasserted, the title being modified into " supreme governor "; and a new edition of Edward VI. 's second Prayer Book, with a few changes, was issued. The Marian bishops who refused to recognize these changes were deposed and imprisoned, but care was taken to preserve the " succession " by consecrating others in due form to take their places. 1 Four years later the Thirty-nine Articles imposed an official creed upon the English nation. This was Protestant in its general character: in its appeal to the Scriptures as the sole rule of faith (Art. VI.), its repudiation of the authority of Rome (Art. XXXVII.) , its definition of the Church (Art. XIX.), its insistence on justifica- tion by faith only (Art. XL) and repudiation of the sacrifice of the Mass (Arts. XXVIII. and XXXI.). As supreme governor of the Church of England the sovereign strictly controlled all ecclesiastical legislation and appointed royal delegates to hear appeals from the ecclesiastical courts, to be a " papist " or to " hear Mass " (which was construed as the same thing) was to risk incurring the terrible penalties of high treason. By the Act of Uniformity (1559) a uniform ritual, the Book of Common Prayer, was imposed upon clergy and laity alike, and no liberty of public worship was permitted. Every subject was bound under penalty of a fine to attend church on Sunday. While there was in a certain sense freedom of opinion, all printers had to seek a licence from the government for every manner of book or paper, and heresy was so closely affiliated with treason that the free expression of thought, whether reactionary or revolutionary, was beset with grave danger. Attempts to estimate the width of the gulf separating the Church of England in Elizabeth's time from the corresponding institution as it existed in the early years of her father's reign are likely to be gravely affected by personal bias. There is a theory that no sweeping revolution in dogma took place, but that only a few medieval beliefs were modified or rejected owing to the practical abuses to which they had given rise. To Professor A. F. Pollard, for example, " The Reformation in England was mainly a domestic affair, a national protest against national grievances rather than part of a cosmopolitan move- ment toward doctrinal change" (Camb. Mod. Hist. ii. 478-9). This estimate appeals to persons of widely different views and temperaments. It is as grateful to those who, like many " Anglo-Catholics," desire on religious grounds to establish the doctrinal continuity of the Anglican Church with that of the 1 Only one of the Marian bishops, Kitchin of Llandaff, was found willing to conform. middle ages, as it is obvious to those who, like W. K. Clifford, perceive in the ecclesiastical organization and its influence nothing more than a perpetuation of demoralizing medieval superstition. The nonconformists have, moreover, never wearied of denouncing the " papistical " conservatism of the Anglican establishment. On the other hand, the impartial historical student cannot compare the Thirty-nine Articles with the contemporaneous canons and decrees of the council of Trent without being impressed by striking contrasts between the two sets of dogmas. Their spirit is very different. The un- mistakable rejection on the part of the English Church of the conception of the eucharist as a sacrifice had alone many wide- reaching implications. Even although the episcopal organiza- tion was retained, the conception of " tradition," of the conciliar powers, of the " characters " of the priest, of the celibate life, of purgatory, of " good works," &c. — all these serve clearly to differentiate the teaching of the English Church before and after the Reformation. From this standpoint it is obviously un- histbrical to deny that England had a very important part in the cosmopolitan movement toward doctrinal change. The little backward kingdom of Scotland definitely accepted the new faith two years after Elizabeth's accession, and after having for centuries sided with France against England, Tae R e f or . she was inevitably forced by the Reformation into an motion in alliance with her ancient enemy to the south when they Scotland, both faced a confederation of Catholic powers. The lS60 ' first martyr of Luther's gospel had been Patrick Hamilton, who had suffered in 1528; but in spite of a number of executions the new ideas spread, even among the nobility. John Knox, who, after a chequered career, had come under the influence of Calvin at Geneva, returned to Scotland for a few months in 1555, and shortly after (1557) that part of the Scottish nobility which had been won over to the new faith formed their first " covenant " for mutual protection. These " Lords of the Congregation " were able to force some concessions from the queen regent. Knox appeared in Scotland again in 1559, and became a sort of second Calvin. He opened negotiations with Cecil, who induced the reluctant Elizabeth to form an alliance with the Lords of the Congregation, and the English sent a fleet to drive away the French, who were endeavouring to keep their hold on Scotland. In 1560 a confession of faith was prepared by John Knox and five companions. This was adopted by the Scottish parliament, with the resolution " the bishops of Rome have no jurisdiction nor authoritie in this Realme in tymes cuming." The alliance of England and the Scottish Protestants against the French, and the common secession from the papal monarchy, was in a sense the foundation and beginning of Great Britain. Scottish Calvinism was destined to exercise no little influence, not only on the history of England, but on the form that the Protestant faith was to take in lands beyond the seas, at the time scarcely known to the Europeans. < While France was deeply affected during the 16th century by the Protestant revolt, its government never undertook any thoroughgoing reform of the Church. During the Begin- latter part of the century its monarchs were en- "lags 0/ gaged in a bloody struggle with a powerful religious- te e staat ' political party, the Huguenots, who finally won a movement toleration which they continued to enjoy until the i" Prance. revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685. It was not until 1789 that the French Church of the middle ages lost its vast possessions and was subjected to a fundamental reconstruction by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1791). 2 Yet no summary of 2 In 1795 the National Convention gruffly declared that the Republic would no longer subsidize any form of worship or furnish buildings for religious services. " The law recognizes no minister of religion, and no one is to appear in public with costumes or orna- ments used in religious ceremonies." Bonaparte, in the Concordat which he forced upon the pope in 1801, did not provide for the return of any of the lands of the Church which had been sold, but agreed that the government should pay the salaries of bishops and priests, whose appointment it controlled. While the Roman Catholic re- ligion was declared to be that accepted by the majority of French- men, the state subsidized the Reformed Church, those adhering to the Augsburg Confession and the Jewish community. Over a REFORMATION, THE r 9 the Protestant revolt would be complete without some allusion to the contrast between the course of affairs in France and in the neighbouring countries. The French monarchy, as we have seen, had usually succeeded in holding its own against the centralizing tendencies of the pope. By the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges (1438) it had secured the advantages of the conciliar movement. In 1516, after Francis I. had won his victory at Marignano, Leo X. concluded a new concordat with France, in which, in view of the repudiation of the offensive Pragmatic Sanction, the patronage of the French Church was turned over, with scarce any restriction, to the French monarch, although in another agreement the annates were reserved to the pope. The encroachments — which had begun in the time of Philip the Fair — of the king's lawyers on the ancient ecclesiastical juris- diction, had reached a point where there was little cause for jealousy on the part of the State. The placet had long prevailed, so that the king had few of the reasons, so important in Germany and England, for quarrelling with the existing system, unless it were on religious grounds. France had been conspicuous in the conciliar movement. It had also furnished its due quota of heretics, although no one so conspicuous as Wy cliff e or Huss. Marsiglio of Padua had had Frenchmen among his sympathizers and helpers. The first prominent French scholar to " preach Christ from the sources " was Jacques Lefebvre of Etaples, who in 1512 published a new Latin translation of the epistles of St Paul. Later he revised an existing French translation of both the New Testament (which appeared in 1523, almost con- temporaneously with Luther's German version) and, two years later, the Old Testament. He agreed with Luther in rejecting transubstantiation, and in believing that works without the grace of God could not make for salvation. The centre of Lefebvre's followers was Meaux, and they found an ardent adherent in Margaret of Angouleme, the king's sister, but had no energetic leader who was willing to face the danger of disturb- ances. Luther's works found a good many readers in France, but were condemned (1521) by both the Sorbonneand the parle- ment of Paris. The parlement appointed a commission to discover and punish heretics; the preachers of Meaux fled to Strassburg, and Lefebvre's translation of the Bible was publicly burned. A council held at Sens, 1528-29, approved all those doctrines of the old Church which the Protestants were attacking, and satisfied itself with enumerating a list of necessary conservative reforms. After a fierce attack on Protestants caused by the mutilation of a statue of the Virgin, in 1528, the king, anxious to con- Joha ciliate both the German Protestants and anti-papal Calvin England, invited some of the reformers of Meaux and his £ preach in the Louvre. An address written by tut" sot a y° un S man °f twenty-four, Jean Cauvin (to the become immortal under his Latin name of Calvinus) Christian wa s read by the rector of the university. It was Religion." a defence of the new evangelical views, and so aroused the Sorbonne that Calvin was forced to flee from Paris. In October 1534, the posting of placards in Paris and other towns, containing brutal attacks on the Mass and denouncing the pope and the " vermin " of bishops, priests and monks as blasphemers and liars, produced an outburst of persecution, in which thirty-five Lutherans were burned, while many fled the country. The events called forth from Calvin, who was in Basel, the famous letter to Francis which forms the preface to his Institutes of the Christian Religion. In this address he sought to vindicate the high aims of the Protestants, and to put the king on his guard against those mad men who were disturbing his kingdom with their measures of persecution. The Institutes, the first great textbook of Protestant theology, was published in Latin in 1536, and soon (1541) in a French version. The original work is much shorter than in its later editions, for, as Calvin says, he wrote learning and learned century elapsed before the Concordat was abrogated by the Separa- tion Law of 1905 which suppressed all government appropriations for religious purposes and vested the control of Church property in " associations for public worship " {associations cultuelles), to be composed of from seven to twenty-five members according to the size of the commune. writing. His address had little effect on the king. The parle- ments issued a series of edicts against the heretics, culminating in the very harsh general edict of Fontainebleau, sanctioned by the parlement of Paris in 1543. The Sorbonne issued a concise series of twenty-five articles, refuting the Institutes of Calvin. This statement, when approved by the king and his council , was published throughout France, and formed a clear test of orthodoxy. The Sorbonne also drew up a list of prohibited books, including those of Calvin, Luther and Melanchthon; and the parlement issued a decree against all printing of Pro- testant literature. The later years of Francis's reign were noteworthy for the horrible massacre of the Waldenses and the martyrdom of fourteen from the group of Meaux, who were burnt alive in 1546. When Francis died little had been done, in spite of the government's cruelty, to check Protestantism, while a potent organ of evangelical propaganda had been developing just beyond the confines of France in the town of Geneva. In its long struggle with its bishops and with the dukes of Savoy, Geneva had turned to her neighbours for aid, especi- ally to Bern, with which an alliance was concluded in 1526. Two years later Bern formally sanctioned becomes the innovations advocated by the Protestant preachers, a centre and although predominantly German assumed the of P">P a - role of protector of the reform party in the Pays " de Vaud and Geneva. William Farel, one of the group of Meaux, who had fled to Switzerland and had been active in the conversion of Bern, went to Geneva in 1531. With the protection afforded him and his companions by Bern, and the absence of well-organized opposition on the part of the Roman Catholics, the new doctrines rapidly spread, and by 1535 Farel was preaching in St Pierre itself. After a public disputation in which the Catholics were weakly represented, and a popular demonstration in favour of the new doctrines, the council of Geneva rather reluctantly sanctioned the abolition of the Mass. Meanwhile Bern had declared war on the duke of Savoy, and had not only conquered a great part of the Pays de Vaud, including the important town of Lausanne, but had enabled Geneva to win its complete inde- pendence. In the same year (September 1536), as Calvin was passing through the town on his way back to Strassburg after a short visit in Italy, he was seized by Farel and induced most reluctantly to remain and aid him in thoroughly carrying out the Reformation in a city in which the conservative senti- ment was still very strong. As there proved to be a large number in the town councils who did not sympathize with the plans of organization recommended by Calvin and his col- leagues, the town preachers were, after a year and a half of unsatisfactory labour, forced to leave Geneva. For three years Calvin sojourned in Germany; he signed the Augsburg Con- fession, gained the friendship of Melanchthon and other leading reformers, and took part in the religious conferences of the period. In 1541 he was induced with great difficulty to sur- render once more his hopes of leading the quiet life of a scholar, and to return again to Geneva (September 1541), where he spent the remaining twenty-three years of his life. His ideal was to restore the conditions which he supposed prevailed during the first three centuries of the Church's existence; but the celebrated Ecclesiastical Ordinances adopted by the town in 1 541 and revised in 1561 failed fully to realize his ideas, which find a more complete exemplification in the regulations govern- ing the French Church later. He wished for the complete independence and self-government of the Church, with the right of excommunication to be used against the ungodly. The Genevan town councils were quite ready to re-enact all the old police regulations common in that age in regard to excessive display, dancing, obscene songs, &c. It was arranged too that town government should listen to the " Consistory," made up of the " Elders," but the Small Council was to choose the members of the Consistory, two of whom should belong to the Small Council, four to the Council of Sixty, and six to the Council of Two Hundred. One of the four town syndics was to preside over its sessions. The Consistory was thus a sort of committee of 20 REFORMATION, THE the councils, and it had no power to inflict civil punishment on offenders. Thus " we ought," as Lindsay says, " to see in the disciplinary powers and punishments of the Consistory of Geneva not an exhibition of the working of the Church organ- ized on the principles of Calvin, but the ordinary procedure of the town council of a medieval city. Their petty punishments and their minute interferences with private life are only special instances of what was common to all municipal rule in the 16th century." This is true of the supreme crime of heresy, which in the notorious case of Servetus was only an expression of rules laid down over a thousand years earlier in the Theodosian Code. Geneva, however, with its most distinguished of Protestant theo- logians, became a school of Protestantism, which sent its trained men into the Netherlands, England and Scotland, and especially across the border into France. It served too as a place of refuge for thousands of the persecuted adherents of its beliefs. Calvin's book furnished the Protestants not only with a compact and admirably written handbook of theology, vigorous and clear, but with a system of Church government and a code of morals. After the death of Francis I., his successor, Henry II., set himself even more strenuously to extirpate heresy; a special . . . branch of the parlement of Paris — the so-called Huguenot Chambre ardente (q.v.) — for the trial of heresy cases party was established, and the fierce edict of Chateaubriand under (June 1551) explicitly adopted many of the expedients eary ' of the papal inquisition. While hundreds were im- prisoned or burned, Protestants seemed steadily to increase in numbers, and finally only the expostulations of the parlement of Paris prevented the king from introducing the Inquisition in France in accordance with the wishes of the pope and the cardinal of Lorraine. The civil tribunals, however, practically assumed the functions of regular inquisitorial courts, in spite of the objections urged by the ecclesiastical courts. Notwith- standing these measures for their extermination, the French Protestants were proceeding to organize a church in accordance with the conceptions of the early Christian communities as Calvin described them in his Institutes. Beginning with Paris, some fifteen communities with their consistories were established in French towns between 1555 and 1560. In spite of continued persecution a national synod was assembled in Paris in 1559, representing at least twelve Protestant churches in Normandy and central France, which drew up a confession of faith and a book of church discipline. It appears to have been from France rather than from Geneva that the Presbyterian churches of Holland, Scotland and the United States derived their form of government. A reaction against the extreme severity of the king's courts became apparent at this date. Du Bourg and others ventured warmly to defend the Protestants in the parle- ment of Paris in the very presence of the king and of the cardinal of Lorraine. The higher aristocracy began now to be attracted by the new doctrines, or at least repelled by the flagrant power enjoyed by the Guises during the brief reign of Francis II. (1559-1560). Protestantism was clearly becoming inextricably associated with politics of a very intricate sort. The leading members of the Bourbon branch of the royal family, and Gaspard de Coligny, admiral of France, were conspicuous among the converts to Calvinism. Persecution was revived by the Guises; Du Bourg, the brave defender of the Protestants, was burned as a heretic; yet Calvin could in the closing years of his life form a cheerful estimate that some three hundred thousand of his countrymen had been won over to his views. The death of Francis II. enabled Catherine de' Medici, the queen mother, to assert herself against the Guises, and become the regent of her ten-year-old son Charles IX. A meeting of the States General had already been summoned to consider the state of the realm. Michel de l'Hopital, the chancellor, who opened the assembly, was an advocate of toleration; he deprecated the abusive use of the terms " Lutherans," " Papists " and " Huguenots," and advocated deferring all action until a council should have been called. The deputies of the clergy were naturally conservative. } but advocated certain reforms, an abolition of the Concordat, J and a re-establishment of the older Pragmatic Sanction. The 1 noblesse were divided on the matter of toleration, but the cahiers (lists of grievances and suggestions for reform) submitted by the Third Estate demanded, besides regular meetings of the estates every five years, complete toleration and a reform of the Church. This grew a little later into the recommendation that the revenues and possessions of the French Church should be appropriated by the government, which, after properly sub- sidizing the clergy, might hope, it was estimated, that a surplus of twenty-two millions of livres would accrue to the State. Two hundred and thirty years later this plan was realized in the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. The deliberations of 1561 resulted in the various reforms, the suspension of persecution and the liberation of Huguenot prisoners. These were not accorded freedom of worship, but naturally took advantage of the situation to carry on their services more publicly than ever before. An unsuccessful effort was made at the conference of Poissy to bring the two religious parties together; Beza had an opportunity to defend the Calvinistic cause, and Lainez, the general of the Order of Jesus, that of the bishop of Rome. The government remained tolerant toward the movement, and in January 1562 the Huguenots were given permission to hold public services outside the walls of fortified towns and were not forbidden to meet in private houses within the walls. Catherine, who had promoted these measures, cared nothing for the Protestants, but desired the support of the Bourbon princes. The country was Catholic, and disturbances inevitably occurred, culminating in the attack of the duke of Guise and his troops on the Protestants at Vassy, less than two months after the issuing of the edict. It is impossible to review here the Wars of Religion which distracted France, from the " massacre of Vassy " to the publication of the edict of Nantes, thirty-six years The later. Religious issues became more and more domin- Preach ated by purely political and dynastic ambitions, and Wars or the whole situation was constantly affected by the KeI L g !u" policy of Philip II. and the struggle going on in the edict of Netherlands. Henry IV. was admirably fitted to Nantes, reunite France once more, and, after a superficial 1562- con version to the Catholic faith, to meet the needs of his former co-religionists, the Huguenots. The edict of Nantes recapitulated and codified the provisions of a series of earlier edicts of toleration, which had come with each truce during the previous generation. Liberty of conscience in religious matters was secured and the right of private worship to those of the " so-called Reformed religion." Public worship was permitted everywhere where it had existed in T596-1597, in two places within each baittiage and sinechaussee, and in the chateaux of the Protestant nobility, with slight restrictions in the case of lower nobility. Protestants were placed upon a political equality and made eligible to all public offices. To ensure these rights, they were left in military control of two hundred towns, including La Rochelle, Montauban and Montpellier. Jealous of their " sharing the State with the king," Richelieu twenty-five years later reduced the exceptional privileges of the Huguenots, and with the advent of Louis XIV. they began to suffer renewed persecution, which the king at last flattered himself had so far reduced their number that in 1685 he revoked the edict of Nantes and reduced the Protestants to the status of outlaws. It was not until 1786 that they were restored to their civil rights, and by the Declaration of the Rights of Man, in 1789, to their religious freedom. Contemporaneously with the Wars of Religion in France a long and terrible struggle between the king of Spain and his Dutch and Belgian provinces had resulted in the The formation of a Protestant state — the United Nether- Unltea lands, which was destined to play an important r61e ; an(fa aatt in the history of the Reformed religion. Open both their im- to German and French influences, the Netherlands portance had been the scene of the first executions of Lutherans ; P. . _ ..' history they had been a centre of Anabaptist agitation ; but Cal- f tolera- vinism finally triumphed in the Confession of Dordrecht, tion. 1572, since Calvin's system of church government did not, like REFORMATION, THE 21 Luther's, imply the sympathy of the civil authorities. Charles V. had valiantly opposed the development of heresy in the Nether- lands, and nowhere else had there been such numbers of martyrs, for some thirty thousand are supposed to have been put to death during his reign. Under 'Philip II. it soon became almost impossible to distinguish clearly between the religious issues and the resistance to the manifold tyranny of Philip and his representatives. William of Orange, who had passed through several phases of religious conviction, stood first and foremost for toleration. Indeed, Holland became the home of modern religious liberty, the haven of innumerable free spirits, and the centre of activity of printers and publishers, who asked for no other imprimatur than the prospect of intelligent readers. It is impossible to offer any exhaustive classification of those who, while they rejected the teachings of the old Church, The Ana- refused at the same time to conform to the particular baptists, types of Protestantism which had found favour in the eyes of the princes and been imposed by them on their subjects. This large class of " dissenters " found themselves as little at home under a Protestant as under a Catholic regime, and have until recently been treated with scant sympathy by historians of the Church. Long before the Protestant revolt, simple, obscure people, under the influence of leaders whose names have been forgotten, lost confidence in the official clergy and their sacraments and formed secret organizations of which vague accounts are found in the reports of the 13th-century inquisitors, Rainerus Sacchoni, Bernard Gui, and the rest. Their anti-sacerdotalism appears to have been their chief offence, for the inquisitors admit that they were puritanically careful in word and conduct, and shunned all levity. Similar groups are mentioned in the town chronicles of the early 16th century, and there is reason to assume that informal evangelical movements were no new things when Luther first began to preach. His appeal to the Scriptures against the traditions of the Church encouraged a more active propaganda on the part of Balthasar Hubmaier, Carlstadt, Munzer, Johann Denk (d. 1527) and others, some of whom were well-trained scholars capable of maintaining with vigour and effect their ideas of an apostolic life as the high road to salvation. Munzer dreamed of an approaching millennium on earth to be heralded by violence and suffering, but Hubmaier and Denk were peaceful evangelists who believed that man's will was free and that each had within him an inner light which would, if he but followed it, guide him to God. To them persecution was an outrage upon Jesus's teachings. Luther and his sympathizers were blind to the reasonableness of the fundamental teachings of these " brethren." The idea of adult baptism, which had after 1525 become generally accepted among them, roused a bitterness which it is rather hard to understand nowadays. But it is easy to see that informal preaching to the people at large, especially after the Peasant Revolt, with which Munzer had been identified, should have led to a general condemnation, under the name " Anabaptist " or " Catabaptist," of the heterogeneous dissenters who agreed in rejecting the State religion and associated a condemnation of infant baptism with schemes for social betterment. The terrible events in Munster, which was controlled for a short time (1533-34) by a group of Anabaptists under the leadership of John of Leiden, the introduction of polygamy (which appears to have been a peculiar accident rather than a general principle), the speedy capture of the town by an alliance of Catholic and Protestant princes, and the ruthless retribution inflicted by the victors, have been cherished by ecclesiastical writers as a choice and convincing instance of the natural fruits of a rejection of infant baptism. Much truer than the common estimate of the character of the Anabaptists is that given in Sebastian Franck's Chronicle: " They taught nothing but love, faith and the crucifixion of the flesh, manifesting patience and humility under many sufferings, breaking bread with one another in sign of unity and love, helping one another with true helpfulness, lending, borrowing, giving, learning to have all things in common, calling each other ' brother.' " Mejmo Simons (b. circ. 1500) succeeded in bringing the scattered Ana- baptist communities into a species of association; he dis- couraged the earlier apocalyptic hopes, inculcated non-resist- ance, denounced the evils of State control over religious matters, and emphasized personal conversion, and adult baptism as its appropriate seal. The English Independents and the modern Baptists, as well as the Mennonites, may be regarded as the historical continuation of lines of development going back to the Waldensians and the Bohemian Brethren, and passing down through the German, Dutch and Swiss Anabaptists. The modern scholar as he reviews the period of the Pro- testant Revolt looks naturally, but generally in vain, for those rationalistic tendencies which become so clear in the socinlans latter part of the 17th century. Luther found no in- orAnti- tellectual difficulties in his acceptance and interpreta- Trini- tion of the Scriptures as God's word, and in maintain- ia " ans - ing against the Anabaptists the legitimacy of every old custom that was not obviously contrary to the Scriptures. Indeed, he gloried in the inherent and divine unreasonableness of Christianity, and brutally denounced reason as a cunning fool, " a pretty harlot." The number of questions which Calvin failed to ask or eluded by absolutely irrational expedients frees him from any taint of modern rationalism. But in Servetus, whose execution he approved, we find an isolated, feeble revolt against assumptions which both Catholics and Protestants of all shades accepted without question. It is pretty clear that the common accounts of the Renaissance and of the revival of learning grossly exaggerate the influence of the writers of Greece and Rome, for they produced no obvious rationalistic movement, as would have been the case had Plato and Cicero, Lucretius and Lucian, been taken really seriously. Neo- Platonism, which is in some respects nearer the Christian patristic than the Hellenic spirit, was as far as the radical religious thinkers of the Italian Renaissance receded. The only religious movement that can be regarded as even rather vaguely the outcome of humanism is the Socinian. Faustus Sozzini, a native of Sienna (1539-1603), much influenced by his uncle Lelio Sozzini, after a wandering, questioning life, found his way to Poland, where he succeeded in uniting the various Anabaptist sects into a species of church, the doctrines of which are set forth in the Confession of Rakow (near Minsk), published in Polish in 1605 and speedily in German and Latin. The Latin edition declares that although this new statement of the elements of the Christian faith differs from the articles of other Christian creeds it is not to be mistaken for a challenge. It does not aim at binding the opinions of men or at condemn- ing to the tortures of hell-fire those who refuse to accept it. Absit a nobis ea mens, immo amentia. " We have, it is true, ventured to prepare a catechism, but we force it on no one; we express our opinions, but we coerce no one. It is free to every one to form his own conclusions in religious matters; and so we do no more than set forth the meaning of divine things as they appear to our minds without, however, attacking or insulting those who differ from us. This is the golden freedom of preaching which the holy words of the New Testa- ment so strictly enjoin upon us. . . . Who art thou, miserable man, who would smother and extinguish in others the fire of God's Spirit which it has pleased him to kindle in them ? " The Socinian creed sprang from intellectual rather than re- ligious motives. Sufficient reasons could be assigned for accepting the New Testament as God's word and Christ as the Christian's guide. He was not God, but a divine prophet born of a virgin and raised on the third day as the first-fruits of them that slept. From the standpoint of the history of enlight- enment, as Harnack has observed, " Socinianism with its sys- tematic criticism (tentative and imperfect as it may now seem) and its rejection of all the assumptions based upon mere ecclesiastical tradition, can scarcely be rated too highly. That modern Unitarianism is all to be traced back to Sozzini and the Rakow Confession need not be assumed. The anti-Trini- tarian path was one which opened invitingly before a consider- able class of critical minds, seeming as it did to lead out into 22 REFORMATORY— REFORMED CHURCH IN AMERICA a sunny open, remote from the unfathomable depths of mystery and clouds of religious emotion which beset the way of the sincere Catholic and Protestant alike. The effects of the Protestant secession on the doctrines, organization and practices of the Roman Catholic Church are Tbe difficult to estimate, still more so to substantiate. It Catholic is clear that the doctrinal conclusions of the council Reforms- f Trent were largely determined by the necessity """" of condemning Protestant tenets, and that the result of the council was to give the Roman Catholic faith a more precise form than it would otherwise have had. It is much less certain that the disciplinary reforms which the council, following the example of its predecessors, re-enacted, owed anything to Protestantism, unless indeed the council would have shown itself less intolerant in respect to such innovations as the use of the vernacular in the services had this not smacked of evangelicalism. In the matter of the pope's supremacy, the council followed the canon law and Thomas Aquinas, not the decrees of the council of Constance. It prepared the way for the dogmatic formulation of the plenitude of the papal power three centuries later by the council of the Vatican. The Protestants have sometimes taken credit to themselves for the indubitable reforms in the Roman Catholic Church, which by the end of the 16th century had done away with many of the crying abuses against which councils and diets had so long been protesting. But this conservative reformation had begun before Luther's preaching, and might conceivably have followed much the same course had his doctrine never found popular favour or been ratified by the princes. In conclusion, a word may be said of the place of the Re- formation in the history of progress and enlightenment. A The place "philosopher," as Gibbon long ago pointed out, of the . who asks from what articles of faith above and against Reforms- reason tne ear i y Reformers enfranchised their followers h^istoofat wiu be surprised at their timidity rather than scandal- progress, ized by their freedom. They remained severely orthodox in the doctrines of the Fathers— the Trinity, the Incarnation, the plenary inspiration of the Bible — and they condemned those who rejected their teachings to a hell whose fires they were not tempted to extenuate. Although they sur- rendered transubstantiation, the loss of one mystery was amply compensated by the stupendous doctrines of original sin, redemption, faith, grace and predestination upon which they founded their theory of salvation. They ceased to appeal to the Virgin and saints, and to venerate images and relics, procure indulgences and go on pilgrimages, they deprecated the monastic life, and no longer nourished faith by the daily repetition of miracles, but in the witch persecutions their demonology cost the lives of thousands of innocent women. They broke the chain of authority, without, however, recognizing the propriety of toleration. In any attempt to determine the relative im- portance of Protestant and Catholic countries in promoting modern progress it must not be forgotten that religion is natur- ally conservative, and that its avowed business has never been to forward scientific research or political reform. Luther and his contemporaries had not in any degree the modern idea of progress, which first becomes conspicuous with Bacon and Descartes, but believed, on the contrary, that the strangling of reason was the most precious of offerings to God. " Free- thinker " and "rationalist" have been terms of opprobrium whether used by Protestants or Catholics. The pursuit of salvation does not dominate by any means the whole life and ambition of even ardent believers; statesmen, philosophers, men of letters, scientific investigators and inventors have commonly gone their way regardless of the particular form of Christianity which prevailed in the land in which they lived. The Reformation was, fundamentally, then, but one phase, if the most conspicuous, in the gradual decline of the majestic medieval ecclesiastical State, for this decline has gone on in France, Austria, Spain and Italy, countries in which the Protestant revolt against the ancient Church ended in failure, Bibliography. — Reference is made here mainly to works dealing with the Reformation as a whole. Only recent books are men- tioned, since the older works have been largely superseded owing to modern critical investigations: Thomas M. Lindsay, A History of the Reformation, 2 vols. (1906-7), the best general treatment; The Cambridge Modern History, vol. i. (1902), chaps, xviii. and xix., vol. ii. (1904), " The Reformation," and vol. iii. (1905), " The Wars of Religion, ' with very full bibliographies; M. Creighton, History of the Papacy during the Reformation, 6 vols, (new ed. 1899-1901). From a Catholic standpoint: L. Pastor, Geschichte der Papste seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters (1891 sqq., especially vol. iv. in two parts, 1906-7, and vol. v., 1909). This is in course of publica- tion and is being translated into English (8 vols, have appeared, 1891-1908, covering the period 1305-1521); J. Janssen, History of the German People at the Close of the Middle Ages, 12 vols., 1896- 1907, corresponding to vols, i.-vi. of the German original, in 8 vols., edited by Pastor, 1897-1904. This is the standard Catholic treat- ment of the Reformation, and is being supplemented by a series of monographs, Erganzungen zu Janssens Geschichte des deutschen Volkes, which have been appearing since 1898 and correspond with the Protestant Schriften des Vereins fur Reformations- geschichte (1883 sqq.). F. von Bezold, Geschichte der deutschen Reformation (1890), an excellent illustrated account; E. Troeltsch, Protestantisches Christentum und Kirche der Neuzeit, in the series " Kultur der Gegenwart," Teil i. Abt. 4, i. Halfte, 1905; Charles Beard, The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century in its Relation to Modern Thought and Knowledge (The Hibbert Lectures for 1883), and by the same, Martin Luther, vol. i. (no more published; 1889); A. Harnack, History of Dogma (trans, from the 3rd German edition, vol. vii., 1900); A. E. Berger, Die Kultur aufgaben der Reformation (2nd ed., 1908) ; Thudichum, Papsttum und Reformation (1903) ; " Janus," The Pope and the Council (1869), by Dollinger and others, a suggestive if not wholly accurate sketch of the papal claims; W. Maurenbrecher, Geschichte der Katholischen Reformation, vol. i. (no more published) (1880); J. Haller, Papsttum und Kirchenreform, vol. i. (1903) relates to the 14th century; J. Kostlin, Martin Luther, sein Leben und seine Schriften, new edition by Kawerau, 2 vols., 1903, the most useful life of Luther; H. Denifle, Luther und Luthertum, 2 vols. (1904-6), a bitter but learned arraignment of Luther by a distinguished Dominican scholar. H. Boehmer, Luther im Lichte der neueren Forschungen (1906), brief and sug- gestive. First Principles of the Reformation, the Three Primary Works of Dr Martin Luther, edited by Wace and Buchheim, — an English translation of the famous pamphlets of 1520. (J. H. R.*) REFORMATORY SCHOOL, an institution for the industrial training of juvenile offenders, in which they are lodged, clothed and fed, as well as taught. They are to be distinguished from " industrial schools," which are institutions for potential and not actual delinquents. To reformatory schools in England are sent juveniles up to the age of sixteen who have been con- victed of an offence punishable with penal servitude or im- prisonment. The order is made by the court before which they are tried; the limit of detention is the age of nineteen. Reformatory schools are regulated by the Children Act 1908, which repealed the Reformatory Schools Act 1866, as amended by acts of 1872, 1874, 1891, 1893, 1899 and 1901. See further Juvenile Offenders. REFORMED CHURCHES, the name assumed by those Pro- testant bodies who adopted the tenets of Zwingli (and later of Calvin), as distinguished from those of the Lutheran or Evangeli- cal divines. They are accordingly often spoken of as the Calvin- istic Churches, Protestant being sometimes used as a synonym for Lutheran. The great difference is in the attitude towards the Lord's Supper, the Reformed or Calvinistic Churches re- pudiating not only transubstantiation but also the Lutheran consubstantiation. They also reject the use of crucifixes and other symbols and ceremonies retained by the Lutherans. Full details of these divergences are given in M. Schneckenburger, Vergleichende Darstellung des lutherischen und reformierten Lehrbe- griffs (Stuttgart, 1855); G. B. Winer, Comparative Darstellung (Berlin, 1866; Eng. tr., Edinburgh, 1873). See also Reformation; Presbvterianism ; Cameronians. REFORMED CHURCH IN AMERICA, until 1867 called offi- cially " The Reformed Protestant Dutch Church in North America," and still popularly called the Dutch Reformed Church, an American Calvinist church, originating with the settlers from Holland in New York, New Jersey and Delaware, the first permanent settlers of the Reformed faith in the New World. Their earliest settlements were at Manhattan, Walla- bout and Fort Orange (now Albany), where the West India Company formally established the Reformed Church of Holland. REFORMED CHURCH IN AMERICA 23 Their first minister was Jonas Michaelius, pastor in New Amsterdam of the " church in the fort " (now the Collegiate Church of New York City). The second domine, Everardus Bogardus (d. 1647), migrated to New York in 1633 with Gover- nor Wouter van Twiller, with whom he quarrelled continually; in the same year a wooden church " in the fort " was built; and in 1642 it was succeeded by a stone building. A minister, John van Mekelenburg (Johannes Megapolensis) migrated to Rensselaerwyck manor in 1642, preached to the Indians— probably before any other Protestant minister — and after 1649 was settled in New Amsterdam. With the access of English and French settlers, Samuel Drisius, who preached in Dutch, German, English and French, was summoned, and he laboured in New Amsterdam and New York from 1652 to 1673. On Long Island John T. Polhemus preached at Flatbush in 1654-76. During Peter Stuyvesant's governorship there was little toleration of other denominations, but the West India Company reversed his intolerant proclamations against Lutherans and Quakers. About 1659 a French and Dutch church was organized in Harlem. The first church in New Jersey, at Bergen, in 1661, was quickly followed by others at Hackensack and Passaic. After English rule in 1664 displaced Dutch in New York, the relations of the Dutch churches there were much less close with the state Church of Holland; and in 1679 (on the request of the English governor of New York, to whom the people of New Castle appealed) a classis was constituted for the ordination of a pastor for the church in New Castle, Delaware. The Dutch strongly opposed the establishment of the Church of England, and contributed largely toward the adoption (in October 1683) of the Charter of Liberties which confirmed in their privileges all churches then " in practice " in the city of New York and elsewhere in the province, but which was repealed by James II. in 1686, when he established the Church of England in New York but allowed religious liberty to the Dutch and others. The Dutch ministers stood by James's government during Leisler's rebellion. Under William III., Governors ' Sloughter and Fletcher worked for a law (passed in 1693 and approved in 1697) for the settling of a ministry in New York, Richmond, Westchester and Queen's counties; but the Assembly foiled Fletcher's purpose of establishing a Church of England clergy, although he attempted to construe the act as applying only to the English Church. In 1696 the first church charter in New York was granted to the Reformed Protestant Dutch Church (now the Collegiate Church) of New York City; at this time there were Dutch ministers at Albany and Kingston, on Long Island and in New Jersey; and for years the Dutch and English (Episcopalian) churches alone received charters in New York and New Jersey — the Dutch church- being treated practically as an establishment — and the church of the fort and Trinity (Episcopalian; chartered 1697) were fraternally harmonious. In 1 700 there were twenty-nine Reformed Dutch churches out of a total of fifty in New York. During the administration of Governor Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury, many members joined the Episcopal Church and others removed to New Jersey. The Great Awakening crowned the efforts of Theodore J. Frelinghuysen, who had come over as a Dutch pastor in 1720 and had opposed formalism and preached a revival. The Church in America in 1738 asked the Classis of Amsterdam (to whose care it had been transferred from the West India Com- pany) for the privilege of forming a Coetus or Association with power to ordain in America; the Classis, after trying to join the Dutch with the English Presbyterian churches, granted (1747) a Coetus first to the German and then to the Dutch churches, which therefore in September 1754 organized them- selves into a classis. This action was opposed by the church of New York City, and partly through this difference and partly because of quarrels over the denominational control of King's College (now Columbia), five members of the Coetus seceded, and as the president of the Coetus was one of them they took the records with them; they were called the Con- ferentie; they organized independently in 1764 and carried on a bitter warfare with the Coetus (now more properly called the American Classis) , which in 1 7 66 (and again in 1770) obtained a charter for Queen's (now Rutgers) College at New Brunswick. But in 1771-72 through the efforts of John H. Livingston ( 1 746-1825), who had become pastor of the New York City church in 1770, on the basis of a plan drafted by the Classis of Amster- dam Coetus and Conferentie were reunited with a substantial independence of Amsterdam, which was made complete in 1792 when the Synod (the nomenclature of synod and classis had been adopted upon the declaration of American Independ- ence) adopted a translation of the eighty-four Articles of Dort on Church Order with seventy-three "explanatory articles." 1 In 1800 there were about forty ministers and one hundred churches. In 1819 the Church was incorporated as the Re- formed Protestant Dutch Church; and in 1867 the name was changed to the Reformed Church in America. Preaching in Dutch had nearly ceased in 1820, but about 1846 a new Dutch immigration began, especially in Michigan, and fifty years later Dutch preaching was common in nearly one-third of the churches of the country, only to disappear almost entirely in the next decade. Union with other Reformed churches was planned in 1743, in 1784, in 1816-20, 1873-78 and 1886, but unsuc- cessfully; however, ministers go from one to another charge in the Dutch and German Reformed, Presbyterian, and to a less degree Congregational churches. A conservative secession " on account of Hopkinsian errors " in 1822 of six ministers (five then under suspension) organized a General Synod and the classes of Hackensack and Union (central New York) in 1824; it united with the Christian Re- formed Church, established by immigrants from Holland after 1835, to which there was added a fresh American secession in 1882 due to opposition (on the part of the seceders) to secret societies. The organization of the Church is: a General Synod (1794); the (particular) synods of New York (1800), Albany (1800), Chicago (1856) and New Brunswick (1869); classes, corresponding to the presbyteries of other Calvinistic bodies; and the churches, num- bering, in 1906, 659. The agencies of the Church are: the Board of Education, privately organized in 1828 and adopted by the General Synod in 1831; a Widows' Fund (1837) and a Disabled Ministers' Fund; a Board of Publication (1855); a Board of Domestic Missions (1831 ; reorganized 1849) with a Church Building Fund and a Woman's Executive Committee; a Board of Foreign Missions (1832) succeeding the United Missionary Society (1816), which included Presbyterian, Dutch Reformed and Associate Re- formed Churches, and which was merged (1826) in the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, from which the Dutch Church did not entirely separate itself until 1857; and a Woman's Board of Foreign Missions (1875). The principal missions are in India at Arcot (1854; transferred in 1902 to the Synod of S. India) and at Amoy in China (1842) ; and the work of the Church in Japan was very successful, especially under Guido Fridolin Verbeck 2 (1830-1898), and 1877 native churches built up by Presby- terian and Dutch Reformed missionaries were organized as the United Church of our Lord Jesus Christ in Japan. There is also an Arabian mission, begun privately in 1888 and transferred to the Board in 1894. The colleges and institutions of learning connected with the Church are: Rutgers, already mentioned; Union College (1795), the out- growth of Schenectady Academy, founded in 1785 by Dirck Romeyn, a Dutch minister; Hope College (1866; coeducational) at Holland, Michigan, originally a parochial school (1850) and then (1855) Holland Academy; the Theological Seminary at New Brunswick (q.v.); and the Western Theological Seminary (1869) at Holland, Michigan. In 1906 (according to Bulletin 103 (1909) of the Bureau of the U.S. Census) there were 659 organizations with 773 church edifices reported and the total membership was 124,938. More than one- half of this total membership (63,350) was in New York state, the principal home of the first great Dutch immigration; more than one-quarter (32,290) was in New Jersey; and the other states were: Michigan (11,260), Illinois (4962), Iowa (4835), Wisconsin (2312), and Pennsylvania (1979). The Church was also represented in Minne- sota, S. Dakota, Oklahoma, Nebraska, Indiana, Ohio, Kansas, N. Dakota, S. Carolina, Washington and Maryland — the order being that of rank in number of communicants. The Christian Reformed Church, an " old school " secession, had in 1906, 174 organizations, 181 churches and a membership of 26,669, 1 In 1832 the articles of Church government were rearranged and in 1872-74 they were amended. 2 See W. E. Griffis, Verbeck of Japan (New York, 1900). 24 REFORMED CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES of which more than one-half (14,779) was in Michigan, where many of the immigrants who came after 1835 belonged to the seces- sion church in Holland. There were 2990 in Iowa, 2392 in New Jersey, 2332 in Illinois, and smaller numbers in Wisconsin, Indiana, Minnesota, S. Dakota, Ohio, New York, Washington, Kansas, Massachusetts, Montana, N. Dakota, New Mexico, Nebraska and Colorado. See D. D. Demarest, The Reformed Church in America (New York, 1889) ; E. T. Corwin, The Manual of the Reformed Church in America {ibid., 4th ed., 1902), his sketch of the history of the Church in vol. viii. {ibid., 1895) of the American Church History Series, and his Ecclesiastical Records of the State of New York (Albany, 1901 sqq.), published by the State of New York. REFORMED CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES, a German Calvinistic church in America, commonly called the German Reformed Church. It traces its origin to the great German immigration of the 17 th century, especially to Pennsylvania, where, although the German Lutherans afterwards outnumbered them, the Reformed element was estimated in 1 730 to be more than half the whole number of Germans in the colony. In 1709 more than 2000 Palatines emigrated to New York with their pastor, Johann Friedrich Hager (d. c. 1723), who laboured in the Mohawk Valley. A church in Germantown, Virginia, was founded about 1714. Johann Philip Boehm (d. 1749), a school teacher from Worms, although not ordained, preached after 1725 to congregations at Falckner's Swamp, Skippack, and White Marsh, Pennsylvania, and in 1729 he was ordained by Dutch Reformed ministers in New York. Georg Michael Weiss {c. 1700-c. 1762), a graduate of Heidelberg, ordained and sent to America by the Upper Consistory of the Palatinate in 1727, organized a church in Philadelphia; preached at Skippack; worked in Dutchess and Schoharie counties, New York, in 1731-46; and then returned to his old field in Pennsylvania. Johann Heinrich Goetschius was pastor {c. 1731-38) of ten churches in Pennsylvania, and was ordained by the Presbyterian Synod of Philadelphia in 1737. A part of his work was undertaken by Johann Conrad Wirtz, who was ordained by the New Brunswick (New Jersey) Presbytery in 1750, and in 1761-63 was pastor at York, Pennsylvania. A church was built in 1736 at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, where Johann Bartholomaeus Rieger (1707-1769), who came from Germany with Weiss on his return in 1731, had preached for several years. Michael Schlatter (1716-1790), a Swiss of St Gall, sent to America in 1746 by the Synods (Dutch Reformed) of Holland, immediately convened Boehm, Weiss and Rieger in Philadelphia, and with them planned a Coetus, which first met in September 1747; in 1751 he presented the cause of the Coetus in Germany and Holland, where he gathered funds; in 1752 came back to America with six ministers, one of whom, William Stoy (1726-1801), was an active opponent of the Coetus and of clericalism after 1772. Thereafter Schlatter's work was in the charity schools of Pennsylvania, which the people thought were tinged with Episcopalianism. Many churches and pastors were independent of the Coetus, notably John Joachim Zubly (1724-1781), of St Gall, who migrated to S. Carolina in 1726, and was a delegate to the Continental Congress from Georgia, but opposed independence and was banished from Savannah in 1777. Within the Coetus there were two parties. Of the Pietists of the second class one of the leaders was Philip William Otterbein (1726-1813), born in Dillenburg, Nassau, whose system of class-meetings was the basis of a secession from which grew the United Brethren in Christ, commonly called the "New Reformed Church," organized in 1800. During the War of Independence the Pennsylvania members of the Church were mostly attached to the American cause, and Nicholas Herkimer and Baron von Steuben were both Reformed; but in New York and in the South there were many German Loyalists. Franklin College was founded by Lutherans and Reformed, with much outside help, notably that of Benjamin Franklin, at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, in 1787. The Coetus had actually assumed the power of ordination in 1772 and formally assumed it in 1791; in 1792 a synodical constitution was prepared; and in 1793 the first independent synod met in Lancaster and adopted the constitution, thu9 becoming independent of Holland. Its churches numbered 178, and there were about 15,000 communicants. The strongest churches were those of Philadelphia, Lancaster and Germantown in Pennsylvania, and Frederick in Maryland. The German Reformed churches in Lunenburg county, Nova Scotia, became Presbyterian in 1837; a German church in Waldoboro, Maine, after a century, became Congregational in 1850. The New York churches became Dutch Reformed. The New Jersey churches rapidly fell away, becoming Presbyterian, Dutch Reformed, or Lutheran. In Virginia many churches became Episcopalian and others United Brethren. By 1825, 13 Re- formed ministers were settled W. of the Alleghanies. The Synod in 1819 divided itself into eight Classes. In 1824 the Classis of Northampton, Pennsylvania (13 ministers and 80 congregations), became the Synod of Ohio, the parent Synod having refused to allow the Classis to ordain. In 1825 there were 87 ministers, and in the old Synod about 23,300 com- municants. A schism over the establishment of a theological seminary resulted in the organization of a new synod of the " Free German Reformed Congregations of Pennsylvania," which returned to the parent synod in 1837. John Winebrenner (q.v.), pastor in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, left the Church in 1828, and in 1830 organized the " Church of God "; his main doctrinal difference with the Reformed Church was on infant baptism. In 1825 the Church opened a theological seminary at Carlisle, Pennsylvania, affiliated with Dickinson College. James Ross Reily (1788-1844) travelled in Holland and Germany, collecting money and books for the seminary. It was removed in 1829 to York, where an academy was connected with it; in 1835 the academy (which in 1836 became Marshall College) and in 1837 the seminary removed to Mercersburg, where, in 1840, John W. Nevin (q.v.) became its president, and with Philip Schaff (q.v.) founded the Mercersburg theology, which lost to the Church many who objected to Nevin's (and Schaff's) Romanizing tendencies. The seminary was removed in 1871 from Mercersburg to Lancaster, whither the college had gone in 1853 to form, with Franklin College, Franklin and Marshall College. In 1842 the Western Synod (i.e. the Synod of Ohio) adopted the constitution of the Eastern, and divided into classes. It founded in 1850 a theological school and Heidelberg University at Tiffin, Ohio. The Synods organized a General Synod in 1863. New German Synods were: that of the North- West (1867), organized at Fort Wayne, Ind.; that of the East (1875), organized at Philadelphia:; and the Central Synod (1881), organized at Galion, Ohio. New English Synods were: that of Pittsburg (1870); that of the Potomac (1873); and that of the Interior (1887), organized at Kansas City, Missouri. In 1894 there were eight district synods. After a long controversy over a liturgy (connected in part with the Mercersburg controversy) a Directory of Worship was adopted in 1887. The principal organizations of the Church are: the Board of Publication (1844) ; the Society for the Relief of Ministers and their Widows (founded in 1755 by the Pennsylvania Coetus; incorporated in 1 8 10; transferred to the Synod in 1833); a Board of Domestic Missions (1826); a Board of Foreign Missions (1858; reorganized in 1873), which planted a mission in Japan (1879), now a part of the Union Church of Japan, and one in China (1900). The Church has publishing houses in Philadelphia (replacing that of Chambers- burg, Pa., founded in 1840 and destroyed in July 1864 by the Confederate army) and in Cleveland, Ohio. Colleges connected with the Church, besides the seminary at Lancaster, Franklin and Marshall College and Heidelberg University, are: Catawba College (1851) at Newton, North Carolina; and Ursinus College (1869), founded by the Low Church wing, at Collegeville, Pennsylvania, which had, until 1908, a theological seminary, then removed to Dayton, Ohio, where it united with Heidelberg Theological Seminary (until 1908 at Tiffin) to form the Central Theological Seminary. In 1906, according to Bulletin 103 (1909) of the Bureau of the United States Census, the Church had 1736 organizations in the REFORMED EPISCOPAL CHURCH— REFRACTION 25 United States, 1740 churches and 292,654 communicants, of whom 177,270 were in Pennsylvania, and about one-sixth (50,732) were in Ohio. Other states in which the Church had communicants were: Maryland (13,442), Wisconsin (8386), Indiana (8289), New York (5700), North Carolina (4718), Iowa (3692), Illinois (2652), Virginia (2288), Kentucky (2101), Michigan (1666), Nebraska (.1616), and (less than 1500 in each of the following arranged in rank) S. Dakota, Missouri, New Jersey, Connecticut, Kansas, W. Virginia N. Dakota, Minnesota, District of Columbia, Oregon, Massachusetts, Tennessee, California, Colorado, Arkansas and Oklahoma. See James I. Good, History of the Reformed Church in the United States, 1725-1792 (Reading, Pa., 1899), and Historical Handbook (Philadelphia, 1902); and the sketch by Joseph Henry Dubbs in vol. viii. (New York, 1895) of the American Church History Series. REFORMED EPISCOPAL CHURCH, a Protestant community in the United States of America, dating from December 1873. The influence of the Tractarian movement began to be felt at an early date in the Episcopal Church of the United States, and the ordination of Arthur Carey in New York, July 1843, a clergyman who denied that there was any difference in points of faith between the Anglican and the Roman Churches and con- sidered the Reformation an unjustifiable act, brought into relief the antagonism between Low Church and High Church, a struggle which went on for a generation with increasing bitterness. The High Church party lost no opportunity of arraigning any Low Churchman who conducted services in non-episcopal churches, and as the Triennial Conference gave no heed to remonstrances on the part of these ecclesiastical offenders they came to the conclusion that they must either crush their consciences or seek relief in separation. The climax was reached when George D. Cummins (1822-1876), assistant bishop of Kentucky, was angrily attacked for officiating at the united communion service held at the meeting of the Sixth General Conference of the Evangelical Alliance in New York, October 1873. This prelate resigned his charge in the Episcopal Church on November nth, and a month later, with seven other clergy- men and a score of laymen, constituted the Reformed Episcopal Church. Cummins was chosen as presiding officer of the new body, and consecrated Charles E. Cheney (b. 1836), rector of Christ Church, Chicago, to be bishop. The followingDeclaration of Principles (here abridged) was promulgated:— I. An expression of belief in the Bible as the Word of God, and the sole rule of faith and practice, in the Apostles' Creed, in the divine institution of the two sacraments and in the doctrines of grace substantially as set out in the 39 Articles. ... II. The recognition of Episcopacy not as of divine right but as a very ancient and desirable form of church polity. III. An acceptance of the Prayer Book as revised by the General Convention of the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1785 with liberty to revise it as may seem most conducive to the edification of the people. IV. A condemnation of certain positions, viz. : — (a) That the Church of God exists only in one form of ecclesi- astical polity. (b) That Christian ministers as distinct from all believers have any special priesthood. (c) That the Lord's Table is an altar on which the body and blood of Christ are offered anew to the Father. (d) That the presence of Christ is a material one. (e) That Regeneration is inseparably connected with Baptism. The Church recognizes no orders of ministry, presbyters and deacons; the Episcopate is an office, not an order, the bishop being the chief presbyter, primus inter pares. There are some 7 bishops, 85 clergy and about 9500 communicants. _ £1600 annually is raised for foreign missionary work in India. The Church was introduced into England in 1877, and has in that country a presiding bishop and about 20 organized congrega- tions. The Church has a theological seminary in Philadelphia. REFRACTION (Lat. refringere, to break open or apart), in physics, the change in the direction of a wave of light, heat or sound which occurs when such a wave passes from one medium into another of different density. I. Refraction of Light When a ray of light traversing a homogeneous medium falls on the bounding surface of another transparent homogeneous medium, it is found that the direction of the transmitted ray in the second medium is different from that of the incident ray; in other words, the ray is refracted or bent at the point of incidence. The laws governing refraction are: (1) the refracted and incident rays are coplanar with the normal to the refracting surface at the point of incidence, and (2) the ratio of the sines of the angles between the normal and the incident and refracted rays is constant for the two media, but depends on the nature of the light employed, i.e. on its wave length. This constant is called the relative refractive index of the second medium, and may be denoted by Hah, the suffix ab signifying that the light passes from medium a to medium b; similarly ix.\, a denotes the relative refractive index of a with regard to b. The absolute refractive index is the index when the first medium is a vacuum. Ele- mentary phenomena in refraction, such as the apparent bending of a stick when partially immersed in water, were observed in very remote times, but the laws, as stated above, were first grasped in the I'/th century by W. Snell and published by Descartes, the full importance of the dependence of the refractive index on the nature of the light employed being first thoroughly realized by Newton in his famous prismatic decomposition of white light into a coloured spectrum. Newton gave a theor- etical interpretation of these laws on the basis of his corpuscular theory, as did also Huygens on the wave theory (see Light, II. Theory of). In this article we only consider refractions at plane surfaces, refraction at spherical surfaces being treated under Lens. The geometrical theory will be followed, the wave theory being treated in Light, Diffraction and Dis- persion. Refraction at a Plane Surface. — Let LM (fig. 1) be the surface dividing two homogeneous "media A and B; let 10 be a ray in the first medium incident on LM at O, and let OR be the refracted ray. Draw the normal POQ. Then by Snell 's law we have invariably sin IOP/sin QOR =/*„&. Hence if two of these quantities be given the third can be calculated. The commonest question is: Given the incident ray and the refractive index to construct the refracted ray. A simple construction is to take along the incident ray 01, unit distance OC, and a distance OD equal to the refractive index in the same units. Draw CE perpendicular to LM, and draw an arc with centre O and radius OD, cutting CE in E. Then EO produced downwards is the refracted ray. The proof is left to the reader. In the figure the given incident ray is assumed to be passing from a less dense to a denser medium, and it is seen by the con- struction or by examining the formula sin /3 = sin o/ju that for all values of a there is a corresponding value of P . Consider the case when the light passes from a denser to a less dense medium. In the equation sin /3 = sin a/p we have in this case ji I and there is no refraction into the second medium, the rays being totally reflected back into the first medium; this is called total internal reflection. Images produced by Refraction at Plane Surfaces. — If a luminous point be situated in a medium separated from one of less density by a plane surface, the ray normal to this surface will be unre- fracted, whilst the others will undergo refraction according to their angles of emergence. If the rays in the less dense medium be produced into the denser medium, they envelop a caustic, but by restricting ourselves to a small area about the normal ray_ it is seen that they intersect this ray in a point which is the geometrical 26 REFRACTION image of the luminous source. The position of this point can be easily determined. If I be the distance of the source below the surface, /' the distance of the image, and p. the refractive index, then I' = 1/ p. This theory provides a convenient method for determining the refractive index of a plate. A micrometer microscope, with vertical motion, is focused on a scratch on the surface of its stage; the plate, which has a fine scratch on its upper surface, is now introduced, and the microscope is successively focused on the scratch on the stage as viewed through the plate, and on the scratch on the plate. The difference between the first and third readings gives the thickness of the plate, corresponding to / above, and between the second and third readings the depth of the image, corresponding to /'. Refraction by a Prism. — In optics a prism is a piece of trans- parent material bounded by two plane faces which meet at a definite angle, called the refracting angle of the prism, in a straight line called the edge of the prism; a section perpendicular to the edge is called a principal section. Parallel rays, refracted succes- sively at the two faces, emerge from the prism as a system of parallel rays, but the direction is altered by an amount called the deviation. The deviation depends on the angles of incidence and emergence; but, since the course of a ray may always be reversed, there must be a stationary value, either a maximum or minimum, when the ray traverses the prism symmetrically, i.e. when the angles of incidence and emergence are equal. As a matter of fact, it is a minimum, and the position is called the angle of minimum deviation. The relation between the minimum deviation D, the angle of the prism i, and the refractive index li is found as follows. Let in fig. 2, PQRS be the course of the ray through the prism; the internal angles <#>', 4>' each equal ii, and the angles of incidence and emergence 0, \[> are each equal and connected with ' by Snell's law, i.e. sin0 = ^ sin0'. Also the deviation D is 2 (<£-<#>')• Hence M = sin 0/sin <£' = sin§ (D+i)/sinJ?. Refractometers. — Instruments for determining the refractive indices of media are termed refractometers. The simplest are really spectrometers, consisting of a glass prism, usually hollow and fitted with accurately parallel glass sides, mounted on a table which carries a fixed collimation tube and a movable observing tube, the motion of the latter being recorded on a graduated circle. The collimation tube has a narrow adjustable slit at its outer end and a lens at the nearer end, so that the light leaves the tube as a parallel beam. The refracting angle of the prism, i in our previous notation, is deter- mined by placing the prism with its refracting edge towards the collimator, and observing when the reflections of the slit in the two prism faces coincide with the cross-wires in the observing telescope; half the angle between these two positions gives i. To determine the position of minimum deviation, or D, the prism is removed, and the observing telescope is brought into line with the slit; in this position the graduation is read. The prism is replaced, and the telescope moved until it catches the refracted rays. The prism is now turned about a vertical axis until a position is found when the telescope has to be moved towards the collimator in order to catch the rays ; this operation sets the prism at the angle of minimum deviation. The refractive index n is calculated from the formula given above. More readily manipulated and of superior accuracy are refracto- meters depending on total reflection. The Abbe refractometer (fig. 3) essentially consists of a double Abbe prism AB to contain the substance to be experimented with ; and a telescope F to ob- serve the border line of the total reflection. The prisms, which are right-angled and made of the same flint glass, are mounted in a hinged frame such that the lower prism, which is used for purposes of illumination, can be locked so that the hypothenuse faces are distant by about 0-15 mm., or rotated away from the upper prism. The double prism is used in examining liquids, a few drops being placed between the prisms; the single prism is used when solids or plastic bodies are employed. The mount is capable of rotation about a horizontal axis by an alidade /. The telescope is provided with a reticule, which can be brought into exact coincidence with the observed border line, and is rigidly fastened to a sector S graduated directly in refractive indices. The reading is effected by a lens L. Beneath the prisms is a mirror for reflecting light Fig. 3. into the apparatus. To use the apparatus, the liquid having been inserted between the prisms, or the solid attached by its own adhesiveness or by a drop of monobromnaphthalene to the upper prism, the prism case is rotated until the field of view consists of a light and dark portion, and the border line is now brought into coincidence with the reticule of the telescope. In using a lamp or daylight this border is coloured, and hence a compensator, consisting of two equal Amici prisms, is placed between the objective and the prisms. These Amici prisms can be rotated, in opposite directions, until they produce a dispersion opposite in sign to that originally seen, and hence the border line now appears perfectly sharp and colourless. When at zero the alidade corresponds to a refractive index of 1-3, and any other reading gives the corresponding index correct to about 2 units in the 4th decimal place. Since temperature markedly affects the refractive index, this apparatus is provided with a device for heating the prisms. Figs. 4 and 5 show the course of the rays when a solid and liquid Fig. 4- Fig. 5- are being experimented with. Dr R. Wollny's butter refracto- meter, also made by Zeiss, is constructed similarly to Abbe's form, with the exception that the prism casing is rigidly attached to the telescope, and the observation made by noting the point where the border line intersects an appropriately graduated scale in the focal plane of the telescope objective, fractions being read by a micrometer screw attached to the objective. This apparatus is also provided with an arrangement for heating. This method of reading is also employed in Zeiss's " dipping refractometer" (fig. 6). This instrument consists of a telescope R having at its lower end a prism P with a refracting angle of 63 °, above which and below the objective is a movable compensator A for purposes of annulling the dispersion about the border line. I» REFRACTION 27 the focal plane of the objective O there is a scale Sc, exact reading being made by a micrometer Z. If a large quantity of liquid be Fig. 6. — Zeiss 's Dipping Refractometer. available it is sufficient to dip the refractometer perpendicularly into a beaker containing the liquid and to transmit light into the instrument by means of a mirror. If only a smaller quantity be available, it is enclosed in a metal beaker M, which forms an exten- sion of the instrument, and the liquid is retained there by a plate D. The instrument is now placed in a trough B, containing water and having one side of ground glass G; light is reflected into the refractometer by means of a mirror S outside this trough. An accuracy of 3-7 units in the 5th decimal place is obtainable. The Pulfrich refractometer is also largely used, especially for liquids. It consists essentially of a right-angled glass prism placed on a metal foundation with the faces at right angles horizontal and vertical, the hypothenuse face being on the support. The horizontal face is fitted with a small cylindrical vessel to hold the liquid. Light is led to the prism at grazing incidence by means of a collimator, and is refracted through the vertical face, the deviation being observed by a telescope rotating about a graduated circle. From this the refractive index is readily calculated if the refractive index of the prism for the light used be known: a fact supplied by the maker. The instrument is also available for determining the refractive index of isotropic solids. A little of the solid is placed in the vessel and a mixture of monobromnaph- thalene and acetone (in which the solid must be insoluble) is added, and adjustment made by adding either one or other liquid until the border line appears sharp, i.e. until the liquid has the same index as the solid. The Herbert Smith refractometer (fig. 7) is especially suitable for determining the refractive index of gems, a constant which is Fig. 7. most valuable in distinguishing the precious stones. It consists of a hemisphere of very dense glass, having its plane surface fixed at a certain angle to the axis of the instrument. Light is admitted by a window on the under side, which is inclined at the same angle, but in the opposite sense, to the axis. The light on emerging from the hemisphere is received by a convex lens, in the focal plane of which is a scale graduated to read directly in refractive indices. The light then traverses a positive eye-piece. To use the instru- ment for a gem, a few drops of methylene iodide (the refractive index of which may be raised to i-8oo by dissolving sulphur in it) are placed on the plane surface of the hemisphere and a facet of the stone then brought into contact with the surface. If mono- chromatic light be used (i.e. the D line of the sodium flame) the field is sharply divided into a light and a dark portion, and the posi- tion of the line of demarcation on the scale immediately gives the refractive index. It is necessary for the liquid to have a higher refractive index than the crystal, and also that there is close con- tact between the facet and the lens. The range of the instrument is between 1-400 and 1-760, the results being correct to two units in the third decimal place if sodium light be used. (C. E.*) II. Double Refraction That a stream of light on entry into certain media can give rise to two refracted pencils was discovered in the case of Iceland spar by Erasmus Bartholinus, who found that one pencil had a direction given by the ordinary law of refraction, but that the other was bent in accordance with a new law that he was unable to determine. This law was discovered about eight years later by Christian Huygens. According to Huygens' fundamental principle, the law of refraction is determined by the form and orientation of the wave-surface in the crystal — the locus of points to which a disturbance emanating from a luminous point travels in unit time. In the case of a doubly refracting medium the wave-surface must have two sheets, one of which is spherical, if one of the pencils obey in all cases the ordinary law of refraction. Now Huygens observed that a natural crystal of spar behaves in precisely the same way which- ever pair of faces the light passes through, and inferred from this fact that the second sheet of the wave-surface must be a surface of revolution round a line equally inclined to the faces of the rhomb, i.e. round the axis of the crystal. He accordingly assumed it to be a spheroid, and finding that refraction in the direction of the axis was the same for both streams, he concluded that the sphere and the spheroid touched one another in the axis. So far as his experimental means permitted, Huygens veri- fied the law of refraction deduced from this hypothesis, but its correctness remained unrecognized until the measures of W. H. Wollaston in 1802 and of E. T. Malus in 1810. More recently its truth has been established with far more perfect optical appliances by R. T. Glazebrook, Ch. S. Hastings and others. In the case of Iceland spar and several other crystals the extraordinarily refracted stream is refracted away from the axis, but Jean Baptiste Biot in 1814 discovered that in many cases the reverse occurs, and attributing the extraordinary refractions to forces that act as if they emanated from the axis, he called crystals of the latter kind " attractive," those of the former "repulsive." They are now termed " positive " and " negative " respectively; and Huygens' law applies to both classes, the spheroid being prolate in the case of positive, and oblate in the case of negative crystals. It was at first supposed that Huygens' law applied to all doubly refracting media. Sir David Brewster, however, in 181 5, while examining the rings that are seen round the optic axis in polarized light, discovered a number of crystals that possess two optic axes. He showed, moreover, that such crystals belong to the rhombic, monoclinic and anorthic (triclinic) systems, those of the tetragonal and hexagonal systems being uniaxal, and those of the cubic system being optically isotropic. Huygens found in the course of his researches that the streams that had traversed a rhomb of Iceland spar had acquired new properties with respect to transmission through a second crystal. This phenomenon is called polarization (q.v.), and the waves are said to be polarized — the ordinary in its principal plane and the extraordinary in a plane perpendicular to its principal plane, the principal plane of a wave being the plane containing its normal and the axis of the crystal. From the facts of polarization Augustin Jean Fresnel deduced that the 28 REFRACTION vibrations in plane polarized light are rectilinear and in the plane of the wave, and arguing from the symmetry of uniaxal crystals that vibrations perpendicular to the axis are propa- gated with the same speed in all directions, he pointed out that this would explain the existence of an ordinary wave, and the relation between its speed and that of the extraordinary wave. From these ideas Fresnel was forced to the conclusion, that he at once verified experimentally, that in biaxal crystals there is no spherical wave, since there is no single direction round which such crystals are symmetrical; and, recognizing the difficulty of a direct determination of the wave-surface, he attempted to represent the laws of double refraction by the aid of a simpler surface. The essential problem is the determination of the propaga- tional speeds of plane waves as dependent upon the directions of their normals. These being known, the deduction of the wave-surface follows at once, since it is to be regarded as the envelope at any subsequent time of all the plane waves that at a given instant may be supposed to pass through a given point, the ray corresponding to any tangent plane or the direction of transport of energy being by Huygens' principle the radius- vector from the centre to the point of contact. Now Fresnel perceived that in uniaxal crystals the speeds of plane waves in any direction are by Huygens' law the reciprocals of the semi- axes of the central section, parallel to the wave-fronts, of a spheroid, whose polar and equatorial axes are the reciprocals of the equatorial and polar axes of the spheroidal sheet of Huygens' wave-surface, and that the plane of polarization of a wave is perpendicular to the axis that determines its speed. Hence it occurred to him that similar relations with respect to an ellipsoid with three unequal axes would give the speeds and polarizations of the waves in a biaxal crystal, and the results thus deduced he found to be in accordance with all known facts. This ellipsoid is called the ellipsoid of polarization, the index ellipsoid and the indicatrix. We may go a step further; for by considering the intersection of a wave-front with two waves, whose normals are indefinitely near that of the first and lie in planes perpendicular and parallel respectively to its plane of polarization, it is easy to show that the ray corresponding to the wave is parallel to the line in which the former of the two planes intersects the tangent plane to the ellipsoid at the end of the semi-diameter that determines the wave-velocity; and it follows by similar triangles that the ray-velocity is the reciprocal of the length of the perpendicular from the centre on this tangent plane. The laws of double refraction are thus contained in the following proposition. The propagational speed of a plane wave in any direction is given by the reciprocal of one of the semi-axes of the central section of the ellipsoid of polarization parallel to the wave; the plane of polarization of the wave is perpendicular to this axis; the corresponding ray is parallel to the line of intersection of the tangent plane at the end of the axis and the plane containing the axis and the wave-normal; the ray- velocity is the reciprocal of the length of the perpendicular from the centre on the tangent plane. By reciprocating with respect to a sphere of unit radius concentric with the ellipsoid, we obtain a similar proposition in which the ray takes the place of the wave-normal, the ray- velocity that of the wave-slowness (the reciprocal of the velocity) and vice versa. The wave-surface is thus the apsidal surface of the reciprocal ellipsoid; this gives the simplest means of obtain- ing its equation, and it is readily seen that its section by each plane of optical symmetry consists of an ellipse and a circle, and that in the plane of greatest and least wave-velocity these curves intersect in four points. The radii-vectors to these points are called the ray-axes. When the wave-front is parallel to either system of circular sections of the ellipsoid of polarization, the problem of finding the axes of the parallel central section becomes indeterminate, and all waves in this direction are propagated with the same speed, whatever may be their polarization. The normals to the circular sections are thus the optic axes. To determine the rays corresponding to an optic axis, we may note that the ray and the perpendiculars to it through the centre, in planes perpendicular and parallel to that of the ray and the optic axis, are three lines intersecting at right angles of which the two latter are confined to given planes, viz. the central circular section of the ellipsoid and the normal section of the cylinder touching the ellipsoid along this section: whence by a known proposition the ray describes a cone whose sections parallel to the given planes are circles. Thus a plane perpendicular to the optic axis touches the wave-surface along a circle. Similarly the normals to the circular sections of the reciprocal ellipsoid, or the axes of the tangent cylinders to the polarization-ellipsoid that have circular normal sections, are directions of single-ray velocity or ray-axes, and it may be shown as above that corre- sponding to a ray-axis there is a cone of wave-normals with circular sections parallel to the normal section of the corre- sponding tangent cylinder, and its plane of contact with the ellipsoid. Hence the extremities of the ray-axes are conical points on the wave-surface. These peculiarities of the wave- surface are the cause of the celebrated conical refractions discovered by Sir William Rowan Hamilton and H. Lloyd, which afford a decisive proof of the general correctness of Fresnel's wave-surface, though they cannot, as Sir G. Gabriel Stokes (Math, and Phys. Papers, iv. 184) has pointed out, be employed to decide between theories that lead to this surface as a near approximation. In general, both the direction and the magnitude of the axes of the polarization-ellipsoid depend upon the frequency of the light and upon the temperature, but in many cases the possible variations are limited by considerations of symmetry. Thus the optic axis of a uniaxal crystal is invariable, being deter- mined by the principal axis of the system to which it belongs: most crystals are of the same sign for all colours, the refractive indices and their difference both increasing with the frequency, but a few crystals are of opposite sign for the extreme spectral colours, becoming isotropic for some intermediate wave-length. In crystals of the rhombic system the axes of the ellipsoid coincide in all cases with the crystallographic axes, but in a few cases their order of magnitude changes so that the plane of the optic axes for red light is at right angles to that for blue light, the crystal being uniaxal for an intermediate colour. In the case of the monoclinic system one axis is in the direction of the axis of the system, and this is generally, though there are notable exceptions, either the greatest, the least, or the intermediate axis of the ellipsoid for all colours and temperatures. In the latter case the optic axes are in the plane of symmetry, and a variation of their acute bisectrix occasions the phenomenon known as "inclined dispersion ": in the two former cases the plane of the optic axes is perpendicular to the plane of symmetry, and if it vary with the colour of the light, the crystals exhibit " crossed " or " horizontal dispersion " according as it is the acute or the obtuse bisectrix that is in the fixed direction. The optical constants of a crystal may be determined either with a prism or by observations of total reflection. In the latter case the phenomenon is characterized by two angles — the critical angle and the angle between the plane of incidence and the line limiting the region of total reflection in the field of view. With any crystalline surface there are four cases in which this latter angle is oo°, and the principal refractive indices of the crystal are obtained from those calculated from the correspond- ing critical angles, by excluding that one of the mean values for which the plane of polarization of the limiting rays is perpendicular to the plane of incidence. A difficulty, however, may arise when the crystalline surface is very nearly the plane of the optic axes, as the plane of polarization in the second mean case is then also very nearly perpendicular to the plane of incidence; but since the two mean refractive indices will be very different, the ambiguity can be removed by making, as may easily be done, an approximate measure of the angle between the optic axes and comparing it with the values calculated by using in turn each of these indices (C. M. Viola, Zeit. filr Kryst., 1902, 36, p. 245). A substance originally isotropic can acquire the optical REFRESHER 29 properties of a crystal undef the influence of homogeneous strain, the principal axes of the wave-surface being parallel to those of the strain, and the medium being uniaxal, if the strain be symmetrical. John Kerr also found that a dielectric under electric stress behaves as an uniaxal crystal with its optic axis parallel to the electric force, glass acting as a negative and bisulphide of carbon as a positive crystal {Phil. Mag., 1875 (4), L -337)- , p . Not content with determining the iaws of double refraction, Fresnel also attempted to give their mechanical explanation. He supposed that the aether consists of a system of distinct material points symmetrically arranged and acting on one another by forces that depend for a given pair only on their distance. If in such a system a single molecule be displaced, the projection of the force of restitution on the direction of dis- placement is proportional to the inverse square of the parallel radius- vector of an ellipsoid; and of all displacements that can occur in a given plane, only those in the direction of the axes of the parallel central section of the quadric develop forces whose projection on the plane is along the displacement. In undula- tions, however, we are concerned with the elastic forces due to relative displacements, and, accordingly, Fresnel assumed that the forces called into play during the propagation of a system of plane waves (of rectilinear transverse vibrations) differ from those developed by the parallel displacement of a single molecule only by a constant factor, independent of the plane of the wave. Next, regarding the aether as incompressible, he assumed that the components of the elastic forces parallel to the wave-front are alone operative, and finally, on the analogy of a stretched string, that the propagational speed of a plane wave of permanent type is proportional to the square root of the effective force developed by the vibrations. With these hypotheses we immediately obtain the laws of double refraction, as given by the ellipsoid of polarization, with the result that the vibrations are perpendicular to the plane of polarization. In its dynamical foundations Fresnel's theory, though of considerable historical interest, is clearly defective in rigour, and a strict treatment of the aether as a crystalline elastic solid does not lead naturally to Fresnel's laws of double refraction. On the other hand, Lord Kelvin's rotational aether (Math, and Phys. Papers, iii. 442) — a medium that has no true rigidity but possesses a quasi-rigidity due to elastic resistance to absolute rotation — gives these laws at once, if we abolish the resistance to compression and, regarding it as gyrostatically isotropic, attribute to it aeolotropic inertia. The equations then obtained are the same as those deduced in the electro-magnetic theory from the circuital laws of A. M. Ampere and Michael Faraday, when the specific inductive capacity is supposed aeolotropic. In order to account for dispersion, it is necessary to take into account the interaction with the radiation of the intra-molecular vibrations of the crystalline substance: thus the total current on the electro-magnetic theory must be regarded as made up of the current of displacement and that due to the oscillations of the electrons within the molecules of the crystal. Bibliography. — An interesting and instructive account of Fresnel's work on double refraction has been given by Emile Verdet in his introduction to Fresnel's works: CEuvres d'Augustin Fresnel, i. 75 (Paris, 1866); CEuvres de E. Verdet, i. 360 (Paris, 1872). For an account of theories of double refraction see the reports of H. Lloyd, Sir G. G. Stokes and R. T. Glazebrook in the Brit. Ass. Reports for 1834, 1862 and 1885, and Lord Kelvin's Baltimore Lectures (1904). An exposition of the rotational theory of the aether has been given by H. Chipart, Theorie gyrostatique de la lumiere (Paris, 1904); and P. Drude's Lehrbuch der Optik, 2 te Auf. (1906), the first German edition of which was translated by C. Riborg Mann and R. A. Milliken in 1902, treats the subject from the standpoint of the electro-magnetic theory. The methods of determining the optical constants of crystals will be found in Th. Liebisch's Physikalische Krystallographie (1891); F. Pockel's Lehrbuch der Kristalloptik (1906); and J. Walker's Analytical Theory of Light (1904). A detailed list of papers on the geometry of the wave-surface has been published by E. Wollfing, Bibl. Math., 1902 (3), iii. 361 ; and a general account of the subject will be found in the following treatises: L. Fletcher, The Optical Indicatrix (1892); Th. Preston, The Theory of Light, 3rd ed. by C. J. Joly (1901); A. Schuster, An Introduction to the Theory of Optics (1904); R. W. Wood, Physical Optics (1905); E. Maseart, Traite d'optique (1889) ; A. Winkelmann, Handbuch der Physik. (J. Wal.*) III. Astronomical Refraction The refraction of a ray of light by the atmosphere as it passes from a heavenly body to an observer on the earth's surface, is called " astronomical." A knowledge of its amount is a necessary datum in the exact determination of the direction of the body. In its investigation the fundamental hypothesis is that the strata of the air are in equilibrium, which implies that the surfaces of equal density are horizontal. But this condition is being continually disturbed by aerial currents, which produce con- tinual slight fluctuations in the actual refraction, and commonly give to the image of a star a tremulous motion. Except for this slight motion the refraction is always in the vertical direction; that is, the actual zenith distance of the star is always greater than its apparent distance. The refracting power of the air is nearly proportional to its density. Consequently the amount of the refraction varies with the temperature and barometric pressure, being greater the higher the barometer and the lower the temperature. At moderate zenith distances, the amount of the refraction varies nearly as the tangent of the zenith distance. Under ordinary conditions of pressure and temperature it is, near the zenith, about 1 " for each degree of zenith distance. As the tangent increases at a greater rate than the angle, the increase of the refraction soon exceeds 1" for each degree. At 45° from the zenith the tangent is 1 and the mean refraction is about 58". As the horizon is approached the tangent increases more and more rapidly, becoming infinite at the horizon; but the re- fraction now increases at a less rate, and, when the observed ray is horizontal, or when the object appears on the horizon, the refraction is about 34', or a little greater than the diameter of the sun or moon. It follows that when either of these objects is seen on the horizon their actual direction is entirely below it. One result is that the length of the day is increased by refraction to the extent of about five minutes in low latitudes, and still more in higher latitudes. At 60° the increase is about nine minutes. The atmosphere, like every other transparent substance, refracts the blue rays of the spectrum more than the red; conse- quently, when the image of a star near the horizon is observed with a telescope, it presents somewhat the appearance of a spectrum. The edge which is really highest, but seems lowest in the telescope, is blue, and the opposite one red. When the atmosphere is steady this atmospheric spectrum is very marked and renders an exact observation of the star difficult. Bibliography. — Refraction has been a favourite subject of research. See Dr. C. Bruhns, Die astronomische Strahlenbrechung (Leipzig, 1861), gives a rSsume of the various formulae of refraction which had been developed by the leading investigators up to the date 1861. Since then developments of the theory are found in: W. Chauvenet, Spherical and Practical Astronomy, i. ; F. Briinnow, Sphdrischen Astronomie; S. Newcomb, Spherical Astronomy; R. Radau, "Recherches sur la theorie des refractions astronomiques" {Annates de V observatoire de Paris, xvi., 1882), " Essai sur les refrac- tions astronomiques " (ibid., xix., 1889). Among the tables of refraction which have been most used are Bessel's, derived from the observations of Bradley in Bessel's Fundamenta Astronomiae; and Bessel's revised tables in his Tabulae Regiomontanae, in which, however, the constant is too large, but which in an expanded form were mostly used at the observatories until 1870. The constant use of the Poulkova tables, Tabulae re~ fractionum, which is reduced to nearly its true value, has gradually replaced that of Bessel. Later tables are those of L. de Ball, published at Leipzig in 1906. (S. N.) REFRESHER, in English legal phraseology, a further or additional fee paid to counsel where a case is adjourned from one term or sittings to another, or where it extends over more than one day and occupies, either on the first day or partly on the first and partly on a subsequent day or days, more than five hours without being concluded. The refresher allowed for every clear day subsequent to that on which the five hours have expired is five to ten guineas for a leading counsel and from three to seven guineas for other counsel, but the taxing 3o REFRIGERATING master is at liberty to allow larger fees in special circumstances. See Rules of the Supreme Court, O. 65, r. 48. REFRIGERATING and ICE-MAKING. " Refrigeration " (from Lat. frigus, frost) is the cooling of a body by the transfer of a portion of its heat to another and therefore a cooler body. For ordinary temperatures it is performed directly with water as the cooling agent, especially when well water, which usually has a temperature of from 52 to 55° F., can be obtained. There are, however, an increasingly large number of cases in which temperatures below that of any available natural cooling agent are required, and in these it is necessary to resort to machines which are capable of producing the required cooling effect by taking in heat at low temperatures and rejecting it at tempera- tures somewhat above that of the natural cooling agent, which for obvious reasons is generally water. The function of a refrigerating machine, therefore, is to take in heat at a low temperature and reject it at a higher one. This involves the expenditure of a quantity of work W, the amount in any particular case being found by the equation W = Q2 — Qi, where W is the work, expressed by its equivalent in British thermal units; Qa the quantity of heat, also in B.Ther.U., given out at the higher temperature T 2 ; and Qi the heat taken in at the lower temperature Ti. It is evident that the discharged heat Q 2 is equal to the abstracted heat Qi, plus the work expended, seeing that the work W, which causes the rise in temperature from Ti to T 2 , is the thermal equivalent of the energy actually expended in raising the temperature to the level at which it is rejected. The relation then between the work expended and the actual cooling work performed denotes the efficiency of the process, and this is expressed by Qi/(Qs — Qi) ; but as in a perfect refrigerating machine it is understood that the whole of the heat Qi is taken in at the absolute temperature Ti, and the whole of the heat Q 2 , is rejected at the absolute temperature T 2 , the heat quantities are proportional to the temperatures, and the expression Ti/(T S — T) gives the ideal coefficient of performance for any stated temperature range, whatever working substance is used. These coefficients for a number of cases met with in practice are given in the following table. They Table I. Ti. Temperature at which Heat is extracted in Degrees Fahr. T 2 . . Temperature at which Heat is rejected in Degrees Fahr. -10° 0° 10° 20° 3°: 40° 5°° 60° 70° 80° 90° loo° 7-5 9-2 n-7 16-0 24-5 50-0 6-4 7-7 9-4 12-0 16-3 25-0 5-6 6-6 7-8 9-6 12-2 16-7 5-0 5-8 6-7 8-0 9-8 12-5 4'5 5-i 5-9 6-8 8-2 IO-O 4-1 4-6 5-2 6-o 7-0 8-3 show that in all cases the heat abstracted exceeds by many times the heat expended. As an instance, when heat is taken in at 0° and rejected at 70 , a perfect refrigerating machine would abstract 6-6 times as much heat as the equivalent of the energy to be applied. If, however, the heat is to be rejected at 100°, then the coefficient is reduced to 4-6. By examining Table I. it will be seen how important it is to reduce the temperature range as much as possible, in order to obtain the most economical results. No actual refrigerating machine does, in fact, take in heat at the exact temperature of the body to be cooled, and reject it at the exact temperature of the cooling water, but, for economy in working, it is of great importance that the differences should be as small as possible. There are two distinct classes of machines used for refrigerat- ing and ice-making. In the first refrigeration is produced by the expansion of atmospheric air, and in the second by the evaporation of a more or less volatile liquid. Compressed-air Machines. — A compressed-air refrigerating machine consists in its simplest form of three essential parts — a compressor, a compressed-air cooler, and an expansion cylinder. It is shown diagrammatically in fig. 1 in connexion with a chamber which it is keeping cool. The compressor draws in air from the room and compresses it, the work expended in compression being almost entirely converted into heat. The compressed air, leaving the compressor at the temperature T 2 , passes through the cooler, where it is cooled by means of water, and is then admitted to the expansion cylinder, where it is expanded to atmospheric pressure, performing work on the piston. The heat equivalent of the mechanical work per- formed on the piston is abstracted from the air, which is dis- charged at the temperature Ti. This temperature Tj is neces- Compression Cylinder Expansion Cylinder Fig. i. —Compressed -Air Refrigerating Machine. sarily very much below the temperature to be maintained in the room, because the cooling effect is produced by transferring heat from the room or its contents to the air, which is thereby heated. The rise in temperature of the air is, in fact, the measure of the cooling effect produced. If such a machine could be constructed with reasonable mechanical efficiency to compress the air to a temperature but slightly above that of the cooling water, and to expand the air to a temperature but slightly below that required to be maintained in the room, we should of course get a result approximating in efficiency somewhat nearly to the figures given in Table I. Unfortunately, however, such results cannot be obtained in practice, because the extreme lightness of the air and its very small heat capacity (which at constant pressure is -2379) would necessitate the employment of a great volume, with extremely large and mechanically in- efficient cylinders and apparatus. A pound of air, represent- ing about 12 cub. ft., if raised io° F. will only take up about 2-4 B.T.U. Consequently, to make such a machine mechani- cally successful a comparatively small weight of air must be used, and the temperature difference increased; in other words, the air must be discharged at a temperature very much below that to be maintained in the room. This theory of working is founded on the Carnot cycle for a perfect heat motor, a perfect refrigerating machine being simply a reversed heat motor. Another theory involves the use of the Stirling regenerator, which was proposed in connexion with the Stirling heat engine (see Air Engines). The air machine invented by Dr. A. Kirk in 1862, and described by him in a paper on the " Mechanical Production of Cold " (Proc. Inst. C.E., xxxvii., 1874, 244), is simply a reversed Stirling air engine, the air working in a closed cycle instead of being actually discharged into the room to be cooled, as is the usual practice with ordinary compressed- air machines. Kirk's machine was used commercially with success on a fairly large scale, chiefly for ice-making, and it is recorded that it produced about 4 lb of ice for 1 lb of coal. In 1868 J. Davy Postle read a paper before the Royal Society of Victoria, suggesting the conveyance of meat on board ship in a frozen state by means of refrigerated air, and in 1869 he showed by experiment how it could be done; but his apparatus was not commercially developed. In 1877 a compressed-air machine was designed by J. J. Coleman of Glasgow, and in the early part of 1879 one of his machines was fitted on board the Anchor liner " Circassia," which successfully brought a cargo of chilled beef from America — the first imported by the aid of refrigerating machinery, ice having been previously used. The first successful cargo of frozen mutton from Australia was also brought by a Bell-Coleman machine in 1879. In the Bell-Coleman machine the air was cooled during compression by means of an injection of water, and further by being brought into contact with a shower of water. Another, perhaps the principal, feature was the interchanger, an apparatus whereby the compressed air was further cooled before expansion by means of the com- paratively cold air from the room in its passage to the compressor, the same air being used over and over again. The object of this interchanger was not only to cool the compressed air before expansion, but to condense part of the moisture in it, so reducing the quantity of ice or snow produced during expansion. A full description of the machine may be found in a paper on " Air- Refrigerating Machinery " by J. J. Coleman (Proc. Inst. C.E. lxviii., 1882). At the present time the Bell-Coleman machine has practically ceased to exist. In such compressed-air machines REFRIGERATING 3i as are now made there is no injection of water during compression, and the compressed air is cooled in a surface cooler, not by actual mixture with a shower of cold water. Further, though the inter- changer is still used by some makers, it has been found by experience that, with properly constructed valves and passages in the expansion cylinder, there is no trouble from the formation of snow, when, as is the general practice, the same air is used over and over again, the compressor taking its supply from the insulated room. So far as the air discharged from the expansion cylinder is concerned, its humidity is precisely the same so long as its temperature and pressure are the same, inasmuch as when discharged from the expansion cylinder it is always in a saturated condition for that temperature and pressure. The ideal coefficient of performance is about 1, but the actual coefficient will be about f , after allowing for the losses incidental to working. In practice the air is compressed to about 50 lb per square inch above the atmosphere, its temperature rising to about 300 F. The compressed air then passes through coolers in which it is cooled to within about 5° of the initial temperature of the cooling water, and is deprived of a portion of its moisture, after which it is admitted into the expansion cylinder and expanded nearly to atmospheric pressure. The thermal equi- valent of the power exerted on the piston is taken from the air, which, with cooling water at 6o° F. and after allowing for friction and other losses, is discharged at a temperature of 6o° to 80° below zero F. according to the size of the machine. The pistons of the compression and expansion cylinders are connected to the same crankshaft, and the difference between the power expended in compression and that restored in expansion, plus the friction of the machine, is supplied by means of a steam engine coupled to the crankshaft, or by any other source of power. For marine purposes two complete machines are frequently mounted on one bed-plate and worked either together or separately. In some machines used in the United States the cold air is not discharged into the rooms but is worked in a closed cycle, the rooms being cooled by means of overhead pipes through which the cold expanded air passes on its way back to the compressor. Liquid Machines. — Machines of the second class may con- veniently be divided into three types: (a) Those in which there is no recovery of the refrigerating agent, water being the agent employed; they will be dealt with as " Vacuum machines." (b) Those in which the agent is recovered by means of mechan- ical compression; they are termed " Compression machines." (c) Those in which the agent is recovered by means of absorption by a liquid; they are known as " Absorption machines." In the first class, since the refrigerating liquid is itself rejected, the only agent cheap enough to be employed is water. The Vacuum boiling point of water varies with pressure; thus at machines, one atmosphere or 14-7 lb per square inch it is 212° F., whereas at a pressure of -085 lb per square inch it is 32°, and at lower pressures there is a still further fall in temperature. This property is made use of in vacuum machines. Water at ordinary temperature, say 6o°, is placed in an air-tight glass or insulated vessel, and when the pressure is reduced by means of a vacuum pump it begins to boil, the heat necessary for evapor- ation being taken from the water itself. The pressure being still further reduced, the temperature is gradually lowered until the freezing-point is reached and ice formed, when about one-sixth of the original volume has been evaporated. The earliest machine of this kind appears to have been made in 1755 by Dr. William Cullen, who produced the vacuum by means of a pump alone. In 1810 Sir John Leslie combined with the air pump a vessel containing strong sulphuric acid for absorbing the vapour from the air, and is said to have succeeded in producing I to 1 J lb of ice in a single operation. E. C. Carre later adopted the same principle. In 1878 F. Windhausen patented a vacuum machine for producing ice in large quantities, and in 1881 one of these machines, said to be capable of making about 12 tons of ice per day, was put to work in London. The installation was fully described by Carl Pieper (Trans. Soc. of Engineers, 1882, p. 145) and by Dr. John Hopkinson (Journal of Soc. of Arts, 1882, vol. xxxi. p. 20). The process, however, not being successful from a commercial point of view, Was abandoned. At the present time vacuum machines are only employed for domestic purposes. The hand apparatus invented by H. A. Fleuss consists of a vacuum | pump capable of reducing the air pressure to a fraction of a milli- metre, the suction pipe of which is connected first with a vessel containing sulphuric acid, and second with the vessel containing the water to be frozen. Both these vessels are mounted on a rocking base, so that the acid can be thoroughly agitated while the machine is being worked. As soon as the pump has sufficiently exhausted the air from the vessel containing the water, vapour is rapidly given off and is absorbed by the acid until sufficient heat has been abstracted to bring about the desired reduction in temperature, the acid becoming heated by the absorption of water vapour, while the water freezes. The small Fleuss machine will produce about 1 J lb of ice in one operation of 20 minutes. Iced water in a carafe for drinking purposes can be produced in about three minutes. The acid vessel holds 9 lb of acid, and nearly 3 lb of ice can be made for each 1 lb of acid before the acid has become too weak to do further duty. Another machine, which can be easily worked by a boy, will produce 20 to 30 lb of ice in one hour, and is perhaps the largest size practicable with this method of freezing. The temperature attainable depends on the strength and condition of the sulphuric acid; ordinarily it can be reduced to zero F., and temperatures 20 lower have frequently been obtained. Though prior to 1834 several suggestions had been made with regard to the production of ice and the cooling of liquids by the evaporation of a more volatile liquid than water, the Compres- first machine actually constructed and put to work s'°" was made by John Hague in that year from the designs macAfae s- of Jacob Perkins (Journal of Soc. of Arts, 1882, vol. xxxi. p. 77). This machine, though never used commercially, is the parent of all modern compression machines. Perkins in his patent specification states that the volatile fluid is by preference ether. In 1856 and 1857 James Harrison of Geelong, Victoria, patented a machine ernbodying the same principle as that of Perkins, but worked out in a much more complete and practical manner. It is stated that these machines were first made in New South Wales in 1859, but the first Harrison machine adopted success- fully for industrial purposes in. England was applied in the year 1861 for cooling oil in order to extract the paraffin. In Harrison's machine the agent used was ether (C 2 H 5 ) 2 0. Improvements were made by Siebe & Company of London, and a considerable number of ether machines both for ice-making and refrigerating purposes were supplied by that firm and others up to the year 1880. In 1870 the subject of refrigeration was investigated by Professor Carl Linde of Munich, who was the first to consider the question from a thermodynamic point of view. He dealt with the coefficient of performance as a common basis of com- parison for all machines, and showed that the compression vapour machine more nearly reached the theoretic maximum than any other (Bayerisches Industrie und Gewerbeblatt, 1870 and 1871). Linde also examined the physical properties of various liquids, and, after making trials with methylic ether in 1872, built his first ammonia compression machine in 1873. Since then the ammonia compression machine has been most widely adopted, though the carbonic acid machine, also compression, which was first made in 1880 from Linde's designs, is now used to a considerable extent, especially on board ship. Compressor Condenser Refrigerator Regulating Valve Fig. 2. — Vapour Compression Machine. A diagram of a vapour compression machine is shown in fig. 2. There are three principal parts, a refrigerator or evaporator, a compression pump, and a condenser. The refrigerator, which 32 REFRIGERATING consists of a coil or series of coils, is connected to the suction side of the pump, and the delivery from the pump is connected to the condenser, which is generally of somewhat similar construction to the refrigerator. The condenser and refrigerator are connected by a pipe in which is a valve named the regulator. Outside the re- frigerator coils is the air, brine or other substance to be cooled, and outside the condenser is the cooling medium, which, as previously stated, is generally water. The refrigerating liquid (ether, sulphur dioxide, anhydrous ammonia, or carbonic acid) passes from the bottom of the condenser through the regulating valve into the refrigerator in a continuous stream. The pressure in the refrigerator being reduced by the pump and maintained at such a degree as to give the required boiling-point, which is of course always lower than the temperature outside the coils, heat passes from the substance outside, through the coil surfaces, and is taken up by the entering liquid, which is converted into vapour at the temperature Ti. The vapours thus generated are drawn into the pump, compressed, and discharged into the condenser at the temperature T 2 , which is some- what above that of the cooling water. Heat is transferred from the compressed vapour to the cooling water and the vapour is converted into a liquid, which collects at the bottom and returns by the re- gulating valve into the refrigerator. As heat is both taken in and discharged at constant temperature during the change in physical state of the agent, a vapour compression machine must approach the ideal much more nearly than a compressed-air machine, in which there is no such change. This will be seen by taking as an example a case in which the cold room is to be kept at io° F., the cooling water being at 60°. Under these conditions, the actual evaporating temperature Ti, in a well- constructed ammonia compression machine, after allowing for the differences necessary for the exchange of heat, would be about 5° below zero, and the discharge temperature T would be about 75°. An ideal machine, working between 5 below zero and 75 above, has a coefficient of about 5-7, or nearly six times that of an ideal compressed-air machine of usual construction performing the same useful cooling work. A vapour compression machine does not, however, work precisely in the reversed Carnot cycle, inasmuch as the fall in temperature between the condenser and the refrigerator is not produced, nor is it attempted to be produced, by the adiabatic expansion of the agent, but results from the evaporation of a portion of the liquid itself. In other words, the liquid-refrigerating agent enters the refrigerator at the condenser temperature and introduces heat which has to be taken up by the evaporating liquid before any useful refrigerating effect can be performed. The extent of this loss is determined by the relation between the liquid heat and the latent heat of vaporization at the refrigerator temperature. If r represents the latent heat of the vapour, and g 2 and ?i the amounts of heat contained in the liquid at the respective temperatures of T2 and Ti, then the loss from the heat carried from the condenser into the refrigerator is shown by (qi-qO/r and the useful refrigerating effect produced in the refrigerator is r — (qz — qi). Assuming, as in the previous example, that T 2 is 75 F., and that Ti is 5 below zero, the results for various refrigerating agents are as follows : — Table II. Latent Heat. r Liquid Heat. 52-31 Net ' Refrigeration. r-(}2-?i) Proportion of Loss. Anhydrous ammonia Sulphurous acid Carbonic acid . 590-33 173-13 119-85 72-556 29-062 47-35 517-774 144-068 72-50 0-1225 0-168 o-395 The results show that the loss is least in the case of anhydrous ammonia and greatest in the case of carbonic acid. At higher con- denser temperatures the results are even much more favourable to ammonia. As the critical temperature (88-4° F.) of carbonic acid is approached, the value of r becomes less and less and the refrigerat- ing effect is much reduced. When the critical point is reached the value of r disappears altogether, and a carbonic-acid machine is then dependent for its refrigerating effect on the reduction in tem- perature produced by the internal work performed in expanding the gaseous carbonic acid from the condenser pressure to that in the refrigerator. The abstraction of heat does not then take place at constant temperature. The expanded vapour enters the re- frigerator at a temperature below that of the substance to be cooled, and whatever cooling effect is produced is brought about by the superheating of the vapour, the result being that above the critical point of carbonic acid the difference T 2 — T 2 is in- creased and the efficiency of the machine is reduced. The critical temperature of anhydrous ammonia is about 266 F., which is never approached in the ordinary working of refrigerating machines. Some of the principal physical properties of sulphurous acid, anhydrous ammonia, and carbonic acid are given in Tables III., IV. and V. Table III. — Ledoux's Table for Saturated Sulphur Dioxide Vapour (S0 2 ). t Vapour- tension 1 r u Volume of Temp, of in Pounds per Heat of Liquid Latent Heat of one Pound Ebullition. sq. in. from 3 2 Fahr. Evaporation. of Saturated Degs. Fahr. Absolute. B.T.U. B.T.U. Vapour. Cub. ft. — 22 5-546 -19-55 176-98 I3-I68 -13 7-252 -16-31 174-94 10-268 - 4 9-303 -13-05 172-91 8-122 5 11-803 - 9-79 170-82 6-504 14 14-789 - 6-85 168-75 5-254 23 18-544 - 3-26 166-63 4-293 32 22-468 0-00 164-47 3-540 41 27-445 3-27 162-39 2-931 50 33-275 6-55 160-24 2-451 59 39-958 9-83 158-08 2- 066 68 47-637 13-10 I55-89 1-746 77 56-3" 16-38 I53-67 1-490 86 66-407 19-69 151-49 1-266 95 77-641 22-99 149-27 1-089 104 90-297 26-28 147-02 0-913 Table IV ' .—Mollier' 's Table for Saturated Anhydrous Ammonia Vapour (NH 3 ). * Vapour-tension 5 r u Volume of Temp, of in Pounds per Heat of Liquid Latent Heat of one Pound s-q. in. from 32 Fahr. Evaporation. of Saturated Degs. Fahr. Absolute. B.T.U. B.T.U. Vapour. Cub. ft. -40 I0-238 — 60-048 600-00 25-630 -31 I3-324 -53-064 597-24 20-120 — 22 16-920 -45-918 595-08 15-971 -13 21-472 -38-646 593-0O I2-783 - 4 27-000 — 3I-2I2 590-00 I0-3I6 5 33-701 -23-634 586-82 8-394 14 41-522 -15-894 581-00 6-888 23 50-908 - 8-028 576-00 5-703 32 61-857 o-ooo 571-00 4-742 4i 74-513 8-172 562-50 3-973 50 89-159 16-506 555-48 3-364 59 105-939 24-966 55O-0O 2-851 68 124-994 33-588 541-00 2-435 77 146-908 42-354 53i-oo 2-098 86 170-782 51-282 523-00 1-810 95 197-800 60-336 512-50 1 -57o 104 227-662 69-552 501-50 1-361 Table V. — Mollier 's Table for Saturated Carbon Dioxide Vapour (C0 2 ) t Vapour- tension Q ' Vo u lume of Temp, of in Pounds per Heat of Liquid Latent Heat of on< j Pound Ebullition. sq. m. from 3 2 Fahr. Evaporation. of £ aturated Degs. Fahr. Absolute. B.T.U. B.T.U. V C apour. ub ft. — 22 213-345 — 24-80 126-72 4330 -13 248-903 — 21-06 123-25 3670 - 4 288-727 -17-19 H9-43 3130 5 334-240 -13-17 115-25 2680 14 385-443 — 9-00 110-65 2295 23 440-913 - 4-63 105-53 1955 32 503-497 O-00 99-81 1670 41 573-187 4-93 93-35 1430 50 649-991 10-28 85-93 1202 59 733-906 16-22 77-40 1010 68 826-356 23-08 66-47 0833 77 930-184 3I-63 51-80 0673 86 1039-701 45-45 27-00 O481 87-8 10621458 51-61 15-12 O416 88-43 1070-991 59-24 0-00 0352 The action of a vapour compression machine is shown in fig. 3. Liquid at the condenser temperature being introduced into the re- frigerator through the regulating valve, a small portion evaporates and reduces the remaining liquid to the temperature Ti. This is shown by the curve AB, and is the useless work represented by the expression (q2~qi)/r. Evaporation then continues at the constant temperature T, abstracting heat from the substance outside the refrigerator as shown by the line BC. The vapour is then compressed along the line CD, to the temperature T 2 , when, by the action of the cooling water in the condenser, heat is abstracted at constant temperature and the vapour condensed along the line DA. In a compression machine the refrigerator is usually a series of iron o>- steel coils surrounded by the air, brine or other substance it 23 REFRIGERATING 33 6 c Fig. 3. — Action of Vapour Compression Machine. is desired to cool. One end (generally the bottom) of the coils is connecced to the liquid pipe from the condenser and the other end to the suction of the compressor. Liquid from the condenser is ad- mitted to the coils through an ad- justable regulating valve, and by taking heat from the substance out- side is evaporated, the vapour being continually drawn off by the com- pressorand discharged under increased pressure into the condenser. The condenser is constructed of coils like the refrigerator, the cooling water being contained in a tank; fre- quently, however, a series of open coils is employed, the cooling water falling over the coils into a collecting tray below, and this form is perhaps the most convenient for ordinary use as it affords great facilities for inspection and painting. The compressor may be driven by a steam engine or in any other convenient manner. The pressure in the condenser varies according to the temperature of the cooling water, and that in the refrigerator is dependent upon the temperature to which the outside substance is cooled. In an ammonia machine copper and copper alloys must be avoided, but for carbonic acid they are not objectionable. The compression of ammonia is sometimes carried out on what is known as the Linde or " wet " system, and sometimes on the " dry " system. When wet compression is used the regulating valve is opened to such an extent that a little more liquid is passed than can be evaporated in the refrigerator. This liquid enters the compressor with the vapour, and is evaporated there, the heat taken up preventing the rise in temperature during compression which would otherwise take place. The compressed vapour is dis- charged at a temperature but little above that of the cooling water. With dry compression, vapour alone is drawn into the compressor, and the temperature rises to as much as 180 or 200 degrees. Wet compression theoretically is not quite so efficient as dry compression, but it possesses practical advantages in keeping the working parts of the compressor cool, and it also greatly facilitates the regulation of the liquid, and ensures the full duty of the machine being. continu- ously performed. Very exact comparative trials have been made by Professor M. Schroeter and others with compression machines using sulphur dioxide and ammonia. The results are published in Vergleichende Versuche an K dllemaschinen, by Schroeter, Munich, 1 890, and in Nos. 32 and 5 1 of Bayerisches Industrie und Gewerbeblatt, 1892. Some of the results obtained by Schroeter in 1893 with an ordinary brine cooling machine on the Linde ammonia system are given in Table VI. : — Table VI. Temperature reduction in refriger- ' ator. Degs. Fahr 42-8 to 37-41 28-4 to 23 14 to 8-6 -0-4 to -5-8 I. H. P. in steam cylinder .... IS'79 16-48 15-29 I4'2S 11-98 14-33 I4'3 13-54 Pressure in refrigerator in pounds per sq. in. above atmosphere . . 45'2 3»'6 19-8 0"9 Pressure in condenser in pounds per sq. in. above atmosphere . 116-0 IIS'O Iio-O 108-0 Heat abstracted in refrigerator. B.T.U. per hour 342102 263400 171515 X21218 Heat rejected in condenser. 3775^7 301200 214347 158594 The principle of the absorption process is chemical or physical rather than mechanical; it depends on the fact that many Absorp- vapours of low boiling-point are readily absorbed in tloa water, and can be separated again by the application machines. f heat. In its simplest form an absorption machine consists of two iron vessels connected together by a bent pipe. One of these contains a mixture of ammonia and water, which on the application of heat gives off a mixed vapour containing a large proportion of ammonia, a liquid containing but little ammonia being left behind. In the second vessel, which is placed in cold water, the vapour rich in ammonia is condensed under pressure. To produce refrigeration the operation is reversed. On allowing the weak liquor to cool to normal temperature, it becomes greedy of ammonia (at 6o° F. at atmospheric pressure water will absorb about 760 times its own volume of ammonia vapour), and this produces an evaporation from the liquid in the vessel previously used as a condenser. This liquid, containing a large proportion of ammonia, gives off vapour at a low temperature, and therefore becomes a refrigerator abstracting heat from water or any surrounding body. When the ammonia is evaporated the operation as described must be again commenced. Such an apparatus is not much used now. Larger and more elaborate machines were made by F. P. E. Carr6 in France; but no very high degree of perfection was xxiii. 2 ftetnfl r*Lor arrived at, owing to the impossibility of getting an anhydrous product of distillation. In 1867 Rees Reece, taking advantage of the fact that two vapours of different boiling-points, when mixed, ran be separated by means of fractional condensation, brought out an absorption machine in which the distillate was very nearly anhydrous. By means of vessels termed the analyser and the rectifier, the bulk of the water was condensed at a comparatively high temperature and run back to the generator, while the ammonia passed into a condenser, and there assumed the liquid form under the pressure produced by the heat in the generator and the cooling action of water circulating outside the condenser tubes. Fig. 4 is a diagram of an absorption apparatus. The ammonia vapour given off in the refrigerator is absorbed by a cold weak solution of ammonia and water in the absorber, and the strong liquor is pumped back into the generator condenser through an interchanger through which also the weak hot liquor from the generator passes on its way to the absorber. In this way the strong liquor is heated before it enters the generator, and the weak liquor is cooled iterator- 1 before it enters the absorber.^,^^ The generator being heated by means of a steam coil, ammonia vapour is driven off at such a pressure as to cause its condensation in the Fig. 4. condenser. From the con- denser it passes into the refrigerator through a regulating valve in the usual manner. The process is continuous, and is identical with that of the compression machine, with the exception of the return from the temperature Ti to the temperature T 2 , which is brought about by the direct application of heat instead of by means of mechan- ical compression. With the same temperature range, however, the same amount of heat has to be acquired in both cases, though from the nature of the process the actual amount of heat demanded frbm the steam is much greater in the absorption system than in the compression. This is chiefly due to the fact that in the former the heat of vaporization acquired in the refrigerator is rejected in the absorber, so that the whole heat of vaporization has to be supplied again by the steam in the generator. In the latter the vapour passes direct from the refrigerator to the pump, and power has to be expended merely in raising the temperature to a sufficient degree to enable condensation to occur at the temperature of the cooling water. On the other hand, a great advantage is gained in the absorption machine by using the direct heat of the steam, without first converting it into mechanical work, for in this way its latent heat of vaporization can be utilized by condensing the steam in the coils and letting it escape in the form of water. Each pound of steam can thus be made to give up some 950 units of heat; while in a good steam engine only about 200 units are utilized in the steam cylinder per pound of steam, and in addition allowance has to be made for mechanical inefficiency. In the absorption machine the cooling water has to take up about twice as much heat as in the compression system, owing to the ammonia being twice liquefied— namely, once in the absorber and once in the condenser. It is usual to pass the cooling water first through the condenser and then through the absorber. The absorption machine is not so economical as the compres- sion ; but an actual comparison between the two systems is difficult to make. Information on this head is given in papers read by Dr. Linde and by Professor J. A. Ewing before the Society of Arts (Journal of the Society of Arts, vol. xlii., 1894, p. 322, and Howard Lectures, January, February and March 1897). An absorption apparatus as applied to the cooling of liquids consists of a generator containing coils to which steam is supplied at suitable pressure, an analyser, a rectifier, a condenser either of the submerged or open type, a refrigerator in which the nearly anhydrous ammonia obtained in the condenser is allowed to eva- porate, an absorber through which the weak liquor from the gener- ator continually flows and absorbs the anhydrous vapour produced in the refrigerator, and a pump for forcing the strong liquor produced in the absorber back through an economizer into the analyser where, meeting with steam from the generator, the ammonia gas is again driven off ,_ the process being thus carried on continuously. Sometimes an additional vessel is employed for heating liquor by means of the exhaust steam from the engine driving the ammonia pump. Absorption machines are also made without a pump for returning the strong liquor to the generator. In these cases they work intermittently. In some machines the same vessel is used alternately as a generator and absorber, while in others; in order 11 34 REFRIGERATING to minimize the loss of time, two vessels are provided which can be used alternately as generators and absorbers. Applications. — Apart from the economical working of the machine itself, whatever system may be adopted, it is of importance that cold once produced should not be wasted, and it is therefore necessary to use some form of insulation to protect the vessels in which liquids are being cooled, or the rooms of ships' holds in which the freezing or storage processes are being carried on. This insulation generally consists of materials such as charcoal, silicate cotton, granulated cork, small pumice, hair-felt, sawdust, &c, held between layers of wood or brick, and forming a more or less heat-tight box. There is no recognized standard of insulation. For a cold store to be erected inside a brick or stone building, and to be maintained at an internal temperature of from i8° to 20 F., a usual plan is shown in fig. 5. The same insulation is used for the floors and Mfetl ^TAt*- Some* ?'&UiCftte CrttOA -Insulation of a Cold Store. ceilings, except that the wearing surface of the floor is generally made thicker than the inside lining of the sides. Should the walls or floor be damp, waterproof paper is added. Granulated cork has practically the same insulating properties as silicate cotton, and the same thicknesses may be used. About 10 in. of flake charcoal and vegetable silica, or n of small pumice, are required to give the same protection as 7 in. of good silicate cotton. Cork bricks made of compressed granulated cork are frequently used, a thickness of about 5 in. giving the same protection as 7 in. of silicate cotton. The walls and ceilings are finished off with a smooth coating of hard cement and the floors are protected by cement or asphalt, according to the nature of the traffic on them. For lager-beer cellars and fermenting rooms, for bacon-curing cellars, and for similar purposes, brick walls with single or double air spaces are used, and sometimes a space filled with silicate cotton or other in- sulating material. In Australia and New Zealand pumice, which is found in enormous quantities in the latter country, takes the place of charcoal and silicate cotton. In Canada air spaces are largely used either alone or in combination with silicate cotton or planer shavings. The air spaces, two or three in number, are formed between two layers of tongued and grooved wood, and the total thickness of the insulation is about the same as when silicate cotton alone is used. On board ship charcoal has been almost entirely employed, but silicate cotton and granulated cork are sometimes used. The material is either placed directly up to the skin of the vessel, and kept in place by a double lining of wood inside, in which case a thickness of about 10 in. is used depending upon the depth of the frames, or it is placed between two layers of wood, with an air space next the skin, in which case about 6 in. of flake charcoal is generally sufficient for the insulation of the holds, though for deck-houses and other parts exposed to the sun the thickness must be greater. A layer of sheet zinc or tin has frequently to be used as pro- tection from rats. Given a certain allowable heat transmission, the principal points to be considered in connexion with insulation are, first cost, durability, weight and space occupied, the two last named being specially important factors on board ship. No exact rules can be laid down, as the conditions vary so greatly; and though experiments have been made to determine the actual heat conduction of various materials per unit of surface, thickness and temperature difference, the experience of actual practice is at present the only accepted guide. With compressed-air machines which discharge the cold air direct into the insulated room or hold, a snow box is provided close to the outlet of the expansion cylinder to catch the snow and congealed oil. The air is distributed by means of wood air trunks with openings controlled by slides, and similar trunks are pro- vided in connexion with the suction of the compresser to conduct the air back to the machine. With liquid machines of the compres- sion and absorption system, the rooms are either cooled by means of cold pipes or surfaces placed in them, or by a circulation of air cooled in an apparatus separated from the rooms. The cold pipes may be direct-expansion pipes in which the liquid evaporates, or they may be pipes or walls through which circulates an un- congealable brine previously cooled to the desired temperature. The pipes are placed on the ceilings or sides according to circum- stances, but they must be arranged so as to induce a circulation of air throughout the compartment and ensure every part being cooled. With what is termed the air circulation system the air is generally circulated by means of a fan, being drawn from the rooms through ducts, passed over a cooler, and returned again to the rooms by other ducts. In some coolers the cooling surfaces consist of direct-expansion pipes placed in clusters of convenient form ; in others brine pipes are used ; in others there is a shower of cold brine, and in some cases combinations of cold pipes and brine showers. Whether pipes in the rooms or air circulation give the best results is to some extent a matter of opinion, but at the present time the tendency is decidedly in favour of air circulation, at any rate for general cold storage purposes. Whichever system be adopted, it is important for economical reasons that ample cooling surface be allowed, and that all surfaces be kept clean and active, to make the difference between the temperature of the evaporating liquid and the rooms as small as possible. Small surfaces reduce first cost, but involve higher working expenses by decreasing the value of Ti/(Ts — Ti), and thus demanding more energy, and consequently more fuel, to effect the given result than if larger surfaces were employed. The general arrangement of an ice factory for producing can ice is shown in fig. 6. The water to be frozen is contained in galvanized W Fig. 6. — General Arrangement of an Ice Factory. or terned steel moulds suspended in a tank filled to the proper level with brine maintained at the desired temperature. The moulds are frequently arranged in frames, so that by means of an overhead crane one complete row is lifted at a time. When the water is frozen the moulds are dipped in a tank containing warm water, and on being tipped the blocks of ice fall out. Ordinary water contains air, and ice made from it is generally opaque, due to the inclusion of numerous small air-bubbles. To produce clear ice the water must be agitated during the freezing process, or previously boiled to get rid of the air. Distilled water is frequently used, as well as the water produced by the condensation of the steam from the engine, which of course must be thoroughly purified and filtered. It should be noted, however, that with an ice- making plant of moderate size and a steam-engine of good con- struction the weight of steam used will not nearly equal the weight of ice produced, so that 'the difference must be made up either by distillation, which is a costly process, or by ordinary water. Can ice is usually made in blocks weighing 56, 112 or 224 lb, and from 4 to 8 in. thick. For cell ice ordinary water is used, agitated REGAL 35 during freezing. The cells are flat and constructed of galvanized iron, so as to form a hollow space of about 2 in. in width, through which cold brine is circulated by a pump. They are placed vertically in a tank, the distance between them being from 8 to 14 in., according to the thickness of the ice to be produced. The tank is filled with water, which is kept in agitation by means of a reciprocating paddle or piston; in this way the air escapes, and with proper care a block of great transparency is produced. To thaw it off, warm brine is circulated through the cells. A usual size for cell ice is 4 ft. by 3 ft. by I ft. mean thickness, the weight being about 6 cwt. If perfectly transparent ice is required, the two sides of the block are not allowed to join up, and it is then called plate ice, which is often made in very large blocks, afterwards divided by saws or steam cutters. In such cases the evaporation of the ammonia or other refrigerating liquid frequently takes place in the cells themselves, brine being dispensed with. With a well- constructed can ice-plant of say 25 tons capacity per day, from 15 to 16 tons of ice should be made in Great Britain to a ton of best steam coal. For cell and plate ice the production is considerably below this, and the first cost of the plant is much greater than that for can ice. Fig. 7 shows an arrangement of cold storage on land, refrigerated on the air circulation system. The insulated rooms, on two floors, Fig. 7. — Cold Stores. are approached by corridors, so as to exclude external air, which if allowed to enter would deposit moisture upon the cold goods. The air cooler is placed at the end, and the air is distributed by means of wood ducts furnished with slides for regulating the temperature of the rooms, which are insulated according to the method shown in fig. 5. In some cases, instead of the entrance being at the sides or ends, it is at the top, all goods being raised to the top floor in lifts and lowered by lifts into the rooms. With good machinery the cost of raising is not great, and is probably equalled by the saving in refrigeration, since the rooms hold the heavy cold air as a glass holds water. Large passenger vessels and yachts are now generally fitted with refrigerating machinery for preserving provisions, cooling water and wine, and making ice. Usually two insulated compartments are provided, one for frozen meats at about 20° F., and one for vegetables, &c, at about 40 . They have a capacity of from 1500 to 3000 cub. ft. or more, according to the number of passen- gers carried, and they are generally cooled by means of brine pipes, though direct expansion and air circulation are sometimes adopted. A passenger vessel requires from 2 to 4 cwt. of ice per day. On battleships and cruisers the British Admiralty use small compressed- air machines for ice-making, and larger machines, generally on the carbonic-acid system, for cooling the magazines. A modern frozen- meat-carrying vessel will accommodate as much as 120,000 carcases, partly sheep and partly lambs, requiring a hold capacity of about 300,000 cub. ft. In some vessels both fore and aft holds and 'tween decks are insulated. Lloyd's Committee, now issue certificates for refrigerating installations, if constructed according to their rules, and most modern cargo-carrying vessels have their refrigerating machinery classed at Lloyd's. In the meat trade between the River Plate, the United States, Canada and Great Britain, ammonia or carbonic acid machines are now exclusively used, but for the Australian and New Zealand frozen- meat trade compressed-air machines are still employed to a small extent. The holds of meat-carrying vessels are refrigerated either by cold air circulation or by brine pipes. Though the adoption of refrigerating and ice-making machinery for industrial purposes practically dates from the year 1880, the manufacture of these machines has already assumed very great proportions; indeed, in no branch of mechanical engineering, with the exception of electrical machinery, has there been so re- markable a development in recent years. The sphere of application is extending year by year. The cooling of residential and public buildings in hot countries, though attempted in a few cases in the United States and elsewhere, is yet practically untouched, the manufacture of ice and the preservation of perishable foods (apart from the frozen and chilled meat trades) have in many countries hardly received serious consideration, but in breweries, dairies, margarine works and many other industries there is a large and increasing field for refrigerating and ice-making machinery. A recent application is in the cooling and drying of the air blast for blast furnaces. Though this matter had been discussed for some years, it was only in 1904 that the first plant was put to work at Pittsburg. For further information reference may be made to the following: Siebel, Compend. of Mechanical Refrigeration (Chicago) ; Red- wood, Theoretical and Practical Ammonia Refrigeration (New York) ; Stephansky, Practical Running of an Ice and Refriger- ating Plant (Boston) ; Ledoux, Ice-Making Machines (New York) ; Wallis-Taylor, Refrigerating and Ice-Making Machines (London); Ritchie Leask, Refrigerating Machinery (London); De Volson Wood, Thermodynamics, Heat Motors and Refrigerating Machinery (New York) ; Linde, Kalteerzeugungsmaschine Lexikon der gesamten Technik; Behrend, Eis und Kalteerzeugungs- Maschinen (Halle) ; De Marchena, Kompressions Kdltemaschinen (Halle) ; Theodore Roller, Die Kdlteindustrie (Vienna) ; Voorhees, Indicating the Refrigerating Machine (Chicago) ; Norman Selfe, Machinery for Refrigeration (Chicago) ; Hans Lorenz, Modern Re- frigerating Machinery (London) ; Lehnert, Moderne Kaltetechnik (Leipzig) ; L. Marchis, Production et utilisation du froid (Paris) ; C. Heinel, Bau und Betrieb von Kdltemaschinen Anlagen (Oldenburg) ; R. Stetefeld, Eis und Kdlteerzeugungs-Maschinen (Stuttgart). (T. B. L.) REGAL, a small late-medieval portable organ, furnished with beating-reeds and having two bellows like a positive organ; also in Germany the name given to the reed-stops (beating-reeds) of a large organ, and more especially the " vox humana " stop. The name was not at first applied to the small table instrument, but to certain small brass pipes in the organ, sounded by means of beating-reeds, the longest of the 8-ft. tone being but 5^ in. long. Praetorius (1618) mentions a larger regal used in the court orchestras of some of the German princes, more like a positive, containing 4-ft., 8-ft. and even sometimes 16-ft. tone reeds, and having behind the case two bellows. These regals were used not only at banquets but often to replace positiyes in small and large churches. The very small regal, sometimes called Bible-regal, because it can be taken to pieces and folded up like a book, is also mentioned by the same writer, who states that these little instruments, first made in Nuremberg and Augsburg, have an unpleasantly harsh tone, due to their tiny pipes, not quite an inch long. The pipes in this case were not intended to reinforce the vibrations of the beating-reed or of its overtones as in the reed pipes of the organ, but merely to form an attachment for keeping the reed in its place without inter- fering with its functions. The beating-reed itself in the older organs of the early middle ages, many of which undoubtedly were reed organs, was made of wood; those of the regal were mostly of brass (hence their " brazen voices "). The length of the vibrating portion of the beating-reed governed the pitch of the pipe and was regulated by means of a wire passing through the socket, the other end pressing on the reed at the proper distance. Drawings of the reeds of regals and other reed-pipes, as well as of the instrument itself, are given by Praetorius (pi. iv., xxxviii.). H There is evidence to show that in England, and France also, the word " regal " was applied to reed-stops on the organ; Mersenne (1636) states that " now the word is applied to the vox humana stop on the organ." In England, as late as the reign of George III., there was the appointment of " tuner of the regals " to the Chapel Royal. The reed-stops required constant tuning, according to Prae- torius, who lays special emphasis on the fact'fthat the pitch of the reed-pipes alone falls in summer and rises in winter. During the 1 6th and 17th centuries the regal was a- very great favourite, and. although, owing to the civil wars and the ravages 36 REGALIA— REGENERATION OF LOST PARTS of time, very few specimens now remain, the regals are often men- tioned in old wills and inventories, such as the list of Henry VIII. 's musical instruments made after his death by Sir Philip Wilder (Brit. Mus. Harleian MS. 1415, fol. 200 seq.), in which no fewer than thirteen pairs of single and five pairs of double regals are mentioned. Monteverde scored for the regals in his operas, and the instrument is described and figured by S. Virdung in 151 1, Martin Agricola in 1528, and Ottmar Luscinius in 1536, as well as by Michael Praetorius in 1618. (K. S.) REGALIA (Lat. regalis, royal, from rex, king), the ensigns of royalty. The crown (see Crown and Coronet) and sceptre (see Sceptre) are dealt with separately. Other ancient symbols of royal authority are bracelets, the sword, a robe or mantle, and, in Christian times, a ring. Bracelets, as royal emblems, are mentioned in the Bible in connexion with Saul (2 Sam. i. 10), and they have been commonly used by Eastern monarchs. In Europe their later use seems to have been fitfully confined to England, although they were a very ancient ornament for kings among the Teutonic races. Two coronation bracelets are mentioned among the articles of the regalia ordered to be destroyed at the time of the Commonwealth, and two new ones Were made at the Restoration. These are of gold, i| in. in width, and ornamented with the rose, thistle, harp and fleur-de-lis in enamel round them. They have not been used for modern coronations. The sword is one of the usual regalia of most countries, and is girded on to the sovereign during the coronation. In England the one sword has been developed into five. The Sword of State is borne before the sovereign on certain state occasions, and at the coronation is exchanged for a smaller sword, with which the king is ceremonially girded. The three other swords- of the regalia are the " Curtana," the Sword of Justice to the Spirituality, and the Sword of Justice to the Temporality. The Curtana has a blade cut off short and square, indicating thereby the quality of mercy. The mantle, as a symbol of royalty, is almost universal, but in the middle ages other quasi-priestly robes were added to it (see Coronation). The English mantle was formerly made of silk; latterly cloth of gold has been used. The ring, by which the sovereign is wedded to his kingdom, is not of so wide a range of usage. That of the English kings held a large ruby with a cross engraved on it. Recently a sapphire has been substituted for the ruby. Golden spurs, though included among the regalia, are merely used to touch the king's feet, and are not worn. The orb and cross was not anciently placed in the king's hands during the coronation ceremony, but was carried by him in the left hand on leaving the church. It is emblematical of monarchical rule, and is only used by a reigning sovereign. The idea is undoubtedly derived from the globe with the figure of Victory with which the Roman emperors are depicted. The larger orb of the English regalia is a magnificent ball of gold, 6 in. in diameter, with a band round the centre edged with gems and pearls. A similar band arches the globe, on the top of which is a remarkably fine amethyst i| in. in height, upon which rests the cross of gold outlined with diamonds. There is a smaller orb made for Mary II., who reigned jointly with King William III. The English regalia, with one or two exceptions, were made for the coronation of Charles II. by Sir Robert Vyner. The Scottish regalia preserved at Edinburgh comprise the crown, dating, in part, from Robert the Bruce, the sword of state given to James IV. by Pope Julius II., and two sceptres. Besides regalia proper, certain other articles are sometimes included under the name, such as the ampulla for the holy oil, and the coronation spoon. The ampulla is of solid gold in the form of an eagle with outspread wings. It weighs 10 oz., and holds 6 oz. of oil. The spoon was not originally used for its present purpose. It is of the 12th or 13th century, with a long handle and egg- shaped bowl. Its history is quite unknown. See Cyril Davenport, The English Regalia, with illustrations in colour of all the regalia; Leopold Wickham Legg, English Corona- tion Records; The Ancestor, Nos. I and 2 (1902); Menin, The Form, &c, of Coronations (translated from French, 1727). REGENERATION OF LOST PARTS. A loss and renewal of living material, either continual or periodical, is a familiar occurrence in the tissues of higher animals. The surface of the human skin, the inner lining of the mouth and respiratory organs, the blood co/puscles, the ends of the nails, and many other portions of tissues are continuously being destroyed and replaced. The hair of many mammals, the feathers of birds, the epidermis of reptiles, and the antlers of stags are shed and replaced periodically. In these normal cases the regeneration depends on the existence of special formative layers or groups of cells, and must be regarded in each case as a special adapta- tion, with individual limitations and peculiarities, rather than as a mere exhibition of the fundamental power of growth and reproduction displayed by living substance. Many tissues, even in the highest animals, are capable of replacing an ab- normal loss of substance. Thus in mammals, portions of muscular tissue, of epithelium, of bone, and of nerve, after accidental destruction or removal, may be renewed. The characteristic feature of such cases appears to be, in the higher animals at any rate, that lost cells are replaced only from cells of the same morphological order — epiblastic cells from the epiblast, mesoblastic from the mesoblast, and so forth. It is also becoming clear that, at least in the higher animals, regenera- tion is in intimate relation with the central nervous system. The process is in direct relation to the general power of growth and reproduction possessed by protoplasm, and is regarded by pathologists as the consequence of " removal of resistances to growth." It is much less common in the tissues of higher plants, in which the adult cells have usually lost the power of reproduction, and in which the regeneration of lost parts is replaced by a very extended capacity for budding. Still, more complicated reproductions of lost parts occur in many cases, and are more difficult to understand. In Amphibia the entire epidermis, together with the slime-glands and the integumentary sense-organs, is regenerated by the epidermic cells in the vicinity of the defect. The whole limb of a Salamander or a Triton will grow again and again after amputation. Similar renewal is either rarer or more difficult in the case of Siren and Pro- teus. In frogs regeneration of amputated limbs does not usually take place, but instances have been recorded. Chelonians, croco- diles and snakes are unable to regenerate lost parts! to any extent, while lizards and geckoes possess the capacity in a high degrte. The capacity is absent almost completely in birds and mammals. In coelenterates, worms, and tunicates the power is exhibited in a very varying extent. In Hydra, Nais, and Lumbriculus, after transverse section, each part may complete the whole animal. In most worms the greater, and in particular the anterior part, will grow a new posterior part, but the separated posterior portion dies. In Hydra, sagittal and horizontal amputations result in the completion of the separated parts. In worms such operations result in death, which no doubt may be a mere consequence of the more severe wound. Extremely interesting instances of regenera- tion are what are called " Heteromorphoses," where the removed part is replaced by a dissimilar structure. The tail of a lizard, grown after amputation, differs in structure from the normal tail: the spinal cord is replaced by an epithelial tube which gives off no nerves; the vertebrae are replaced by an unsegmented carti- laginous tube; very frequently " super-regeneration " occurs, the amputated limb or tail being replaced by double or multiple new structures. J. Loeb produced many heteromorphoses on lower animals. He lopped off the polyp head and the pedal disc of a Tubularia, and supported the lopped stem in an inverted position in the sand; the original pedal end, now superior, gave rise to a new polyp head, while the neck-end, on regeneration, formed a pedal disc. In Cerianthus, a sea-anemone, and in done, an ascidian, regeneration after his operations resulted in the formation of new mouth-openings in abnormal places, surrounded by elaborate structures character- istic of normal mouths. Other observers have recorded hetero- morphoses in Crustacea, where antennulae have been regenerated in place of eyes. It appears that, in the same fashion as more simply organized animals display a capacity for reproduction of lost parts greater than that of higher animals, so embryos and embryonic structures generally have a higher power of renewal than that displayed by the corresponding adult organs or organisms. Moreover, experimental work on the young stages of organisms has revealed a very striking series of phenomena, similar to the hetero- morphoses in adult tissues, but more extended in range. H. Driesch, O. Hertwig and others, by separating the segmentation spheres, by destroying some of them, by compressing young embryos by glass plates, and by many other means, have caused cells to develop REGALIA Plate I -' ■ ■*"•'» MB»I^ v.lfi 'j^WBBBIIiM^la^BBBHlBBB&J JH ^Sjfy^^^k ^BPB^lHHI^Al^^" 1 sac " ■ - al ll> ''••11 .*> f?j - jgplfflpllj 1 ^1 S^^^m^i | v " ■■- i *-*^* -St EDWARD'S CROWN, The ancient crown was destroyed at the Commonwealth, and a model made for Charles IPs coronation. 2.— THE IMPERIAL STATE CROWN, as worn by Queen Victoria. The Black Prince's ruby is in the centre. Modifications in the cap were made for the coronation of King Edward VII. and the smaller ''Cullman" diamond substituted for the sapphire below the ruby. 3-— QUEEN ALEXANDRA'S CO RON ATIO Koh-i-Noor in centre. '•jttfljsi fr- % s 2siffl W&; '• 4 Bi9%% jJ*jSj jljJB ■Uli "'1 it ^ok. ■' i 4-— THE COROXET OF THE PRINCE OF WALES. The illustrations on these plates are, except where otherwise stated, repro- duced by permission from ■ the unique collection of photographs in the pos- session of Sir Benjamin Stone, formerly M. P. for East Birmingham. i XXIII. j6. 5.— THE LARGER OR KING'S ORB. 6.— THE LESSER OR QUEEN'S ORB. Plate II. REGALIA i.— THE SCEPTRES: (a) The Scepter with the Dove; (b) The Royal Sceptre with the Cross {cf. Fig. 3); (c) The Queen's Sceptre with the Cross; \d) The Queen's Ivory Rod; ie) The Queen's Sceptre with the Dove. .j._ THE HEAD OF THE ROYAL > 1 SCEPTRE with (he largest of J the "Star of Africa" (Cullman) Li Diamonds. Photo, W. E. Gray. 5.- THE BRACELETS. 6.— THE AMPULLA. 7.— THE St GEORGE'S SPURS. 23 REGALIA Plate 111. is^ja^n^ ..—THE SILVER-GILT CHRISTENING FONT, made { Charles II. 2 — QUEEN ELIZABETH'S SALT-CELLAR. 3.--SILVER-GILT ALTAR DISH, used at Christmas and Easter in the Chapel of St Peter ad Vincula, Tower of London. 4.— THE GOLD SALT-CELLAR presented to the Crown by the City of Exeter. Plate IV. REGALIA i™« REGENSBURG— REGENT 37 so as to give rise to structures which in normal development they would not have formed. It is clear that there are at least three kinds of factors in- volved in regeneration. There are: (i) Regenerations due to the presence of undifferentiated, or little differentiated, cells, which have retained the normal capacity of multiplication when conditions are favourable. (2) Regenerations due to the presence of special complicated rudiments, the stimulus to the development of which is the removal of the fully formed structure. (3) Regeneration involving the general capacity of protoplasm to respond to changes in the surroundings by changes of growth. The most general view is to regard re- generations as special adaptations; and A. Weismann, following in this matter Arnold Lang, has developed the idea at con- siderable length, and has found a place for regenerations in his system of the germ-plasm (see Heredity) by the conception of the existence of " accessory determinants." Hertwig, on the other hand, attaches great importance to the facts of regeneration as evidence for his view that every cell of a body contains a similar essential plasm. In E. Schwalbe's Morphologic der Minbildungen (1904), part i. chap, v., an attempt is made to associate the facts of regeneration with those of embryology and pathology. Our knowledge of the facts, however, is not yet systematic enough to allow of important general conclusions. The power of regeneration appears to be in some cases a special adaptation, but more often simply an expression of the general power of protoplasm to grow and to reproduce its kind. It has been suggested that regenerated parts always repre- sent ancestral stages, but there is no conclusive evidence for this view. (P- C. M.) REGENSBURG (Ratisbon), a city and episcopal see of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, and the capital of the government district of the Upper Palatinate. Pop. (1905) 48,412. It is situated on the right bank of the Danube, opposite the influx of the Regen, 86 m. by rail N.E. from Munich, and 60 m. S.E. of Nuremberg. On the other side of the river is the suburb Stadt-am-Hof, connected with Regensburg by a long stone bridge of the 12th century, above and below which are the islands of Oberer and Unterer Worth. In appearance the town is quaint and romantic, presenting almost as faithful a picture of a town of the early middle ages as Nuremberg does of the later. One of the most characteristic features in its architecture is the number of strong loopholed towers attached to the more ancient dwellings. The interesting " street of the envoys " (Gesandtenstrasse) is so called, because it contained the residences of most of the envoys to the German diet, whose coats-of-arms may still be seen on many of'the houses. The cathedral, though small, is a very interesting example of pure German Gothic. It was founded in 1275, and completed in 1634, with the exception of the towers, which were finished in 1869. The interior contains numerous interesting monuments, including one of Peter Vischer's masterpieces. Adjoining the cloisters are two chapels of earlier date than the cathedral itself, one of which, known as the " old cathedral," goes back perhaps to the 8th century. The church of St James — also called Schottenkirche — a plain Romanesque basilica of the 1 2th century, derives its name from the monastery of Irish Benedictines (" Scoti ") to which it was attached; the principal doorway is covered with very singular grotesque carvings. The old parish church of St Ulrich is a good example of the Transition style of the 13th century, and contains a valu- able antiquarian collection. Examples of the Romanesque basilica style are the church of Obermunster, dating from 1010, and the abbey church of St Emmeran, built in the 13th century, and remarkable as one of the few German churches with a detached belfry. The beautiful cloisters of the ancient abbey, one of the oldest in Germany, are still in fair preservation. In 1809 the conventual buildings were converted into a palace for the prince of Thurn and Taxis, hereditary postmaster-general of the Holy Roman Empire. The town hall, dating in part from the 14th century, contains the rooms occupied by the imperial diet from 1663 to 1806. An historical interest also •attaches to the Gasthof zum Goldenen Kreuz (Golden Cross Inn), where Charles V. made the acquaintance of Barbara Blomberg, the mother of Don John of Austria (b. 1547). The house is also shown where Kepler died in 1630. Perhaps the most pleasing modern building in the city is the Gothic villa of the king of Bavaria on the bank of the Danube. At Kumpfmuhl, in the immediate neighbourhood of the city, was discovered, in 1885, the remains of a Roman camp with an arched gateway; the latter, known as the Porta Praetoria, was cleared in 1887. Among the public institutions of the city should be mentioned the public library, picture gallery, botanical garden, and the institute for the making of stained glass. The educational establishments include two gymnasia, an episcopal clerical seminary, a seminary for boys and a school of church music. Among the chief manufactures are iron and steel wares, pottery, parquet flooring, tobacco, and lead pencils. Boat-building is also prosecuted, and a brisk transit trade is carried on in salt, grain and timber. Near Regensburg are two very handsome classical buildings, erected by Louis I. of Bavaria as national monuments of German patriotism and greatness. The more imposing of the two is the Walhalla, a costly reproduction of the Parthenon, erected as a Teutonic temple of fame on a hill rising from the Danube at Donau- stauf, 6 m. to the east. The interior, which is as rich as coloured marbles, gilding, and sculptures can make it, contains the busts of more than a hundred German worthies. The second of King Louis's buildings is the Befreiungshalle at Kelheim, 14 m. above Regensburg, a large circular building which has for its aim the glorification of the heroes of the war of liberation in 1813. The early Celtic settlement of Radespona (L. Lat. Ratisbona) was chosen by the Romans, who named it Castra Regina, as the centre of their power on the upper Danube. It is mentioned as a trade centre as early as the 2nd century. It afterwards became the seat of the dukes of Bavaria, and one of the main bulwarks of the East Frankish monarchy; and it was also the focus from which Christianity spread over southern Germany. St Emmeran founded an abbey here in the middle of the 7th century, and St Boniface established the bishopric about a hundred years later. Regensburg acquired the freedom of the empire in the 13th century, and was for a time the most flourishing city in southern Germany. It became the chief seat of the trade with India and the Levant, and the boat- men of Regensburg are frequently heard of as expediting the journeys of the Crusaders. The city was loyally Ghibelline in its sympathies, and was a favourite residence of the emperors. Numerous diets were held here from time to time, and after 1663 it became the regular place of meeting of the German diet. The Reformation found only temporary acceptance at Regensburg, and was met by a counter-reformation inspired by the Jesuits. Before this period the^city had almost wholly lost its commercial importance owing to the changes in the great highways of trade. Regensburg had its due share in the Thirty Years' and other wars, and is said to have suffered in all no fewer than seventeen sieges. In 1807 the town and bishopric were assigned to the prince primate Dalberg, and in 1810 they were' ceded to Bavaria. After the battle of Eggmiihl in 1809 the Austrians retired upon Regensburg, and the pursuing French defeated them again beneath its walls and reduced a great part of the city to ashes. See Gemeiner, Chronik der Stadt und des Hochstifts Regensburg (4 vols., Regensburg, 1800-24) ; Chroniken der deutschen Stddte, vol. xv. (Leipzig, 1878) ; Count v.Waldersdorf, Regensburg in seiner Vergangen- heit und Gegenwart (4th ed., Regensburg, 1896) ; Fink, Regensburg in seiner Vorzeit und Gegenwart (6th ed., Regensburg, 1903) ; and Schratz, Fuhrer durch Regensburg (5th ed., G. Dengler, Regensburg, 1904). REGENT (from Lat. regere, to rule), one who rules or governs, especially one who acts temporarily as an administrator of the realm during the minority or incapacity of the king. This latter function, however, is one unknown to the English common law. " In judgment of law the king, as king, cannot be said to be a minor, for when the royal body politic of the king doth meet with the natural capacity in one person the whole body shall have the quality of the royal politic, which is the greater and more worthy and wherein is no minority. For omne majus continet in se minus " (Coke upon Littleton, 43a) . But for reasons of necessity a regency, however anomalous it may be in strict law, has frequently been constituted both in England and Scotland. The earliest instance in English history is the appointment of the earl of Pembroke with the assent of the loyal barons on the accession of Henry III. Whether or not the sanction of parliament is necessary for the appointment is a question which has been much discussed. Lord Coke recommends that the office should depend on the will of 38 REGGIO CALABRIA— REGICIDE parliament (Inst., vol. iv. p. 58), and in modern times provision for a regency has always been made by act of parliament. In Scotland the appointment of regents was always either by the assent of a council or of parliament. Thus in 1315 the earl of Moray was ap- pointed regent by Robert I. in a council. At a later period appoint- ment by statute was the universal form. Thus by an act of 1542 the earl of Arran was declared regent during the minority of Mary. By an act of 1567 the appointment by Mary of the earl of Moray as regent was confirmed. As late as 1704 provision was made for a regency after the death of Arine. The earliest regency in England resting upon an express statute was that created by 28 Hen. VIII. c. 7, under which the king appointed his executors to exercise the authority of the crown till the successor to the crown should attain the age of eighteen if a male or sixteen if a female. They delegated their rights to the protector Somerset, with the assent of the lords spiritual and temporal. No other example of a statutory provision for a regency occurs till 1751. In that year the act of 24 Geo. II. c. 24 constituted the princess-dowager of Wales regent of the kingdom in case the crown should descend to any of her children before such child attained the age of eighteen. A council, called the council of regency, was appointed to assist the princess. A prescribed oath was to be taken by the regent and members of the council. Their consent was necessary for the marriage of a successor to the crown during minority. It was declared to be unlawful for the regent to make war or peace, or ratify any treaty with any foreign power, or prorogue, adjourn or dissolve any parliament without the consent of the majority of the council of regency, or give her assent to any bill for repealing or varying the Act of Settlement, the Act of Uniformity, or the Act of the Scottish parliament for securing the Protestant religion and Presbyterian church government in Scotland (1707, c. 6). The last is an invariable provision, and occurs in all subsequent Regency Acts. The reign of George III. affords examples of pro- vision for a regency during both the infancy and incapacity of a king. The act of 5 Geo. III. c. 27 vested in the king power to ap-' point a regent under the sign manual, such regent to be one of certain named members of the royal family. The remaining pro- visions closely followed those of the act of George II. In 1788 the insanity of the king led to the introduction of a Regency bill. In the course of the debate in the House of Lords the duke of York disclaimed on behalf of the prince of Wales any right to assume the regency without the consent of parliament. Owing to the king's recovery the bill ultimately dropped. On a return of the malady in 1810 the act of 51 Geo. III. c. I was passed, appointing the prince of Wales regent during the king's incapacity. The royal assent was given by commission authorized by resolution of both Houses. By this act no council of regency was appointed. There was no restriction on the regent's authority over treaties, peace and war, or parliament, as in the previous acts, but his power of granting peerages, offices and pensions was limited. At the accession of William IV. the duchess of Kent was, by I Will. IV. c. 2, appointed regent, if necessary, until the Princess Victoria should attain the age of eighteen. No council of regency was appointed. By I Vict. c. 72 lords justices were nominated as a kind of regency council without a regent in case the successor to the crown should be out of the realm at the queen's death. They were restricted from granting peerages, and from dissolving parliament without direc- tions from the successor. By 3 & 4 Vict. c. 52 Prince Albert was appointed regent in case any of Queen Victoria's children should succeed to the crown under the age of eighteen. The only restraint on his authority was the usual prohibition to assent to any bill repealing the Act of Settlement, &c. When George V. came to the throne a Regency Bill was again required, as his eldest son was under age, and Queen Mary was appointed. By 10 Geo. IV. c. 7 the office of regent of the United Kingdom cannot be held by a Roman Catholic. A similar disability is imposed in most, if not all, Regency Acts. REGGIO CALABRIA (anc. Regium, q.v.), a town and archi- episcopal see of Calabria, Italy, capital of the province of Reggio, on the Strait of Messina, 248 m. S.S.E. from Naples by rail. Pop. (1906) 39,941 (town); 48,362 (commune). It is the terminus of the railways from Naples along the west coast, and from Metaponto along the east coast of Calabria. The straits are here about 7 m. wide, and the distance to Messina nearly 10 m. The ferryboats to Messina therefore cross by preference from Villa S. Giovanni, 8 m. N. of Reggio, whence the distance is only 5 m. In 1894 the town suffered from an earthquake, though less severely than in 1783. It was totally destroyed, however, by the great earthquake of December 1908; in the centre of the town about 35,000 out of 40,000 persons perished. The cathedral, which dated from the 17th century, and the ancient castle which rose above it, were wrecked. Great damage was done by a seismic wave following the shock. The sea front was swept away, and the level of the land here- abouts was lowered. (See further Messina.) REGGIO NELL' EMILIA, a city and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, the capital of the province of Reggio nell' Emilia (till 1859 part of the duchy of Modena), 38 m. by rail N.W. of Bologna. Pop. (1906) 19,681 (town); 64,548 (commune). The cathe- dral, originally erected in the 12th century, was reconstructed in the 15th and 16th; the facade shows traces of both periods, the Renaissance work being complete only in the lower portion. S. Prospero, close by, has a facade of 1504, in which are incor- porated six marble lions belonging to the original Romanesque edifice. The Madonna della Ghiara, built in 1597 in the form of a Greek cross, and restored in 1900, is beautifully proportioned and finely decorated in stucco and with frescoes of the Bolognese school of the early 17th century. There are several good palaces of the early Renaissance, a fine theatre (1857) and a museum containing important palaeo-ethnological collections, ancient and medieval sculptures, and the natural history collection of Spallanzani. Lodovico Ariosto, the poet (1474-1533), was born in Reggio, and his father's house is still preserved. The industries embrace the making of cheese, objects in cement, matches, and brushes, the production of silkworms, and printing; and the town is the centre of a rich agricultural district. It lies on the main line between Bologna and Milan, and is con- nected by branch lines with Guastalla and Sassuolo (hence a line to Modena). Regium Lepidi or Regium Lepidum was probably founded by M. Aemilius Lepidus at the time of the construction of the Via Aemilia (187 B.C.). It lay upon this road, half-way between Mutina and Parma. It was during the Roman period a flourishing munici- pium, but perhaps never became a colony; and it is associated with no event more interesting than the assassination of M. Brutus, the father of Caesar's friend and foe. The bishopric dates perhaps from the 4th century A.D. Under the Lombards the town was the seat of dukes and counts; in the 12th and 13th centuries it formed a flourishing republic, busied in surrounding itself with walls (1229), controlling the Crostolo and constructing navigable canals to the Po, coining money of its own, and establishing prosperous schools. About 1290 it first passed into the hands of Obizzo d'Este, and the authority of the Este family was after many vicissitudes more formally recognized in 1409. In the contest for liberty which began in 1796 and closed with annexation to Piedmont in 1859, Reggio took vigorous part. REGICIDE (Lat. rex, a king, and caedere, to kill), the name given to any one who kills a sovereign. Regicides is the name given in English history at the Restoration of 1660 to those persons who were responsible for the execution of Charles I. On the 4th of April 1660 Charles II. in the Declaration of Breda promised a free pardon to all his subjects " excepting only such persons as shall hereafter be excepted by parliament," and on the 14th of May the House of Commons ordered the immediate arrest of " all those persons who sat in judgment upon the late king's majesty when sentence was pronounced." The number of regicides was estimated at 84, this number being composed of the 67 present at the last sitting of the court of justice, 11 others who had attended earlier sittings, 4 officers of the court and the 2 executioners. Many of them were arrested or surrendered themselves, and the House of Commons in con- sidering the proposed bill of indemnity suggested that only twelve of the regicides, who were named, should forfeit their lives; but the House of Lords urged that all the king's judges, with three exceptions, and some others, should be treated in this way. Eventually a compromise was agreed upon, and the bill as passed on the 29th of August 1660 divided the regicides into six classes for punishment: (1) Four of them, although dead — Cromwell, Ireton, Bradshaw and Pride — were to be attainted for high treason. (2) The estates of twenty others, also dead, were to be subjected to fine or forfeiture. (3) Thirty living regicides were excepted from all indemnity. (4) Nineteen living regicides were also excepted, but with a saving clause that their execution was to be suspended, until a special act of parliament was passed for this purpose. (5) Six others were to be punished, but not capitally. (6) Two, Colonels Hutchinson and Thomas Lister, were simply declared incapable of holding any office. Two regicides — Ingoldsby, who declared he had only signed the warrant under compulsion, and Colonel Matthew Thomlinson — escaped without punishment. A court of thirty-four commissioners was then appointed to try the regicides, and the trial took place in October 1660. Twenty-nine were condemned to death, but only ten were actually executed, the remaining nineteen REGILLUS— REGIOMONTANUS 39 with six others being imprisoned for life. The ten who were exe- cuted at Charing Cross or Tyburn, London, in October 1660, were Thomas Harrison, John Jones, Adrian Scrope, John Carew, Thomas Scot, and Gregory Clement, who had signed the death-warrant; the preacher Hugh Peters; Francis Hacker and Daniel Axtel, who commanded the soldiers at the trial and the execution of the king; and John Cook, the solicitor who directed the prosecution. In January 1661 the bodies of Cromwell, Ireton, and Bradshaw were exhumed and hanged at Tyburn, but Pride's does not appear to have been treated in this way. Of the nineteen or twenty regicides who had escaped and were living abroad, three, Sir John Barkstead, John Okey and Miles Corbet, were arrested in Holland and executed in London in April 1662; and one, John Lisle, was murdered at Lausanne. The last survivor of the regicides was probably Edmund Ludlow, who died at Vevey in 1692. Ludlow's Memoirs, edited by C. H. Firth (Oxford, 1894), give interesting details about the regicides in exile. See also D. Masson, Life of Milton, vol. vi. (1880), and M. Noble, Lives of the English Regicides (1798). (A. W. H.*) REGILLUS, an ancient lake of Latium, Italy, famous in the legendary history of Rome as the lake in the neighbourhood of which occurred (496 B.C.) the battle which finally decided the hegemony of Rome in Latium. During the battle, so runs the story, the dictator Postumius vowed a temple to Castor and Pollux, who were specially venerated in Tusculum, the chief city of the Latins (it being a Roman usage to invoke the aid of the gods of the enemy), who appeared during the battle, and brought the news of the victory to Rome, watering their horses at the spring of Juturna, close to which their temple in the Forum was erected. There can be little doubt that the lake actually existed. Of the various identifications proposed, the best is that of Nibby, who finds it in a now dry crater lake (Pantano Secco), drained by an emissarium, the date of which is uncertain, some 2 m. N. of Frascati. Along the south bank ll the lake, at some 30 or 40 ft. above the present bottom, ran the aqueducts of the Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus. Most of the other sites proposed are not, as Regillus should be, within the limits of the territory of Tusculum. See T. Ashby in Rendiconti del Lincei (1898), 103 sqq., andClassical Review, 1898. (T. As.) REGIMENT (from Late Latin regimentum, rule, regere, to rule, govern, direct), originally government, command or authority exercised over others, or the office of a ruler or sovereign; in this sense the word was common in the 16th century. The most familiar instance is the title of the tract of John Knox, the First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women. The term as applied to a large body of troops dates from the French army of the 16th century. In the first instance it implied " command," as nowadays we speak of " General A's command," meaning the whole number of troops under his command. The early regiments had no similarity in strength or organization, except that each was under one commander. With the regularization of armies the commands of all such superior officers were gradually reduced to uniformity, and a regiment came to be definitely a colonel's command. In the British infantry the term has no tactical significance, as the number of battalions in a regiment is variable, and one at least is theoretically abroad at all times, while the reserve or terri- torial battalions serve under a different code to that governing the regular battalions. The whole corps of Royal Artillery is called " the Royal Regiment of Artillery." In the cavalry a regiment is tactically as well as administratively a unit of four squadrons. On the continent of Europe the regiment of infantry is always together under the command of its colonel, and consists of three or four battalions under majors or lieutenant-colonels. REGINA, the capital city of the province of Saskatchewan, Canada, situated at 104 36' W. and 50° 27' N., and 357 m. W. of Winnipeg. Pop. (1907) 9804. After the Canadian Pacific railway was completed in 1885, the necessity for a place of government on the railway line pressed itself upon the Dominion government. The North-West Territories were but little settled then, but a central position on the prairies was necessary, where the mounted police might be stationed and where the numerous Indian bands might be easily reached. The minister of the interior at Ottawa, afterwards Governor Dewdney, chose this spot, and for a number of years Regina was the seat of the Territorial government. The governor took up his abode on the adjoining plain, and the North-West Council met each year, with a show of constitutional government about it. On the formation of the province of Saskatchewan in 1905 the choice of capital was left to the first legislature of the province. Prince Albert, Moose Jaw and Saskatoon all advanced claims, but Regina was decided on as the capital. It probably doubled in population between 1905 and 1907. Its public buildings, churches and residences are worthy of a place of greater pre- tensions. It is the centre for a rich agricultural district, and for legislation, education, law and other public benefits. It remains the headquarters of the mounted police for the western provinces, and near it is an Indian industrial school of some note. REGINON, or Regino of PrtJm, medieval chronicler, was born at Altripp near Spires, and was educated in the monastery of Priim. Here he became a monk, and in 892, just after the monastery had been sacked by the Danes, he was chosen abbot. In 899, however, he was deprived of this position and he went to Trier, where he was appointed abbot of St Martin's, a house which he reformed. He died in 915, and was buried in the abbey of St Maximin at Trier, his tomb being discovered there in 1581. Reginon wrote a Chronicon, dedicated to Adalberon, bishop of Augsburg (d. 909), which deals with the history of the world from the commencement of the Christian era to 906, especially the history of affairs in Lorraine and the neighbourhood. The first book (to 741) consists mainly of extracts from Bede, Paulus Diaconus and other writers; of the second book (741-906) the latter part is original and valuable, although the chronology is at fault and the author relied chiefly upon tradition and hearsay for his informa- tion. The work was continued to 967 by a monk of Trier, possibly Adalbert, archbishop of Magdeburg (d. 981). The chronicle was first published at Mainz in 1 521; another edition is in Band I. of the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptofes (1826); the best is the one edited by F. Kurze (Hanover, 1890). It has been translated into German by W. Wattenbach (Leipzig, 1890). Reginon also drew up at the request of his friend and patron Radbod, archbishop of Trier (d. 915), a collection of canons, Libri duo de synodalibus causis et disciplines ecclesiasticis, dedicated to Hatto I., archbishop of Mainz; this is published in Tome 132 of J. P. Migne's Patrologia Lalina. To Radbod he wrote a letter on music, Epistola de harmonica institutione, with a Tonarius, the object of this being to improve the singing in the churches of the diocese. The letter is published in Tome I. of Gerbert's Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra (1784), and the Tonarius in Tome II. of Coussemaker's Scriptores de musica medii aevi. See also H. Ermisch, Die Chronih des Regino bis 813 (Gottingen, 1872); P. Schulz, Die Glaubwiirdig- keit des Abtes Regino] von Priim (Hamburg, 1894); C. Wawra, De Reginone Prumensis (Breslau, 1901); A. Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France, Tome I. (1901); and W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen, Band I. (1904). REGIOMONTANUS (1436-1476), German astronomer, was born at Kbnigsberg in Franconia on the 6th of June 1436. The son of a miller, his name originally was Johann Miiller, but he called himself, from his birthplace, Joh. de Monteregio, an appellation which became gradually modified into Regiomontanus. At Vienna, from 1452, he was the pupil and associate of George Purbach (1423-1461), and they jointly undertook a reform of astronomy rendered necessary by the errors they detected in the Alphonsine Tables. In this they were much hindered by the lack of correct translations of Ptolemy's works; and in 1462 Regiomontanus accompanied Cardinal Bessarion to Italy in search of authentic manuscripts. He rapidly mastered Greek at Rome and Ferrara, lectured on Alfraganus at Padua, and completed at Venice in 1463 Purbach's Epitome in CI. Ptolemaei magnam compositionem (printed at Venice in 1496), and his own De Triangulis (Nuremberg, 1533), the earliest work treating of trigonometry as a substantive science. A quarrel with George of Trebizond, the blunders in whose translation of the Almagest he had pointed out, obliged him to quit Rome pre- cipitately in 1468. He repaired to Vienna, and was thence summoned to Buda by Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, for the purpose of collating Greek manuscripts at a handsome salary. He also finished his Tabulae Directionum (Nuremberg, 1475), essentially a n astrological woijc, but containing a valuable table of tangents. An outbreak of war, meanwhile, diverted 40 REGISTER the king's attention from learning, and in 1471 Regiomontanus settled at Nuremberg. Bernhard Walther, a rich patrician, became his pupil and patron; and they together equipped the first European observatory, for which Regiomontanus himself constructed instruments of an improved type (described in his posthumous Scripta, Nuremberg, 1544). His observations of the great comet of January 1672 supplied the basis of modern cometary astronomy. At a printing-press established in Walther's house by Regiomontanus, Purbach's Theoricae planetarunt novae was published in 1472 or 1473; a series of popular calendars issued from it, and in 1474 a volume of Ephemerides calculated by Regiomontanus for thirty-two years (1474-1506), in which the method of "lunar distances," for determining the longitude at sea, was recommended and explained. In 1472 Regiomontanus was summoned to Rome by Pope Sixtus IV. to aid in the reform of the calendar;. and there he died, most likely of the plague, on the 6th of July 1476. Authorities. — P. Gassendi, Vita Jo. Regiomontani (Parisiis, 1654) ; J. G. Doppeimayr, Historische Nachricht von den Niirn- bergischen Mathematicis, pp. 1-23 (1730); G. A. Will, Niirnber- gisches Gelehrten-Lexikon, iii. 273 (1757); P. Niceron, Memoires pour servir A I'histoire des homines illustres, xxxviii. 337 (1737); J. F. Weidler, Hist. Astronomiae, p. 313; A. G. Kastner, Geschichte der Mathematik, i. 556, 572; J. F. Montucla, Hist, des mathe- matiques, 1. 541 ; E. F. Apelt, Die Reformation der Sternkunde, p. 34; M. Cantor, Vorlesungen titer Geschichte der Math., ii. 254- 264; M. Curtze, Urkunden zur Gesch. der Math., i. 187 (1902); Corr. Astr. vii. 21 (1822); G. H. Schubert, Peurbach und Regio- montan (Erlangen, 1828); A. Ziegler, Regiomontanus ein . geistiger Vorldufer des Columbus (1874) ; J. B. J. Delambre, Hist, de I'astrono- mie au moyen Age, p. 284; J. S. Bailly, Hist., de I'astr. moderne, i. 311; R. Wolf, Geschichte der Astronomie, p. 87; S. Giinther, Allg. Deutsche Biog., Bd. xxii. p. 564; C. G. Jocher's Gelehrten- Lexikon, iii. 1959, and Fortsetzung, vi. 1551 (H. W. Rotermund, Bremen, 1819); Ersch-Gruber' s Encyklopaedie, ii. th. xx. p. 205; C. T. von Murr, Memorabilia Bibliothecarum Norimbergensium, i. 74 (1786). - •;'■-•; (A. M.C.) REGISTER, a record of facts, proceedings, acts, events, names, &c, entered regularly for reference in a volume kept for that purpose, also the volume in which the entries are made. The Fr. registre is taken from the Med. Lat. registrum for registum, Late Lat. regesta, things recorded, hence list, catalogue, from regerere, to carry or bear back, to transcribe, enter on a roll. For the keeping of public registers dealing with various subjects see Registration and the articles there referred to, and for the records of baptisms, marriages and burials made by a parish clergyman, see section Parish Registers below. The keeper of a register was, until the beginning of the 19th century, usually known as a " register," but that title has in Great Britain now been superseded by "registrar"; it still survives in the Lord Clerk Register, an officer of state in Scotland, nominally the official keeper of the national records, whose duties are per- formed by the Deputy Clerk Register. In the United States the title is still " register." The term " register " has also been applied to mechanical contrivances for the automatic registration or recording of figures, &c. (see Cash Register), to a stop in an organ, to the compass of a voice or musical instrument, and also to an apparatus for regulating the in- and outflow of air, heat, steam, smoke or the like. Some of these instances of the application of the term are apparently due to a confusion in etymology, with Lat. regere, to rule, regulate. Parish Registers were instituted in England by an order of Thomas Cromwell, as vicegerent to Henry VIII., " supreme hedd undre Christ of the Church of Englande," in September 1538. The idea appears to have been of Spanish origin, Cardinal Ximenes having instituted, as archbishop of Toledo, registers of baptisms in 1497. They included, under the above order, baptisms, marriages and burials, which were to be recorded weekly. In 1597 it was ordered by the Convocation of Canterbury that parchment books should be provided for the registers and that transcripts should be made on parch- ment of existing registers on paper, and this order was repeated in the 70th canon of 1603. The transcripts then made now usually represent the earliest registers. It was further pro- vided at both these dates that an annual transcript of the register should be sent to the bishop for preservation in the diocesan registry, which was the origin of the " bishop's tran- scripts." The " Directory for the publique worship of God," passed by parliament in 1645, provided for the date of birth being also registered, and in August 1653, an Act of " Bare- bones' Parliament " made a greater change, substituting civil " parish registers " (sic) for the clergy, and ordering them to record births, banns, marriages and burials. The " register " was also to publish the banns and a justice to per- form the marriage. The register books were well kept under this civil system, but at the Restoration the old system was resumed. A tax upon births, marriages and burials imposed in 1694 led to the clergy being ordered to register all births, apart from baptisms, but the act soon expired and births were not again registered till 1836. Lord Hardwicke's Marriage Act (1754), by its rigid provisions, increased the registration of marriages by the parochial clergy and prescribed a form of entry. In 181 2 parish registers became the subject of parlia- mentary enactment, owing to the discovery of their deficiencies. Rose's Act provided for their safer custody, for efficient bishops, transcripts, and for uniformity of system. This act continued to regulate the registers till their supersession for practical purposes, in 1837, by civil registration under the act of 1836. In age; completeness and condition they vary much. A blue book on the subject was published in 1833, but the returns it contains are often inaccurate. A few begin even earlier than Cromwell's order, the oldest being that of Tipton, Staffs, (1513). Between 800 and 900, apparently, begin in 1538 or 1539. The entries were originally made in Latin, but this usage died out early in the 17th century: decay and the crabbed handwriting of the time render the earlier registers extremely difficult to read. There is general agreement as to the shocking neglect of these valuable records in the past, and the loss of volumes appears to have continued even through the 19th century. Their custody is legally vested in the parochial clergy and their wardens, but several proposals have been made for their removal to central depositories. The fees for searching them are determined by the act of 1836, which prescribes half a crown for each certified extract, and sixpence a year for searching, with a shilling for the first year. The condition of the " bishops' transcripts " was, through- out, much worse than that of the parish registers, there being no funds provided for their custody. The report on Public Records in 1800 drew attention to their neglect, but, in spite of the provisions in Rose's Act (181 2), little or nothing was done, and, in spite of their importance as checking, and even some- times supplementing deficient parish registers, they remained " unarranged, unindexed and unconsultable." Of recent years, -however, some improvement has been made. It has also been discovered that transcripts from " peculiars " exist in other than episcopal registries. Outside the parochial registers, which alone were official in character, there were, till 1754, irregular marriage registers, of which those of the Fleet prison are the most famous, and also registers of private chapels in London. Those of the Fleet and of Mayfair chapel were deposited with the registrar- general, but not authenticated. The registers of dissenting chapels remained unofficial till an act of 1840 validated a number which had been authenticated, and was extended to many others in 1858. Useful information on these registers, now mostly deposited with the registrar-general, will be found in Sims' Manual, which also deals with those of private chapels, of English settlements abroad preserved in London, and with English Roman Catholic registers. These last, however, begin only under George II. and are restricted to certain London chapels. The printing of parish registers has of late made much progress, but the field is so vast that the rate is relatively slow. There is a Parish Register Society, and a section of the Harleian Society engaged on the same work, as well as some county societies and also one for Dublin. But REGISTRATION 4i so many have been issued privately or by individuals that reference should be made to the lists in Marshall's Genealogist's Guide (1893) and Dr Cox's Parish Registers (1010), and even this last is not perfect. The Huguenot Society has printed several registers of the Protestant Refugees, and Mr Moens that of the London Dutch church. There are also several registers of marriages alone now in print, such as that of St Dunstan's, Stepney, in 3 vols. Colonel Chester's extensive MS. collection of extracts from parish registers is now in the College of Arms, London, and the parishes are indexed in Dr Marshall's book. MS. extracts in the British Museum are dealt with in Sims' Manual. In Scotland registers of baptisms and marriages were insti- tuted by the clergy in issr, and burials were added by order of the Privy Council in 1616; but these were very imperfectly kept, especially in rural parishes. Yet it was not till 1854 that civil registration was introduced, by act of parliament, in their stead. Some 900 parish registers, beginning about 1563, have been deposited in the Register House, Edinburgh, under acts of parliament which apply to all those prior to 1819. Mr Hallen has printed the register of baptisms of Muthill Episcopal Church. In Ireland, parish registers were confined to the now dis- established church, which was that of a small minority, and were, as in Scotland, badly kept. Although great inconvenience was caused by this system, civil registration of marriages, when introduced in 1844, was only extended to Protestants, nor was it till 1864 that universal civil registration was intro- duced, great difficulty under the Old Age Pensions Act being now the result. No provision was made, as in Scotland, for central custody of the registers, which, both Anglican and Nonconformist, remain in their former repositories. Roman Catholic registers in Ireland only began, apparently, to be kept in the 19th century. In France registers, but only of baptism, were first instituted in 1539. The Council of Trent, however, made registers both of baptisms and of marriages a law of the Catholic Church in 1563, and Louis XIV. imposed a tax on registered baptisms and marriages in 1707. See Burn, The History of Parish Registers (1829, 1862) ; Sims, Manual for the Genealogist (1856,. 1888) ; Chester Waters, Parish- Registers in England (1870, 1882, 1887); Marshall, Genealogist's Guide (1893) ; A. M. Burke, Key to the Ancient Parish Registers (1908); J. C. Cox, Parish Registers of England (1910); W. D. Bruce, Account . . . of the Ecclesiastical Courts of Record (1854); Bigland , Observations on Parochial Registers (1764) ; Report of the Commis- sioners on the state of Registers of Births, &c. (1838); Lists of Non- parochial Registers and Records in the custody of the Registrar- General (1841); Report on Non-parochial Registers (1857); Detailed List of the old Parochial Registers of Scotland (1872). (J. H. R.) REGISTRATION. In all systems of law the registration of certain legal facts has been regarded as necessary, chiefly for the purpose of ensuring publicity arid simplifying evidence. Registers, when made in performance of a public duty, are as a general rule admissible in evidence merely on the production from the proper custody of the registers themselves or (in most cases) of examined or certified copies. The extent to which registration is carried varies very much in different countries. For obvious reasons, judicial decisions are registered in all countries alike. In other matters no general rule can be laid down, except perhaps that on the whole registration is not as fully enforced in the United Kingdom and the United States as in continental states. The most important uses of registra- tion occur in the case of judicial proceedings, land, ships, bills of sale, births, marriages and deaths, companies, friendly and other societies, newspapers, copyrights, patents, designs, trade marks and professions and occupations. In England registrars are attached to the privy council, the Supreme Court and the county courts. In the king's bench division (except in its bankruptcy jurisdiction) the duty of registrars is performed by the masters. Besides exercising limited judicial authority, registrars are responsible for the drawing up and recording of various stages of the proceedings from the petition, writ or plaint to the final decision. 1 With them are filed affidavits, depositions, pleadings, &c, when such filing is necessary. The difference between filing and registration is that the documents filed are filed without alteration, while only an 4 epitome is usually registered. The Judicature Act 1873 created district registries in the chief towns, the district registrar having an authority similar to that of a registrar of the Supreme Court. In the admiralty division cases of account are usually referred to the registrar arid merchants. The registration in the central office of the supreme court of judgments affecting lands, writs of execution, recognizances and lites pendentes in England, and the registration in Scotland of abbreviates of adjudications and of inhibitions, are governed by special legislation. All these are among the incumbrances for whkh search is made on investigating a title. Decisions of criminal courts are said to be recorded, not registered, except in the case of courts of summary jurisdiction, in which, by the Summary Jurisdiction Act 1879, a register of convictions is kept. Probates of wills and letters of administration, which are really judicial decisions, are registered in the principal or district registries of the probate division. In Scotland registration is used for giving a summary remedy on obligations without action by means of the fiction of a judicial decision having been given establishing the obligation. See also the separate articles Land Registration; Shipping; Bill of Sale; Companies; Friendly Societies; Building Societies; Press Laws; Copyright; Trade Marks; Patents, &c. Registration of Voters. — Prior to 1832 the right of parlia- mentary electors in England was determined at the moment of the tender of the vote at the election, or, in the event of a petition against the return, by a scrutiny, a committee of the House of Commons striking off those whose qualification was held to be insufficient, and, on the other hand, adding those who, having tendered their votes at the poll, with a good title to do so, were rejected at the time. A conspicuous feature of the Reform Act of that year was the introduction of a new mode of ascertaining the rights of electors by means of an entirely new system of published lists, subject to claims and objections, and after due inquiry and revision forming a register of voters. Registration was not altogether unknown in Great Britain in connexion with the parliamentary franchise before the Reform Acts of 1832. Thus in the Scottish counties the right to vote depended on the voter's name being upon the roll of freeholders established by an act of Charles II.; a similar register existed in Ireland of freeholders whose free- holds were under £20 annual value; and in the universities of Oxford and Cambridge the rolls of members of Convocation and of the Senate were, as they still are, the registers of par- liamentary voters. But except in such cases as the above, the right of a voter had to be determined by the returning officer upon the evidence produced before him when the vote was tendered at a poll. This necessarily took time, and the result was that a contested election in a large constituency might last for weeks. The celebrated Westminster election of 1784, in which the poll began on the 1st of April and ended on the 17th of May, may be mentioned as an illustration. More- over, the decision of the returning officer was not conclusive; the title of every one who claimed to vote was liable to be reconsidered on an election petition, or, in the case of a rejected vote, in an action for damages by the voter against the returning officer. The inconvenience of such a state of things would have been greatly aggravated had the old practice continued after th? enlargement of the franchise in 1832. The establishment of a general system of registration was therefore a necessary and important part of the reform then effected. It has enabled an election in the most populous constituency to be completed in a single day. It has also been instrumental in the extinction 1 The antiquity of registration of this kind is proved by the age of the Registrum Brevium, or register of writs, called by Lord Coke " a most ancient book of the Common Law " (Coke upon Littleton, I59a). 42 REGISTRATION of the " occasional voter," who formerly gave so much trouble to returning officers and election committees — the person, namely, who acquired a qualifying tenement with the view of using it for a particular election and then disposing of it. The period of qualification now required in all cases, being fixed with reference to the formation of the register, is neces- sarily so long anterior to any election which it could effect, that the purpose or intention of the voter in acquiring the qualifying tenement has ceased to be material, and is not inves- tigated. England. — The reform of parliamentary representation in 1832 was followed in 1835 by that of the constitution of municipal corporations, which included the creation of a uniform quali- fication (now known as the old burgess qualification) for the municipal franchise. In 1888 the municipal franchise was enlarged, and was at the same time extended to the whole country for the formation of constituencies to elect county councils; and in 1894 parochial electors were called into existence for the election of parish councils and for other pur- poses. Inasmuch as provision was made for the registering of persons entitled to votes for the above purposes, there are now three registers of voters, namely, the parliamentary register, the local government register {i.e. in boroughs under the Municipal Corporation Acts, the burgess rolls, and elsewhere the county registers) and the register of parochial electors. Under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 the registration of burgesses, though on similar lines to that of parliamentary voters, was entirely separate from it. Since, however, the qualification for the municipal franchise covered to a great extent the same ground as that for the parliamentary franchise in boroughs which sent members to parliament, a considerable number of voters in such boroughs were entitled in respect of the same tenement to be upon both parliamentary register and burgess roll. The waste of labour involved in settling their rights twice over was put an end to in 1878, when the system of parliamentary registration was extended to the boroughs in question for municipal purposes, and the lists were directed to be made out in such a shape that the portion common to the two registers could be detached and combined with the portion peculiar to each, so as to form the parliamentary register and the burgess roll respectively. This system of registration was extended to the non-parliamentary boroughs and to the whole country in 1888, the separate municipal registration being completely abolished. The procedure of parliamentary registration is to be found in its main lines in the Parliamentary Registration Act 1843, which p superseded that provided by the Reform Act of 1832, " and has itself been considerably amended by later legis- ' lation. The acts applying and adapting the system to local government and parochial registration are the Parliamentary and Municipal Registration Act 1878, the County Electors Act 1888, and the Local Government Act 1894. Registration is carried out by local machinery, the common-law parish being taken as the registration unit; and the work of preparing and publishing the lists, which when revised are to form the register, is committed to the overseers. The selection of these officers was no doubt due to their position as the rating authority, and to their consequent opportunities for knowing the ownership and occupation of tene- ments within their parish. They do not always perform the duties themselves, other persons being empowered to act for them in many parishes by general or local acts of parliament ; but in all or almost all cases they are entitled to act personally if they think fit, they sign the lists, and the proceedings are conducted in their name. In order to render intelligible the following summary of the procedure, it will be necessary to divide the voters to be regis- tered into classes based on the nature of their qualification, since the practice differs in regard to each class. The classes are as follows: (1) Owners, including the old forty-shilling freeholders, and the copyholders, long leaseholders and others entitled under the Reform Act of 1832 to vote at parliamentary elections for counties; (2) occupiers, including those entitled to (a) the £10 occupation qualification, (b) the household qualification and (c) the old burgess qualification; (3) lodgers, subdivided into (a) old, i.e. those on the previous register for the same lodgings, and (b) new ; (4) those entitled to reserved rights, i.e. in addition to those (if any still remain) who were entitled to votes before the Reform Act of 1832 in respect of qualifications abolished by that act, (a) free- hold and burgage tenants in Bristol, Exeter, Norwich, and Notting- ham, and (b) liverymen of the City of London and freemen of certain old cities and boroughs, whose right to the parliamentary franchise was permanently retained by the same act. In regard to these classes it may be said that the general scheme is that owners must make a claim in the first instance before they can get their names upon the register, but that, once entered on the register, the names will be retained from year to year until removed by the revising barrister; that the lists of occupiers and of freehold and burgage tenants are made out afresh every year by the over- seers from their own information and inquiries, without any act being required on the part of the voters, who need only make claims in case their names are omitted; that lodgers must make claims every year; and that liverymen and freemen are in the same posi- tion as occupiers, except that the lists of liverymen are made out by the clerks of the several companies, and those of freemen by the town clerks, the overseers having nothing to do with these voters, whose qualifications are personal and not locally connected with any parish. The overseers and other officers concerned are required to perform their duties in connexion with registration in accordance with the instructions and precepts, and to use the notices and forms pre- scribed by Order in Council from time to time. The Registration Order, 1895, directs the clerk of every county council, on or within seven days before the 15th of April in every year, to send to the overseers of each parish in his county a precept with regard to the registration of ownership electors, and to every parish not within a parliamentary or municipal borough a precept with regard to the registration of occupation electors (which expression for this purpose includes lodgers as well as occupiers proper). The town clerk of every borough, municipal or parliamentary, is to send to the overseers of every parish in his borough a precept with regard to the registration of occupation electors. These precepts are set out in the Registration Order, and those issued by the town clerks differ according as the borough is parliamentary only, or municipal only, or both parliamentary and municipal; in the cases of Bristol, Exeter, Norwich and Nottingham they contain direc- tions as to freehold and burgage tenants. The duties of the over- seers in regard to registration are set out in detail in the precepts. Along with the precepts are forwarded forms of the various lists and notices required to be used, and with the ownership precept a certain number of copies of that portion of the parliamentary register of the county at the time in force which contains the ownership voters for the parish, the register being so printed that the portion relating to each parish can be detached. It is the duty of the overseers to publish on the 20th' of June, in manner hereinafter described, the portion of the register so received, together with a notice to owners not already registered to send in claims by the 20th of July. Mean- while the overseers are making the inquiries necessary for the preparation of the occupier list. For this purpose they may require returns to be furnished by owners of houses let out in separate tenements, and by employers who have servants entitled to the service franchise. The registrars of births, deaths and marriages are required to furnish the overseers with returns of deaths, as must the assessed tax collectors with returns of defaulters; the relieving officers are to give information as to recipients of parochial relief. On or before the 31st of July the overseers are to make out and sign the lists of voters. These are the following: the list of ownership electors, consisting of the portion of the register previously published with a supplemental list of those who have sent in claims by the 20th of July; the occupier list; and the old lodger list, the last being formed from claims sent in by the 25th of July. The overseers do not select the names in the first and last of these lists; they take them as supplied in the register and claims. It is, however, their dufy to write " dead " or " objected " in the margin against the names of persons whom they have reason to believe to be dead or not entitled to vote in respect of the qualifica- tion described. The ownership and old lodger lists will be divided into two parts, if the register contains names of owners entitled to a parochial vote only, or if claims by owners or old lodgers have been made limited to that franchise. The occupier list contains the names of persons whom the overseers believe to be qualified, and no others, and therefore will be free from marginal objections. Except in the administrative county of London, it is made out in three divisions — division I giving the names of occupiers of pro- perty qualifying for both parliamentary and local government votes, divisions 2 and 3 those of occupiers of property qualifying only for parliamentary and only for local government votes respec- tively. It happens so frequently that a tenement, if not of sufficient value to qualify for the £10 occupation franchise (parliamentary and local government), qualifies both for the household franchise (parliamentary) and for the old burgess franchise (local govern- ment), that division I would in most cases be the whole list, but for two circumstances. The service franchise is a special modification of the household franchise only; and the service occupants, being therefore restricted to the parliamentary vote, form the bulk of division 2; while peers and women, being excluded from the parliamentary vote, are consequently relegated to division 3. In the administrative county of London the local government register, being coextensive with the register of parochial electors, includes REGISTRATION 43 the whole of the parliamentary register. The occupier lists are consequently there made out in two divisions only, the names which would elsewhere appear in division 2 being placed in division 1. The lists of freehold and burgage tenants in Bristol, Exeter, Norwich and Nottingham are to be made out and signed by the same date. The overseers have also to make out and sign a list of persons qualified as occupiers to be elected aldermen or councillors, but as non-residents disqualified from being on the local government register. By the same date also the clerks of the livery companies are to make out, sign and deliver to the secondary (who performs in the City of London the registration duties which elsewhere fall on the town clerk) the lists of liverymen entitled as such to the parliamentary vote; and the town clerks are to make out and sign the lists of freemen so entitled in towns where this franchise exists. On the 1st of August all the above lists are to be published, the livery lists by the secondary, lists of freemen by the town clerks and the rest by the overseers. In addition the overseers may have to publish a list of persons disqualified by having been found guilty of corrupt or illegal practices; this list they will receive, when it exists, from the clerk of the county council or town clerk with the precept. Publication of lists and notices by overseers is made by affixing copies on the doors of the church and other places of worship of the parish (or, if there be none, in some public or conspicuous situation in the parish), and also, with the exception to be men- tioned, in the case of a parish wholly or partly within a municipal borough or urban district, in or near every public or municipal or parochial office and every post and telegraph office in the parish. The exception is that lists and notices relating to ownership electors need not be published at the offices mentioned when the parish is within a parliamentary borough. Publication by the secondary is made by affixing copies outside the Guildhall and Royal Exchange ; publication by town clerks is made by affixing copies outside their town hall, or, where there is none, in some public or conspicuous place in their borough. From the 1st to the 20th of August inclusive is allowed for the sending in of claims and objections. Those whose names have been omitted from the occupier or reserved rights lists, or the non-resident list, or whose names, place of abode or particu- lars of qualification have been incorrectly stated in such lists, may send in claims to have their names registered; lodgers who are not qualified as old lodgers, or who have omitted to claim as such, may claim as new lodgers; persons whose names are on the corrupt and illegal practices list may claim to have them omitted. Any person whose name is on the list of parliamentary, local government or parochial electors for the same parliamentary county, administrative county, borough or parish, may object to names on the same lists. Notices of claim and objection in the case of liverymen and freemen are to be sent to the secondary and town clerk, and in other cases to the overseers ; and notices of objection must also in all cases be sent to the person objected to. All notices must be sent in by the 20th of August, and on or before the 25th of August the overseers, secondary and town clerks are to make out, sign and publish lists of the claimants and persons objected to. It remains to be added that any person on a list of voters (i.e. on one of the lists published on the 1st of_ August) may make a declaration before a magistrate or commissioner for oaths correcting the entry relating to him. In the case of ownership electors the correction can only deal with the place of abode ; in the case of other lists it extends to all particulars stated, and is useful inasmuch as it enables the revising barrister to make corrections as to the qualification which he could not make in the absence of a declaration. The declarations must be delivered to the clerk of the county council or town clerk on or before the 5th of September. The next stage is the revision of the lists. For this purpose revising barristers are appointed yearly. The period within which revision courts can be held is from the 8th of September Revising to t jj e 12th of October, both days inclusive. The clerk of barrls- ^ e county CO uncil attends the first court held for each ters ' parliamentary division of his county, and the town clerk the first court held for his city or borough; and they respectively produce all lists, notices and declarations in their custody, and answer any questions put to them by the revising barrister. The overseers also attend the courts held for their parish, produce the rate books, original notices of claim and objection, &c, and answer questions. The claimants, objectors and persons objected to appear personally or by representative to support their several conten- tions. Any person qualified to be an objector may also appear to oppose any claims, upon giving notice to the barrister before such claims are reached. The powers of the revising barristers are as follows: As regards persons whose names are on the lists of voters published on the 1st of August, he is to expunge the names, whether objected to or not, of those who are dead or subject to personal in- capacity, such as infants and aliens, and for parliamentary purposes peers and women. If an entry is imperfect, the name must be removed, unless the particulars necessary for completing it are supplied to the barrister. All names marginally objected to by over- seers must be expunged, unless the voters prove to the barrister that they ought to be retained. Objections made by other objectors must be supported by prima facie proof, and if this is not rebutted the name is struck out. Claimants must be ready to support their claims. The declaration attached to a lodger claim is indeed prima facie proof of the facts stated in it, but other claimants require evidence to make out even a prirna facie case, and if they fail to produce it their claims will be disallowed. The barrister is required to correct errors in the lists of voters, and has a discretion to rectify mistakes in claims and objections upon evidence produced to him, although his power in this respect is limited. Lastly, the barrister has to deal with duplicates, as a voter is entitled to be on the register once, but not more than once, as a parliamentary voter for each Earliamentary county or borough, as a burgess for each municipal orough, as a county elector for each electoral division, and as a parochial elector for each parish in which he holds a qualification. Consequently, he deals with duplicate entries by expunging or trans- ferring them to separate parochial lists. The decision of the re- vising barrister is final and conclusive on all questions of fact; but an appeal lies from him on questions of law at the instance of any person aggrieved by the removal of his name from a list of voters, by the rejection of his claim or objection or by the allowance of a claim which he has opposed. Notice of the intention to appeal must be given to the barrister in writing on the day when his decision is given. The barrister may refuse to state a case for appeal; but if he does so without due cause he may be ordered by the High Court to state a case. The appeal is heard by a divisional court, from whose decision an appeal lies (by leave either of the divisional court or of the court of appeal) to the court of appeal, whose decision is final. On the completion of the revision the barrister hands the county and borough lists (every page signed and every alteration initialled by him) to the clerk of the county council and the town clerk re- spectively, to be printed. With the following exceptions the revised lists are to be made up and printed by the 20th of December, and come into force as the register for all purposes on the 1st of January. In the boroughs created by the London Government Act 1899, the whole register is to be made up and printed by the 20th of October, and to come into force for the purpose of borough elections under the act on the 1st of November. In boroughs subject to the Muni- cipal Corporations Acts, divisions I and 3 of the occupiers' list are to be made up and printed by the 20th of October, and come into force for the purpose of municipal and county council elections on the 1st of November. Corrections ordered in consequence of a successful appeal from a revising barrister are to be made by the officers having the custody of the registers, but a pending appeal does not affect any right of voting. The register in its final form will consist of the lists published on the 1st of August as corrected, with the claims which have been allowed on revision incorporated with them. It is printed in such form that each list and each division of a list for every parish can be separated from the rest for the purpose of making up the parliamentary, local government and parochial registers respectively. The alphabetical order is followed, except in London and some other large towns, where street order is adopted for all except the ownership lists and lists of liverymen and freemen. The parliamentary register for a parliamentary county will consist of the ownership lists for all parishes in the county, and of the lodger lists and divisions I and 2 of the occupier lists for parishes within the county and not within a parliamentary borough. The parliamentary register for a parliamentary borough will consist of the lodger lists, of the lists of freehold and burgage tenants (if any), and of divisions 1 and 2 of the occupier lists for all parishes within the borough, and also of the borough lists (if any) of liverymen or freemen. The local government register for an administrative county will consist of divisions 1 and 3 of the occupier lists for all parishes in the county, and the burgess roll for a municipal borough of divisions I and 3 of the occupier lists for all parishes in the borough. It will be seen, therefore, that, except in county boroughs, the burgess roll is also a part of the local government register of the administrative county within which the borough is situate. The register of parochial electors consists of the complete set of lists for each parish; but this does not include the lists of liverymen and freemen, which, as has been stated, are not parish lists. No one whose name is not on the register can vote at an election. The fact that a man's name is on the register is now so far con- clusive of his right that the returning officer is bound to receive his vote. Only two questions may be asked of him when he tenders his vote, namely, whether he is the person whose name is on the register, and whether he has voted before at the election. The Reform Act 1832 allowed him to be asked at parliamentary elections whether he retained the qualification for which he had been registered; but the Registration Act 1843 disallowed the question, and made the register conclusive as to the retention of the qualification. When, however, a petition is presented against an election, the register, although conclusive as to the retention of the qualification, does not prevent the court from inquiring into the existence of personal incapacities, arising in connexion with the election or otherwise, and striking off on scrutiny the votes of persons subject thereto, e.g. aliens, infants, or in parliamen- tary elections peers, &c. The City of London is not within the Municipal Corporations Acts, and is not subject to the general registration law in the formation of its roll of citizens for municipal purposes. But a register of parliamentary, county and parochial electors is made in 44 REGIUM the ordinary way. The universities are also exempt from the general law of registration. At Oxford and Cambridge the members of Convocation and the Senate respectively have always formed the parliamentary constituencies; and, as has been already stated, the registers of those members were before 1832, and still are, the parliamentary registers. Similarly, the Reform Act of 1867, which gave parliamentary representation to the university of London, simply enacted that the register of graduates constituting the Convocation should be the parliamentary register of that body. Scotland. — In Scotland the qualifications for local government and parish electors are the same as those for parliamentary voters, the only difference in the registers being in respect of personal incapacities for the parliamentary franchise, incapacity for the other franchises by reason of non-payment of rates, and duplicates. The principal act regulating registration in burghs is 19 & 20 Vict. c. 58, amended in some particulars as to dates by 31 & 32 Vict, c. 48, § 20. County registration, formerly regulated by 24 & 25 Vict. c. 83, has been assimilated to burgh registration by 48 & 49 Vict. c. 3, § 8 (6). The procedure consists, as in England, of the making and publication of lists of voters, the making of claims and objections and the holding of revision courts; but there are im- portant differences of detail. Though the parish is the registration unit, parochial machinery is not used for the formation of the register. The parliamentary lists for a county are made up yearly by one or more of the assessors of the county, and those for a burgh by one or more of the assessors for the burgh, or by the clerk of the commissioners. They are published on the 15th of September; and claims and objections must be sent in by the 21st and are published on the 25th of the same month. Publication is made in burghs by posting on or near the town hall, or in some other conspicuous place, in counties by posting the part relating to each Carish on the parish church door, and in both cases giving notice y newspaper advertisement of a place where the lists may be perused. The revision is conducted by the sheriff, the time within which his courts may be held being from the 25th of September to the 16th of October, both days inclusive. An appeal lies to three judges of the Court of Session, one taken from each division of the Inner House, and one from the Lords Ordinary of the Outer House. The revised lists are delivered in counties to the sheriff clerk, in burghs to the town clerk, or person to whom the registration duties of town clerk are assigned. The register comes into force for all purposes on the 1st of November. The municipal register of a royal burgh which is coextensive, or of that part of a royal burgh which is coextensive with a parlia- mentary burgh, consists of the parliamentary register with a supple- mental list of women who but for their sex would be qualified for the parliamentary vote. The municipal register for a burgh, or for that part of one which is not within a parliamentary burgh, consists of persons possessed of qualifications within the burgh which, if within a parliamentary burgh, would entitle them, or but for their sex would entitle them, to the parliamentary vote. The register of county electors consists of the parliamentary register for a county with the supplemental list hereafter mentioned; but inasmuch as exemption from or failure to pay the consolidated county rate is a disqualification for the county electors' franchise, the names of persons so disqualified are to be marked with a dis- tinctive mark on the register; as are also the names of persons whose qualifications are situated within a burgh, such marks indi- cating that the persons to whose names they are attached are not entitled to vote as county electors. Every third year, in prepara- tion for the triennial elections of county and parish councils (casual vacancies being filled up by co-optation), a supplemental list is to be made of peers and women possessed of qualifications which but for their rank and sex would entitle them to parlia- mentary votes. The register of county electors in a county and the municipal register in a burgh form the registers of parish electors for the parishes comprised in each respectively. Inasmuch, how- ever, as a man is entitled to be registered as a parish elector in every parish where he is qualified, duplicate entries are, when required, to be made in the register, with distinctive marks to all but one, to indicate that they confer the parish vote only. These dis- tinctive marks and those previously mentioned are to be made in the lists by the assessors, subject to revision by the sheriff. The register is conclusive to the same extent as in England, except that the vote of a parish elector who is one year in arrear in payment of a parish rate is not to be received. The clerk of the parish council is to furnish the returning officer one week before an election with the names of persons so in arrear; and the returning officer is to reject their votes except upon the production of a written receipt. _ Provision is made by 31 & 32 Vict. c. 48, §§ 27-41, for the formation of registers of parliamentary electors for the universities. The register for each university is to be made annually by the university registrar, with the assistance of two members of the council, from whose decisions an appeal lies to the university court. Ireland. — There are no parish councils in Ireland, and no par- ochial electors. There are therefore but two registers of voters, the parliamentary and the local government registers, the latter of which consists of the former with a local government supplement containing the names of those excluded from the parliamentary register by reason of their being peers or women, and duplicate entries relating to those whose names are registered elsewhere for the same parliamentary constituency. The principal acts regula- ting registration are 13 & 14 Vict. c. 69, 31 & 32 Vict. c. 112, 48 & 49 Vict. c. 17, and 61 & 62 Vict. c. 2. The lord lieutenant is empowered to make by Order in Council rules for registration, and to prescribe forms; and under this power has made the Regis- tration (Ireland) Rules 1899, now in force. The registration unit is not the parish, but the district electoral division, except where such division is subdivided into wards, or is partly within and partly without any town or ward of a borough or town, in which cases each ward of the division or part of a division is a separate registration unit. The procedure is as follows, subject to variation in cases where there are clerks of unions who held office on the 31st of March 1898, and have not agreed to transfer their registration duties. The clerk of the peace sends out on the 1st of June a precept in the form prescribed for county registration to the secretary of the county council and clerks of urban district councils,, together with a copy of the existing register for their county or district; and a precept in the form prescribed for borough registration to town clerks of boroughs. As regards registration units not in a parliamentary or municipal borough, the secretary of the county council or clerk of the urban district council is to put marginal objections, " dead " or " objected," where required, to £10 occupiers and householders in the copy of the register, both in the parliamentary list and in the local government supplement. He is also to make out supple- mental parliamentary and local government lists of £10 occupiers and householders not on the existing register, and to put marginal objections where required to these. He is to verify on oath before a magistrate the copy of the register and supplemental lists, and to return them to the clerk of the peace by the 8th of July. As regards registration units in a parliamentary borough, but outside a municipal borough, the secretary of the county council or clerk of the urban district council is to make out lists of £10 occupiers and householders with local government supplement, and transmit them to the town clerk of the municipal borough or town. The clerk of the peace is to publish the copy of the register, after himself placing marginal objections where required to voters other than £10 occupiers and householders, and the supplemental lists as re- ceived, and also the corrupt and illegal practices list, if any, on the 22nd of July. On the same day the' town clerk will publish the lists received as aforesaid for registration units outside the muni- cipal borough, and the lists, which he will have made out himself for the municipal borough, including the freemen's list and corrupt and illegal practices list. Freemen being entitled to the local government vote will, if resident, be placed on the list of the regis- tration unit where they reside, and will, if non-resident, be allotted by the revising barrister among the registration units Of the borough for local government purposes in proportion to the number of electors in each registration unit. Claims are to be sent in to the clerk of the peace and town clerk by the 4th of August, including old lodger claims and, in the case of the clerk of the peace, owner- ship claims. Lists of claimants with marginal objections, where required, are to be published by the clerk of the peace .and town clerk by the nth of August. Notices of objection to voters or claimants may be given by the 20th of August ; and lists of persons objected to are to be published by the clerk of the peace and town clerk by the 24th of the same month. Publication of lists and notices by a clerk of the peace is made by posting copies of those relating to each registration unit outside every court-house, petty sessions court, and other public offices in the unit; publication by a town clerk is made by posting copies outside the town hall, or, if there be none, in some public and conspicuous place in the borough. Revising barristers are specially appointed for the county and city of Dublin by the lord lieutenant; elsewhere the county court judges and chairmen of quarter sessions act as such ex officio, assisted, when necessary, by additional barristers appointed by the lord lieutenant. The time for the holding of revision courts is from the 8th of September to the 25th of October inclusive. An appeal lies to the court of appeal, whose decision is final. The revised lists are handed to the clerk of the peace; they are to be made up by him by the 31st of December, and come into force on the 1st of January. The registrar of the university of Dublin is to make out in December a list of the persons entitled to the parliamentary vote for the university, and to print the same in January, and to publish a copy in the university calendar, or in one or more public journals circulating in Ireland. He is to revise the list annually, and ex- punge the names of those dead or disqualified; but an elector whose name has been expunged because he was supposed to be dead is entitled, if alive, to have his name immediately restored and to vote at any election. (L. L. S.) REGIUM (Gr. 'Viiyiov. in Latin the aspirate is omitted), a city of the territory of the Bruttii in South Italy, on the east side of the strait between Italy and Sicily (Strait of Messina). REGIUM DONUM— REGNARD 45 A colony, mainly of Chalcidians, partly of Messenians from the Peloponnesus, settled at Regium in the 8th century B.C. About 404 B.C. Anaxilas, a member of the Messenian party, made him- self master of Regium (apparently — from numismatic evidence, for the coins assignable to this period are modelled on Samian types — with the help of the Samians: see Messina) and about 488 joined with them in occupying Zancle (Messina). Here they remained. (See C. H. Dodd in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxviii. (1008) 56 sqq.) This coinage was resumed after the establishment of the democracy about 461 B.C., when Anaxilas' sons were driven out. In 433 Regium made a treaty with Athens, and in 427 joined the Athenians against Syracuse, but in 415 it remained neutral. An attack which it made on Dionysius I. of Syracuse in 399 was the beginning of a great struggle which in 387 resulted in its complete destruction and the dispersion of its inhabitants as slaves. Restored by the younger Dionysius under the name of Phoebias, the colony soon recovered its prosperity and resumed its original designation. In 280, when Pyrrhus invaded Italy, the Regines admitted within their walls a Roman garrison of Campanian troops; these mercenaries revolted, massacred the male citizens, and held the city till in 270 they were besieged and put to death by the Roman consul Genucius. The city remained faithful to Rome throughout the Punic wars, and Hannibal never succeeded in taking it. Up till the Social War it struck coins of its own, with Greek legends. Though one of the cities promised by the triumvirs to the veterans, Regium escaped through the favour of Octavius (hence it took the name Regium Julium). It continued, however, to be a Greek city even under the Empire, and never became a colony. Towards the end of the Empire it was made the chief city of the Bruttii. Of ancient buildings hardly anything remains at Regium, and nothing of the archaic Greek period is in situ, except possibly the remains of a temple of Artemis Phacelitis, which have not yet been explored, though various inscriptions relative to it have been found. The museum, however, contains a number of terra-cottas, vases, inscriptions, &c, and a number of Byzantine lead seals. Several baths of the Greek period, modified by the Romans, have been found, and the remains of one of these may still be seen. A large mosaic of the 3rd or 4th century a.d. with representations of wild animals and the figure of a warrior in the centre was found in 1904 and covered up again. The aqueduct and various cisterns connected with it have been traced, and some tombs of the 5th or 4th century B.C. (or even later) were found in 1907. See Notizie degli scavi, passim; P. Larizza, Rhegium Ckalcidense (Rome, 1905). ♦ (T. As.) REGIUM DONUM, or Royal Gift, an annual grant formerly made from the public funds to Presbyterian and other Non- conformist ministers in Great Britain and Ireland. It dates from the reign of Charles II., who, according to Bishop Burnet, after the declaration of indulgence of 1672 ordered sums of money to be paid to Presbyterian ministers. These gifts or pensions were soon discontinued, but in 1690 William III. made a grant of £1 200 a year to the Presbyterian ministers in Ireland as a reward for their services during his struggle with James II. Owing to the opposition of the Irish House of Lords the money was not paid in 1711 and some subsequent years, but it was revived in 1715 by George I., who increased the amount to £2000 a year. Further additions were made in 1784 and in 1792, and in 1868 the sum granted to the Irish Presbyterian ministers was £45,000. The Regium Donum was withdrawn by the act of 1869 which disestablished the Irish church. Pro- vision was made, however, for existing interests therein, and many Presbyterian ministers commuted these on the same terms as the clergy of the church of Ireland. In England the Regium Donum proper dates from 1 721, when Dr Edmund Calamy (1671-1732) received £5°° from the royal bounty " for the use and behalf of the poor widows of dissenting ministers." Afterwards this sum was increased to £1000 and was made an annual payment " for the assisting either ministers or their widows," and later it amounted to £1695 per annum. It was given to distributors who represented the three denomina- tions, Presbyterians, Baptists and Independents, enjoying the grant. Among the Nonconformists themselves, however, or at least among the Baptists and the Independents, there was some objection to this form of state aid, and in 1851 the chancellor of the exchequer announced that it would be withdrawn. This was done six years later. See J. Stoughton, History of Religionin England (1901) ; J. S. Reid, History of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland (Belfast, 1867); and E. Calamy, Historical Account of my own Life, edited by J.T. Rutt (1829-30). REGLA, formerly an important suburb of Havana, Cuba, opposite that city, on the bay; now a part of Havana. Pop. (1899) 11,363. It was formerly the scene of the Havana bull- fights. The church is one of the best in Cuba; the building dates substantially from 1805, but the church settlement goes back to a hermitage established in 1690. Regla is the shipping- point of the Havana sugar trade. It has enormous sugar and tobacco warehouses, fine wharves, a dry dock, foundries and an electric railway plant. It is the western terminus of the eastern line of the United Railways of Havana, and is connected with the main city of Havana by ferry. A fishing village was estab- lished here about 1733. At the end of the 18th century Regla was a principal centre of the smuggling trade, and about 1820 was notorious as a resort- of pirates. It first secured an ayuntamiento (city council) in 1872, and after 1899 was annexed to Havana. REGNARD, JEAN FRANCOIS (1655-1709), French comic dramatist, was born in Paris on the 7th of February 1655. His father, a rich shopkeeper, died when Regnard was about twenty, leaving him master of a considerable fortune. He set off at once for Italy, and, after a series of romantic adventures, he journeyed by Holland, Denmark and Sweden to Lapland, and thence by Poland, Turkey, Hungary and Germany back to France. He returned to Paris at the end of 1683, and bought the place of treasurer of France in the Paris district; he had a house at Paris in the Rue Richelieu; and he acquired the small estate of Grillon near Dourdan in the department of Seine-et-Oise, where he hunted, feasted and wrote comedies. This latter amusement he began in 1688 with a piece called Le Divorce, which was performed at the ThMtre Italien. In four slight pieces of the same nature he collaborated with Charles Riviere Dufresny. He gained access to the Theatre Francais on the 19th of May 1694 with a piece called Attendez-moi sous I'orme, and two years later, on the 19th of December 1696, he produced there the masterly comedy of Le Joueur. The idea of the play was evolved in collaboration with Dufresny, but the authors disagreed in carrying it out. Finally they each produced a comedy on the subject, Dufresny in prose, and Regnard in verse. Each accused the other of plagiarism. The plot of Regnard's piece turns on the love of two sisters for Valere, the gambler, who loves one and pretends to love the other, really deceiving them both, because there is no room for any other passion in his character except the love of play. Other of his plays were La Sfrinade (1694), Le Bourgeois de Falaise (1696), Le Distrait (1697), Democrite (1700), Le Retour imprevu (1700), Les Folies amoureuses (1704), Les MSneckmes (1705), a clever following of Plautus, and his masterpiece, Le L&gataire universel (1708). Regnard's death on the 4th of September 1709 renews the doubtful and romantic circumstances of his earlier life. Some hint at poison, but the truth seems to be that his death was hastened by the rate at which he lived. Besides the plays noticed above and others, Regnard wrote miscellaneous poems, the autobiographical romance of La Provencale, and several short accounts in prose of his travels, published pos- thumously under the title of Voyages. Regnard had written a reply to the tenth satire of Boileau, Centre les femmes, and Boileau had retorted by putting Regnard among the poets depreciated in his epistle Sur mes vers. After the appearance of Le Joueur the poet altered his opinion and cut out the allusion. The saying attributed to Boileau wh&i some one, thinking to curry favour, remarked that Regnard was only a mediocre poet, " II n'est pas mediocrement gai," is both true and very appropriate. His French style, especially in his purely prose works, is not considered faultless. He is often un- original in his plots, and, whether Dufresny was or was not justified in his complaint about Le Joueur, it seems likely that Regnard owed not a little to him and to others; but he had a thorough grasp 0/ 46 REGNAULT, H.— REGNAULT DE SAINT JEAN D'ANGELY comic situation and incident, and a most amusing faculty of dia- logue. , . The first "edition of Regnard's works was published in 1731 (5 vols., Rouen and Paris). There is a good selection of almost every- thing important in the Collection Didot (4 vols., 18 19), but there is no absolutely complete edition. The best is that published by Crapelet (6 vols., Paris, 1822). A selection by L. Moland appeared in 1893. See also a Bibliographie et iconographie des ceuvres de J. F. Regnard (Paris, Rouquette, 1878); Le Poete J. F. Regnard en son chasteau de Grillon, by J. Guyot (Paris, 1907). REGNAULT, HENRI (1843-1871), French painter, born at Paris on the 31st October 1843, was the son of Henri Victor Regnault {q.v.). On leaving school he successively entered the studios of Montfort, Lamothe and Cabanel, was beaten for the Grand Prix (1863) by Layraud and Montchablon, and in 1864 exhibited two portraits in no wise remarkable at the Salon. In 1866, however, he carried off the Grand Prix with a work of unusual force and distinction — " Thetis bringing the Arms forged by Vulcan to Achilles " (School of the Fine Arts). The past in Italy did not touch him, but his illustrations to Wey's Rome show how observant he was of actual life and manners; even his " Automedon " (School of Fine Arts), executed in obedi- ence to Academical regulations, was but a lively recollection of a carnival horse-race. At Rome, moreover, Regnault came into contact with the modern Hispano-Italian school, a school highly materialistic and inclined to regard even the human subject only as one amongst many sources whence to obtain amusement for the eye. The vital, if narrow, energy of this school told on Regnault with ever-increasing force during the few remaining years of his life. In 1868 he had sent to the Salon a life-size portrait of a lady in which he had made one of the first attempts to render the actual character of fashionable modern life. While making a tour in Spain, he saw Prim pass at the head of his troops, and received that lively image of a military demagogue which he afterwards put on canvas, somewhat to the displeasure of his subject. But this work made an appeal to the imagination of the public, whilst all the later productions of Regnault were addressed exclusively to the eye. After a further flight to Africa, abridged by the necessities of his position as a pensioner of tne school of Rome, he painted " Judith, " then ( 1 8 70) " Salome," and, as a work due from the Roman school, despatched from Tangier the large canvas, " Execution without Hearing under the Moorish Kings," in which the painter had played with the blood of the victim as if he were a jeweller toying with rubies. The war arose, and found Regnault foremost in the devoted ranks of Buzenval, where he fell on the 19th of January 1871. See Correspondance de H. Regnault; Duparc, H. Regnault, sa vie et son osuvre; Cazalis, H. Regnault, 184.3-1871; Bailliere, Les Artistes de mon temps; C. Blanc, H. Regnault; P. Mantz, Gazette des Beaux Arts (1872). REGNAULT, HENRI VICTOR (1810-1878), French chemist and physicist, was born on the 21st of July 1810 at Aix-la- Chapelle. His early life was a struggle with poverty. When a boy he went to Paris and obtained a situation in a large drapery establishment, where he remained, occupying every spare hour in study, until he was in his twentieth year. Then he entered the Ecole Poly technique, and passed in 1832 to the Ecole des Mines, where he developed an aptitude for experi- mental chemistry. A few years later he was appointed to a professorship of chemistry at Lyons. His most important con- tribution to organic chemistry was a series of researches, begun in 1835, on the haloid and other derivatives of unsaturated hydrocarbons. He also studied the alkaloids and organic acids, introduced a classification of the metals according to the facility with which they or their sulphides are oxidized by steam at high temperatures, and effected a comparison of the chemical composition of atmospheric air from all parts of the world. In 1840 he was recalled to Paris by his ap- pointment to the chair of chemistry in the ficple Polytech- nique; at the same time he was elected a member of the Acad6mie des Sciences, in the chemical section, in room of P. J. Robiquet (1 780-1840); and in the following year he be- came professor of physics in the College de France, there suc- ceeding P. L. Dulong, his old master, and in many respects his model. From this time Regnault devoted almost all his attention to practical physics; but in 1847 he published a four-volume treatise on Chemistry which has been translated into many languages. Regnault executed a careful redetermination of the specific heats of all the elements obtainable, and of many compounds — solids, liquids and gases. He investigated the expansibility of gases by heat, determining the coefficient for air as 0-003665, and showed that, contrary to previous opinion, no two gases had precisely the same rate of expansion. By numerous delicate experiments he proved that Boyle's law is only approximately true, and that those gases which are most readily liquefied diverge most widely from obedience to it. He studied the whole subject of thermometry critically; he introduced the use of an accurate air-thermometer, and compared its indications with those of a mercurial thermometer, determining the ab- solute dilatation of mercury by heat as a step in the process. He also paid attention to hygrometry and devised a hygrometer in which a cooled metal surface is used for the deposition of moisture. In 1854 he was appointed to succeed J. J. Ebelmen (1814-1852) as director of the porcelain manufactory at Sevres. He carried on his great research on the expansion of gases in the laboratory at Sevres, but all the results of his latest work were destroyed during the Franco-German War, in which also his son Henri (noticed above) was killed. Regnault never recovered from the double blow, and, although he lived until the 19th of January 1878, his scientific labours ended in 1872. He wrote more than eighty papers on scientific subjects, and he made important researches in conjunction with other workers. His greatest work, bearing on the practical treatment of steam-engines, forms vol. xxi. of the Mimoires de V Academic des Sciences. REGNAULT, JEAN BAPTISTE (1754-1829), French painter, was born at Paris on the 9th of October 1754, and died in the same city on the 12th of November 1829. He began life at sea in a merchant vessel, but at the age of fifteen his talent attracted attention, and he was sent to Italy by M. de Monval under the care of Bardin. After his return to Paris, Regnault, in 1776, obtained the Grand Prix, and in 1783 he was elected ■ Academician. His diploma picture, the " Education of Achilles by Chiron," is now in the Louvre, as also the " Christ taken down from the Cross," originally executed for the royal chapel at Fontainebleau, and two minor works — the " Origin of Painting " and " Pygmalion praying Venus to give Life to his Statue." Be- sides various small pictures and allegorical subjects, Regnault was also the author of many large historical paintings; and his school, which reckoned amongst its chief attendants Guerin, Crepin, Lafitte, Blondel, Robert Lefevre and Menjaud, was for a long while the rival in influence of that of David. REGNAULT DE SAINT JEAN D'ANGELY, MICHEL LOUIS ETIENNE, Comte (1761-1819), French politician, was born at Saint Fargeau (Yonne) on the 3rd of December 1761. Before the Revolution he was an avocat in Paris and lieutenant of the maritime provostship of Rochefort. In 1 789 he was elected deputy to the States General by the Third Estate of the stnechaussie of Saint Jean d'Angely. His eloquence made him a prominent figure in the Constituent Assembly, where he boldly attacked Mirabeau, and settled the dispute about the ashes of Voltaire by decreeing that they belonged to the nation. But the moderation shown by the measures he proposed at the time of the flight of the king to Varennes, by his refusal to accede to the demands for the king's execution, and by the articles he published in the Journal de Paris and the Ami des patriotes, marked him out for the hostility of the advanced parties. He was arrested after the revolution of the 10th of August 1792, but succeeded in escaping, and during the reaction which followed the fall of Robespierre was appointed administrator of the military hospitals in Paris. His powers of organization brought him to Bonaparte's notice, and he took part in the coup d'etat of 18 Brumaire, year VIII. (9th of November 1799). Under the Empire he enjoyed the confidence of Bonaparte, and was made councillor of state, president of section in the Council of State, REGNIER, H.- -REGULA 47 member of the French Academy, procureur giniral of the high court, and a count of the Empire. He was dismissed on the first restoration of the Bourbons, but resumed his posts during the Hundred Days, and after Waterloo persuaded the emperor to abdicate. He was exiled by the government of the second Restoration, but subsequently obtained leave to return to France. He died on the day of his return to Paris (nth of March 1819). Les Souvenirs du Comte Regnault de St Jean d'Angely (Paris, 1817) are spurious. His son, Auguste Michel Etienne Regnault de Saint Jean d'Angely (1794-1870), an army officer, was dismissed from the army by the Restora- tion government, fought for the Greeks in the Greek War of Independence, and rejoined the French army in 1830. In 1848 he was elected deputy and sat on the right. Under the Second Empire he went through the Crimean and Italian cam- paigns, and was made senator and marshal for bravery at the battle of Magenta. REGNIER, HENRI FRANCOIS JOSEPH DE (1864- ), French poet, was born at Honfleur (Calvados) on the 28th of December 1864, and was educated in Paris for the law. In 1885 he began to contribute to the Parisian reviews, and his verses found their way into most of the French and Belgian periodicals favourable to the symbolist writers. Having begun, however, to write under the leadership of the Parnassians, he retained the classical tradition, though he adopted some of the innovations of Moreas and Gustave Kahn. His gorgeous and vaguely suggestive style shows the influence of Stephane Mallarme, of whom he was an assiduous disciple. His first volume of poems, Lendemains, appeared in 1885, and among numerous later volumes are Poemes anciens et romanesques (1890), Les Jeux rustiques et divins (1890), Les MSdailles d'argent (1900), La CiU des eaux (1903). He is also the author of a series of realistic novels and tales, among which are La Canne de jaspe (2nd ed., 1897), La Double Maitresse (5th ed., 1900), Les Vacances d'un jeune homme sage (1904), and Les Amants singuliers (1905). M. de Regnier married Mile. Marie de Heredia, daughter of the poet, and herself a novelist and poet under the name of Gerard d'Houville. See E. Gosse, French Profiles (1905), and Poltes d'aujourd'hui (6th ed., 1905), by van Bever and L6autaud. REGNIER, MATHURIN (1573-1613), French satirist, was born at Chartres on the 21st of December 1573- His father, Jacques Regnier, was a bourgeois of good means and position; his mother, Simone Desportes, was the sister of the poet Des- portes. Desportes, who was richly beneficed and in great favour at court, seems to have been regarded as Mathurin Regnier's natural protector and patron; and the boy himself, with a view to his following in his uncle's steps, was tonsured at eight years old. Little is known of his youth, and it is chiefly conjecture which fixes the date of his visit to Italy in a humble position in the suite of the cardinal, Francois de Joyeuse, in 1587. The cardinal was accredited to the papal court in that year as " protector " of the royal interests. Regnier found his duties irksome, and when, after many years of constant travel in the cardinal's service, he returned definitely to France about 1605, he took advantage of the hospitality of Desportes. He early began the practice of satirical writing, and the enmity which existed between his uncle and the poet Malherbe gave him occasion to attack the latter. In 1606 Desportes died, leaving nothing to Regnier, who, though dis- appointed of the succession to Desportes's abbacies, obtained a pension of 2000 livres, chargeable upon one of them. He was also made in 1609 canon of Chartres through his friendship with the lax bishop, Philippe Hurault, at whose abbey of Royaumont he spent much time in the later years of his life. But the death of Henry IV. deprived him of his last hope of great preferments. His later life had been one of dissipation, and he died at Rouen at his hotel, the Ecu d'Orleans, on the 22nd of October 1613. About the time of his death numerous collections of licentious and satirical poems were published, while others remained in manuscript. Gathered from these there has been a floating mass of licentious epigrams, &c, attributed to Regnier, little of which is certainly authentic, so that it is very rare to find two editions of Regnier which exactly agree in contents. His undoubted work falls into three classes: regular satires in alexandrine couplets, serious poems in various metres, and satirical or jocular epigrams and light pieces, which often, if not always, exhibit considerable licence of language. The real greatness of Regnier consists in the vigour and polish of his satires, contrasted and heightened as that vigour is with the exquisite feeling and melancholy music of some of his minor poems. In these Regnier is a disciple of Ronsard (whom he defended brilliantly against Malherbe), without the occasional pedantry, the affectation or the undue fluency of the Pleiade; but in the satires he seems to have had no master except the ancients, for some of them were written before the publication of the satires of Vauquelin de la Fresnaye, and the Tragiques of D'Aubign6 did not appear until 1616. He has sometimes followed Horace closely, but always in an entirely original spirit. His vocabulary is varied and picturesque, and is not marred by the maladroit classicism of some of the Ronsardists. His verse is extraordinarily forcible and nervous, but his chief distinction as a satirist is the way in which he avoids the commonplaces of satire. His keen and accurate knowledge of human nature and even his purely literary qualities extorted the admiration of Boileau. Regnier displayed remarkable in- dependence and acuteness in literary criticism, and the famous passage (Satire ix., A Monsieur Rapin) in which he satirizes Malherbe contains the best denunciation of the merely " correct " theory of poetry that has ever been written. Lastly, Regnier had a most unusual descriptive faculty, and the vividness of what he called his narrative satires was not approached in France for at least two centuries after his death. All his merits are displayed in the masterpiece entitled Macette ou I'Hypocrisie diconcertee, which does not suffer even on com- parison with Tartuffe; but hardly any one of the sixteen satires which he has left falls below a very high standard. Les Premibres CEuvres ou satyres de RSgnier (Paris, 1608) included the Discours au roi and ten satires. There was another in 1609, and others in 1612 and 1613. The author had also contributed to two collections— Lei Muses gaillardes in 1609 and Le Temple d'Apollon in 161 1. In 1616 appeared Les Satyres et autres ceuvres folastres du sieur RSgnier, with many additions and some poems by other hands. Two famous editions by Elzevir (Leiden, 1642 and 1652) are highly prized. The chief editions of the 18th century are that of Claude Brossette (printed by Lyon & Woodman, London, 1729), which supplies the standard commentary on Regnier, and that of Lenglet Dufresnoy (printed by J. Tonson, London, 1733). The editions of Prosper Poitevin (Paris, i860), of Ed. de Barthflemy (Paris, 1862), and of E. Courbet (Paris, 1875), may be specially mentioned. The last, printed after the originals in italic type, and well edited, is perhaps the best. See also Vianey's Mathurin Regnier (1896); M. H. Cherrier, Bibliographic de Mathurin RSgnier (1884). RE6NITZ, a river of Germany, and a left-bank tributary of the Main, the most important river of the province of Lower Bavaria. It is formed by the confluence, near Fiirth, of the Rednitz and Pegnitz. The united river flows north through an undulating vine-clad country, past Erlangen, Baiersdorf and Forchheim, from which point it is navigable, and falls into the Main at Bischberg, just below Bamberg, after a course of 126 m. Near Bamberg it is joined by the Ludwigskanal, which, running parallel to it from Fiirth and separated by the railway, forms the water-connexion between the Main and the Danube. Its main tributaries from the right are the Grundlach and the Wiesent, and from the left the Zenn, the Aurach and the Aisch. REORATING (O.Fr. regrater, to sell by retail), in English criminal law, was the offence of buying and selling again in the same market, or within four miles thereof. (See En- grossing.) REGULA, the Latin word for a rule, hence particularly applied to the rules of a religious order (see Monasticism). In architecture the term is applied to a rule or square, the short fillet or rectangular block, under the taenia (q.v.) on the architrave of the Doric entablature. 4 8 REGULAR— REICHENAU REGULAR, orderly, following or arranged according to a rule (Lat. regula, whence O.Fr. reule, whence English " rule "), steady, uniform, formally correct. The earliest and only use in English until the 16th century was in the Med. Lat. sense of regularis, one bound by and subject to the rule (regula) of a monastic or religious order, a member of the " regular " as opposed to the " secular " clergy, and so, as a substantive, a regular, i.e. a monk or friar. Another specific application is to that portion of the armed forces of a nation which are organized on a permanent system, the standing army, as opposed to " irregulars," levies raised on a voluntary basis and disbanded when the particular campaign or war for which they were raised is at an end. In the British army, the forces were divided into regulars, militia and volunteers, until 1906, when they were divided into regular and territorial forces. REGULUS, MARCUS ATILIUS, Roman general and consul (for the second time) in the ninth year of the First Punic War (256 B.C.). He was one of the commanders in the Punic naval expedition which shattered the Carthaginian fleet at Ecnomus, and landed an army on Carthaginian territory (see Punic Wars). The invaders were so successful that the other consul, L. Manlius Vulso, was recalled to Rome, Regulus being left behind to finish the war. After a severe defeat at Adys near Carthage, the Carthaginians were inclined for peace, but the terms proposed by Regulus were so harsh that they resolved to continue the war. In 255, Regulus was completely defeated and taken prisoner by the Spartan Xanthippus. There is no further trustworthy information about him. Accord- ing to tradition, he remained in captivity until 250, when after the defeat of the Carthaginians at Panormus he was sent to Rome on parole to negotiate a peace or exchange of prisoners. On his arrival he strongly urged the senate t6 refuse both proposals, and returning to Carthage was tortured to death (Horace, Odes, iii. 5). This story made Regulus to the later Romans the type of heroic endurance; but most historians regard it as insufficiently attested, Polybius being silent. The tale was probably invented by the annalists to excuse the cruel treatment of the Carthaginian prisoners by the Romans. See Polybius i. 25-34; Florus ii. 2; Cicero, De Officiis, iii. 26; Livy, Epit. 18; Valerius Maximus ix. 2; Sil. Ital. vi. 299-550; Appian, Punica, 4; Zonaras viii. 15; see also O. Jager, M. Ahlius Regulus (1878). REHAN, ADA (i860- ), American actress, whose real name was Crehan, was born in Limerick, Ireland, on the 22nd of April i860. Her parents removed to the United States when she was five years old, and it was in Newark, N.J., that in 1874 she made her first stage appearance in a small part in Across the Continent. She was with Mrs John Drew's stock company in Philadelphia, John W. Albaugh's in Albany and Baltimore, and other companies for several seasons, playing every kind of minor part, until she became connected with Augustin Daly's theatrical management in 1879. Under his training she soon showed her talents for vivid, charming por- trayal of character, first in modern and then in older comedies. She was the heroine in all the Daly adaptations from the German, and added to her triumphs the parts of Peggy in Wycherly's Country Girl, Julia in the Hunchback, and especially Katharina in The Taming of the Shrew, besides playing Rosalind and Viola. Miss Rehan accompanied Daly's company to England (first in 1884), France and Germany (1886). Her life-size portrait as Katharina is in the picture-gallery, and her bust, with Ellen Terry's, at the entrance to the theatre in the Shake- speare Memorial at Stratford-on-Avon. REHEARSAL (from " rehearse," to say over again, repeat, recount, O.Fr. rehercer, from re, again, and hercer, to harrow, cf. " hearse," the original meaning being to rake or go over the same ground again as with a harrow), a recital of words or statements, particularly the trial performance in private of a play, musical composition, recitation, &c, for the purpose of practice preparatory to the performance in public. In the theatre a " full rehearsal " is one in which the whole performance is gone through with all the performers, a " dress rehearsal " one in which the performance is carried out with scenery, costumes, properties, &c, exactly as it is to be played in public. REHOBOAM (Heb. rehab'am, probably " the clan is en- 'arged," see Ecclus. xlvii. 23, although on the analogy of Rehabiah and Bab. ra'bi-ilu, % Am may represent some god; Septuagint reads po/3oo/x), son of Solomon and first king of Judah. On the events which led to his accession and the partition of the Hebrew monarchy, see Jeroboam, Solomon. Although his age is given as forty-one (1 Kings xiv. 21), the account of his treatment of the Israelite deputation (1 Kings xii.), as also 2 Chron. xiii. 7, give an impression of youth. He was partly of Ammonite origin (1 Kings xiv. 21), and, like his father, continued the foreign worship which his connexions involved. The chief event of his reign was the incursion of Egypt under Sheshonk (Shishak) I., who came up against Judah and despoiled the temple about 930 B.C. (see Egypt, History, § " Deltaic Dynasties "). That this invasion is to be connected with the friendly relations which are said to have subsisted between the first of the Libyan dynasty and Rehoboam's rival is unlikely. Sheshonk has figured his campaign outside the great temple of Karnak with a list of some 150 places which he claims to have conquered, but it is possible that these were only tributary, and the names may be largely based upon older lists. Towns of both Judah and Israel are incorporated, and it is possible that Jerusalem once stood where now the stone is mutilated. 1 The book of Chronicles enumerates several Judaean cities fortified by Rehoboam (not necessarily connected with Sheshonk's cam- paign), and characteristically regards the invasion as a punish- ment (2 Chron. xi. 5 sqq., xii. 1-15; for the prophet Shemaiah see 1 Kings xii. 21-24). Of Rehoboam's successor Abijah (or Abijam) little is known except a victory over Jeroboam re- corded in 2 Chron. xiii. See further Asa, Omri, and Jews (History), §§ 7, 9. REICHA, ANTON JOSEPH (1770-1836), French musical theorist and teacher of composition, was born at Prague on the 27th of February 1770, and educated chiefly by his uncle, Joseph Reicha (1746-1795), a clever violoncellist, who first received him into his house at Wallerstein in Bohemia, and afterwards carried him to Bonn. Here, about 1789, he was made flutist in the orchestra of the elector. In 1794 he went to Hamburg and gave music lessons there, also producing the opera Godefroid de Montfort. He was in Paris in 1799 and in Vienna from 1802 to 1808, during which period he saw much of Beethoven and Haydn. In the latter year he returned to Paris> where he produced three operas without much success. In 181 7 he succeeded Mehul as professor of counterpoint at the Conservatoire. In 1829 he was naturalized as a Frenchman, and in 1835 he was admitted as a member of the Institute in the place of Boieldieu. He died in Paris on the 28th of May 1836. He produced a vast quantity of church music, five operas, a number of symphonies, oratorios and many miscellaneous works. Though clever and ingenious, his compositions are more remarkable for their novelty than for the beauty of the ideas upon which they are based. His fame is, indeed, more securely based upon his didactic works. His Traits de melodie (Paris, 1814), Cours de composition musicale (Paris, 1818), Traite de haute composition musicale (Paris, 1824-26), and Art du compositeur dramatique (Paris, 1833), are valuable and instructive essays for the student, though many of the theories they set forth are now condemned as erroneous. REICHENAU, a picturesque island in the Untersee or western arm of the lake of Constance, 3 m. long by 1 broad, and connected with the east shore by a causeway three-quarters of a mile long. It belongs to the grand duchy of Baden. The soil 1 The once popular view that " king of Judah " stands in no. 29 is untenable. See Petrie, Hist, of Egypt, ii. p. 235; L. B. Paton, Syria and Pal. p. 193 sq.; W. M. Miiller, Mitteil. Vorderasiat. Gesell., 1900, p. 19 sq., and Ency. Bib. col. 4486. Breasted (Amer. Journ. of Sem. Lang., 1904, p. 36) has made the interesting observation that the list mentions " the field of Abram " (nos. 71 and 72I : see further, id., Egypt Hist. Records, iv. pp. 348-357. REICHENBACH, G.— REICHSTADT, DUKE OF 49 is very fertile, and excellent wine is produced in sufficient quantity for exportation. The Benedictine abbey of Reichenau, founded in 724, was long celebrated for its wealth and for the services rendered by its monks to the cause of learning. In 1540 the abbey, which had previously been independent, was annexed to the see of Constance, and in 1799 it was secularized. The abbey church, dating in part from the 9th century, contains the tomb of Charles the Fat (d. 888), who retired to this island in 887, after losing the empire of Charlemagne. It now serves as the parish church of Mittelzell, while the churches of Oberzell and Unterzell are also interesting buildings of the Carolingian era. REICHENBACH, GEORG VON (1772-1826), German astro- nomical instrument maker, was born at Durlach in Baden on the 24th of August 1772. From 1796 he was occupied with the construction of a dividing engine; in 1804, with Joseph, Liebherr and Joseph Utzschneider, he founded an instrument- making business in Munich; and in 1809 he established, with Joseph Fraunhofer and Utzschneider, optical works at Benedict- beuern, which were moved to Munich in 1823. He withdrew from both enterprises in 1814, and founded with T. L. Ertel a new optical business, from which also he retired in 1821, on obtaining an engineering appointment under the Bavarian government. He died at Munich on the 21st of May 1826. Reichenbach's principal merit was that he introduced into ob- servatories the meridian or transit circle, combining the transit in- strument and the mural circle into one instrument. This had already been done by O. Romer about 1704, but the idea had not been adopted by any one else, except in the transit circle constructed by Edward Troughton for Stephen Groombridge in 1 806. The transit circle in the form given it by Reichenbach had one finely divided circle attached to one end of the horizontal axis and read by four verniers on an " alidade circle," the unaltered position of which was tested by a spirit level. The instrument came almost at once into universal use on the continent of Europe (the first one was made for F. W. Bessel in 1819), but in England the mural circle and transit instrument were not superseded for many years. REICHENBACH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, situated on the Peile, at the foot of the Eulengebirge, a spur of the Riesengebirge, 30 m. S.W. of Breslau by rail. Pop. (1905) 15,984. Among its industries are weaving, spinning, dyeing, brewing and machine building, and there is a considerable trade in grain and cattle. Reichenbach is memor- able for the victory gained here on the 16th of August 1762 by the Prussians over the Austrians. Here was held the congress which resulted in the convention of Reichenbach — signed on the 27th of July 1790 between Great Britain, Prussia, Austria, Poland and Holland— guaranteeing the integrity of Turkey. Here, too, in June 1813, was signed the treaty of alliance between Austria and the Allies for the prosecution of the war against France. See the Kurze Geschichte der Stadt Reichenbach (Reichenbach, 1874). REICHENBACH, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, situated in a hilly district, known as the Vogtland, n m. S.W. of Zwickau, at the junction of the main lines of railway Dresden-Leipzig- Hof. Pop. (1005) 24,915. It contains a handsome town-hall rebuilt in 1833, and a natural history museum. The industries embrace the manufacture of cloth, machinery and carriages, also dyeing and bleaching. The earliest mention of the town occurs in a document of 1212, and it acquired municipal rights in 1367. The woollen manufacture was introduced in the 15th century, and took the place of the mining industry which had been established earlier. REICHENBERG (Czech, Liberec), a town of Bohemia, 87 m. N.E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 34,099, chiefly German. The most prominent buildings are the new town-hall (1893); the castle of Count Clam Gallas, built in the 17th century, with additions dating from 1774 and 1850; the Erzdekanatskirche, of the 16th century; the Protestant church, a handsome modern Romanesque edifice (1864-68) and the hall of the cloth-workers. Reichenberg is one of the most important centres of trade and industry in Bohemia, its staple industry being the cloth manufacture. Next in importance comes the spinning and weaving of wool, cotton, linen and carpet manu- factures, and dyeing. Reichenberg is first mentioned in a document of 1348, and from 1622 to 1634 was among the possessions of the great Wallenstein, since whose death it has belonged to the Gallas and Clam Gallas families, though their jurisdiction over the town has long ceased. The cloth-making industry was introduced in 1579. REICHENHALL, a town and watering-place in the kingdom of Bavaria, finely situated in an amphitheatre of lofty moun- tains, on the river Saalach, 1570 ft. above sea-level, 9 m. S.W. of Salzburg. Pop. (1900) 4927, excluding visitors. Reichen- hall possesses several copious saline springs, producing about 8500 tons of salt per annum. The water of some of the springs, the sources of which are 50 ft. below the surface, is so strongly saturated with salt (up to 24%) that it is at once conducted to the boiling houses, while that of the others is first submitted to a process of evaporation. Reichenhall is the centre of the four chief Bavarian salt-works, which are connected with each other by brine conduits having an aggregate length of 60 m. The surplus brine of Berchtesgaden is conducted to Reichen- hall, and thence, in increased volume, to Traunstein and Rosen- heim, which possess larger supplies of timber for use as fuel in the process of boiling. Since 1846 Reichenhall has become one of the most fashionable spas and climatic health resorts in Germany, and it is now visited annually by about ten thousand patients, besides many thousand passing tourists. The saline springs are used both for drinking and bathing, and are said to be efficacious in scrofula and incipient tuber- culosis. The brine springs of Reichenhall are mentioned in a docu- ment of the 8th century and were perhaps known to the Romans; but almost all trace of antiquity of the town was destroyed by a conflagration in 1834. The brine conduit to Traunstein dates from 16 18. The environs abound in numerous charming Alpine excursions. See G. von Liebig, Reichenhall, sein Klima und seine Heilmittel (6th ed., Reichenhall, 1889) ; and Goldschmidt, Der Kurort Bad Reichenhall und seine Umgebung (Vienna, 1892). REICHENSPERGER, AUGUST (1808-1895), German poli- tician, was born at Coblenz on the 22nd of March 1808, studied law and entered government service, becoming counsellor to the court of appeal (Appellalionsgerichlsrat) at Cologne in 1849. He was a member of the German parliament at Frankfort in 1848, when he attached himself to the Right, and of the Erfurt parliament in 1850, when he voted against the Prussian Union. From 1850 to 1863 he sat in the Prussian Lower House, from 1867 to 1884 in the Reichstag, and from 1879 onwards also in the Prussian Chamber of Deputies. Originally of Liberal tendencies, he developed from 1837 onwards ultramontane opinions, founded in 1852 the Catholic group which in 1861 took the name of the Centre party {Centrum) and became one of its most conspicuous orators. He died on the 16th of July 1895 at Cologne. He published a considerable number of works on art and architecture, including Die christlich-ger- manische Baukunst (Trier, 1852, 3rd ed., i860); Fingerzeige auf dem Gejpete der christlichen Kunst (Leipzig, 1854); Augustus Pugin, der Neubegrunder der christlichen Kunst in England (Freiburg, 1877). See L. v. Pastor, August Reichensperger, 2 vols. (Freiburg-im- Breisgau, 1899). His brother, Peter Reichensperger (1810-1892), counsellor to the appeal court at Cologne (1850) and until 1879 to the Obertribunal at Berlin, was elected to the Reichstag in 1867 as a member of the Liberal Opposition, but subsequently joined the Centre party. In the Kulturkatnpf he took an active part on the ultramontane side. He had been a member of the Prussian National Assembly in 1848, and in 1888 he published his Erlebnisse eines alien Parlamentariers im Revolti- tionsjahr 1848. REICHSTADT, NAPOLEON FRANCIS JOSEPH CHARLES, Duke of (1811-1832), known by the Bonapartists as Napo- leon II., was the son of the Emperor Napoleon I. and Marie Louise, archduchess of Austria. He was born on the 20th of 5° REID, SIR G.— REID, SIR R. G. March 1811, in Paris at the Tuileries palace. He was at first named the king of Rome, after the analogy of the heirs of the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire. By his birth the Napoleonic dynasty seemed to be finally established; but in three years it crumbled in the dust. At the time of the downfall of the empire (April 1814) Marie Louise and the king of Rome were at Blois with Joseph and Jerome Bonaparte, who wished to keep them as hostages. This design, however, was frustrated. Napoleon abdicated in favour of his son; but events prevented the reign of Napoleon II. from being more than titular. While Napoleon repaired to Elba, his consort and child went to Vienna; and they remained in Austria during the Hundred Days (1815), despite efforts made by the Bonapartists to carry off the prince to his father at Paris. Meanwhile the congress of Vienna had carried out the con- ditions of the treaty of Fontainebleau (March 1814) whereby the duchies of Parma and Guastalla were to go to the ex- Empress Marie Louise and her son, although much opposition was offered to this proposal by Louis XVIII. and even (so it now appears) by Metternich. The secret treaty of the 31st of May 1815 between Austria, Russia and Prussia secured those possessions to her, her son bearing the title Prince of Parma, with hereditary rights for his descendants. But after the second abdication of Napoleon in favour of his son (22nd of June 181 5) — a condition which was wholly nugatory — the powers opposed all participation of the prince in the affairs of Parma. He therefore remained in Austria, while Marie Louise proceeded to Parma. From this time onward he be- came, as it were, a pawn in the complex game of European politics, his claims being put forward sometimes by Metternich, sometimes by the unionists of Italy, while occasionally mal- contents in France used his name to discredit the French Bourbons. The efforts of malcontents increased the resolve of the sovereigns never to allow a son of Napoleon to bear rule; and in November 18 16 the court of Vienna informed Marie Louise that her son could not succeed to the duchies. This decision was confirmed by the treaty of Paris of the 10th of June 181 7. Marie Louise demanded as a slight compensa- tion that he should have a title derived from the lands of the " Bavarian Palatinate " in northern Bohemia, and the title of " duke of Reichstadt " was therefore conferred on him on the 22nd of July 1818. Thus Napoleon I., who once averred that he would prefer that his son should be strangled rather than brought up as an Austrian prince, lived to see his son reduced to a rank inferior to that of the Austrian archdukes. His education was confided chiefly to Count Dietrichstein, who found him precocious, volatile, passionate and fond of military affairs. The same judgment was given by Marshal Marmont, duke of Ragusa, who recognized the warlike strain in his character. His nature was sensitive, as appeared on his receiving the news of the death of his father in 1821. The upheaval in France in 1830 and the disturbances which ensued led many Frenchmen to turn their thoughts to Napoleon II.; but though Metternich dallied for a time with the French Bonapartists, he had no intention of inaugurating a Napoleonic revival. By this time, too, the duke's health was on the decline ; his impatience of all restraint and his indulgence in physical exercise far beyond his powers aggravated a natural weakness of the chest, and he died on the 22nd of July 1832. See A. M. Barthelemy and J. P. A. M6ry, Le Fits de Vhomme (Paris, 1829), Baron G. I. Comte de Montbel, Le Due de Reichstadt (Paris, 1832); J. de Saint-F61ix, Histoire de Napoleon II. (Paris, 1853); Guy de l'Herault, Histoire de Napoleon II. (Paris, 1853); Count Anton von Prokesch-Osten, Mein Verhaltniss zum Herzog von Reichstadt (Stuttgart, 1878) ; H. Welschinger, Le Roi de Rome (Paris, 1897); E. de Wertheimer, The Duke of Reichstadt (Eng. ed., London, 1905); M. Rostand's play L'Aiglon is a dramatic setting of the career of the prince. (J. Hl. R.) REID, SIR GEORGE (1841- ), Scottish artist, was born in Aberdeen on the 31st of October 1841. He developed an early passion for drawing, which led to his being apprenticed in 1854 for seven years to Messrs Keith & Gibb, lithographers in Aberdeen. In 1861 Reid took lessons from an itinerant portrait-painter, William Niddrie, who had been a pupil of James Giles, R.S.A., and afterwards entered as a student in the school of the Board of Trustees in Edinburgh. He returned to Aberdeen to paint landscapes and portraits for any trifling sum which his work could command. His first portrait to attract attention, from its fine quality, was that of George Macdonald, the poet and novelist, now the property of the university of Aberdeen. His early landscapes were con- scientiously painted in the open air and on the spot. But Reid soon came to see that such work was inherently false, painted as the picture was day after day under varying con- ditions of light and shade. Accordingly, in 1865 he proceeded to Utrecht to study under A. Mollinger, whose work he ad- mired, from its unity and simplicity. This change in his method of viewing Nature was looked on as revolutionary by the Royal Scottish Academy, and for some years his work found little favour in that quarter; but other artists gradually adopted the system of tone-studies-, which ultimately pre- vailed. Reid went to Paris in 1868 to study under the figure painter Yvon; and he worked in 1872 with Josef Israels at the Hague. From this time forward Reid's success was continuous and marked. He showed his versatility in land- scape, as in his " Whins in Bloom," which combined great breadth with fine detail; in flower-pieces, such as his " Roses," which were brilliant in rapid suggestiveness and force; but most of all in his portraits, which are marked by great indi- viduality, and by fine insight into character. His work in black-and-white, his admirable illustrations in brushwork of Edinburgh and its neighbourhood, and also his pen-drawings, about which it has been declared that " his work contains all the subtleties and refinements of a most delicate etching," must also be noted. Elected Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy in 1870, Reid attained full membership in 1877, and took up his residence in Edinburgh in 1882. In 1801 he was elected President — a post which he held until 1902 — receiving also the honour of knighthood, and he was awarded a gold medal at the Paris Exhibition of 1900. His brother Samuel (b. 1854) was also a painter and a writer of tales and verse. REID, ROBERT (1862- ), American artist, was born at Stockbridge, Mass., on the 29th of July 1862. He studied at the art schools of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, the Art Students' League, New York, and under Boulanger and Lefebvre in Paris. His early pictures were figures of French peasants, painted at Etaples, but subsequently he became best known for mural decoration and designs for stained glass. He contributed with others to the frescoes of the dome of the Liberal Arts Building at the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, in 1893. Other work is in the Congressional Library, Washing- ton, the Appellate Court House, New York, and the State House, Boston, where are his three large panels, " James Otis Delivering his Speech against the Writs of Assistance," " Paul Revere's Ride " and the " Boston Tea Party." He executed a panel for the American Pavilion at the Paris Ex- hibition, 1900, and in 1906 he completed a series of ten stained glass windows for a church at Fairhaven, Mass., for the Rogers Memorial. In 1906 he became a full member of the National Academy of Design. REID, SIR ROBERT GILLESPIE (1840-1908), Canadian railway contractor, was born at Coupar-Angus, Scotland. When a young man he spent a few years in Australia gold- mining, and in 1871 he settled in America, where he began his career as a contractor. He built one section of the Canadian Pacific railway, and was responsible for the erection of the international bridge over the Niagara river, the international railway bridge over the Rio Grande river and the Lachine bridge over the St Lawrence. In 1893 Reid signed a contract with the government of Newfoundland by which he under- took to construct a railway from St John's to Pcrt-aux-Basques and to work the line for ten years in return for a large grant of land. In 1898 he further contracted to work all the railways in Newfoundland for fifty years on condition that at the end REID, T. 5i of this time they should become his property. This bargain, which included other matters such as steamers, docks and telegraphs, was extraordinarily favourable to Reid; who, by further enormous grants of land, became one of the largest landed proprietors in the world; public opinion was aroused against it, and at first the governor, Sir Herbert Murray, refused to ratify it. After the premier, Sir James Winter, had been replaced by Mr (afterwards Sir) Robert Bond, the terms of the contract were revised, being made more favourable to Newfoundland, and Reid's interests were transferred to a company, the Reid Newfoundland Company, of which he was the first president (see Newfoundland, Roads and Railways). Reid was knighted in 1007, and he died on the 3rd of June 1908. REID, THOMAS (1710-1706), Scottish philosopher, was born at Strachan in Kincardineshire, on the 26th of April 17 10. His father was minister of the place for fifty years, and traced his descent from a long line of Presbyterian ministers on Dee- side. His mother belonged to the brilliant Gregory family (?.».), which, in the 18th century, gave so many representatives to literature and science in Scotland. Reid graduated at Aber- deen in 1726, and remained there as librarian to the university for ten years, a period which he devoted largely to mathematical reading. In 1737 he was presented to the living of Newmachar near Aberdeen. The parishioners, violently excited at the time about the law of patronage, received him with open hostility; and tradition asserts that his uncle defended him on the pulpit stair with a drawn sword. Though not dis- tinguished as a preacher, he was successful in winning the affections of his people. The publication of Hume's treatise turned his attention to philosophy, and in particular to the theory of external perception. His first publication, however, dealt with a question of philosophical method suggested by the reading of Hutcheson. The " Essay on Quantity, occa- sioned by reading a Treatise in which Simple and Compound Ratios are applied to Virtue and Merit," denies the possibility of a mathematical treatment of moral subjects. The essay appeared in the Transactions of the Royal Society (1748). In 1740 Reid married a cousin, the daughter of a London physician. In 1752 the professors of King's College, Aberdeen, elected him to the chair of philosophy, which he held for twelve years. The foundation of the Aberdeen Philosophical Society (the " Wise Club "), which numbered among its members Campbell, Beattie, Gerard and Dr John Gregory, was mainly owing to the exertions of Reid, who was secretary for the first year (1758). Many of the subjects of discussion were drawn from Hume's speculations; and during the last years of his stay in Aberdeen Reid propounded his new point of view in several papers read before the society. The results of these papers were embodied in the Enquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense (1764). The Enquiry does not go beyond an analysis of sense perception, and is therefore more limited in scope than the later Essays; but if the latter are more mature, there is more freshness about the earlier work. In this year, Reid succeeded Adam Smith as professor of moral philosophy in the university of Glasgow. After seventeen years of active teaching, he retired in order to complete his philosophical system. As a lecturer, he was inferior in charm and eloquence to Brown and Stewart; the latter says that " silent and respectful attention " was accorded to the " sim- plicity and perspicuity of his style " and " the gravity and authority of his character." His philosophical influence was exerted largely through the writings of Dugald Stewart and Sir William Hamilton. The Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man appeared in 1785, and their ethical complement, the Essays on the Active Powers of the Human Mind, in 1788. These, with an account of Aristotle's Logic appended to Lord Karnes's Sketches of the History of Man (1774), conclude the list of works published in Reid's lifetime. Hamilton's edition of Reid also contains an account of the university of Glasgow and a selection of Reid's letters, chiefly addressed to his Aberdeen friends the Skenes, to Lord Karnes, and to Dr James Gregory. With the two last named he discussed the materialism of .Priestley and the theory of necessitarianism. He reverted in his old age to the mathematical pursuits of his earlier years, and his ardour for knowledge of every kind remained fresh to the last. He died of paralysis on the 7th of October 1706, his wife and all his children save one having predeceased him. His portrait by Raeburn is the property of Glasgow University, and in the National Portrait Gallery, Edinburgh, there is a good medallion by Tassie, taken in his eighty-first year. His char- acter was marked by independence, economy and generosity. The key to Reid's philosophy is to be found in his revulsion from the sceptical conclusions of Hume. In several passages of his writings he expressly dates his philosophical awakening from the appearance of the Treatise of Human Nature. In the dedication of the Enquiry, he says: "The ingenious author of that treatise upon the principles of Locke — who was no sceptic — hath built a system of scepticism which leaves no ground to believe any one thing rather than its contrary. His reasoning appeared to me to be just; there was, there/ore, a necessity to call in question the principles upon which it was founded, or to^admit the conclusion." Reid thus takes Hume's scepticism as, on its own showing, a reductio ad impossibUe (see Hume, ad fin.) of accepted philbsophical principles, and refuses, accordingly, to separate Hume from his intellectual progenitors. From its origin in Descartes and onwards through Locke and Berkeley, modern philosophy carried with it, Reid contends, the germ of scepticism. Embracing the whole philosophic movement under the name of " the Cartesian system," Reid detects its fundamental error in the unproved assumption shared by these thinkers " that all the objects of my knowledge are ideas in my own mind." This doctrine or hypothesis he usually speaks of as the ideal system " or " the theory of ideas";andto it he opposes his own analysis of the act of perception. In view of the results of this analysis, Reid's theory (and the theory of Scottish philosophy generally) has been dubbed natural realism or natural dualism, in contrast to theories l;ke subjective idealism and materialism or to the cosmothetic idealism or hypothetical dualism of the majority of philosophers. But this unduly narrows the scope of Scottish philosophy, which does not exhaust itself, as is sometimes supposed, in uncritically reasserting the independent existence of matter and its immediate presence to mind. The real significance of Reid's doctrine lies in its attack upon Hume's fundamental principles, (1) that all our perceptions are distinct existences, and (2) that the mind never perceives any real connexion among distinct existences (cf. Appendix to the third volume of the Treatise, 1740). It is here that the danger of " the ideal system " really lies — in its reduction of reality to " particular perceptions," essentially unconnected with each other. This theory admitted, nothing is left for philosophy save to explain the illusion of necessary connexion. Reid, however, attacks the fundamental assumption. In logical language, he denies the actuality of the abstract particular. The unit of knowledge is not an isolated impression but a judgment; and in such a judgment is contained, even initially, the reference both to a permanent subject and to a permanent world of thought, and, implied in these, such judgments, for example, as those of existence, substance, cause and effect. Such principles are not derived from sensation, but are " suggested " on occasion of sensation, in such a way as to constitute the necessary conditions of our having perceptive experience at all. Thus we do not start with " ideas, and afterwards refer them to objects; we are never restricted to our own minds, but are from the first immediately related to a permanent world. Reid has a variety of names for the principles which, by their presence, lift us out of subjectivity into perception. He calls them " natural judgments," " natural sug- gestions," "judgments of nature," "judgments immediately inspired by our constitution," " principles of our nature," " first principles," " principles of common sense." The last commoo designation, which became the current one, was un- sense. doubtedly unfortunate, and has conveyed to many a false impression of Scottish philosophy. It has been understood as if Reid had merely appealed from the reasoned conclusions of philo- sophers to the unreasoned beliefs of common life. But Reid's actions are better than his words; his real mode of procedure is to redargue Hume's conclusions by a refutation of the premises in- herited by him from his predecessors. For the rest, as regards the question of nomenclature, Reid everywhere unites common sense and reason, making the former " only another name for one branch or degree of reason." Reason, as judging of things self-evident, is called common sense to distinguish it from ratio- cination or reasoning. And in regard to Reid's favourite proof of the principles in question by reference to " the consent of ages and nations, of the learned and unlearned," it is only fair to observe that this argument assumes a much more scientific form in the Essays, where it is almost identified with an appeal to " the structure and grammar of all languages." " The structure of all languages," he says, " is grounded upon common sense." To take but one example, " the distinction between sensible qualities and the substance to which they belong, and between thought and the mind that thinks, is not the invention of philosophers ; it is found 52 REID, T, Mi^-REIGATE in the structure of all languages, and therefore must be common to all men who speak with understanding " (Hamilton's Reid, pp. 229 and 454). . . . , The principles which Reid insists upon as everywhere present in experience evidently correspond pretty closely to the Kantian categories and the unity of apperception. Similarly, Reid s Reid and asser ti on f the essential distinction between space or KaaU extension and feeling or any succession of feelings may_ be compared with Kant's doctrine in the Aesthetic. " Space, he says, " whether tangible or visible, is not so properly an object [Kant's " matter "] as a necessary concomitant of the objects both of sight and touch." Like Kant, too, Reid finds in space the source of a necessity which sense, as sense, cannot give (Hamilton's Reid, p. 323) . In the substance of their answer to Hume, the two philosophers have therefore much in common. But Reid lacked the art to give due impressiveness to the important advance which his positions really contain. Although at times he states his principles with a wonderful degree of breadth and insight, he mars the effect by looseness of statement, and by the incorporation of irrelevant psychological matter. And, if Kant was overridden by a love of symmetry, Reid's indifference to form and system is an even more dangerous defect. Further, Reid is inclined to state his principles dogmatically rather than as logical deductions. The transcendental deduction, or proof from the possibility of experi- ence in general, which forms the vital centre of the Kantian scheme, is wanting in Reid; or, at all events, if the spirit of the proof is occasionally present, it is nowhere adequately developed. Never- theless, Reid's insistence on judgment as the unit of knowledge and his sharp distinction between sensation and perception must still be recognized as of the highest importance. The relativism or phenomenalism which Hamilton afterwards adopted from Kant and sought to engraft upon Scottish philosophy is wholly absent from the original Scottish doctrine. One c* C «i t, or two passages may certainly be quoted from Reid in c 1 1 which he asserts that we know only pioperties of things and are ignorant of their essence. But the exact meaning which he attaches to such expressions is not quite clear; and they occur, moreover, only incidentally and with the air of current phrases mechanically repeated. Dugald Stewart, however, deliberately emphasizes the merely qualitative nature of our knowledge as the foundation of philosophical argument, and thus paves the way for the thoroughgoing philosophy of nescience elaborated by Hamilton. But since Hamilton's time the most typical Scottish thinkers have repudiated his relativistic doctrine, and returned to the original tradition of the school. For Reid's ethical theory, see Ethics. The complete edition of the works by Sir William Hamilton, published in two volumes with notes and supplementary disserta- tions by the editor (6th ed. 1863), has superseded all others. For Reid's life see D. Stewart's Memoir prefixed to Hamilton's edition of Reid's works. See also McCosh, Scottish Philosophers (1875); Rait, Universities of Aberdeen, pp. 190-203, 223; A. C. Fraser, Monograph (1898); A. Bain, Mental Science, p. 207, p. 422 (for his theory of free will), and Appendix, pp. 29, 63, 88, 89. \ri. o. r^.-Jr . J ■&■•) REID, THOMAS MAYNE (1818-1883), better known as Mayne Reid, British novelist, the son of a Presbyterian minister, was born at Ballyroney, Co. Down, Ireland, on the 4th of April 1818. His own early life was as adventurous as any boy reader of his novels could desire. He was educated for the church, but did not take orders, and when twenty years old went to America in search of excitement and fortune. He made trading excursions on the Red river, studying the ways of the red man and the white pioneer. He made acquaintance with the Missouri in the same manner, and roved through all the states of the Union. In Philadelphia, where he was engaged in journalism from 1843^0 1846, he made the acquaintance of Edgar Allan Poe. When the war with Mexico broke out in 1846 he obtained a captain's commission, was present at the siege and capture of Vera Cruz, and led a forlorn hope at Chapulte- pec, where he sustained such severe injuries that his life was despaired of. In one of his novels he says that he believed theoretically in the military value of untrained troops, and that he had found his theories confirmed in actual warfare. An enthusiastic republican, he offered his services to the Hungarian insurgents in 1849, raised a body of volunteers, and sailed for Europe, but arrived too late. He then settled in England, and began his career of a novelist with the publication, in 1850, of the Rifle Rangers. This was followed next year by the Scalp Hunters. He never surpassed his first productions, except perhaps in The White Chief (1859) and The Quadroon (1856): but he continued to produce tales of self-reliant enter- prise and exciting adventure with great fertility. Simplicity of plot and easy variety of exciting incident are among the merits that contribute to his popularity with boys. His reflections are not profound, but are frequently more sensible than might be presumed at first from his aggressive manner of expressing them. He died in London on the 22nd of October 1883. See Memoir (1890) by his widow, Elizabeth Mayne Reid. REID, WHITELAW (1837- ), American journalist and diplomatist, was born of Scotch parentage, near Xenia, Ohio, on the 27th of October 1837. He graduated at Miami Uni- versity in 1856, and spoke frequently in behalf of John C. Fremont, the Republican candidate for the presidency in that year; was superintendent of schools of South Charleston, Ohio, in 1856-58, and in 1858-59 was editor of the Xenia News. In i860 he became legislative correspondent at Columbus for several Ohio newspapers, including the Cincinnati Gazette, of which he was made city editor in 1861. He was war correspondent for the Gazette in 1861-62, serving also as volunteer aide-de-camp (with the rank of captain) to General Thomas A. Morris (1811-1904) and General William S. Rosecrans in West Virginia. He was Washington correspondent of the Gazette in 1862-68, acting incidentally as clerk of the mili- tary committee of Congress (1862-63) and as librarian of the House of Representatives (1863-66). In 1868 he became a leading editorial writer for the New York Tribune, in the following year was made managing editor, and in 1872, upon the death of Horace Greeley, became the principal proprietor and editor-in-chief. In 1905 Reid relinquished his active editorship of the Tribune, but retaine'd financial control. He declined an appointment as United States minister to Germany in 1877 and again in 1881, but served as minister to France in 1889-92, and in 1892 was the unsuccessful Republican candi- date for vice-president on the ticket with Benjamin Harrison. In 1897 he was special ambassador of the United States on the occasion of Queen Victoria's jubilee; in 1898 was a member of the commission which arranged the terms of peace between the United States and Spain; in 1902 was special ambassador of the United States at the coronation of King Edward VII., and in 1905 became ambassador to Great Britain. He was elected a life member of the New York State Board of Regents in 1878; and in 1902 he became vice-chancellor and, in 1904, chancellor of the university of the state of New York. In 1881 he married a daughter of Darius Ogden Mills (1825-1910), a prominent financier. His publications include After the War (1867), in which he gives his observations during a journey through the Southern States in 1866; Ohio in the War (2 vols., 1868); Some Consequences of the Last Treaty of Paris (1899); Our New Duties (1899); Later Aspects of Our New Duties (1899); Problems of Expansion (1900); The Greatest Fact in Modern History (1906), and How America faced its Educational Problem (1906). REID, SIR WILLIAM (1 791-1858), Scottish administrator and man of science, was born on the 25th of April 1791 at the manse of Kinglassie, Fifeshire, and entered the Royal Engineers in 1809. He saw active service in the Peninsula under Wellington, and took part in the bombardment of Algiers in 1816. In 1835 and 1836 he again saw active service, in Spain against Don Carlos. In 1838 he published his Attempt to develop the Law of Storms, which obtained wide popularity. In 1839 he was appointed governor of the Bermudas, where he did much to develop the agricultural resources of the islands, and in 1846 he was transferred to Barbados. In 1850-51 he was chairman of the executive committee of the Great Exhi- bition; on the completion of the work he was made a K.C.B. and appointed governor of Malta. He died in London on the 31st of October 1858. REIGATE, a market town and municipal borough in the Reigate parliamentary division of Surrey, England, 24 m. S. by W. of London by the South-Eastern & Chatham rail- way. Pop. (1901) 25,993. It is situated at the head of the long valley of Holmsdale Hollow, beneath the North Downs. A very fine prospect over a great part of Surrey and Sussex, and extending to Hampshire and Kent, is obtained from the I neighbouring . Reigate Hill. Of the old castle, supposed to REIMARUS-—REIMS 53 have been built before the Conquest to command the pass through the valley, there only remains the entrance to a cave beneath, 150 ft. long and from 10 to 12 ft. high, excavated in the sandstone, which was used as a guardroom. The grounds are laid out as a public garden. Near the market house is the site of an ancient chapel dedicated to Thomas a. Becket. In the chancel of the parish church of St Mary, a building ranging from Transitional Norman to Perpendicular, is buried Lord Howard, the commander of the English navy against the Spanish Armada. Above the vestry there is a library contain- ing choice manuscripts and rare books. The grammar school was founded in 1675. Among the other public buildings are the town hall, the public hall, the market hall, and the working men's institute. The borough includes the township of Red- hill, adjacent on the east. The town has some agricultural trade, and in the neighbourhood are quarries for freestone, hearthstone and white sand. The borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 5994 acres. Reigate {Cherchefelle, Regat, Reygate) owed its first settlement to its situation at a cross-road on the Pilgrim's Way, at the foot of the North Downs ; and its early importance to the castle which was the stronghold of the De Warennes in the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries. On the death of Edith, the widow of Edward the Confessor, to whom it belonged, William I. secured the manor of Cherchefelle, as it was then called. It was granted by William Rufus to Earl Warenne, through whose family it passed in 1347 to the earls of Arundel. The name Reigate occurs in 1199. Burgesses of Reigate are mentioned in a close roll of 1348, but no eaily charter is known. The town was incorporated in 1863. It returned two members to parliament from 1295 till 1831, and afterwards one member only until 1867, when it was disfranchised for corruption. In the reign of Edward I. Earl Warenne held a weekly market on Saturdays, and fairs on Tuesday in Whitsun-week, the eve and day of St Lawrence, and the eve and day of the Exaltation of the Cross, by prescriptive right. Edward II. granted a market on Tuesdays, which is still held. The fair days are now Whit-Tuesday and the 9th of December. REIMARUS, HERMANN SAMUEL (1694-1768), German philosopher and man of letters, was born at Hamburg, on the 22nd of December 1694. He was educated by his father and by the famous scholar J. A. Fabricius, whose son-in-law he subsequently became. He studied theology, ancient languages, and philosophy at Jena, became Privatdozent in the university of Wittenberg in 1716, and in 1720-21 visited Holland and England. In 1723 he became rector of the high school at Wismar in Mecklenburg, and in 1727 professor of Hebrew and Oriental languages in the high school of his native city. This post he held till his death, though offers of more lucrative positions were made to him. His duties were light, and he employed his leisure in the study of philology, mathematics, philosophy, history, political economy, natural science and natural history, for which he made large collections. His house was the centre of the highest culture of Hamburg, and a monu- ment of his influence in that city still remains in the Haus der patriotischen Gesellschaft, where the learned and artistic societies partly founded by him still meet. He had seven children, only three of whom survived him — the distinguished physician Johann Albrecht Heinrich, and two daughters, one of them being Elise, Lessing's friend and correspondent. He died on the 1st of March 1 768. Reimarus's reputation as a scholar rests On the valuable edition of Dio Cassius (1750-52) which he prepared from the materials collected by J. A. Fabricius. He published a work on logic {Vernunftlehre als Anweisung zum richtigen Gebrauche der Vernunft, 1756, 5th ed., 1790), and two popular books on the religious questions of the day. The first of these was a col- lection of essays on the principal truths of natural religion {Abhandlungen von den vornehmsten Wahrheiten der natilrlichen Religion, 1755, 7th ed., 1798); the second (Betrachtungen ilber die Triebe der Thiere, 1760, 4th ed., 1798) dealt with one par- ticular branch of the same subject. His philosophical position is essentially that of Christfan Wolff. But he is best known by his Apologie oder Schutzschrift fur die vernjinftigen Verehrer Gottes (carefully kept back during his lifetime), from which, after his death, Lessing published certain chapters under the title of the WolfenbUUel Fragments (see Lessing). The original MS. is in the Hamburg town library; a copy was made for the university library of Gottingen, 18 14, and other copies are known to exist. In addition to the seven fragments pub- lished by Lessing, a second portion of the work was issued in 1787 by C. A. E. Schmidt (a pseudonym), under the title Uebrige noch ungedruckte Werke des Wolfenbiittelschen Fragmentislen, and a further portion by D. W. Klose in Niedner's Zeitschrift fiir historische Theologie, 1850-52. Two of the five books of the first part and the whole of the second part, as well as appen- dices on the canon, remain unprinted. But D. F. Strauss has given an exhaustive analysis of the whole work in his book on Reimarus. The standpoint of the Apologie is that of pure naturalistic deism. Miracles and mysteries are denied, and natural religion is put forward as the absolute contradiction of revealed. The essential truths of the former are the existence of a wise and good Creator and the immortality of the soul. These truths are discoverable by reason, and are such as can constitute the basis of a universal religion. A revealed religion could never obtain universality, as it could never be intelligible and credible to all men. Even supposing its possi- bility, the Bible does not present such a revelation. It abounds in error as to matters of fact, contradicts human experience, reason and morals, and is one tissue of folly, deceit, enthusiasm, selfishness and crime. Moreover, it is not a doctrinal compendium, or catechism, which a revelation would have to be. What the Old Testament says of the worship of God is little, and that little worthless, while its writers are unacquainted with the second fundamental truth of religion, the immortality of the soul. The design of the writers of the New Testament, as well as that of Jesus, was not to teach true rational religion, but to serve their own selfish ambitions, in pro- moting which they exhibit an amazing combination of conscious fraud and enthusiasm. It is important, however, to remember that Reimarus attacked atheism with equal effect and sincerity, and that he was a man of high moral character, respected and esteemed by his contemporaries. Modern estimates of Reimarus may be found in the works of B. Punjer, O. Pfleiderer and H. Hoffding. Punjer states the position of Reimarus as follows: " God is the Creator of the world, and His wisdom and goodness are conspicuous in it. Immortality is founded upon the essential nature of man and upon the purpose of God in creation. Religion is conducive to our happiness and alone brings satisfaction. Miracles are at variance with the divine purpose; without miracles there could be no revelation " (Punjer, History of Christian Philosophy of Religion since Kant, Engl, trans., PP- 550-57.I which contains an exposition of the Abhandlungen and Schutzschrift). Pfleiderer says the errors of Reimarus were that he ignored historical and literary criticism, sources, date, origin, &c, of documents, and the narratives were said to be either purely divine or purely human. He had no conception of an immanent reason {Philosophy of Religion, Eng. trans., vol. i. p. 102). H. Hoffding also has a brief section on the Schutzschrift, stating its main position as follows: " Natural religion suffices; a revelation is therefore superfluous. Moreover, such a thing is both physically and morally impossible. God cannot interrupt His own work by miracles; nor can He favour some men above others by revelations which are not granted to all, and with which it is not even possible for all to become acquainted. But of all doctrines that of eternal punishment is most contrary, Reimarus thinks, to true ideas of God, and it was this point which first caused him to stumble " {History of Modern Phil., Eng. trans. (1900), vol. ii. pp. 12, 13). See the " Fragments " as published by Lessing, reprinted in vol. xv. of Lessing's Werke, Hempel's edition; D. F. Strauss, H. S. Reimarus und seine Schutzschrift fur die vernilnftigen Verehrer Gottes (1862, 2nd ed. 1877); Charles Voysey, Fragments from Reimarus (London, 1879) (a translation of the life of Reimarus by Strauss, with the second part of the seventh fragment, on the " Object of Jesus and his Disciples"); the Lives of Lessing by Danzel and G. E. Guhrauer, Sime, and Zimmern; Kuno Fischer, Geschichte der neuern Philosophie (vol. ii. pp. 759-72, 2nd ed. 1867); Zeller, Geschichte der deutschen Philosophie (2nd ed., 1875, pp. 243-46). REIMS (Rheims), a city of north-eastern France, chief town of an arrondissement of the department of Marne, 98 m. E.N.E. of Paris, on the Eastern railway. Pop. (1906) 102,800. Reims is situated in a plain on the right bank of the Vesle, a tributary of the Aisne, and on the canal which connects the Aisne with the Marne. South and west rise the " montagne de Reims " and vine-clad hills. Reims is limited S.W. by the Vesle and the canal, N.W. by promenades which separate it from the railway and in other directions by boulevards lined with fine residences. Beyond extend large suburbs, the chief of which are Ceres to the N.E., Coutures to the E., Laon to the N. and Vesle to the W. Of its squares the principal are the Place 54 REIMS Royale, with a statue of Louis XV., and the place du Parvis, with an equestrian statue of Joan of Arc. The rue de Vesle, the chief street, continued under other names, traverses the town from S.W. to N.W., passing through the Place Royale. The oldest monument in Reims is the Mars Gate (so called from a temple to Mars in the neighbourhood), a triumphal arch 108 ft. in length by 43 in height, consisting of three archways flanked by columns. It is popularly supposed to have been erected by the Remi in honour of Augustus when Agrippa made the great roads terminating at the town, but probably belongs to the 3rd or 4th century. In its vicinity a curious mosaic, measuring 36 ft. by 26, with thirty-five medallions representing animals and gladiators, was discovered in i860. To these remains must be added a Gallo- Roman sarcophagus, said to be that of the consul Jovinus (see below) and preserved in the archaeological museum in the cloister of the abbey of St Remi. The cathedral of Notre-Dame, where the kings of France used to be crowned^ replaced an older church (burned in 121 1) built on the site of the basilica where Clovis was baptized by St Remigius. The cathedral, with the exception of the west front, was completed by the end of the 13th century. That portion was erected in the 14th century after 13th-century designs — the nave having in the meantime been lengthened to afford room for the crowds that attended the coronations. In 1481 fire destroyed the roof and the spires. In 1875 the National Assembly voted £80,000 for repairs of the fagade and balustrades. This fagade is the finest portion of the building, and one of the most perfect masterpieces of the middle ages. The three portals are laden with statues and statuettes. The central portal, dedicated to the Virgin, is surmounted by a rose-window framed in an arch itself decorated with statuary. The " gallery of the kings " above has the baptism of Clovis in the centre and statues of his successors. The towers, 267 ft. high, Were originally designed to rise 394 ft.; that on the south contains two great bells, one of which, named " Charlotte " by Cardinal de Lorraine in 1570, weighs more than II tons. The facades of the transepts are also decorated with sculptures — that on the north with statues of the principal bishops of Reims, a representation of the Last Judgment and a figure of Christ (le Beau Dieu) while that on the south side has a beautiful rose-window with the prophets and apostles. Of the four towers which flanked the transepts nothing remains above the height of the roof since the fire of 1481. Above the choir rises an elegant bell-tower in timber and lead, 59 ft. high, reconstructed in the 15th century. The interior of the cathedral is 455 ft. long, 98 ft. wide in the nave, and 125 ft. high in the centre, and comprises a nave with aisles, transepts with aisles, a choir with double aisles, and an apse with deambulatory and radiating chapels. It has a profusion of statues similar to those of the outside, and stained glass of the 13th century. The rose-window over the main portal and the gallery beneath are of rare magnificence. The cathedral possesses fine tapestries. Of these the most important series is that presented by Robert de Lenoncourt, archbishop under Francis I., representing the life of the Virgin. The north transept contains a fine organ in a Flamboyant Gothic case. The choir clock is ornamented with curious mechanical figures. Several paintings, by Tintoretto, Nicolas Poussin, and others, and the carved woodwork and the railings of the choir, also deserve mention. The treasury contains the Sainte Ampoule, or holy flask, the successor of the ancient one broken at the Revolution (see below), a fragment of which it contains. The archiepiscopal palace, built between 1498 and 1509, and in part rebuilt in 1675, was occupied by the kings on the occasion of their coronation. The saloon (salle du Tau), where the royal banquet was held, has an immense stone chimney of the 15th century, medallions of the archbishops of Rei.ns, and portraits of fourteen kings crowned in the city. Among the other rooms of the royal suite, all of which are of great beauty and richness, is that now used for the meetings of the Reims Academy ; the building also contains a library. The chapel of the archiepiscopal palace consists of two storeys, of which the upper still serves as a place of worship. Both the chapel and the salle du Tau are decorated with tapestries of the 17th century, known as the Perpersack tapestries, after the Flemish weaver who executed them. After the cathedral, which it almost equals in size, the most celebrated church is St Remi, once attached to an important abbey, the buildings of which are used as a hospital. St Remi dates from the nth, 12th, 13th and 15th centuries. The nave and transepts, Romanesque in style, date mainly from the earliest, the facade of the south transept from the latest, of those periods, the choir and apse chapels from the 12th and 13th centuries. The valuable monu- ments with which the church was at one time filled were pillaged during the Revolution, and even the tomb of the saint is a modern work; but there remain the 12th-century glass windows of the apse and tapestries representing the history of St Remigius, given by Robert de Lenoncourt. The churches of St Jacques, St Maurice (partly rebuilt in 1867), St Andrd, and St Thomas (erected from 1847 to 1853, under the patronage of Cardinal Gousset, now buried within its walls), are all of minor interest. Of the fine church of St Nicaise only insignificant remains are to be seen. The town hall, erected in the 17th and enlarged in the 19th century, has a pediment with an equestrian statue of Louis XIII. and a tall and elegant campanile.* It contains a picture gallery, ethnographical, archaeological and other collections, and the public library. There are many old houses, the House of the Musicians (13th century) being so called from the seated figures of musicians which decorate the front. In 1874 the construction of a chain of detached forts was begun in the vicinity, Reims being selected as one of the chief defences of the northern approaches of Paris. The ridge of St Thierry is crowned with a fort of the same name, which with the neighbouring work of Chenay closes the west side of the place. To the north the hill of Brimont has three works guarding the Laon railway and the Aisne canal. Farther east, on the old Roman road, lies the fort de Fresnes. Due east the hills of Arnay are crowned with five large and important works which cover the approaches from the upper Aisne. Forts Pompelle and Montbre close the south-east side, and the Falaise hills on the Paris side are open and unguarded. The perimeter of the defences is not quite 22 m., and the forts are a mean distance of 6 m. from the centre of the city. Reims L the seat of an archbishop, a court of assize and a sub-prefect. It is an important centre for the combing, carding and spinning of wool and the weaving of flannel, merino, cloth and woollen goods of all kinds, these industries employing some 24,000 hands; dyeing and " dressing " are also carried on. It is the chief wool market in France, and has a " con- ditioning house " which determines the loss of weight resulting from the drying of the wool. The manufacture of and trade in champagne is also very important. The wine is stored in large cellars tunnelled in the chalk. Other manufactures are machinery, chemicals, safes, capsules, bottles, casks, candles, soap and paper. The town is well known for its cakes and biscuits. History. — Before the Roman conquest Reims, as Durocor- torum, was capital of the Remi, from whose name that of the town was subsequently derived. The Remi made voluntary submission to the Romans, and by their fidelity throughout the various Gallic insurrections secured the special favour of their conquerors. Christianity was established in the town by the middle of the 3rd century, at which period the bishopric was founded. The consul Jovinus, an influential supporter of the new faith, repulsed the barbarians who invaded Cham- pagne in 336; but the Vandals captured the town in 406 and slew St Nicasus, and Attila afterwards put it to fire and sword. Clovis, after his victory at Soissons (486), was baptized at Reims in 496 by St Remigius. Later kings desired to be consecrated at Reims with the oil of the sacred phial which was believed to have been brought from heaven by a dove for the baptism of Clovis and was preserved in the abbey of St Remi. Meetings of Pope Stephen III. with Pippin the Short, and of Leo III. with Charlemagne, took place at Reims; and here Louis the Debonnaire was crowned by Stephen IV. Louis IV. gave the town and countship of Reims to the archbishop Artaldus in 940. Louis VII. gave the title of duke and peer to William of Champagne, archbishop from n 76 to 1202, and the archbishops of Reims took precedence of the other eccle- siastical peers of the realm. In the 10th century Reims had become a centre of intellectual culture, Archbishop Adalberon, seconded by the monk Gerbert (afterwards Pope Silvester II.), having founded schools where the " liberal arts " were taught. Adalberon was also one of the prime authors of the revolution which put the Capet house in the place of the Carolingians. The most important prerogative of the archbishops was the consecration of the kings of France — a privilege which was exercised, except in a few cases, from the time of Philip Augustus to that of Charles X. Louis VII. granted the town a communal charter in 1139. The treaty of Troyes (1420) ceded it to the English, who had made a futile attempt to take it by siege in 1360; but they were expelled on the approach of Joan of Arc, who in 1429 caused Charles VII. to be consecrated in the cathedral. A revolt at Reims, caused by the salt tax in 1461, was cruelly repressed by Louis XL The town sided with the League (1585), but submitted to Henry IV. after the battle of REIN— REINDEER 55 Ivxy. In the foreign invasions of 1814 it was captured and recaptured; in 1870-71 it was made by the Germans the seat of a governor-general and impoverished by heavy re- quisitions. See G. Marlot, Histoire de la ville, cM et university de Reims, 4 vols. (Reims, 1843-46); J. Justinus (Baron I. Taylor), La Ville de Reims (Paris, 1854). REIN, a guiding or controlling leather strap or thong, attached to the bit of a ridden or driven horse (see Saddlery). The word is taken from the O. Fr. rene, modern fine, and is usually traced to a supposed Late Latin substantive retina formed from retinere, to hold back, restrain, cf. classical Latin retinaculum, halter. The word, usually in the plural, has been often used figuratively, as a type of that which guides, restrains or controls, e.g. in such phrases as the " reins of government," &c. The " reins," i.e. the kidneys (Lat. renes, cf. Gr. (jtpfiv, the midriff), or the place where the kidneys are situated, hence the loins, also, figuratively, the seat of the emotions or affections, must be distinguished. REINACH, JOSEPH (1856- ), French author and politician, was born in Paris on the 30th of September 1856. After leaving the Lycee Condorcet he studied for the bar, being called in 1887. He attracted the attention of Gambetta by articles on Balkan politics published in the Revue bleue, and joined the staff of the Ripublique franqaise. In Gambetta's grand ministere M. Reinach was his secretary, and drew up the case for a partial revision of the constitution and for the electoral method known as the scrutin de liste. In the Ripublique francaise he waged a steady war against General Boulanger which brought him three duels, one with EdmondMagnier and two with Paul Deroulede. Between 1889 and 1898 he sat for the Chamber of Deputies for Digne. As member of the army commission, reporter of the budgets of the ministries of the interior and of agriculture he brought forward bills for the better treatment of the insane, for the establishment of a colonial ministry, for the taxation of alcohol, and for the repara- tion of judicial errors. He advocated complete freedom of the theatre and the press, the abolition of public executions, and denounced political corruption of all kinds. He was indirectly implicated in the Panama scandals through his father-in-law, Baron de Reinach, though he made restitution as soon as he learned that he was benefiting by fraud. But he is best known as the champion of Captain Dreyfus. At the time of the original trial he attempted to secure a public hearing of the case, and in 1897 he allied himself with Scheurer-Kestner to demand its revision. He denounced in the Steele the Henry forgery, and Esterhazy's complicity. His articles in the Siecle aroused the fury of the anti-Dreyfusard party, especially as he was himself a Jew and therefore open to the charge of having undertaken to defend the innocence of Dreyfus on racial grounds. He lost his seat in the Chamber of Deputies, and, having refused to fight Henri Rochefort, eventually brought an action for libel against him. Finally, the " affaire " being terminated and Dreyfus pardoned, he undertook to write the history of the case, the first four volumes of which appeared in 1901. This was completed in 1905. In 1906 M. Reinach was re-elected for Digne. In that year he became member of the commission of the national archives, and next year of the council on prisons. Reinach was a voluminous writer on political subjects. On Gambetta he published three volumes in 1884, and he also edited his speeches. For the criticisms of the anti-Dreyfusard pi ess see Henri Dutrait-Croyon, Joseph Reinach, historien (Paris, 1905), a violent criticism in detail of Reinach's history of the " affaire." His brother, the well-known savant, Salomon Reinach (1858- ), born at St Germain-en-Laye on the 29th of August 1858, was educated at the Ecole normale sup6rieure, and joined the French school at Athens in 1879. He made valuable archaeological discoveries at Myrina near Smyrna in 1880-82, at Cyme in 1881, at Thasos, Imbros and Lesbos (1882), at Carthage and Meninx (1883-84), at Odessa (1893) and else- where. He received honours from the chief learned societies of Europe, and in 1886 received an appointment at the National Museum of Antiquities at St Germain; in 1893 he became assistant keeper, and in 1902 keeper of the national museums. In 1903 he became joint editor of the Revue archSologique, and in the same year officer of the Legion of Honour. The lectures he delivered on art at the Ecole du Louvre in 1902-3 were pub- lished by him under the title of Apollo. This book has been translated into most European languages, and is one of the most compact handbooks of the subject. His first published work was a translation of Schopenhauer's Essay on Free Will (1877), which passed through many editions. This was followed by many works and articles in the learned re- views of which a list — up to 1903— is available in Bibliographie de S. R. (Angers, 1903). His Manuel de philologie classique (1880- 1884) was crowned by the French association for the study of Greek; his Grammaire latine (1886) received a prize from the Society of Secondary Education; La Necropole de Myrina (1887), written with E. Pottier, and Antiquites nationales were crowned by the Academy of Inscriptions. He compiled an important Re- pertoire de la statuaire grecque et romaine (3 vols., 1897-98); also Repertoire de peintures du moyen Age et de la Renaissance 1280-1580 (190,5, &c); Repertoire des vases peints grecs et ttrusques (1900). In 1905 he began his Cultes, mythes et religions; and in 1909 he published a general sketch of the history of religions under the title of Orpheus. He also translated from the English H. C. Lea's History of the Inquisition. A younger brother, Theodore Reinach (i860- ), also had a brilliant career as a scholar. He pleaded at the Parisian bar in 1881-86, but eventually gave himself up to the study of numismatics. He wrote important works on the ancient kingdoms of Asia Minor — Trois royaumes de I'Asie Mineure, Cappadoce, Bithynie, Pont (1888), Mithridate Eupator (1890); also a critical edition and translation with H. Weil of Plutarch's Treatise on Music; and an Histoire des Israelites depuis la mine de leur indSpendance nalionale jusqu'a nos jours (2nd ed., 1901). From 1888 to 1897 he edited the Revue des itudes grecques. REINAUD, JOSEPH TOUSSAINT (1795-1867), French orien- talist, was born on the 4th of December 1795 at Lambesc, Bouches du Rh6ne. He came to Paris in 1815, and became a pupil of Silvestre de Sacy. In' 181 8-1 9 he was at Rome as an attache to the French minister, and studied under the Maronites of the Propaganda, but gave special attention to Mahommedan coins. In 1824 he entered the department of oriental MSS. in the Royal Library at Paris, and in 1838, on the death of De Sacy, he succeeded to his chair in the school of living oriental languages. In 1847 he became president of the Societe Asiatique, and in 1858 conservator of oriental MSS. in the Imperial Library. His first important work was his classical description of the collections of the due de Blacas (1828). To history he contributed an essay on the Arab in- vasions of France, Savoy, Piedmont and Switzerland (1836), and various collections for the period of the crusades; he edited (1840) and in part translated (1848) the geography of Abulfeda; to him too is due a useful edition of the very curious records of early Arab intercourse with China of which Eusebe Renaudot had given but an imperfect translation (Re- lation des voyages, &c, 1845), and various other essays illus- trating the ancient and medieval geography of the East. Reinaud died in Paris on the 14th of May 1867. REINDEER, in its strict sense the title of a European deer distinguished from all other members of the family Cervidae (see Deer), save those of the same genus, by the presence of antlers in both sexes; but, in the wider sense, including Asiatic and North American deer of the same general type, the latter of which are locally designated caribou. Reindeer, or caribou, constitute the genus Rangifer, and are large clumsily built deer, inhabiting the sub-Arctic and Arctic regions of both hemispheres. As regards their distinctive features, the antlers are of a complex type and situated close to the occipital ridge of the skull, and thus far away from the sockets of the eyes, with the brow-tines in adult males palmated, laterally compressed, deflected towards the middle of the face, and often unsymmetrically developed. Above the brow-tine is developed a second palmated tine, 56 REINECKE— REINHOLD which appears to represent the bez-tine of the red-deer; there is no trez-tine, but some distance above the bez the beam is suddenly bent forward to form an " elbow," on the posterior side of which is usually a short back-tine; above the back-tine the beam is continued for some distance to terminate in a large expansion or palmation. The antlers of females are simple and generally smaller. The muzzle is entirely hairy; the ears and tail are short; and the throat is maned. The coat is unspotted at all ages, with a whitish area in the region of the tail. The main hoofs are short and rounded and the lateral hoofs very large. There is a tarsal, but no metatarsal gland and tuft. In the skull the gland-pit is shallow, and the vacuity of moderate size; the nasal bones are well developed, and much expanded at the upper end. Upper canines are wanting; the cheek-teeth are small and low-crowned, with the third lobe of the last molar in the lower jaw minute. The lateral metacarpal bones are represented only by their lower extremities; the importance of this feature being noticed in the article Deer. In spite of the existence of a number of more or less well-marked geographical forms, reindeer from all parts of the northern hemi- sphere present such a marked similarity that it seems preferable to regard them as all belonging to a single widespread species, of which most of the characters will be the same as those of the genus. American naturalists, however, generally regard these as distinct species. The coat is remarkable for its density and compactness; the general colour of the head and upper parts being clove-brown, with more or less white or whitish grey on the under parts and inner surfaces of the limbs, while there is also some white above the hoofs and on the muzzle, and there may be whitish rings round the eyes ; there is a white area in the region of the tail, which includes the sides but not the upper surface of the latter; and the tarsal tuft is gener- ally white. The antlers are smooth, and brownish white in colour, but the hoofs jet black. Albino varieties occasionally occur in the wild state. A height of 4 ft. 10 in. at the shoulder has been re- corded in the case of one race. The wild Scandinavian reindeer (Rangifer larandus) may be re- garded as the typical form of the species. It is a smaller animal than the American woodland race, with antlers approximating to those of the barren-ground race, but less elongated, and with a distinct back-tine in the male, the brow-tines moderately palmated and frequently nearly symmetrical, and the bez-tine not exces- sively expanded. Female antlers are generally much smaller than those of males, although occasionally as large, but with much fewer points. The antlers make their appearance at an unusually early age. Mr Madison Grant considers that American reindeer, or caribou, may be grouped under two types, one represented by the barren- ground caribou R. tarandus arcticus, which is a small animal with immense antlers characterized by the length of the beam, and the consequent wide separation of the terminal palmation from the brow-tine; and the other by the woodland-caribou {R. t. caribou), which is a larger animal with shorter and more massive antlers, in which the great terminal expansions are in approximation to the brow-tine owing to the shortness of the beam. Up to 1902 seven other American races had been described, four of which are grouped by Grant with the first and three with the second type. Some of these forms are, however, more or less intermediate between the two main types, as is a pair of antlers from Novaia Zemlia described by the present writer as R. t. pearsoni. The Scandinavian reindeer is identified by Mr Grant with the barren-ground type. Reindeer are domesticated by the Lapps and other nationalities of northern Europe and Asia, to whom these animals are all-im- portant. Domesticated reindeer have also been introduced into Alaska. See Madison Grant, " The Caribou," ph Annual Report, New York Zoological Society (1902); J. G. Millais, Newfoundland and its Untrodden Ways (1908). (R. L.*) REINECKE, CARL HEINRICH CARSTEN (1824-1910), German composer and pianist, was born at Altona on the 23rd of June 1824; his father, Peter Reinecke (who was also his teacher), being an accomplished musician. At the age of eleven he made his first appearance as a pianist, and when scarcely eighteen he went on a successful tour through Denmark and Sweden. After a stay in Leipzig, where he studied under Mendelssohn and under Schumann, Reinecke went on tour with Konigslow and Wasielewski, Schumann's biographer, in North Germany and Denmark. From 1846 to 1848 Reinecke was court pianist to Christian VIII. of Denmark. After resigning this post he went first to Paris, and next to Cologne, as professor in the Con- servatorium. From 1854 to 1859 he was music director at Barmen, in the latter year filling this post at Breslau University; in i860 he became conductor of the famous Leipzig Gewandhaus, a post which (together with that of professor at the Conserva- torium) he held with honour and distinction for thirty-five years. He finally retired into private life in 1902 and died in March 1910. During this time Reinecke continually made concert tours to England and elsewhere. His pianoforte playing belonged to a school now almost extinct. Grace and neatness were its characteristics, and at one time Reinecke was probably unrivalled as a Mozart player and an accompanist. His grand opera Konig Manfred, and the comic opera Auf hoken Befekl, were at one time frequently played in Germany; and his cantata Hakon Jarl is melodiously beautiful, as are many of his songs; while his Friedensfeier overture was once quite hack- neyed. By far his most valuable works are those written for educational purposes. His sonatinas, his " Kinder- garten " and much that he has ably edited will keep his name alive. REINHART, CHARLES STANLEY (1844-1896), American painter and illustrator, was born at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, and after having been employed in railway work and at a steel factory, studied art in Paris and at the Munich Academy under Straehuber and Otto. He afterwards settled in New York, but spent the years 1882-1886 in Paris. He was a regular exhibitor at the National Academy in New York, and contri- buted illustrations in black and white and in colours to the leading American periodicals. He died in 1896. Among his best-known pictures are: " Reconnoitring," " Caught Napping," " September Morning," " Mussel Fisherwoman," " At the Ferry," " Normandy Coast," " Gathering Wood," " The Old Life Boat," " Sunday," and " English Garden "; but it is as an illustrator that he is best known. REINHART, JOACHIM CHRISTIAN (1761-1847), German painter and etcher, was born at Hof in Bavaria in 1 761, and studied under Oeser at Leipzig and under Klingel at Dresden. In 1789 he went to Rome, where he became a follower of the classicist German painters Carstens and Koch. He devoted himself more particularly to landscape painting and to aquatint engraving. Examples of his landscapes are to be found at most of the important German galleries, notably at Frankfort, Munich, Leipzig and Gotha. In Rome he executed a series of landscape frescoes for the Villa Massimi. He died in Rome in 1847. REINHOLD, KARL LEONHARD (1758-1823), German philosopher, was born at Vienna. At the age of fourteen he entered the Jesuit college of St Anna, on the dissolution of which (1774) he joined a similar college of the order of St Barnabas. Finding himself out of sympathy with monastic life, he fled in 1783 to North Germany, and settled in Weimar, where he became Wieland's collaborateur on the German Mercury, and eventually his son-in-law. In the German Mercury he published, in the years 1786-87, his Brief e uber die Kantische Philosophic, which were most important in making Kant known to a wider circle of readers. As a result of the Letters, Reinhold received a call to the university of Jena, where he taught from 1787 to 1794. In 1789 he published his chief work, the Versuch einer neuen Theorie des menschlichen Vorstellungsvermogens, in which he attempted to simplify the Kantian theory and make it more of a unity. In 1794 he accepted a call to Kiel, where he taught till his death in 1823, but his independent activity was at an end. In later life he was powerfully influenced by Fichte, and subsequently, on grounds of religious feeling, by Jacobi and Bardili. His historical importance belongs entirely to his earlier activity. The development of the Kantian standpoint contained in the " New Theory of Human Understanding " (1789), and in the Fundament des philosophischen Wissens (1791), was called by its author Elementarphilosophie. " Reinhold lays greater emphasis than Kant upon the unity and activity of consciousness. The principle of consciousness tells us that every idea is related both to an object and a subject, and ie partly to be distinguished, partly united to both. Since form cannot produce matter nor subject object, we are forced to assume a thine-in-itself. But this is a notion which is self-contrac\ictory if consciousness be essentially a relating activity. There is there- REINKENS— REISKE 57 for« something which must bethought and yet cannot be thought" (Hoffding, History of Modern Philosophy, Eng. trans., vol. ii.). See R. Keil, Wieland und Reinhold (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1890); J. E. Erdmann, Grundriss der Geschichle der Philosophie (Berlin, 1866); histories of philosophy by R. Folckenberg and W. Windel- band. REINKENS, JOSEPH HUBERT (1821-1896), German Old Catholic bishop, was born at Burtscheid, near Aix-la-Chapelle, on the 1 st of March 1821, his father being a gardener. In 1836, on the death of his mother, he took to manual work in order to support his numerous brothers and sisters, but in 1840 he was able to go to the gymnasium at Aix, and he after- wards studied theology at the universities of Bonn and Munich. He was ordained priest in 1848, and in 1849 graduated as doctor in theology. He was soon appointed professor of ecclesi- astical history at Breslau, and in 1865 he was made rector of the university. During this period he wrote, among other treatises, monographs on Clement of Alexandria, Hilary of Poitiers and Martin of Tours. In consequence of an essay on art, especially in tragedy, after Aristotle, he was made doctor in philosophy in the university of Leipzig. When, in 1870, the question of papal infallibility was raised, Reinkens attached himself to the party opposed to the proclamation of the dogma. He wrote several pamphlets on church tradition relative to infallibility and on the procedure of the Council. When the dogma of infallibility was proclaimed, Reinkens joined the band of influential theologians, headed by Dollinger, who resolved to organize resistance to the decree. He was one of those who signed the Declaration of Nuremberg in 1871, and at the Bonn conferences with Orientals and Anglicans in 1874 and 1875 he was conspicuous. The Old Catholics having decided to separate themselves from the Church of Rome, Reinkens was chosen their bishop in Germany at an enthusiastic meeting at Cologne in 1873 (see Old Catholics). On the nth of August of that year he was consecrated by Dr Heykamp, bishop of Deventer. Reinkens devoted himself zealously to his office, and it was due to his efforts that the Old Catholic movement crystallized into an organized church, with a definite status in the various German states. He wrote a number of theological works after his consecration, but none of them so important as his treatise on Cyprian and the Unity of the Church (1873). The chief act of his episcopal career was his consecration in 1876 of Dr Edward Herzog to preside as bishop over the Old Catholic Church in Switzerland. In 1881 Reinkens visited England, and received Holy Communion more than once with bishops, clergy and laity of the Church of England, and in 1894 he defended the validity of Anglican orders against his co-religionists, the Old Catholics of Holland. He died at Bonn on the 4th of January 1896. See Joseph Hubert Reinkens, by his nephew, J. M. Reinkens (Gotha, 1906). REISKE, JOHANN JACOB (1716-1774), German scholar and physician, was born on the 25th of December 1716 at Zorbig in Electoral Saxony. From the Waisenhaus at Halle he passed in 1733 to the university of Leipzig, and there spent five years. He tried to find his own way in Greek literature, to which German schools then gave little attention; but, as he had not mastered the grammar, he soon found this a sore task and took up Arabic. He was very poor, having almost nothing beyond his allowance, which for the five years was only two hundred thalers. But everything of which he could cheat his appetite was spent on Arabic books, and when he had read all that was then printed he thirsted for manuscripts, and in March 1738 started on foot for Hamburg, joyous though totally unprovided, on his way to Leiden and the treasures of the Warnerianum. At Hamburg he got some money and letters of recommendation from the Hebraist Wolf, and took ship to Amsterdam. Here d'Orville, to whom he had an intro- duction, proposed to retain him as his amanuensis at a salary of six hundred guilders. Reiske refused, though he thought the offer very generous; he did not want money, he wanted manuscripts. When he reached Leiden (June 6, 1738) he found that the lectures were over for the term and that the MSS. were not open to him. But d'Orville and A. Schultens helped him to private teaching and reading for the press, by which he was able to live. He heard the lectures of A. Schultens, and practised himself in Arabic with his son J. J. Schultens. Through Schultens too he got at Arabic MSS., and was even allowed sub rosa to take them home with him. Ultimately he seems to have got free access to the collection, which he re-catalogued— the work of almost a whole summer, for which the curators rewarded him with nine guilders. Reiske's first years in Leiden were not unhappy, till he got into serious trouble by introducing emendations of his own into the second edition of Burmann's Petronius, which he had to see through the press. His patrons withdrew from him, and his chance of perhaps becoming professor was gone; d'Orville indeed soon came round, for he could not do without Reiske, who did work of which his patron, after dressing it up in his own style, took the credit. But A. Schultens was never the same as before to him; Reiske indeed was too independent, and hurt him by his open criticisms of his master's way of making Arabic mainly a handmaid of Hebrew. Reiske, however, himself admits that Schultens always behaved honourably to him. In 1742 by Schultens's advice Reiske took up medicine as a study by which he might hope to live if he could not do so by philology. In 1746 he graduated as M.D., the fees being remitted at Schultens's intercession. It was Schultens too who conquered the difficulties opposed to his graduation at the last moment by the faculty of theology on the ground that some of his theses had a materialistic ring. On the 10th of June 1746 he left Holland and settled in Leipzig, where he hoped to get medical practice. But his shy, proud nature was not fitted to gain patients, and the Leipzig doctors would not recommend one who was not a Leipzig graduate. In 1747 an Arabic dedication to the electoral prince of Saxony got him the title of professor, but neither the faculty of arts nor that of medicine was willing to admit him among them, and he never delivered a course of lectures. He had still to go on doing literary task-work, but his labour was much worse paid in Leipzig than in Leiden. Still he could have lived and sent his old mother, as his custom was, a yearly present of a piece of leather to be sold in retail if he had been a better manager. But, careless for the morrow, he was always printing at his own cost great books which found no buyers. His academical colleagues were hostile; and Ernesti, under a show of friendship, secretly hindered his promotion. His unsparing reviews made bad blood with the pillars of the university. At length in 1758 the magistrates of Leipzig rescued him from his misery by giving him the rectorate of St Nicolai, and, though he still made no way with the leading men of the university and suffered from the hostility of men like Ruhnken and J. D. Michaelis, he was compensated for this by the esteem cf Frederick the Great, of Lessing, Karsten Niebuhr, and many foreign scholars. The last decade of his life was made cheerful by his marriage with Ernestine Muller, who shared all his interests and learned Greek to help him with collations. In proof of his gratitude her portrait stands beside his in the first volume of the Oratorcs Graeci. Reiske died on the 14th of August 1774, and his MS. remains passed, through Lessing's mediation, to the Danish minister Suhm, and are now in the Copenhagen library. Reiske certainly surpassed all his predecessors in the range and quality of his knowledge of Arabic literature. It was the history, the realia of the literature, that always interested him; he did not care for Arabic poetry as such, and the then much praised Hariri seamed to him a grammatical pedant. He read the poets less for their verses than for such scholia as supplied historical notices. Thus for example the scholia on Jarir furnished him with a remarkable notice of the prevalence of Buddhist doctrine and asceticism in 'Irak under the Omayyads. In the Adnotationes historicae to his Abulfeda (Abulf. Annates Moslemici, 5 vols., Copenhagen, 1789-91), he collected a veritable treasure of sound and original research ; he knew the Byzantine writers as thoroughly as the Arabic authors, and was alike at home in modern works of travel in all languages and in ancient and medieval authorities. He was interested too in 58 REJANE— RELATIVITY OF KNOWLEDGE numismatics, and his letters on Arabic coinage (in Eichhorn's Repertorium, vols, ix.-xi.) form, according to De Sacy, the basis of that branch of study. To comprehensive knowledge and very wide reading he added a sound historical judgment. He was not, like Schultens, deceived by the pretended antiquity of the Yemenite Kasldas. 1 Errors no doubt he made, as in the attempt to ascertain the date of the breach of the dam of Marib. Though Abulfeda as a late epitomator did not afford a starting- point for methodical study of the sources, Reiske's edition with his version and notes certainly laid the foundation for research in Arabic history. The foundation of Arabic philology, however, was laid not by him but by De Sacy. Reiske's linguistic knowledge was great, but he used it only to understand his authors; he had no feeling for form, for language as language, or for metre. In Leipzig Reiske worked mainly at Greek, though he continued to draw on his Arabic stores accumulated in Leiden. Yet his merit as an Arabist was sooner recognized than the value of his Greek work. Reiske the Greek scholar has been rightly valued only in recent years, and it is now recognized that he was the first German since Sylburg who had a living knowledge of the Greek tongue. His reputation does not rest on his numerous editions, often hasty or even made to booksellers' orders, but in his remarks, especially his conjectures. He himself designates the Animadversation.es in Scriptores Graecos nsflos ingenii sui, and in truth these thin booklets outweigh his big editions. Closely following the author's thought he removes obstacles whenever he meets them, but he is so steeped in the language and thinks so truly like a Greek that the difficulties he feels often seem to us to lie in mere points of style. His criticism is empirical and unmethodic, based on immense and careful reading, and applied only when he feels a difficulty ; and he is most successful when he has a large mass of tolerably homogeneous literature to lean on, whilst on isolated points he is often at a loss. His corrections are often hasty and false, but a surprisingly large proportion of them have since received confirmation from MSS. And, though his merits as a Grecian lie mainly in his conjectures, his realism is felt in this sphere also ; his German translations especially show more freedom and practical insight, more feeling for actual life, than is common with the scholars of that age. 2 For a list of Reiske's writings see Meusel, xi. 192 seq. His chief Arabic works (all posthumous) have been mentioned above. In Greek letters his chief works are Constantini Porphyrogeniti libri II. de ceremoniis aulae Byzant., vols, i ii. (Leipzig, 1751-66), vol. iii. (Bonn, 1829) ; Animadv. ad Graecos auctores (5 vols., Leipzig, 1751-66) (the rest lies unprinted at Copenhagen) ; Oratorum Graec. quae super sunt (8 vols'., Leipzig, 1770-73); A pp. crit. ad Demosthenem (3vols.,i6., 1774-75); Maximus Tyr. {ib., 1774) ; Plutarchus (11 vols., ib., 1774-79) I Dionys Italic. (6 vols., ib., 1774-77) > Libanius (4 vols., Altenburg, 1784-97). Various reviews in the Acta eruditorum and Zuverl. Nachrichten are characteristic and worth reading. Compare D. Johann Jacob Reiskens von ihm selbst aufgesetzte Lebensbe- schreibung (Leipzig, 1783). (J. We.) REJANE, GABRIELLE [Charlotte Rfju] (1857- ), French actress, was born in Paris, the daughter of an actor. She was a pupil of Regnier at the Conservatoire, and took the second prize for comedy in 1874. Her debut was made the next year, during which she played attractively a number of light — especially soubrette — parts. Her first great success was in Henri Meilhac's Ma camarade (1883), and she soon became known as an emotional actress of rare gifts, notably in DScori, Germinie Lacerteux, Ma cousine, Amoureuse and Lysistrata. In 1892 she married M. Porel, the director of the Vaudeville theatre, but the marriage was dissolved in 1905. Her per- formances in Madame Sans Glne (1893) made her as well known in England and America as in Paris, and in later years she appeared in characteristic parts in both countries, being particularly successful in Zaza and La Passerelle. She opened the Theatre Rejane in Paris in 1906. The essence of French vivacity and animated expression appeared to be concentrated in Madame Rejane's acting, and made her unrivalled in the parts which she had made her own. RELAND, ADRIAN (1676-1718), Dutch Orientalist, was born at Ryp, studied at Utrecht and Leiden, and was professor of Oriental languages successively at Harderwijk (1699) and Utrecht (1701). His most important works were Palaestina ex veteribus monumentis illustrata (Utrecht, i7i4),and Antiquitates sacrae veterum Hebraeorum. (See also Burman, Traj. Erud., p. 296 seq.). 1 ," Animadvers. criticae in Hamzae hist, regni Joctanidarum," in Eichhorn's Mon. Ant. Hist. Ar., 1775. 8 For this estimate of Reiske as a Greek scholar the writer is in- debted to Prof. U. v. Wilamowitz-Moellendorff. RELAPSING FEVER (Febris recurrens), the name given to a specific infectious disease occasionally appearing as an epidemic in communities suffering from scarcity or famine. It is char- acterized mainly by its sudden invasion, with violent 'febrile symptoms, which continue for about a week and end in a crisis, but are followed, after another week, by a return of the fever. This disease has received many other names, the best known of which are famine fever, seven-day, bilious relapsing fever, and spirillum fever. As in the case of typhoid, relapsing fever was long believed to be simply a form of typhus. The distinction between them appears to have been first clearly established in 1826, in connexion with an epidemic in Ireland. Relapsing fever is highly contagious. With respect to the nature of the contagion, certain important observations have been made (see also Parasitic Diseases). In 1873 Obermeier discovered in the blood of persons suffering from relapsing fever minute organisms in the form of spiral filaments of the genus Spirochaete, measuring in length 5 fo to i^b inch and in breadth fuJinj to sfijjnj inch, and possessed of rotatory or twisting movements. This organism received the name of Spirillum obermeieri. Fritz Schaudinn has brought forward evidence that- it is an animal parasite. The most constantly recognized factor in the origin and spread of relapsing fever is destitution; but this cannot be regarded as metre than a predisposing cause, since in many lands widespread and destructive famines have prevailed without any outbreak of this fever. In- stances, too, have been recorded where epidemics were distinctly associated with overcrowding rather than with privation. Relapsing fever is most commonly met with in the young. One attack does not appear to protect from others, but rather, according to some authorities, engenders liability. The incubation of the disease is about one week. The symptoms of the fever then show themselves with great abruptness and violence by a rigor, accompanied with pains in the limbs and severe head- ache. The febrile phenomena are very marked, and the tempera- ture quickly rises to a high point (i05°-io7° Fahr.), at which it con- tinues with little variation, while the pulse is rapid (100-140), full and strong. There is intense thirst, a dry brown tongue, bilious vomiting, tenderness over the liver and spleen, and occa- sionally jaundice. Sometimes a peculiar bronzy appearance of the skin is noticed, but there is no characteristic rash as in typhus. There is much prostration of strength. After the continuance of these symptoms for a period of from five to seven days, the tem- perature suddenly falls to the normal point or below it, the pulse becomes correspondingly slow, and a profuse perspiration occurs, while the severe headache disappears and the appetite returns. Except for a sense of weakness, the patient feels well and may even return to work, but in some cases there remains a condition of great debility, accompanied with rheumatic pains in the limbs. This state of freedom from fever continues for about a week, when there occurs a well-marked relapse with scarcely less abruptness and severity than in the first attack, and the whole symptoms are of the same character, but they do not, as a rule, continue so long, and they terminate in a crisis in three or four days, after which convalescence proceeds satisfactorily. Second, third and even fourth relapses, however, may occur in exceptional cases. The mortality in relapsing fever is comparatively small, about 5 % being the average death-rate in epidemics (Murchison). The fatal cases occur mostly from the complications common to continued fevers. The treatment is essentially the same as that for typhus fever. Lowenthal and Gabritochewsky by using the serum of an immune horse succeeded in averting the relapse in 40% of cases. RELATIVITY OF KNOWLEDGE, a philosophic term which was much used by the philosophers of the middle of the 19th century, and has since fallen largely into disuse. It deserves explanation, however, not only because it has occupied so large a space in the writings of some great British thinkers, but also because the main question for which it stands is still matter of eager debate. We get at the meaning of the term most easily by considering what it is that " relativity " is opposed to. " Relativity " of knowledge is opposed to absoluteness or positiveness of knowledge. Now there are two senses in which knowledge may claim to be absolute. The knower may say, " I know this absolutely," or he may say, "I know this absolutely." With the emphasis upon the " know " he asserts that his know- ledge of the matter in question cannot be affected by anything whatever. " I know absolutely that two and two are four " makes an assertion about the knower's intellectual state: he is convinced that his certain knowledge of the result of adding two to two is independent of any other piece of knowledge. With RELEASE— RELICS 59 the emphasis upon the object of knowledge, " I know this ," we have the other sense of absoluteness of knowledge: it is an assertion that the knower knows the " this," whatever it may be, in its .essence or as it truly is in itself. The phrase " relativity of knowledge" has therefore two meanings: (a) that no portion of knowledge is absolute, but is always affected by its relations to other portions of knowledge; (b) that what we know are not absolute things in themselves, but things conditioned in their quality by our channels of knowledge. Each of these two propositions must command assent as soon as uncritical ignorance gives place to philosophic reflection; but each may be exaggerated, indeed has currently been exaggerated, into falsity. The simplest experience — a single note struck upon the piano — would not be what it is to us but for its relation by contrast or comparison with other experiences. This is true; but we may easily exaggerate it into a falsehood by saying that a piece of experience is entirely constituted by its relation to other experiences. Such an extreme relativity, as advocated by T. H. Green in the first chapter of his Prolegomena to Ethics, involves the absurdity that our whole experience is a tissue of relations with no points of attachment on which the relations depend. The only motive for advocating it is the prejudice of absolute idealism which would deny that sensation has any part whatever in the constitution of experience. As soon as we recognize the part of sensation, we have no reason to deny the common-sense position that each piece of experience has its own quality, which is modified indefinitely by the relations in which it stands. The second sense of relativity, that which asserts the impossi- bility of knowing things except as conditioned by our perceptive faculties, is more important philosophically and has had a more interesting history. To apprehend it is really the first great step in philosophical education. The unphilosophical person assumes that a tree as he sees it is identical with the tree as it is in itself and as it is for other percipient minds. Reflection jhows that our apprehension of the tree is conditioned by the jense-organs with which we have been endowed, and that the ipprehension of a blind man, and still more the apprehension of a dog or horse, is quite different from ours. What the tree is m itself — that is, for a perfect intelligence — we cannot know, any more than a dog or horse can know what the tree is for a human intelligence. So far the relativist is on sure ground; but from this truth is developed the paradox that the tree has no objective existence at all and consists entirely of the conscious states of the perceiver. Observe the parallelism of the two paradoxical forms of relativity: one says that things are relations with nothing that is related; the other says that things are perceptive conditions with nothing objective to which the conditions apply. Both make the given nothing and the work of the mind everything. To see the absurdity of the second paradox of relativity is easier than to refute it. If nothing exists but the conscious states of the perceiver, how does he come to think that there is an objective tree at all ? Why does he regard his conscious states as produced by an object ? And how does he come to imagine that there are other minds than his own ? In short, this kind of relativity leads straight to what is generally known as " the abyss of solipsism." But, like all the great paradoxes of philosophy, it haa its value in directing our attention to a vital, yet much neglected, element of experience. We cannot avoid solipsism (q.v.) so long as we neglect the element of force or power. If, as Hegel asserted, our experience is all knowledge, and if knowledge is indefinitely transformed by the conditions of knowing, then we are tempted to regard the object as super- fluous, and to treat our innate conviction that knowledge has reference to objects as a delusion which philosophical reflection is destined to dispel. The remedy for the paradox is to recognize that the foundation for our belief in the existence of objects is the force which they exercise upon us and the resistance which they offer to our will. What the tree is In regard to its specific qualities depends on what faculties we have for perceiving it. But, whatever specific qualities it may have, it will still exist as an object, so long as it comes into dynamic relations with our minds. In the history of thought the relativity of knowledge as just described begins with Descartes, the founder of modern philosophy: the characteristic of modern philosophy is that it lays more stress upon the subjective than upon the objective side of experience. It is a mistake to refer it back to the Greeks. The maxim of Protagoras, for example, " Man is the measure of all things," has a different purpose; it was meant to point to the truth that man rather than nature is the primary object of human study : it is a doctrine of humanism rather than of relativism. To appreciate the relativistic doctrines we find in various thinkers we must take account of the use to which they were put. By Descartes the principle was used as an instrument of scepticism, the beneficent scepticism of pulling down medieval philosophy to make room for modern science; by Berkeley it was used to combat the materialists; by Hume in the cause of scepticism once more against the intellectual dogmatists; by Kant to prepare a justification for a noumenal sphere to be apprehended by faith; by J. S. Mill and Herbert Spencer to support their derivation o( all our experience from sensation. It is in Mill's Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy that the classical statement of the Relativity of Knowledge is to be found. The second chapter of that book sets forth the various forms of the doctrine with admirable lucidity and precision, and gives many references to other writers. For the sake of clearness it seems desirable to keep for the future the term " relativity of knowledge " to the first meaning explained above: for the second meaning it has been superseded in contem- porary philosophizing by the terms " subjectivism," " subjective idealism," and, for its extreme form, " solipsism " (q.v.). (H. St.) RELEASE (O.Fr. reles, variant of relais, from relaisser, to release, let go, Lat. relaxare), freedom or deliverance from trouble, pain or sorrow, the freeing or discharge from some obligation or debt, the action of letting go or releasing something fixed or set in position. In law, the term is applied to the discharge of some obligation, by which it is extinguished (see Debt), and to the conveyance of an estate or interest in real or personal property to one who has already some estate or interest therein. For the special form of conveyancing known as " lease and release," see Conveyancing. RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body), the name given in the Catholic Church to,(i) the bodies of the saints, or portions of them,(2) such objects as the saints made use of during their lives, or as were used at their martyrdom. These objects are held by the Church in religious veneration, and by their means it hopes to obtain divine grace and miraculous benefits {Cone. Trid. sess. 24). These ideas had taken shape, in all essentials, during the early days of the Church, underwent further development in the middle ages, and were maintained by the Catholic Church in the face of the opposition of the Reformers, while all the Protestant Churches rejected them. The origins of the veneration of relics lie in the anxiety for the preservation of the bodies of the martyrs. Nothing is more natural than that the pious solicitude felt by all men for the bodies of their loved ones should in the primitive Christian Churches have been turned most strongly towards the bodies of those who had met with death in confessing their faith. The account given by the church at Smyrna of the death of their bishop Polycarp (155) gives us an insight into these feelings, The church collected and buried the remains of the martyr, who had been burnt, in order duly to celebrate the anniversary of the martyrdom at the place of burial. The possession of the relics seemed to assure the continuation of the common life of the church with their bishop, of the living with the dead {Mart. Polyc. c. 17). The custom of which we have here for the first time an account had become universal by the 3rd century. In all parts the Christians assembled on the anniversary of the martyrs' death at their graves, to celebrate the Agape and the Eucharist at this spot. It was a favourite custom to bury the dead near the graves of the martyrs; and it was the highest wish of many to " rest with the saints." It was the body lying in the tomb which was venerated (see Euseb. Hist. eccl. vii. n, 24; viii. 6, 7). But these customs soon underwent a further development. About the end of the 3rd and the beginning of the 4th century 6o RELICS it became customary for the bodies of the martyrs not to be buried, but preserved for the purpose of veneration. Already individual Christians began to possess themselves of portions of the bodies of martyrs, and to carry them about with them. Both these practices met with criticism and opposition, especially from the leading men of the Church. According to the testi- mony of Athanasius of Alexandria, the hermit Anthony decided that it should be held to be unlawful and impious to leave the bodies of the martyrs unburied (Vita Ant. 90). In Carthage the archdeacon and later the bishop Caecilianus severely blamed a certain Lucilla for carrying about with her a relic which she used to kiss before receiving the Eucharist (Optatus, De schism. Donat. i. 16). The compiler of the Acta S. Fructuosi, a Spanish ecclesi- astic, represents the martyred bishop as himself requesting the burial of his relics. But energetic as the opposition was, it was unsuccessful, and died out. For in the meantime opinion as to the efficacy of relics had undergone a transformation, parallel with the growth of the theory, which soon predominated in the Church, that material instruments are the vehicles of divine grace. When the Christians of Smyrna decided that the bones of the martyrs were of more worth than gold or gems, and when Origen (Exh. ad mart. 50) spoke of the precious blood of the martyrs, they were thinking of the act of faith which the martyrs had accomplished by the sacrifice of their life. Now, on the other hand, the relic came to be looked upon as in itself a thing of value as the channel of miraculous divine powers. These ideas are set forth by Cyril of Jerusalem. He taught that a certain power dwelt in the body of the saint, even when the soul had departed from it; just as it was the instrument of the soul during life, so the power passed permanently into it (Cat. xviii. 16). This was coming very near to a belief that objects which the saints had used during their life had also a share in their miraculous powers. And this conclusion Cyril had already come to (loc. cit.). We can see how early this estimate of relics became general from the fact that the former hesitation as to whether they should be venerated as sacred died out during the 4th century. The Fathers of the Greek Church especially were united in recommending the veneration of relics. All the great theologians of the 4th and 3th centuries may be quoted as evidence of this: Eusebius of Caesarea (Praep. Ev. xiii.n), Gregory of Nazianzus (Oral, in Cypr. 17), Gregory of Nyssa (Oral, de S. Tkeod. mart.), Basil of Caesarea (Ep. ii. 197), Chrysostom (Laud. Drosidis), Theodoret of Cyrus (Inps. 67, n), &c. John of Damascus, the great exponent of dogma in the 8th century, gave expression to the result of a uniform development which had been going on for centuries when he taught that Christ offers the relics to Christians as means of salvation. They must not be looked upon as something that is dead; for through them all good things come to those who pray with faith. Why should it seem impossible to believe in this power of the relics, when water could be made to gush from a rock in the desert? (De fide orthod. iv. 15). Such was the theory; and the practice was in harmony with it. Throughout the whole of the Eastern Church the veneration of relics prevailed. Nobody hesitated to divide up the bodies of the saints in order to afford as many portions of them as possible. They were shared among the inhabitants of cities and villages, Theodoret tells us, and cherished by everybody as healers and physicians for both body and soul (Decur.Graec. off. 8). The transition from the true relic to the hallowed object was especially common. Jerusalem, as early as the time of Eusebius, rejoiced in the possession of the episcopal chair of James the Just (Hist. eccl. vii. 19); and as late as the 4th century was discovered the most important of the relics of Christ, the cross which was alleged to have been His. Cyril of Jerusalem already remarks that the whole world was filled with portions of the wood of the cross (Cat. iv. 10). The development which the veneration of relics underwent in the West did not differ essentially from that in the East. Here also the idea came to prevail that the body of the saint, .),or low relief — " bas-relief" or "basso-relievo" (q.v.); in the former case the design is almost wholly detached from the ground, the attachment, through " under-cutting," remaining only here and there; in the latter it is wholly attached and may scarcely rise above the surface (as in the modern medal), or it may exceed in projection to about a half the proportionate depth (or thickness) of the figure or object represented. Formerly three terms were commonly employed to express the degree of relief — alto- relievo, basso-relievo and mezzo-relievo (or half -relief) ; but the two last-named have been merged by modern custom into " low-relief," to the disadvantage of accurate description. The term relief belongs to modern sculpiuie. Io low relief as under- stood by us Pliny applied th>: word ana^lypta, but it is to be observed that embossing and chasing came within the same category. It may be considered that less sculptural skill (independently of manipulative skill) is needed in high relief than in low relief, because in the former the true relative pro- portions in the life (whether figure or other object) have to be rendered, while in the latter, although the true height and, in a measure, breadth can be given, the thickness of the object is reduced by at least one-half, sometimes to almost nothing; and yet in spite of this departure from actuality, this abandon- ment of fact for a pure convention, a true effect must still be produced, not only in respect to perspective, but also of the actual shadows cast. And insomuch as the compositions are often extremely complicated and have sometimes to suggest retreating planes, the true plane of the material affords little scope for reproducing the required effect. In the beginning the essential idea of the relief was always maintained: that is to say, the sense of the flatness of the slab from which it was cut was impressed throughout the design on the mind of the spectator. Thus the Egyptians merely sunk the outlines and scarcely more than suggested the modelling of the figures, which never projected beyond the face of the surrounding ground. The Persians, the Etruscans and the Greeks carried on the art to the highest perfection, alike in sculpture and architectural ornament, and they applied it to gem sculpture, as in the case of " cameo." Similarly, the inverse treatment of relief — that is, sunk below the surface, in order that when ased for seals a true relief is obtained — was early brought to great completeness; this form of engraving is called " intaglio." The degree of projection in relief, broadly speaking, has varied greatly with the periods of art. Thus, in Byzantine and Romanesque art the relief was low. In Gothic it increased with the increased desire to render several planes one behind the other. With the advent of the Renaissance it became still more accentuated, the heads and figures projecting greatly; but such high relief is sometimes found in early work, especially in metal-work. Although we see a return to lower relief in the Henri II. period, it becomes stronger in the Louis XIII. style, very full in Louis XIV. and Louis XV., but in Louis XVI. is considerably reduced. (M. H. S.) RELIGION. The origin of the Latin word rlligio or relligio has been the subject of discussion since the time of Cicero. Two alternative derivations have been given, viz. from rSKgere, to gather together, and r&ligare, to bind back, fasten. Relegere meant to gather together, collect, hence to go over a subject again in thought, from re and legere, to collect together, hence to read, collect at a glance. This view is that given by Cicero (Nat. Deor. ii. 28, 72). He says: " Qui omnia quae ad cultum deorum pertinerent diligenter retractarent et tanquam relegerent, sunt dicti religiosi ex relegendo," " men were called 'religious ' from relegere, because they reconsidered carefully and, as it were, went over again in thought all that appertained to the worship of the gods." He compares elegantes from eligere, diligentes from diligere, and continues, " his enim in verbis omnibus inest vis legendi eadem quae in religioso." This view is supported by the form of the word in the verse quoted by Gellius (iv. 9), " religentem esse oportet, religiosum nefas," and by the use of the Greek AXeyetp, to pay heed to, frequently with a negative, in the sense of the Latin negligere (nec-legere), cf. Qe&v fariv obn HKkyovres (Homer, 77. xvi. 388), heeding not the visitation of the gods, or ov yhp KukXcottcs Aids . . . iXkyovcnv (Od. ix. 275). The alternative derivation, from religare, to fasten, bind, is that adopted by Lactantius (Inst. iv. 28), "Vinculo pietatis obstricti, Deo religati sumus unde ipsa religio nomen cepit. " He quotes in support the line from Lucretius (i. 931), " religionum nodis animos exsolvere." Servius (on Virgil, Aen. viii. 349) and St Augustine (Retract, i. 13) also take religare as the source of the word. It is one that has certainly coloured the meaning of the word, particularly in that use which restricts 62 RELIGION [PRIMITIVE it to the monastic life with its binding rules. It also has appealed to Christian thought. Liddon (Some Elements of Religion, Lecture I. 19) says: " Lactantius may be wrong in his etymology, but he has certainly seized the broad popular sense of the word when he connects it with the idea of an obligation by which man is bound to an invisible God." Archbishop Trench (Study of Words) supposed that when " religion " became equivalent to the monastic life, and " religious " to a monk, the words lost their original meaning, but the Ancren Riwle, ante 1225, and the Cursor Mundi use the words both in the general and the more particular sense (see quotations in the New English Dictionary), and both meanings can be found in the Imitatio Christi and in Erasmus's Colloquia. (X.) The study of the forms of belief and worship belonging to different tribes, nations or religious communities has only recently acquired a scientific foundation. The Greek historians early directed their attention to the ideas and customs of the peoples with whom they were brought into contact; and Herodotus has been called the " first anthropologist of reli- gion." Theopompus described the Persian dualism in the 4th century B.C., and when Megasthenes was ambassador to the court of Chandragupta, 302 B.C., he noted the religious usages of the middle Ganges valley. The early Christian Fathers recorded many a valuable observation of the Gentile faiths around them from varying points of view, sympathetic or hostile; and Eusebius and Epiphanius, in the 4th century a.d., attributed to the librarian of Ptolemy Philadelphus the design of collecting the sacred books of the Ethiopians, Indians, Persians, Elamites, Babylonians, Assyrians, Romans, Phoenicians, Syrians and Greeks. The Mahommedan Blruni (b. a.d. 973) compared the doctrines of the Greeks, Christians, Jews, Manichaeans and Sufis with the philosophies and reli- gions of India. Akbar (1 542-1605) gathered Brahmans and Zoroastrians, Jews, Christians and Mahommedans at his court, and endeavoured to get translations of their scriptures. In the next century the Persian author of the Dabistan exhibited the doctrines of no less than twelve religions and their various sects. Meanwhile the scholars of the West had begun to work. Thomas Hyde (1636-1703) studied the religion of the ancient Persians; John Spencer (1630-1693) analysed the laws of the Hebrews; and Lord Herbert of Cherbury (De Religione Gentilium, 1645) endeavoured to trace all religions back to five " truly Catholic truths " of primitive faith, the first being the existence of God. The doctrine of a primeval revelation survived in various forms for two centuries, and appeared as late as the Juventus Mundi of W. E. Gladstone (1868, p. 207 ff.). David Hume, on the other hand, based his essay on The Natural History of Religion (1757) on the conception of the development of human society from rude beginnings, and all modern study is frankly founded on the general idea of Evolution. 1 The materials at Hume's command, however, were destined to vast and speedy expansion. The Jesuit missionaries had already been at work in India and China, and a brilliant band of English students, led by Sir William Jones and H. T. Colebrooke, began to make known the treasures of Sanskrit literature, which the great scholars of Germany and France proceeded to develop. In Egypt the discovery of the Rosetta stone placed the key to the hieroglyphics within Western reach; and the decipherment of the cuneiform character enabled the patient scholars of Europe to recover the clues to the contents of the ancient libraries of Babylonia and Assyria. With the aid of inscriptions the cults of Greece and Rome have been largely reconstructed. Travellers and missionaries reported the beliefs and usages of uncivilized tribes in every part of the world, with the result that " ethnography knows no race devoid of religion, but only differences in the degree to which religious ideas have developed " (Ratzel, History of Mankind, i. 40). Meanwhile philosophy was at work on the problem of the religious consciousness. The great series of German thinkers, Lessing, Herder, Kant, Hegel, Fichte, Schleiermacher and their 1 This does not, of course, preclude the possibility of degeneration in particular instances. successors, sought to explain religion by means of the phenomena of mind, and to track it to its roots in the processes of thought and feeling. While ethnography was gathering up the facts from every part of the globe, psychology began to analyse the forms of belief, of action and emotion, to discover if possiole the key to the multitudinous variety which history revealed. From the historical and linguistic side attention was first fixed upon the myth, and the publication of the ancient hymns of the Rig Veda led Max Miiller to seek in the common elements of Aryan thought for the secrets of primitive religion (essay on Comparative Mythology, 1856). The phenomena of day and night, of sunshine and storm, and other aspects of nature, were invoked by different interpreters to explain the conceptions of the gods, their origins and their relations. Fresh materials were gathered at the same time out of European folk-lore; the work begun by the brothers Grimm was continued by J. W. E. Mannhardt, and a lower stratum of beliefs and rites began to emerge into view beneath the poetic forms of the more developed mythologies. By such preliminary labours the way was prepared for the new science of anthropology. Since the appearance of Dr E. B. Tylor's classical treatise on Primitive Culture (1871), the study of the origins of religion has been pursued with the utmost zeal. Comte had already described the primitive form of the religious consciousness as that in which man conceives of all external bodies as animated by a life analogous to his own (Philos. Positive, tome v., 1841, p. 30). This has been since designated as polyzoism or panthelism or panvilalism? and represents the obscure undifferentiated groundwork out of which Tylor's Animism arises. Many are the clues by which it has been sought to explain the secret of primitive religion. Hegel, before the anthropological stage, found it in magic. Max Miiller, building on philosophy and mythology, affirmed that " Religion consists in the perception of the infinite under such manifestations as are able to influence the moral character of man " (Natural Religion, 1899, p. 188). Herbert Spencer derived all religion from the worship of the dead (Principles of Sociology, i.), like Grant Allen, and Lippert in Germany. Mr Andrew Lang, on the other hand, supposes that belief in a supreme being came first in order of evolution, but was afterwards thrust into the background by belief in ghosts and lesser divinities (Magic and Religion, 1901, p. 224). 3 Dr' Jevons finds the primitive form in totemism (Introd. to the History of Religion, 1896, chap. ix.). Mr J. G. Frazer regards religion (see his definition quoted below) as superposed on an antecedent stage of magic. In The Tree of Life (1905), MrE. Crawley interprets it by the vital instinct, and connects its first manifestations with the processes of the organic life. The veteran Wilhelm Wundt (Mythus und Religion, ii. 1906, p. 177) recurs to the primitive conceptions of the soul as the source of all subsequent development. The origin of religion, however, can never be determined archaeologically or historically; it must be sought conjecturally through psychology. (J. E. C.) A. Primitive Religion There is a point at which the History of Religion becomes in its predominant aspect a History of Religions. The conditions that we describe by the comprehensive term " civilization " occasion a specification and corresponding differentiation of the life of societies; whence there result competing types of culture, each instinct with the spirit of propagandism and, one might almost say, of empire. It is an age of conscious selection as between ideal systems. Instead of necessitating a wasteful and precarious elimination of inadequate customs by the actual destruction of those who practise them — this being the method of natural selection, which, like some Spanish Inquisition, abolishes the heresy by wiping out the heretics one and all — progress now becomes possible along the more direct and less 2 Comte's own term " fetishism " was most unfortunately mis- leading (see Fetishism). Marett proposed the term " Animatism," Folk Lore (1900), xi. p. 171. * See his treatise on The Making of Religion (1898), and Hartland's article on " The ' High Gods ' of Australia," Folk Lore (1898), ix. P- 290. PRIMITIVE] RELIGION 63 painful path of conversion. The heretic, having developed powers of rational choice, perceives his heresy, to wit, his want of adaptation to the moral environment, and turning round embraces the new faith that is the passport to survival. Far otherwise is it with man at the stage of savagery — the stage of petty groups pursuing a self-centred life of inveterate custom, in an isolation almost as complete as if they were marooned on separate atolls of the ocean. Progress, or at all events change, does indeed take place, though very slowly, since the most primitive savage we know of has his portion of human intelligence, looks after and before, nay, in regard to the pressing needs of every day shows a quite remarkable shrewdness and resource. Speaking generally, however, we must pronounce him unprogressive, since, on the whole, unreflective in regard to his ends. It is the price that must be paid for social discreteness and incoherency. And the consequence of this atomism is not what a careless thinker might be led to assume, extreme diversity, but, on the contrary, extreme homogeneity of culture. It has been found unworkable, for instance, to classify the religions of really primitive peoples under a plurality of heads, as becomes necessary the moment that the presence of a dis- tinctive basis of linked ideas testifies to the individuality of this or that type of higher creed. Primitive religions are like so many similar beads on a string; and the concern of the student of comparative religion is at this stage mainly with the nature of the string, to wit, the common conditions of soul and society that make, say, totemism, or taboo, very much the same thing all the savage world over, when we seek to penetrate to its essence. This fundamental homogeneity of primitive culture, however, must not be made the excuse for a treatment at the hands of psychology and sociology that dispenses with the study of details and trusts to an a priori method. By all means let universal characterization be attempted — we are about to attempt one here, though well aware of the difficulty in the present state of our knowledge — but they must at least model themselves on the composite photograph rather than the impressionist sketch. An enormous mass of material, mostly quite in the raw, awaits reduction to order on the part of anthropological theorists, as yet a small and ill-supported body of enthusiasts. Under these circumstances it would be premature to expect agreement as to results. In regard to method, however, there is little difference of opinion. Thus, whereas the popular writer abounds in wide generalizations on the subject of primitive humanity, the expert has hitherto for the most part deliberately restricted himself to departmental investigations. Religion, for example, seems altogether too vast a theme for him to embark on, and he usually prefers to deal with some single element or aspect. Again, origins attract the litterateur; he revels in describing the transition from the pre-religious to the religious era. But the expert, confining his attention to the known savage, finds him already religious, nay, encumbered with religious survivals of all kinds; for him, then, it suffices to describe things as they now are, or as they were in the comparatively recent fore-time. Lastly, there are many who, being competent in some other branch of science, but having small acquaintance with the scientific study of human culture, are inclined to explain primitive ideas and institutions from without, namely by reference to various external conditions of the mental life of peoples, such as race, climate, food-supply and so on. The anthropological expert, on the other hand, insists on making the primitive point of view itself the be-all and end-all of his investi- gations. The inwardness of savage religion — the meaning it has for those who practise it — constitutes its essence and meaning likewise for him, who after all is a man and a brother, not one who stands really outside. In what follows, then, we shall, indeed, venture to present a wholesale appreciation of the religious idea as it is for primitive man in general; but our account will respect the modern anthropological method that bids the student keep closely to the actualities of the religious experience of savages, as it can with reasonable accuracy be gathered from what they do and say. We have sought to render onlv the spirit of primitive religion, keeping clear both of technicalities and of departmental investi- gations. These are left to the separate articles bearing on the subject. There the reader will find the most solid results of recent anthropological research. Here is he merely offered a flimsy thread that, we hope, may guide him through the maze of facts, but alas! is only too likely to break off short in his hand. Definition of Primitive Religion.— In dealing with a develop- ment of culture that has no immutable essence, but is intrinsically fluid and changing, definition must consist either in a definition of type, which indicates prevalence of relevant resemblance as between specimens more or less divergent, or in exterior defini- tion, which delimits the field of inquiry by laying down within what extreme limits this divergence holds. Amongst the numberless definitions of religion that have been suggested, those that have been most frequently adopted for working purposes by anthropologists are Tylor's and Frazer's. Dr E. B. Tylor in Primitive Culture (1), i. 424, proposes as a " minimum definition" of religion " the belief in spiritual beings." Objec- tions to this definition on the score of incompleteness are, firstly, that, besides belief, practice must be reckoned with (since, as Dr W. Robertson Smith has made clear in his Lectures on the Religion of the Semites, 18 sqq., ritual is in fact primary for primitive religion, whilst dogma and myth are secondary); secondly, that the outlook of such belief and practice is not exclusively towards the spiritual, unless this term be widened until it mean next to nothing, but is likewise towards the quasi- material, as will be shown presently. The merit of this defini- tion, on the other hand, lies in its bilateral form, which calls attention to the need of characterizing both the religious attitude and the religious object to which the former has refer- ence. The same form appears in Dr J. G. Frazer's definition in The Golden Bough (2nd ed.), i. 63. He understands by religion " a propitiation or conciliation of powers superior to man which are believed to direct and control the course of nature and of human life." He goes on to explain that by " powers" he means " conscious or personal agents." It is also to be noted that he is here definitely opposing religion to magic, which he holds to be based on the (implicit) assumption " that the course of nature is determined, not by the passions or caprice of personal beings, but by the operation of immutable laws acting mechani- cally." His definition improves on Tylor's in so far as it makes worship integral to the religious attitude. By regarding the object of religion as necessarily personal, however, he is led to exclude much that the primitive man undoubtedly treats with awe and respect as exerting a mystic effect on his life. Further, in maintaining that the powers recognized by religion are always superior to man, he leaves unclassed a host of practices that display a bargaining, or even a hectoring, spirit on the part of those addressing them (see Prayer). Threatening or beating a fetish cannot be brought under the head of magic, even if we adopt Frazer's principle {op. cit. i. 64) that to constrain or coerce a personal being is to treat him as an inanimate agent; for such a principle is quite inapplicable to cases of mere terrorism, whilst it may be doubted if it even renders the sense of the savage magician's typical notion of his modus operandi, viz. as the bringing to bear of a greater mana or psychic influence (see below) on what has less, and must therefore do as it is bidden. Such definitions, then, are to be accepted, if at all, as definitions of type, selective designations of leading but not strictly universal features. An encyclopaedic account, however, should rest rather on an exterior definition which can serve as it were to pigeon-hole the whole mass of significant facts. Such an exterior definition is suggested by Mr E. Crawley in The Tree of Life, 209, where he points out that " neither the Greek nor the Latin language has any comprehensive term for religion, except in the one iepci, and in the other sacra, words which are equivalent to 'sacred.' No other term covers the whole of religious phenomena, and a survey of the complex details of various worships results in showing that no other conception will comprise the whole body of religious facts." It may be added that we have here no generalization imported from a 6 4 RELIGION [PRIMITIVE higher level of culture, but an idea or blend of ideas familiar to primitive thought. An important consequence of thus giving the study of primitive religion the wide scope of a comparative hierology is that magic is no longei divorced f 1 om religion, since the sacred will now be found to be coextensive with the magico- religious, that largely undifferentiated plasm out of which religion and magic slowly take separate shape as society comes more and more to contrast legitimate with illicit modes of dealing with the sacred.- We may define, then, the religious object as the sacred, and the corresponding religious attitude as con- sisting in such manifestation of feeling, thought and action in regard to the sacred as is held to conduce to the welfare of the community or to that of individuals considered as members of the community. Aspects of the Nature of the Sacred. — To exhibit the general character of the sacred as it exists for primitive religion it is simplest to take stock of various aspects recognized by primitive thought as expressed in language. If some, and not the least essential, of these aspects are quasi-negative, it must be remembered that negations — witness the Unseen, the Unknown, the Infinite of a more advanced theology — are well adapted to supply that mystery on which the religious consciousness feeds with the slight basis of conceptual support it needs, (i) The sacred as the forbidden. The primitive notion that perhaps comes nearest to our " s?.cred," whilst it immediately underlies the meanings of the Latin sacer and sanctus, is that of a taboo, a Polynesian term for which equiva- lents can be quoted from most savage vocabularies. The root idea seems to be that something is marked off as to be shunned, with the added hint of a mystic sanction or penalty enforcing the avoidance. Two derivative senses of a more positive import call for special notice. On the one hand, since that which is tabooed is held to punish the taboo-breaker by a sort of mystic infection, taboo comes to stand for un- cleanness and sin. On the other hand, since the isolation of the sacred, even when originally conceived in the interest of the profane, may be interpreted as self-protection on the part of the sacred as against defiling contact, taboo takes on the connotation of ascetic virtue, purity, devotion, dignity and blessedness. Primary and secondary senses of the term between them cover so much ground that it is not surprising to find taboo used in Polynesia as a name for the whole system of religion, founded as it largely is on prohibitions and abstin- ences. (2) The sacred as the mysterious. Another quasi- negative notion of more restricted distribution is that of the mysterious or strange, as we have it expressed, for example, in the Siouan wakan, though possibly this is a derivative meaning. Meanwhile, it is certain that what is strange, new or por- tentous is regularly treated by all savages as sacred. (3) The sacred as the 'secret. The literal sense of the term churinga, applied by the Central Australians to their sacred objects, and likewise used more abstractly to denote mystic power, as when a man is said to be " full, of churinga," is " secret," and is symptomatic of the esotericism that is a striking mark of Australian, and indeed of all primitive, religion, with its insistence on initiation, its exclusion of women, and its strictly enforced reticence concerning traditional lore and proceedings. (4) The sacred as the potent. Passing on to positive conceptions of the sacred, perhaps the most fundamental is that which identifies the efficacy of sacredness with such mystic or magical power as is signified by the mana of the Pacific or orenda of the Hurons, terms for which analogies are forthcoming on all sides. Of mana Dr R. H. Codrington in The Melanesians, 119 «., writes: "It essentially belongs to personal beings to originate it, though it may act through the medium of water, or a stone, or a bone. All Melanesian religion consists . . . in getting this mana for oneself, or getting it used for one's benefit." E. Tregear's Maori- Polynesian Comparative Dic- tionary shows how the word and its derivatives are used to express thought, memory, emotion, desire, will — in short, psychic energy of all kinds. It also stands for the vehicle of the magician's energy — the spell; which would seem like- wise to be a meaning, perhaps the root-meaning, of orenda (cf. J. N. B. Hewitt, American Anthropologist, N.S., iv. 40). Whereas everything, perhaps, has some share of indwelling potency, whatever is sacred manifests this potency in an extra- ordinary degree, as typically the wonder-working leader of society, whose mana consists in his cunning and luck together. Altogether, in mana we have what is par excellence the primitive religious idea in its positive aspect, taboo representing its negative side, since whatever has mana is taboo, and what- ever, is taboo has mana. (5) The sacred as the animate. The term " animism," which embodies Tylor's classical theory of primitive religion, is unfortunately somewhat ambiguous. If we take it strictly to mean the belief in ghosts or spirits having the " vaporous materiality " proper to the objects of dream or hallucination, it is certain that the agency of such phantasms is not the sole cause to which all mystic happenings are referred (though ghosts and spirits are everywhere believed in, and appear to be endowed with greater predominance as religious synthesis advances amongst primitive peoples). Thus there is good evidence to show that many of the early gods, notably those that are held to be especially well disposed to man, are conceived rather in the shape of magnified non- natural men dwelling somewhere apart, such as the Mungan- ngaur of the Kurnai of S.E. Australia (cf. A. Lang, The Making of Religion 2 , x. sqq.). Such anthropomorphism is with difficulty reduced to the Tylorian animism. The term, however, will have to- be used still more vaguely, if it is to cover all attribution of personality, will or vitality. This can be more simply brought under the notion of mana. Mean- while, since quasi-mechanical means are freely resorted to in dealing with the sacred, as when a Maori chief snuffs up the sanctity his fingers have acquired by touching his own sacred head that he may restore the virtue to the part whence it was taken (R. Taylor, Te Ika a Maui, 165), or when un- cleanness is removed as if it were a physical secretion by washing, wiping and so forth, it is hard to say whether what we should now call a " material " nature is not ascribed to the sacred, more especially when its transmissibility after the manner of a contagion is the trait that holds the attention. It is possible, however, that the savage always distinguishes in a dim way between the material medium and the indwelling principle of vital energy, examples of a pure fetishism, in the sense of the cult of the purely material, recognized as such, being hard to find. (6) The sacred as the ancient. The prominence of the notion of the Alcheringa " dreamtime," or sacred past, in Central Australian religion illustrates the essential con- nexion perceived by the savage to lie between the sacred and the traditional. Ritualistic conservatism may be instanced as a practical outcome of this feeling. Another development is ancestor-worship, the organized cult of ancestors marking, however, a certain stage of advance beyond the very primitive, though the dead are always sacred and have mana which the living may exploit for their own advantage. The Activity of the Sacred. — The foregoing views of the sacred, though starting from distinct conceptions, converge in a single complex notion, as may be seen from the many-sided sense borne by such a term as wakan, which may stand not only for " mystery," but also for " power, sacred, ancient, grandeur, animate, immortal " (W J McGee, 15th Report of U. S. Bureau of Ethnology, 182). The reason for this convergence is that, whereas there is found great difficulty in characterizing the elusive nature of (the sacred, its mode of manifesting itself is recognized to be much the same in all its phases. Uniform characteristics are the fecundity, ambiguity, relativity and transmissibility of its activity. (1) Fecundity. The mystic potency of the sacred is no fixed quantity, but is big with possibilities of all sorts. The same sacred person, object, act, will suffice for a variety of purposes. Even where a piece of sympathetic magic appears to promise definite results, or when a departmental god is recognized, there would seem to be room left for a more or less indefinite expectancy. It must be re- membered that the meaning of a rite is for the most, part obscure PRIMITIVE] RELIGION 65 to the participants, being overlaid by its traditional character, which but guarantees a general efficacy. " Blessings come, evils go," may be said to be. the magico-religious formula implicit in all socially approved dealings with the sacred, however specialized in semblance. (2) Ambiguity. Mystic potency, however, because of the very indefiniteness of its action, is a two-edged sword. The sacred is not to be approached lightly. -It will heal or blast, according as it is handled with or without due circumspection. That which is taboo, for instance, the person of the king, or woman's blood, is poison or medicine according as it is manipulated, being inherently just a potentiality for wonder-working in any direction. Not but what primitive thought shows a tendency to mark off a certain kind of mystic power as wholly bad by a special name, e.g. the arungquiltha of Central Australia; and here, we may note, we come nearest to a conception of magic as something other than religion, the trafficker in arungquiltha being socially suspect, nay, liable to persecution, and even death (as amongst the Arunta tribe, see Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of C. Australia, 536), at the hands of his fellows. On the other hand, wholly beneficent powers seem hardly to be recognized, unless we find them in beings such as Mungan-ngaur (" father-our" ), who derive an ethical character from their association with the initiation cere- monies and the moral instruction given thereat (cf. Lang, I.e.). (3) Relativity. So far we have tended to represent the activity of the sacred as that of a universal force, somewhat in the style of our " electricity" or " mind. " It remains to add that this activity manifests itself at numberless independent centres. These differ amongst themselves in the degree of their energy. One spell is stronger than another, one taboo more inviolable than another. Dr W. H. R. Rivers (The Todas, 448) gives an interest- ing analysis of the grades of sanctity apparent in Toda religion. The gods of the hill-tops come first. The sacred buffaloes, their milk, their bells, the dairies and their vessels are on a lower plane; whilst we may note that there are several grades amongst the dairies, increase of sanctity going with elaboration of dairy ritual (cf. ibid. 232). Still lower is the dairyman, who is in no way divine, yet has sanctity as one who maintains a condition of ceremonial purity. (4) Transmissibility. If, however, this activity originates at certain centres, it tends to spread therefrom in all directions. Dr F. B. Jevons (in An Introduction to the History of Religion, vii.) distinguishes between " things taboo," which have the mystic contagion inherent in them, and " things tabooed," to which the taboo-infection has been transmitted. In the former class he places supernatural beings (including men with mana as well as ghosts and spirits), blood, new-born children with their mothers, and corpses; which list might be considerably extended, for instance, by the inclusion of natural portents, and animals and plants such as are strikingly odd, dangerous or useful. Any one of these can pass on its sacred quality to other persons and objects (as a corpse defiles the mourner and his- clothes), nay to actions, places and times as well (as a corpse will likewise cause work to be tabooed, ground to be set apart, a holy season to be observed). Such transmissibility is commonly explained by the association of ideas, that becoming sacred which as it were reminds one of the sacred; though it is important to add, firstly, that such association takes place under the influence of a selective interest generated by strong religious feeling, and, secondly, that this interest is primarily a collective product, being governed by a social tradition which causes certain possibilities of ideal com- bination alone to be realized, whilst it is the chief guarantee of the objectivity of what they suggest. The Exploitation of the Sacred. A. Methods. — It is hard to find terms general enough to cover dealings with the sacred that range from the manipulation of an almost inanimate type of power to intercourse modelled on that between man and man. Primitive religion, however, resorts to either way of approach so indifferently as to prove that there is little or no awareness of an inconsistency of attitude. The radical contrast between mechanical and spiritual religion, though fundamental for modern theology, is alien to the primitive point of view, and is xxni. 3 therefore inappropriate to the purposes of anthropological description. (1) Acquisition. Mystic power may be regarded as innate so far as skill, luck or queerness are signs and con- ditions of its presence. On the whole, however, savage society tends to regard it as something acquired, the product of acts and abstinences having a traditional character for imparting magico- religious virtue. An external symbol in the shape of a ceremony or cult-object is of great assistance to the dim eye of primitive faith. Again, the savage universe is no preserve of man, but is an open field wherein human and non-human activities of all sorts compete on more or less equal terms, yet so that a certain measure of predominance may be secured by a judicious combination of forces. (2) Concentration. Hence the magico- religious society or individual practitioner piles ceremony on ceremony, name of power on name of power, relic on relic, to consolidate the forces within reach and assume direction thereof. The transmissibility of the sacred ensures the fusion of powers drawn from all sources, however disparate. (3) Induction. It is necessary, however, as it were to bring this force to a head. This would appear to be the essential significance of sacrifice, where a number of sacred operations and instruments are made to discharge their efficacy into the victim as into a vat, so that a blessing-yielding, evil-neutralizing force of highest attainable potency is obtained (see H. Hubert and M. Mauss, " Essai sur la nature et la fonction du sacrifice" in L'Annee sociologique, ii.). (4) Renovation. An important motif in magico-religious ritual, which may not have been without effect on the development of sacrifice, is, as Dr Frazer's main thesis in The Golden Bough asserts, the imparting of reproductive energy to animals, plants and man himself, its cessation being suggested by such phenomena as old age and the fall of the year. To concentrate, induce and renovate are, however, but aspects of one process of acquisition by the transfusion of a transmissible energy. (5) Demission. Hubert and Mauss show in their penetrating analysis of sacrifice that after the rite has been brought to its culminating point there follows as a pendant a ceremony of re-entry into ordinary life, the idea of which is preserved in the Christian formula Ite, missa est. (6) Insulation. Such deposition of sacredness is but an aspect of the wider method that causes a ring-fence to be erected round the sacred to ward off casual trespassers at once in their own interest and to prevent contamination. We see here a natural outcome of religious awe supported by the spirit of esotericism, and by a sense of the need for an expert handling of that which is so potent for good or ill. (7) Direction. This last consideration brings to notice the fact that throughout magico-religious practice of all kinds the human operator retains a certain control over the issue. In the numberless transitions that, whilst connecting, separate the spell and the prayer we observe as the accompaniment of every mood from extreme imperiousness to extreme humility an abiding will and desire to help the action out. Even " Thy will be done " preserves the echo of a direction, and, needless to say, this is hardly a form of primitive address. At the bottom is the vague feeling that it is man's own self-directed mysterious energy that is at work, however much it needs to be reinforced from without. Meanwhile, tradition strictly prescribes the ways and means of such reinforcement, so that religion becomes largely a matter of sacred lore; and the expert director of rites, who is likewise usually at this stage the leader of society, comes more and more to be needed as an intermediary between the lay portion of the community and the. sacred powers. B. Results. — Hitherto our account of primitive religion has had to move on somewhat abstract lines. ' His religion is, however, anything but an abstraction to the savage, and stands rather for the whole of his concrete life so far as it is penetrated by a spirit of earnest endeavour. The end and result of primitive religion is, in a word, the consecration of life, the stimulation of the will to live and to do. This bracing of the vital feeling takes place by means of imaginative appeal to the great forces man perceives stirring within him and about him, such appeal proving effective doubtless by reason of the psychological law that to conceive strongly is 66 RELIGION [PRIMITIVE to imitate. Meanwhile, that there shall be no clashing of conceptions to inhibit the tendency of the idea of an acquired " grace " to realize itself in action, is secured by the complete unanimity of public opinion, dominated as it is by an inveterate custom. To appreciate the consecrating effect of religion on primitive life we have only to look to the churinga-v/orship of the Central Australians (as described by Spencer and Gillen in The Native Tribes of Central Australia and The Northern Tribes of Central Australia). Contact with these repositories of mystic influence "makes them glad" (Nat. Tr. 165); it likewise makes them " good," so that they are no longer greedy or selfish (North. Tr. 266); it endows them with second sight (ibid.) ; it gives them confidence and success in war (Nat. Tr. 135) ; in fact, there is no end to its "strengthening" effects (ibid. «.). Or, again, we may note the earnestness and solemnity that characterize all their sacred ceremonies. The inwardness of primitive religion is, however, non-existent for those who observe it as uninitiated strangers; whilst, again, it evaporates as soon as native custom breaks down under pressure of civilization, when only fragments of meaningless superstition survive: wherefore do travesties of primitive religion abound. It remains to consider shortly the consecration of life in relation to particular categories and departments. (1) Educa- tion. Almost every tribe has its initiation ceremonies, and in many tribes adult life may almost be described as a continuous initiation. The object of these rites is primarily to impart mystic virtue to the novice, such virtue, in the eyes of the primitive man, being always something more than social use- fulness, amounting as it does to a share in the tribal luck by means of association with all it holds sacred. Incidentally the candidate is trained to perform his duties as a tribesman, but religion presides over the course, demanding earnest endeavour of an impressionable age. (2) Government. Where society is most primitive it is most democratic, as in Australia, and magico-religious powers are possessed by the whole body of fully initiated males, age, however, conferring increase of sacred lore and consequently of authority; whilst even at this stage the experts tend to form an inner circle of rulers. The man with man a is bound to come to the top, both because his gifts give him a start and because his success is taken as a sign that he has the gift. A decisive " moment " in the evolu- tion of chief ship is the recognition of hereditary mana, bound up as this is with the handing on of ceremonies and cult-objects. Invested, as society grows more complex, with a sanctity in- creasingly superior to that of the layman, the priest-king becomes the representative of the community as repository of its luck, whilst, as controller of all sacred forces that bear thereon, he is, as Dr Frazer puts it, " dynamical centre of the universe" (The Golden Bough (2nd ed.), i. 233). Only when the holy man's duty to preserve his holiness binds him hand and foot in a network of taboos does his temporal power tend to devolve on a deputy. (3) Food-supply. In accordance with the principle of Renovation (see above), the root-idea of the appli- cation of religion to economics is not the extorting of boons from an unwilling nature, but rather the stimulation of the sources of life, so that all beings alike may increase and multiply. (4) Food-taking. Meanwhile, the primitive meal is always more or less of a sacrament, and there are many food-taboos, the significance of which is, however, not so much that certain foods are unclean and poisonous as that they are of special virtue and must be partaken of solemnly and with circum- spection. (5) Kinship. It is hard to say whether the unit of primitive society is the tribe or the group of kinsmen. Both are forms of union that are consolidated by means of religious usages. Thus in Australia the initiation ceremonies, concerned as they partly are with marriage, always an affair between the kin-groups, are tribal, whilst the totemic rites are the prime concern of the members of the totem clans. The significance of a common name and a common blood is immensely enhanced by its association with mystic rights and duties, and the pulse of brotherhood beats faster. (6) The Family. Side by side with the kin there is always found the domestic group, but the latter institution develops fully only as the former weakens, so that the one comes largely to inherit the functions of the other, whilst the tribe too in its. turn hands over certain interests. Thus in process of time birth-rites, marriage-rites, funeral- rites, not to mention subordinate ceremonies such as those of name-giving and food-taking, become domestic sacraments. (7) Sex. Woman, for certain physiological reasons, is always for primitive peoples hedged round with sanctity, whilst man does all he can to inspire awe of his powers in woman by keep- ing religion largely in his own hands. The result, so far as woman is concerned, is that, in company with those males who are endowed with sacredness in a more than ordinary degree, she tends as a sex to lose in freedom as much as she gains in respect. (8) Personality. Every one has his modicum of innate mana, or at least may develop it in himself by com- municating with powers that can be brought into answering relation by the proper means. Nagualism, or the acquisition of a mystic guardian, is a widely distributed custom, the essence of which probably consists in the procuring of a personal name having potency. The exceptional man is recognized as having mana in a special degree, and a belief thus held at once by others and by himself is bound to stimulate his individuality. The primitive community is not so custom-bound that per- sonality has no chance to make itself felt, and the leader of men possessed of an inner fund of inspiration is the wonder- worker who encourages all forms of social advance. Psychology of the Primitive Attitude towards the Sacred. — We are on firmer ground when simply describing the phenomena of primitive religion than when seeking to account for these in terms of natural law — in whatever sense the conception of natural law be applicable to the facts of the mental life of man. One thing is certain, namely, that savages stand on virtually one footing with the civilized as regards the type of explanation appropriate to their beliefs and practices. We have no right to refer to "instincts" in the case of primitive man, any more at any rate than we have in our own case. A child of civilized parents brought up from the first amongst savages is a savage, neither more nor less. Though race may count for something in the matter of mental endowment — and at least it would seem to involve differences in weight of brain — it clearly counts for much less than does milieu, to wit, that social environment of ideas and institutions which depends so largely for its effectiveness on mechanical means of tradition, such as the art of writing. The outstanding feature of the mental life of savages known to psychologists as " primitive credulity " is doubtless chiefly due to sheer want of diversity of suggestiveness in their intellectual surroundings. Their notions stick fast because there are no competing notions to dislodge them. Society suffers a sort of perpetual obsession, and remains self-hypnotized as it were within a magic circle of traditional views. A rigid orthodoxy is sustained by means of purblind imitation assisted by no little persecution. Such changes as occur come about, not in conse- quence of a new direction taken by conscious policy, but rather in the way that fashions in dress alter amongst ourselves, by subconscious, hardly purposive drifting. The crowd rather than the individual is the thinking unit. A proof is the mysterious rapid extinction of savages the moment that their group-life is broken up; they are individually so many lost sheep, without self-reliance or initiative. And the thinking power of a crowd — that is, a mob, not a deliberative assembly — is of a very low order, emotion of a " panicky " type driving it hither and thither like a rudderless ship. However, as the students of mob-psychology have shown, every crowd tends to have its meneur, its mob-leader, the man who sets the cheering or starts the running-away. So too, then, with the primitive society. Grossly ignorant of all that fails outside " the daily round, the common task," they are full of panicky fears in regard to this unknown, and the primary attitude of society towards it is sheer avoidance, taboo. But the mysterious has another face. To the mob the mob-leader is mysterious in his power of bringing luck and salvation; to himself also he is a wonder, since he wills, and lo ! things happen accordingly. He has HIGHER RELIGIONS] RELIGION 67 mana, power, and by means of this mana, felt inwardly by himself, acknowledged by his fellows, he stems the social impulse to run away from a mystery. Not without nervous dread- witness the special taboo to which the leader of society is subject — he draws near and strives to constrain, conciliate or cajole the awful forces with which the life of the group is set about. He enters the Holy of Holies; the rest remain without, and are more than half afraid of their mediator. In short, from the standpoint of lay society, the manipulator of the sacred is himself sacred, and shares in all the associations of sacred- ness. An anthropomorphism which is specifically a " mago- morphism " renders the sacred powers increasingly one with the governing element in society, and religion assumes an ethico- political character, whilst correspondingly authority and law are invested with a deeper meaning. The Abuse of the Sacred. — Lest our picture of primitive religion appear too brightly coloured, a word must be said on the perversions to which the exploitation of the sacred is liable. Envy, malice and uncharitableness are found in primitive society, as elsewhere, and in their behoof the mystic forces are not unfrequently unloosed by those who know how to do so. To use the sacred to the detriment of the community, as does, for instance, the expert who casts a spell, or utters a prayer, to his neighbour's hurt, is what primitive society understands by magic (cf. arungquiltha, above), and anthropology has no business to attach any other meaning to the word if it under- takes to interpret the primitive point of view. On the other hand, if those in authority perpetrate in the name of what their society holds sacred, and therefore with its full approval, acts that to the modern mind are cruel, silly or revolting, it is bad science and bad ethics to speak of vice and degradation, unless it can be shown that the community in which these things occur is thereby brought nearer to elimination in the struggle for existence. As a matter of fact, the earlier and more demo- cratic types of primitive society, uncontaminated by our civilization, do not present many features to which the modern conscience can take exception, but display rather the edifying spectacle of religious brotherhoods encouraging themselves by mystical communion to common effort. With the evolution of rank, however, and the concentration of magico-religious power in the hands of certain orders, there is less solidarity and more individualism, or at all events more opportunity for sectional interests to be pursued at other than critical times; whereupon fraud and violence are apt to infect religion. Indeed, as the history of the higher religions shows, religion tends in the end to break away from secular government with its aristocratic traditions, and to revert to the more democratic spirit of the primitive age, having by now obtained a clearer consciousness of its purpose, yet nevertheless clinging to the inveterate forms of human ritual as still adequate to symbolize the consecration of life — the quickening of the will to face life earnestly. Bibliography. — The number of works dealing with primitive religion is endless. The English reader who is more or less new to the subject is recommended to begin with E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture (4th ed., Lond. 1903), and then to proceed to J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough (2nd ed., Lond. 1900). The latter author's Lectures on the Early History of the Kingship (Lond. 1905) may also be consulted. Only second in importance to the above are VV. Robertson Smith, Lectures on the Religion of the Semites (2nd ed., Lond. 1904); A. Lang, Myth, Ritual and Religion (2nd ed., Lond. 1899), and Magic and Religion (Lond. 1902); E. S. Hartland, The Legend of Perseus (Lond. 1 894-1 896) ; F. B. Jevons, An Introduction to the History of Religion (2nd ed., 1902); E. Crawley, The Mystic Rose (Lond. 1902), and The Tree of Life (Lond. 1905). The two last- mentioned works perhaps most nearly represent the views taken in the text, which are also developed by the present writer in " Pre- Animistic Religion," Folk-Lore xi. (1900), " From Spell to Prayer," Folk-Lore, xv. (1904), and " Is Taboo a Negative Magic?" Anthropo- logical Essays presented to E. B. Tylor (1907); L. R. Farnell, The Evolution of Religion (1905), follows similar lines. The present writer owes something to Goblet d'Alviella, Ilibberl Lectures (Lond. 1891), and more to H. Hubert and M. Mauss, " Essai sur la nature et la fonction du sacrifice," L'Annee sociologique, ii. ; and " Esquisse d'une theone g£n6rale de la magie," ibid. vii. If the reader wish to keep pace with the output of literature on this vast subject, he will find L' Annie sociologique (1896 onwards) a wonderfully complete bibliographical guide. Side by side with works of general theory, first-hand authorities should be freely used. To make a selection from these is not easy, but the following at least are very important: R. H. Codrington, The Melanesians (Oxford, 1891); W. B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, The Native Tribes of Central Australia (Lond. 1899); The Northern Tribes of Central Australia (Lond. 1904); A. W. Howitt, The Native Tribes of South-Eastern Australia (Lond. 19:34); A. C. Haddon, Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits (Cambridge, 1904, vol. v.) ; A. B. Ellis, The Tshi-Speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast (Lond. 1897); The Ewe-Speaking Peoples cf the Slave Coast (Lond. 1890); The Yoruba-Speaking Peoples cf the Slave Coast (Lond. 1894) ; Miss M. H. Kingsley, Travels in West Africa (Lond. 1898), and West African Studies (Lond. 1899); A. C. Hollis, The Masai (1905); W. Crooke, The North-West Pro- vinces of India (Lond. 1897); W. H. R. Rivers, The Todas (1906). An immense amount of valuable evidence is to be obtained in the Reports of the Bureau of Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, Wash- ington. See Nos. 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, II, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, and specially J. O. Dorsey, A Study of Siouan Cults, in No. 11 ; A. C. Fletcher, The Hako, in No. 22; and M. C. Stevenson, The ZuHi Indians, in No. 23. Though dealing primarily with a more advanced culture, J. J. M. de Groot, The Religious System of China (1892-1901), will be found to throw much light on primitive ideas. Finally let it be repeated that there is offered here no more than an introduc- tory course of standard authorities suitable for the English reader. (R. R. M.) B. The Higher Religions Various phenomena associated with the religions of the lower culture will be found discussed in the articles on Animism; Fetishism; Magic; Mythology; Prayer; Ritual; Sacrifice; and Totemism. In this article religions are treated from the point of view of morphology, and no attempt can be made in the allotted limits to connect them with the phases of ritual, sociological or ethical development. See the separate articles on each religious system, and the separate headings for different forms of ritual. 1. Developments of Animism. — Animism is not, indeed, itself a religion; it is rather a primitive kind of philosophy which provides the intellectual form for the interpretation alike of Man and of Nature. It implies that the first great step has been taken for distinguishing between the material objects — whether the conscious body, or the rocks, trees and animals — and the powers that act in or through them. The Zufiis of New Mexico, U.S.A., supposed " the sun, moon and stars, the sky, earth and sea, in all their phenomena and elements, and all inanimate objects as well as plants, animals and men, to belong to one great system of all-conscious and interrelated life, in which the degrees of relationship seem to be deter- mined largely, if not wholly, by the degrees of resemblance." 1 If the earliest conception is that of an obscure undifferentiated animation (panvitalism) , the analysis of the human person into body and spirit with the corresponding doctrine of " object- souls " (e.g. the tornait, or " invisible rulers " of every object among the Eskimo) 2 constitutes an' important development. Matter is no longer animated or self-acting; it is subject to the will of an agent which can enter or quit it, perhaps at its own pleasure, perhaps at the compulsion of another. The transition has usually been effected ages before the higher religions come into view; but it has left innumerable traces in language and custom. Thus the Vedic hymns, which ex- hibit the deposits of so many stages of thought, are founded ultimately on the conception of the animation of nature. The objects of the visible world are themselves mighty to hurt or help. The springs and rivers, the wind, the sun, fire, the Earth-Mother, the Sky-Father, are all active powers. The animals, domesticated or wild, like the horse or cow, the guardian dog, the bird of omen, naturally share the same life, and are approached with the same invocation. The sacred energy is also discerned in the ritual implements, in the stones for squeezing the soma-juice, and the sacrificial post to which animals were bound; nay, it was even recognized in fabricated products like the plough (the " tearer " or " divider "), the 1 F. H. Cushing, on " Zuni Fetiches " in Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, 1883, p. 9. * Dr. Franz Boas, in the Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1888, p. 591. 68 RELIGION (HIGHER RELIGIONS war-car, the drum, quiver, bow and axe. The Earth-Mother and Sky-Father are to be found again and again in religions, at various stages of development, as co-ordinating conceptions which comprehend the universe. 1 Sometimes one is more prominent, sometimes the other. In many cases the Sky has been already resolved into the visible firmament and its lord and owner, like the Yoruban Olorun or the Finnic Ukko. The consort of Ukko is Maan-emo, " mother of the earth," or maan emanta, " mistress of the earth." But the rare expression mdan-ema, " Mother-earth," still used in the ancient lays, 2 points to the older type of belief in the animation of the pro- ductive soil. So the Peruvians designated the Earth as Pacha- mama, " mother of (all) things." In Egypt the relation was curiously reversed; the earth-god Keb was the husband of Nut, the sky, represented sometimes as a woman, overarching the earth and supported on hands and feet, sometimes as a gigantic cow, upheld on the outstretched hands of Shu, the atmosphere. 3 When earth and sky were still unseparated, Shu thrust himself between them and raised Nut to the heights. So in the New Zealand myth, Rangi and Papa, Sky and Earth,, who once clave together in the darkness, were rent asunder by the forest-god Tane-mahuta, who forced up the sky far above him. 4 The most elaborate presentment of this mode of thought is to be seen in the organized animism of the ancient state religion of China, where the supreme power is lodged in the living sky (Tien). 6 Tien was originally the actual firma- ment. In the Shi-King it is addressed in prayer as " great arfd wide," as " vast and distant "; it is even " blue " (Pt. II. v. 6, 5). So it is the ancestor of all things; and Heaven and Earth are the father and mother of the world. From the imperial point of view the sky bore the name of_ Ti, " ruler," or Shang Ti, "supreme ruler" (emperor); and later com- mentators readily took advantage of this to discriminate between the visible expanse and the indwelling spirit, producing a kind of Theism. But the older conception still holds its own. " Why " (says Edkins, Religion in China, 95), " they have been often asked, should you speak of those things which are dead matter, fashioned from nothing by the hand of God, as living beings? And why not? they have replied. The Sky pours down rain and sunshine; the Earth produces corn and grass. We see them in perpetual movement, and we therefore say that they are living." Tien Ti, Fu Mu, " Heaven and Earth, Father and Mother," are conjoined in common speech, and are the supreme objects of imperial worship. The great altar to Heaven, round in shape like the circuit of the sky, and white as the symbol of the light principle (Yang), stands in the southern suburb of Peking in the direction of light and heat. The altar to the Earth is dark and square, on the north side of the city, the region of yin, the principle of cold and gloom. Associated with the Sky are tablets to the sun and moon, the seven stars of the Great Bear, the five planets, the twenty-eight constellations, and all the stars of heaven; tablets to clouds, rain, wind and thunder being placed next to that of the moon. With the Earth are grouped the tablets to the five lofty Mountains, the three Hills of perpetual peace and the four Seas, the five celebrated Mountains and the four great Rivers. 6 The ancient ritual (Chow Li) carefully graded the right of sacrifice from the viceroys of provinces down to the humblest district-superintendent who offered to the spirits of his district, the hills, lakes and grains. With these spirits ranged in feudal order in two vast groups beneath Heaven and Earth is associated a third class, those of human beings. They are designated by the same name, shin; and they are in- 1 The Japanese name is Ame-tsuchi, " heaven and earth," a trans- lation of the Chinese ten-chi, Aston, Shinto (1905), p. 35. 2 Castr^n, Finnische Mythologie, p. 86. 3 Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Religion (1907), pp. 8, 12. * Sir George Grey, Polynesian Mythology (1855), pp. 1-4. 6 The English "Heaven" has acquired a quasi-personal mean- ing, and is usually employed as its equivalent, but, like the Jewish use (e.g. Luke xv. 18), tends to carry too definite religious associa- tions with it. 6 Blodget, on " The Chinese Worship of Heaven and Earth," Journ. of the American Oriental Society, xx. p. 58 ff . extricably mingled with the operations of nature. So in the Vedic hymns the departed " Fathers " inhabit the three zones of earth, air and sky; they are invoked with the streams and mountains of this lower earth, as well as with the dawns and the sky itself; even cosmic functions are ascribed to them; and they adorn the heaven with stars. The Chinese concep- tion of the Shin under the name of Shin-to (Chinese tao) or " spirits'-way " profoundly influenced Japanese thought from the 6th century a.d. onwards; and the great Shinto revival of the 1 8th century brought the doctrine again into prominence. The Japanese Kami are the " higher " powers, the superi, conceived as acting through nature on the one hand and govern- ment on the other. Just as the emperor is kami, and provincial officers of rank, so also mountains, rivers, the sea, thunder, winds, and even animals like the tiger, wolf or fox, are ail kami. 1 The spirits of the dead also become kami, of varying character and position; some reside in the temples built in their honour; some hover near their tombs; but they are constantly active, mingling in the vast multitude of agencies which makes every event in the universe, in the language of Motowori (1730-1801), the act of the Kami. They direct the changing seasons, the wind and the rain; and the good and bad fortunes of individuals, families and states are due to them. 8 Everywhere from birth to death the entire life of man is encompassed and guided by the Kami, which are sometimes reckoned at 8,000,000 in number. 2. Transition to Polytheism. — In such ways does the Poly- daemonism of early faith survive in the modern practice of religion. The process of enrolling the spirits of the dead in the ranks of what may be more or less definitely called " gods " may be seen in the popular usages of India at the present day, or traced in the pages of the Peking Gazelle under the direction of the Board of Rites, one of the most ancient branches of Chinese administration. Whether the higher polytheisms were produced in this fashion out of the cultus of the dead, may, however, be doubted. Many influences have doubtless contri- buted, and different races have followed different lines of development. No definite succession like the series of ages marked by the use of stone, bronze and iron can be clearly marked. But there must always have been some correspondence between the stages of social advance (or, in certain cases, of degeneration) and the religious interpretation of the world. The formation of clans and tribes, the transitions from the hunting to the pastoral life, and from the pastoral to the agricultural — the struggle with forest and swamp, the clearings for settlement, the protection of the dwelling-place, the safety of flocks and herds, the production of corn, — the migration of peoples, the founding of colonies, the processes of conquest, fusion, and political union — have all reacted on the elaboration of the higher polytheisms, before bards and poets, priesthoods and theological speculators, began to systematize and regulate the relations of the gods. Certain phases of thought may be more or less clearly indicated ; certain elements of race, of local condition, of foreign contact, may be distinguished with more or less historic probability; but no single key can explain all the wide diversity of phenomena. Broadly speaking it may be said that a distinction may be drawn between " spirits " and " gods," but it is a distinction of degree rather than of kind, obvious enough at the upper end, yet shading off into manifold varieties of resemblance in the lower forms. Some writers only recognize friendly agencies as gods; but destructive powers like the volcano, or the lords of the underworld, cannot be regarded as the protectors of the life of man, yet they seem in many mythologies to attain the full personalised stature of gods with definite names. Early Greek religion recognized a class of gods of Aversion and Riddance, d-TOTp&iraioi and aTcnronvaioi. Neither the spirit nor the god is conceived as ' So the epithet 'il might be applied in Hebrew to men of might, to lofty cedars, or mountains of unusual height, as well as to the Supreme Being. 8 See E. M. Satow, " Revival of Pure Shinto," Trans. As. Soc. of Japan, vol. iii. pt. 1 (1875), Appendix, p. 26. HIGHER RELIGIONS] RELIGION 6 9 immaterial. They can take food, though the crudest form of this belief soon passes into the more refined notion that they consume the impalpable essence of the meals provided for them. The ancient Indian ritual for the sacrifice to the Fathers required the officiating priest to turn away with bated breath that he might not see the spirits engaged upon the rice-balls laid out for them. The elastic impalpable stuff of the spirit-body is apparently capable of compression or expansion, just as Athena can transform herself into a bird. The spirits can pass swiftly through the air or the water; they can enter the stone or the tree, the animal or the man. The spirit-land of the Ibo on the Lower Niger had its rivers, forests or hills, its towns and roads, as upon earth: 1 the spirits of the Mordvinian mythology, created by Chkal, not only resembled men, they even possessed the faculty of reproduction by multiplication. 2 The Finns ascribed a haltia or genius to each object, which could, how- ever, guard other individuals of the same species. This is the beginning of the species-god, and implies a step of thought comparable to the production in language of general terms. These protecting spirits were free beings, having form and shape, but not individualized; while above them rose the higher deities like the forest-god Tapio and his maiden Hillervo, protectress of herds, or Ahto the water-god who gradually took the place of Vesi, the actual element originally conceived as itself divine, and ruled over the spirits of lakes and rivers, wells and springs. 3 The Finns came to apply to the upper gods the term Yumala which originally denoted the living sky; the Samoyedes made the same use of Num, and the Mongols of Tengri. 4 Above the innumerable wongs of the Gold Coast rose Nyongmo, the Sky-god, giver of the sunshine and the rain. The Yoruba-speaking peoples generalized the spirits of mountain and hill into Oke, god of heights; and the multitude of local sea-gods on the western half of the slave coast was fused into one god of the Ocean, Olokun. 5 The Babylonian theology recognized a Zi or " spirit " in both men and gods, somewhat resembling the Egyptian " double " or ka; spirits are classed as spirits of heaven and spirits of earth; but the original identity of gods and spirits may be inferred from the fact that the same sign stands before the names of both. 6 Out of the vast mass of undifferentiated powers certain functional deities appear; and the Kami of Japan to-day who preside over the gilds and crafts of industry and agriculture, over the trees and grasses of the field, the operations of the household, and even the kitchen- range, the saucepan, the rice-pot, the well, the garden, the scarecrow and the privy, have their counterparts in the lists of ancient Rome, the Indigitamenta over whose contents Tertullian and Augustine made merry. The child was reared under the superintendence of Educa and Potina. Abcona and Adeona taught him to go out and in. Cuba guarded him when he was old enough to exchange a cradle for a bed. Ossipaga strengthened his bones; Levdna helped him to get up, and Stalina to stand. 7 There were powers protecting the threshold, the door and the hinge: and the duties of the house, the farm, the mill, had each its appointed guardian. But such powers were hardly persons. The settler who went into the woods might know neither the name nor the sex of the indwelling numen; " si deus si dea," " sive mas sive femina," ran the old formulae. 8 So the Baals 1 Leonard, The Lower Niger and its Tribes (1906), p. 186. 5 Mainof, " Les Restes dc la mythologie mordvine," Journal tic la Soc. Finno-Ougrienne, v. (1889), p. 102. 3 Castren, Finn. Mythol. pp. 92 ff., 72. 4 Ibid. pp. 7, 14, 17, 24. ' A. B. Ellis, The Yoruba-speaking Peoples (1894), P- 2 &9- 'Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (1898), p. 181. The Zunis applied the term a-hai " All-Life " or " the Beings " to all supernatural beings, men, animals, plants, and many objects in nature regarded as personal existences, as well as to the higher anthropomorphic powers known as " Finishers or Makers of the Paths of Life," Report of Bureau of Ethnol. (1883), p. 11. On the distinction between " gods " and " spirits," cf. Ed. Meyer, Gesch. desAlterthums, 2nd ed. Band i. crstc Ilaelfte (1907), p. 97 ff. 7 Tert. De Anima, 39 Aug. De Civ. Dei, iv. 1 1, &c. •On the Dei Certi and the Dei Incerti, see von Domaszewski in the Archivfiir Religionswiss., x. (1907), pp. 1-17. of the Semitic peoples constituted a group of powers fertilizing the land with water-springs, the givers of corn and wine and oil, out of which under conditions of superior political development a high-god like the Tyrian Baal, the majestic City-King, might be evolved. The Celts who saw the world peopled with the spirits of trees and animals, rocks, mountains, springs and rivers, grouped them in classes like the Dervonnae (oak-spirits), the Niskai (water-spirits), the Proximae, the Matronae (earth- goddesses) 9 and the like. Below the small band of Teutonic divinities were the elves of forest and field, the water-elves or nixes and spirits of house and home. The Vedic deities of the nobler sort, the shining devas, the asuras (the " breathers " or. living, perhaps to be identified with the Scandinavian &, 'Vefufrbv, 'YtuQafi, 'Faidv, Te^dc. It is part of a quotation from Amos v. 26, where the Septuagint 'Pot^ac or 'Petpav stands for the Hebrew P*? Chuin or Kewan. The Greek forms are probably simple mistakes for the Hebrew, k ( D ) having been replaced by r C 1 ) and ph (<£) substituted for v 0). Kewan is probably the old Babylonian Ka(v)awanu, the planet Saturn, another (the Akkadian) name for which is Sakkut, which appears as Siccuth in the earlier part of the verse. REMSCHEID, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, situated on an elevated plateau, 1100 ft. above sea- level, 6 m. by rail S. of Barmen and 20 m. N.E. of Cologne. Pop. (1905) 64,340. Remscheid is a centre of the hardware industry, and large quantities of tools, scythes, skates and other small articles in iron, steel and brass are made for export to all parts of Europe, the East, and North and South America. The name of Remscheid occurs in a document of 1132, and the town received the first impulse to its industrial importance through the immigration of Protestant refugees from France and Holland. REMUSAT, CHARLES FRANCOIS MARIE, Comte de (1797- 1875), French politician and man of letters, was born in Paris on the 13th of March 1797. His father, Auguste Laurent, Comte de Remusat, of a good family of Toulouse, was chamber- lain to Napoleon, but acquiesced in the restoration and became prefect first of Haute Garonne, and then of Nord. His mother's maiden name was Claire Elisabeth Jeanne Gravier de Ver- gennes, born in 1780. She married at sixteen, and was attached to Josephine as dame du palais in 1802. Talleyrand was among her admirers, and she was generally recognized as a woman of great intellectual capacity and personal grace. After her death (1824) an Essai sur I'educalion des femmes was published and received an academic couronne. But it was not until her grandson Paul de Remusat published her Memoires (3 vols., Paris, 1 8 70-80) ; which have since been followed by some corre- spondence with her son (2 vols., 1881), that justice could be done to her literary talent. Much light was thrown on the Napoleonic court by this book, and on the youth and education of her son Charles. He early developed political views more liberal than those of his parents, and, being bred to the bar, published in 1820 a pamphlet on trial by jury. He was an active journalist, showing in philosophy and literature the influence of Cousin, and is said to have furnished to no small extent the original of Balzac's brilliant egoist Henri de Marsay. He signed the journalists' protest against the Ordinances of July 1830, and in the following October was elected deputy for Haute Garonne. He then ranked himself with the doctrin- aires, and supported most of those measures of restriction on popular liberty which made the July monarchy unpopular with French Radicals. In 1836 he became for a short time under- secretary of state for the interior. He then became an ally of Thiers, and in 1840 held the ministry of the interior for a brief period. In the same year he became an Academician. For the rest of Louis Philippe's reign he was in opposition till he joined Thiers in his attempt at a ministry in the spring of 1848. During this time Remusat constantly spoke in the chamber, but was still more active in literature, especially on philosophical subjects, the most remarkable of his works being his book on Abtlard (2 vols., 1845). In 1848 he was elected, and in 1840 re-elected, for Haute Garonne, and voted with the Conservative side. He had to leave France after the coup d'Uat; nor did he re-enter political life during the Second Empire until 1869, when he founded a moderate opposition journal at Toulouse. In 1871 he refused the Vienna embassy offered him by Thiers, but in August he was appointed minister of foreign affairs in succession to M. Jules Favre. Although minister he was not a deputy, and on standing for Paris in September 1873 he was beaten by Desir6 Barodet. A month later he was elected (having already resigned with Thiers) for Haute Garonne by a great majority. He died in Paris on the 6th of January 1875. During his abstention from politics Bemusat continued to write on philosophical history, especially English. Saint Anselme de Cantorbiry appeared in 1854; V Angleterre au XVIIIeme siecle in 1856 (2nd ed. enlarged, 1865); Bacon, sa vie, REMUSAT, J. P. A.— RENAISSANCE 83 son temps, &c, in 1858; Charming, sa vie et ses ceuvres, in 1862; John Wesley in 1870; Lord Herbert de Cherbury in 1874; His- toire de la philosophie en Angleterre depuis Bacon jusqu' a Locke in 1875; besides other and minor works. He wrote well, was a forcible speaker and an acute critic; but his adoption of the indeterminate eclecticism of Cousin in philosophy and of the somewhat similarly indeterminate liberalism of Thiers in politics probably limited his powers, though both no doubt accorded with his critical and unenthusiastic turn of mind. His son Paul de Remusat (1831-1897) became a distin- guished journalist and writer. He was for many years a regular contributor to the Revue des deux mondes. He stood for election in Haute-Garonne in 1869 in opposition to the imperial policy and failed, but was elected to the National Assembly in 187 1 and later. In 1890 he entered the Academie des sciences morales et politiques. REMUSAT, JEAN PIERRE ABEL (1788-1832), French Chinese scholar, was born in Paris on the 5th of September 1788. He was educated for the medical profession, but a Chinese herbal in the collection of the Abbe Tersan attracted his atten- tion, and he taught himself to read it by great perseverance and with imperfect help. At the end of five years' study he produced in 181 1 an Essai sur la langue et la litttrature chinoises, and a paper on foreign languages among the Chinese, which procured him the patronage of Silvestre de Sacy. In 1814 a chair of Chinese was founded at the College de France, and Remusat was placed in it. From this time he gave himself wholly to the languages of the Far East, and published a series of useful works, among which his contributions from Chinese sources to the history of the Tatar nations claim special notice. Remusat became an editor of the Journal de savants in 1818, and founder and first secretary of the Paris Asiatic Society in 1822; he also held various Government appointments. He died at Paris on the 4th of June 1832. A list of his works is given in Querard's France litteraire s.v. Remusat. RENAISSANCE, THE.— The " Renaissance " or " Renascence " is a term used to indicate a well-known but indefinite space of time and a certain phase in the development of Europe. 1 On the one hand it denotes the transition from that period of his- tory which we call the middle ages (q.v.) to that which we call modern. On the other hand it implies those changes in the intellectual and moral attitude of the Western nations by which the transition was characterized. If we insist upon the literal and etymological meaning of the word, the Renaissance was a re-birth; and it is needful to inquire of what it was the re-birth. The metaphor of Renaissance may signify the entrance of the European nations upon a fresh stage of vital energy in general, implying a fuller consciousness and a freer exercise of faculties than had belonged to the medieval period. Or it may mean the resuscitation of simply intellectual activities, stimulated by the revival of antique learning and its application to the arts and literatures of modern peoples. Upon our choice between these two interpretations of the word depend important differences in any treatment of the subject. The former has the disadvantage of making it difficult to separate the Renaissance from other historical phases — the Reformation, for example — with which it ought not to be confounded. The latter has the merit of assigning a specific name to a limited seres of events and group of facts, which can be distinguished for the purpose of analysis from other events and facts with which they are intimately but not indissolubly connected. In other words, the one definition of Renaissance makes it denote the whole change which came over Europe at the close of the middle ages. The other confines it to what was known by our ancestors as the Revival of Learning. Yet, when we concentrate attention on the recovery of antique culture, we become aware that this was only one phenomenon or symptom of a far wider and more comprehensive alteration in the conditions of the European races. We find it needful to retain both terms, Renaissance and Revival of Learning, and 1 For a somewhat different view of the parcelling out into such periods, see the article Middle Ages. to show the relations between the series of events and facts which they severally imply. The Revival of Learning must be regarded as a function of that vital energy, an organ of that mental evolution, which brought into existence the modern world, with its new conceptions of philosophy and religion, its reawakened arts and sciences, its firmer grasp on the realities of human nature and the world, its manifold inventions and discoveries, its altered political systems, its expansive and progressive forces. Im- portant as the Revival of Learning undoubtedly was, there are essential factors in the complex called the Renaissance with which it can but remotely be connected. When we analyse the whole group of phenomena which have to be considered, we perceive that some of the most essential have nothing or little to do with the recovery of the classics. These are, briefly speaking, the decay of those great fabrics, church and empire, which ruled the middle ages both as ideas and as realities; the development of nationalities and languages; the enfeeblement of the feudal system throughout Europe; the invention and application of paper, the mariner's compass, gunpowder, and printing; the exploration of continents beyond the ocean; and the substitution of the Copernican for the Ptolemaic system of astronomy. Europe in fact had been prepared for a thorough- going metamorphosis before that new ideal of human life and culture which the Revival of Learning brought to light had been made manifest. It had recovered from the confusion conse- quent upon the dissolution of the ancient Roman empire. The Teutonic tribes had been Christianized, civilized and assimilated to the previously Latinized races over whom they exercised the authority of conquerors. Comparative tranquillity and material comfort had succeeded to discord and rough living. Modern nationalities, defined as separate factors in a common system, were ready to co-operate upon the basis of European federation. The ideas of universal monarchy and of indivisible Christendom, incorporated in the Holy Roman Empire and the Roman Church, had so far lost their hold that scope was offered for the introduction of new theories both of state and church which would have seemed visionary or impious to the medieval mind. It is therefore obvious that some term, wider than Revival of Learn- ing, descriptive of the change which began to pass over Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries, has to be adopted. That of Renaissance, Rinascimento, or Renascence is sufficient for the purpose, though we have to guard against the tyranny of what is after all a metaphor. We must not suffer it to lead us into rhetoric about the deadness and the darkness of the middle ages, or hamper our inquiry with preconceived assumptions that the re-birth in question was in any true sense a return to the irrecoverable pagan past. Nor must we imagine that there was any abrupt break with the middle ages. On the contrary, the Renaissance was rather the last stage of the middle ages, emerging frcm ecclesi- astical and feudal despotism, developing what was original in medieval ideas by the light of classic arts and letters, holding in itself the promise of the modern world. It was therefore a period and a process of transition, fusion, preparation, tentative endeavour. And just at this point the real importance of the Revival of Learning may be indicated. That rediscovery of the classic past restored the confidence in their own faculties to men striving after spiritual freedom; revealed the continuity of history and the identity of human nature in spite of diverse creeds and different customs; held up for emulation master- works of literature, philosophy and art; provoked inquiry; encouraged criticism; shattered the narrow mental barriers imposed by medieval orthodoxy. Humanism, a word which will often recur in the ensuing paragraphs, denotes a specific b'as which the forces liberated in the Renaissance took from contact with the ancient world, — the particular form assumed by human self-esteem at that epoch,— the ideal of life and civilization evolved by the modern nations. It indicates the endeavour of man to reconstitute himself as a free being, not as the thrall of theological despotism, and the peculiar assistance he derived in th : s effort from Greek and Roman literature, the litterae humaniores, letters leaning rather to the side of man than of divinity. 8 4 'RENAISSANCE In this article the Renaissance will be considered as implying a comprehensive movement of the European intellect and will Method toward self-emancipation, toward reassertion of the of treat- natural rights of the reason and the senses, toward menU the conquest of this planet as a place of human occu- pation, and toward the formation of regulative theories both for states and individuals differing from those of medieval times. The Revival of Learning will be treated as a decisive factor in this process of evolution on a new plan. To exclude the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation wholly from the survey is impossible. These terms indicate moments in the whole process of modern history which were opposed, each to the other, and both to the Renaissance; and it is needful to bear in mind that they have, scientifically speaking, a quite separate existence. Yet if the history of Europe in the 16th century of our era came to be written with the brevity with which we write the history of Europe in the 6th century B.C., it would be difficult at the distance of time implied by that supposition to distinguish the Italian movement of the Renaissance in its origin from the German movement of the Reformation. Both would be seen to have a common starting- point in the reaction against long dominant ideas which were becoming obsolete, and also in the excitation of faculties which had during the same period been accumulating energy. The Renaissance, if we try to regard it as a period, was essentially the transition from one historical stage to another. It cannot therefore be confined within strict chronological limits. Chroao- There is one date, however, which may be remembered logical w ; tll a d van tage as the starting-point in time of the Rc- limlts. naissance, after the departure from the middle ages had been definitely and consciously made by the Italians. This is the vear US1, when Constantinople, chosen for his capital by the first Christian emperor of Rome, fell into the hands of the Turk One of the survivals of the old world, the shadow of what had been the Eastern Empire, now passed suddenly away. Almost at the same date that visionary revival of the Western Empire, which had im- posed for six centuries upon the imagination of medieval Europe, hampering Italy and impeding the consolidation of Germany, ceased to reckon among political actualities; while its more robust rival the Roman Church, seemed likely to sink into the rank of a petty Italian principality. It was demonstrated by the destruction of the Eastern and the dotage of the Western Empire, and by the new papal policy which Nicholas V. inaugurated, that the old order of society was about to be superseded. Nothing remained to check those centrifugal forces in state and churcl. which substituted a confederation of rival European powers for the earlier ideal of universal monarchy, and separate religious constitutions lor the previous Catholic unity. At the same time the new learning introduced by the earlier humanists awakened free thought, encour- aged curiosity, and prepared the best minds of Europe for specula- tive audacities from which the schoolmen would have shrunk, and which soon expressed themselves in acts of cosmopolitan importance. If we look a little forward to the years 1492-1500, we obtain a second date of great importance. In these years the expedition of Charles VIII. to Naples opened Italy to French, Spanish and German interference. The leading nations of Europe began to compete for the prize of the peninsula, and learned meanwhile that culture which the Italians had perfected. In these years the secular- ization of the papacy was carried to its final point by Alexander VI., and the Reformation became inevitable. The same period was marked by the discovery of America, the exploration of the Indian seas, and the consolidation of the Spanish nationality. It also witnessed the application of printing to the diffusion of knowledge. Thus, speaking roughly, the half-century between 1450 and 1500 mav be termed the culminating point of the Renaissance, the transition from the medieval to the modern order was now secured if not accomplished, and a Rubicon had been crossed from which no retrogression to the past was possible. Looking yet a little farther, to the years 1527 and 1530, a third decisive date is reached. In the first of these years happened the sack of Rome, in the second the pacification of Italy by Charles V. under a Spanish hegemony. The asre of the Renaissance was now closed for the land which gave it birth The Reformation had taken firm hold on northern Europe. The Counter-Reformation was already imminent. It must not be imagined that so great a change as that implied by the Renaissance was accomplished without premonitory Pncur. symptoms and previous endeavours. In the main sors ot we mean by it the recovery of freedom for the human the Re- sp j r i t after a long period of bondage to oppressive nalssaace. eccles j astica i an d political orthodoxy— a return to the liberal and practical conceptions of the world which the nations of antiquity had enjoyed, but upon a new and enlarged platform. This being so, it was inevitable that the finally successful efforts after self-emancipation should^ have been anticipated from time to time by strivings within the ages that are known as dark and medieval. It is therefore part of the present inquiry to pass in review some of the claimants to be considered precursors of the Renaissance. First of all must be named the Frank in whose lifetime the dual conception of universal empire and universal church, divinely ap- pointed, sacred and inviolable, began to control the order of Euro- pean society. Charles the Great (Charlemagne) lent his forces to the plan of resuscitating the Roman empire at a moment when his own power made him the arbiter of western Europe, when the papacy needed his alliance, and when the Eastern Empire had passed under the usurped regency of a female. He modelled an empire, Roman in name but essentially. Teutonic, since it owed such substance as its fabric possessed to Frankish armies and the sinews of the German people. As a structure composed of divers ill-connected parts it fell to pieces at its builder's death, leaving little but the incubus of a memory, the fascination of a mighty name, to dominate the mind of medieval Europe. As an idea, the empire grew in visionary power,- and remained one of the chief obstacles in the way of both Italian and German national coherence. Real force was not in it, but rather in that counterpart to its unlimited pretensions, the church, which had evolved it from barbarian night, and which used her own more vital energies for undermining the rival of her creation. Charles the Great, having proclaimed himself successor of the Caesars, was obscurely ambitious of imitating the Augusti also in the sphere of letters. He caused a scheme of humanistic education to be formulated, and gave employment at his court to rhetoricians, of whom Alcuin was the most considerable. But very little came of the revival of learning which Charles is supposed to have encouraged ; and the empire he restored was accepted by the medieval intellect in a crudely theological and vaguely mystical spirit. We should, however, here remember that the study of Roman law, which was one important precursory symptom of the Renaissance, owed much to medieval respect for the empire as a divine institution. This, together with the municipal Italian intolerance of the Lombard and Frankish codes, kept alive the practice and revived the science of Latin jurisprudence at an early period. Philosophy had attempted to free itself from the trammels of theological orthodoxy in the hardy speculations of some schoolmen, notably of Scotus Erigena and Abelard. These innovators _. found, however, small support, and were defeated by t f oaand opponents who used the same logical weapons with auth- her ln ority to back them. Nor were the rationalistic opinions mi ddle of the Averroists without their value, though the church & condemned these deviators from her discipline as heretics. Such medieval materialists, moreover, had but feeble hold upon the substance of real knowledge. Imperfect acquaintance with authors whom they studied in Latin translations made by Jews from Arabic commentaries on Greek texts, together with almost total ignorance of natural laws, condemned them to sterility. Like the other schiomachists of their epoch, they fought with phantoms m a visionary realm. A similar judgment may be passed upon those Paulician, Albigensian, Patenne and Epicurean dissenters from the Catholic creed who opposed the phalanxes of orthodoxy with frail imaginative weapons, and alarmed established orders in the state by the audacity of their communistic opinions. Physical science struggled into feeble life in the cells of Gerbert and Roger Bacon. But these men were accounted magicians by the vulgar; and, while the one eventually assumed the tiara, the other was incarcer- ated in a dungeon. The schools meanwhile resounded still to the interminable dispute upon abstractions. Are only umversals real, or has each name a corresponding entity? From the midst of the Franciscans who had persecuted Roger Bacon because he presumed to know more than was consistent with human humility arose John of Parma, adopting and popularizing the mystic prophecy of Joachim of Flora. The reign of the Father is past; the reign of the Son is passing; the reign of the Spirit is at hand. Such was the formula of the Eternal Gospel, which, as an unconscious forecast^ the Renaissance, has attracted retrospective students by its felicity of adaptation to their historical method. Yet we must remember that this bold intuition of the abbot Joachim indicated a monastic reaction against the tyrannies and corruptions of the church, rather than a fertile philosophical conception. The Fraticelli spiritualists, and similar sects who fed their imagination with his doctrine, ex- pired in the flames to which Fra Dolcino Longino and Marghanta were consigned. To what extent the accusations of profligate morals brought against these reforming sectarians were justified remains doubtful; and the same uncertainty rests upon the alleged iniquities of the Templars. It is only certain that at this epoch the fabric of Catholic faith was threatened with various forms of pro- phetic and Oriental mysticism, symptomatic of a widespread desire to grasp at something simpler, purer and less rigid than Latin theology afforded. Devoid of criticism, devoid of sound learning, devoid of a firm hold on the realities of life, these heresies passed away without solid results and were forgotten. RENAISSANCE 85 We are too apt to take for granted that the men of the middle ages were immersed in meditations on the other world, and that their Natural- intellectual exercises were confined to abstractions of the ism la schools, hallucinations of the fancy, allegories, visions. ... This assumption applies indeed in a broad sense to that life and Period which was dominated by intolerant theology and literature deprived °f positive knowledge. Yet there are abundant signs that the native human instincts, the natural human appetites, remained unaltered and alive beneath the crust of ortho- doxy. In the person of a pope like Boniface VIII. those ineradicable forces of the natural man assumed, if we may trust the depositions of ecclesiastics well acquainted with his life, a form of brutal atheistic cynicism. In the person of an emperor, Frederick II., they emerged under the more agreeable garb of liberal culture and Epicurean scepticism. Frederick dreamed of remodelling society upon a mundane type, which anticipated the large toleration and cosmopolitan enlightenment of the actual Renaissance. But his efforts were defeated by the unrelenting hostility of the church, and by the incapacity of his contemporaries to understand his aims. After being forced in his lifetime to submit to authority, he was consigned by Dante to hell. Frederick's ideal of civilization was derived in a large measure from Provence, where a beautiful culture had prematurely bloomed, filling southern Europe with the perfume of poetry and gentle living. Here, if anywhere, it seemed as though the ecclesiastical and feudal fetters of the middle ages might be broken, and humanity might enter on a new stage of joyous unim- peded evolution. This was, however, not to be. The church preached Simon de Montfort's crusade, and organized Dominic's Inquisition; what Quinet calls the " Renaissance sociale par l'Amour " was extirpated by sword, fire, famine and pestilence. Meanwhile the Provencal poets had developed their modern language with incomparable richness and dexterity, creating forms of verse and modes of emotional expression which determined the latest medieval phase of literature in Europe. The naturalism of which we have been speaking found free utterance now in the fabliaux of jongleurs, lyrics of minnesingers, tales of trouveres, romances of Arthur and his knights — compositions varied in type and tone, but in all of which sincere passion and real enjoyment of life pierce through the thin veil of chivalrous mysticism or of allegory with which they were sometimes conventionally draped. The tales of Lancelot and Tristram, the lives of the troubadours and the Wacht- lieder of the minnesingers, sufficiently prove with what sensual freedom a knight loved the lady whom custom and art made him profess to worship as a saint. We do not need to be reminded that Beatrice's adorer had a wife and children, or that Laura's poet owned a son and daughter by a concubine, in order to perceive that the mystic passion of chivalry was compatible in the middle ages with commonplace matrimony or vulgar illegitimate connexions. But perhaps the most convincing testimony to the presence of this ineradicable naturalism is afforded ^by the Latin songs of wandering students, known as Carmina Burana, written by the self-styled QollanUc Goliardi. In these compositions, remarkable for their poetry l ac '' e handling of medieval Latin rhymes and rhythms, " # the allegorizing mysticism which envelops chivalrous poetry is discarded. Love is treated from a frankly carnal point of view. Bacchus and Venus go hand in hand, as in the ancient ante- Christian age. The open-air enjoyments of the wood, the field, the dance upon the village green, are sung with juvenile lighthearted- ness. No grave note, warning us that the pleasures of this earth are fleeting, that the visible world is but a symbol of the invisible, that human life is a probation for the life beyond, interrupts the tinkling music as of castanets and tripping feet which gives a novel charm to these unique relics of the 13th century. Gohardic poetry is further curious as showing how the classics even at that early period were a fountain-head of pagan inspiration. In the taverns and low places of amusement haunted by those lettered songsters, on the open road and in the forests trodden by their vagrant feet, the deities of Greece and Rome were not in exile, but at home within the hearts of living men. Thus, while Christendom was still preoccupied with the Crusades, two main forces of the Renaissance, naturalism and enthusiasm for antique modes of feeling, already brought their latent potency to light, prematurely indeed and precociously, yet with a promise that was destined to be kept. When due regard is paid to these miscellaneous evidences of intellectual and sensual freedom during the middle ages, it will be M dl al seen t ' lat tnere were by no means lacking elements of attitude nat i ye vigour ready to burst forth. What was wanting otmiud was not v ' ta '' t X an ^ licence, not audacity of speculation, not lawless instinct or rebellious impulse. It was rather the right touch on life, the right feeling for human independence, the right way of approaching the materials of philosophy, religion, scholarship and literature, that failed. The courage that is born of knowledge, the calm strength begotten by a positive attitude of mind, face to face with the dominant over-shadowing Sphinx of theology, were lacking. We may fairly say that natural and untaught people had more of the just intuition that was needed than learned folk trained in the schools. But these people were rendered licentious in revolt or impotent for salutary action by ignorance, by terror, by uneasy dread of the doom declared for heretics and rebels. The massive vengeance of the church hung over them, like a heavy sword suspended in the cloudy air. Superstition and stupidity hedged them in on every side, so that sorcery and magic seemed the only means of winning power over nature or insight into mysteries surrounding human life. The path from darkness to light was lost; thought was involved in allegory; the study of nature had been perverted into an inept system of grotesque and pious parable- mongering; the pursuit of truth had become a game of wordy dialectics. The other world, with its imagined heaven and hell, haunted the conscience like a nightmare. However sweet this world seemed, however fair the flesh, both world and flesh were theoretically given over to the devil. It was not worth while to master and economize the resources of this earth, to utilize the good and ameliorate the evils of this life, while every one agreed, in theory at any rate, that the present was but a bad prelude to an infinitely worse or infinitely better future. To escape from these preoccupa- tions and prejudices except upon the path of conscious and deliber- ate sin was impossible for all but minds of rarest quality and courage; and these were too often reduced to the recantation of their supposed errors no less by some secret clinging sense of guilt than by the church's iron hand. Man and the actual universe kept on reasserting their rights and claims, announcing their goodliness and delightfulness, in one way or another; but they were always being thrust back again into Cimmerian regions of abstractions, fictions, visions, spectral hopes and fears, in the midst of which the intellect somnambulistically moved upon an unknown way. At this point the Revival of Learning intervened to determine the course of the Renaissance. Medieval students possessed a considerable portion of the Latin classics, though Italy— the Greek had become in the fullest sense of the phrase Revival ol a dead language. But what they retained of ancient Learning. literature they could not comprehend in the right spirit. Between them and the text of poet or historian hung a veil of mysticism, a vapour of misapprehension. The odour of unsanctity clung around those relics of the pagan past. Men bred in the cloister and the lecture-room of the logicians, trained in scholastic disputations, versed in allegorical interpretations of the plainest words and most apparent facts, could not find the key which might unlock those stores of wisdom and of beauty. Petrarch first opened a new method in scholarship, and revealed what we denote as humanism. In his teaching lay the twofold discovery of man and of the world. For humanism, which was the vital element in the Revival of Learning, consists mainly of a just perception of the dignity of man as a rational, volitional and sentient being, born upon this earth with a right to use it and enjoy it. Humanism implied the rejection of those visions of a future and imagined state of souls as the only absolute reality, which had fascinated the imagination of the middle ages. It involved a vivid recognition of the goodliness of man and nature, displayed in the great monuments of human power recovered from the past. It stimulated the curiosity of latent sensibilities, provoked fresh inquisition into the groundwork of existence, and strengthened man's self-esteem by knowledge of what men had thought and felt and done in ages when Christianity was not. It roused a desire to reappropriate the whole abandoned provinces of mundane energy, and a hope to emulate antiquity in works of living loveliness and vigour. The Italians of the 14th century, more precocious than the other European races, were ripe for this emancipation of enslaved intelligence. In the classics they found the food which was required to nourish the new spirit; and a variety of circumstances, among which must be reckoned the pride of a nation boasting of its descent from the Populus Romanus, rendered them apt to fling aside the obstacles that had impeded the free action of the mind through many centuries. Petrarch not only set his countrymen upon the right method of studying the Latin classics, but he also divined the importance of recovering a knowledge of Greek literature. To this task Boccaccio addressed himself; and he was followed by numerous Italian enthusiasts, who visited Byzantium before its fall as the sacred city of a new revelation. The next step was to collect MSS., to hunt out, copy and preserve the precious relics of the past. In this work of accumulation Guarino and Filelfo, Aurispa and Poggio, took the chief part, aided by the wealth of Italian patricians, merchant-princes and despots, who were inspired by the sacred thirst for learning. Learning was then 86 RENAISSANCE no mere pursuit of a special and recluse class. It was fashionable and it was passionate, pervading all society with the fervour of romance. For a generation nursed in decadent scholasticism and stereotyped theological formulae it was the fountain cf renascent )'outh, beauty and freedom, the shape in which the Helen of art and poetry appeared to the ravished eyes of medieval Faustus. It was the resurrection of the mightiest spirits of the past. " I go," said Cyriac of Ancona, the inde- fatigable though uncritical explorer of antiquities, " I go to awake the dead I " This was the enthusiasm, this the vitalizing faith, which made the work of scholarship in the 15th century so highly strung and ardent. The men who followed it knew that they were restoring humanity to its birthright after the expatriation of ten centuries. They were instinctively aware that the effort was for liberty of action, thought and conscience in the future. This conviction made young men leave their loves and pleasures, grave men quit their counting-houses, churchmen desert their missals, to crowd the lecture-rooms cf philologers and rhetoricians. When Greek had been acquired, MSS. accumulated, libraries and museums formed, came the age of printers and expositors. Aldus Manutius in Italy, Froben in Basel, the Etiennes in Paris, committed to the press what the investigators had recovered. Nor were there wanting men who dedicated their powers to Hebrew and Oriental erudition, laying, together with the Grecians, a basis for those Biblical studies which advanced the Reformation. Meanwhile the languages of Greece and Rome had been so thoroughly appro- priated that a final race of scholars, headed by Politjan, Pontano, Valla, handled once again in verse and prose both antique dialects, and thrilled the ears of Europe with new-made pagan melodies. The church itself at this epoch lent its influence to the prevalent enthusiasm. Nicholas V. and Leo X., not to mention intervening popes who showed themselves tolerant of humanistic culture, were heroes of the classical revival. Scholar- ship became the surest path of advancement to ecclesiastical and political honours. Italy was one great school of the new learning at the moment when the German, French and Spanish nations were invited to her feast. _ It will be well to describe briefly, but in detail, what this meeting of the modern with the ancient mind effected over the Nature of whole field of intellectual interests. In doing so, we Italian must be careful to remember that the study of the human- classics did but give a special impulse to pent-up sm ' energies which were bound in one way or another to assert their independence. Without the Revival of Learning the direction of those forces would have been different; but that novel intuition into the nature of the world and man which constitutes what we describe as Renaissance must have emerged. As the facts, however, stand before us, it is impossible to dis- sociate the rejection of the other world as the sole reality, the joyous acceptance of this world as a place to live and act in, the conviction that " the proper study of mankind is man," from humanism. Humanism, as it actually appeared in Italy, was positive in its conception of the problems to be solved, pagan in its contempt for medieval mysticism, invigorated for sensuous enjoyment by contact .with antiquity, yet holding in itself the germ of new religious aspirations, profounder science and sterner probings of the mysteries of life than had been attempted even by the ancients. The operation of this humanistic spirit has now to be traced. It is obvious that Italian literature owed little at the outset to the Revival of Learning. The Divine Comedy, the Canzoniere and the Decameron were works of monumental art, fni deriving neither form nor inspiration immediately from Petrarch' t ' le c ' ass ' cs > Dut a PP'yi n g the originality of Italian genius Boccaccio to matter drawn from previous medieval sources. Dante and Villani snowe( l both in his epic poem and in his lyrics that he to the nac * not abandoned the sphere of contemporary thought. Revlvalof Allegory and theology, the vision and the symbol, still Learning, determine the form of masterpieces which for perfection of workmanship and for emancipated force of intellect rank among the highest products of the human mind. Yet they are not medieval in the same sense as the song of Roland or the Arthurian cycle. They proved that, though Italy came late into the realm of literature, her action was destined to be decisive and alterative by the introduction of a new spirit, a firmer and more positive grasp on life and aft. These qualities she owed to her material prosperity, to her freedom from feudalism, to her secular- ized church, her commercial nobility, her political independence in a federation of small states. Petrarch and Boccaccio, though they both held the medieval doctrine that literature should teach some abstruse truth beneath a veil of fiction, differed from Dante in this that their poetry and prose in the vernacular abandoned both allegory and symbol. In their practice they ignored their theory. Petrarch's lyrics continue the Provencal tradition as it had been reformed in Tuscany, with a subtler and more modern analysis of emotion, a purer and more chastened style, than his masters could boast. Boccaccio's tales, in like manner, continue the tradition of the fabliaux, raising that literary species to the rank of finished art, enriching it with humour and strengthening its substance by keen insight into all varieties of character. The Canzoniere and the Decameron distinguish themselves from medieval literature, not by any return to classical precedents, but by free self-conscious handling of human nature. So much had to be premised in order to make it clear in what relation humanism stood to the Renais- sance, since the Italian work of Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio is sufficient to indicate the re-birth of the spirit after ages of ap- parent deadness. Had the Revival of Learning not intervened it is probable that the vigorous efforts of these writers alone would have inaugurated a new age of European culture. Yet, while noting this reservation of judgment, it must also be remarked that all' three felt themselves under some peculiar obligation to the classics. Dante, medieval as his temper seems to us, chose Virgil for his guide, and ascribed his mastery of style to the study of Virgilian poetry. Petrarch and Boccaccio were, as we have seen, the pioneers of the new learning. They held their writings in the vernacular cheap, and initiated that contempt for the mother tongue which was a note of the earlier Renaissance. Giovanni Villani, the first chroni- cler who used Italian for the compilation of a methodical history, tells us how he was impelled to write by musing on the ruins of Rome and thinking of the vanished greatness of the Latin race. We have therefore to recognize that the four greatest writers of the 14th century, while the Revival of Learning was yet in its cradle, each after his own fashion acknowledged the vivifying touch upon their spirit of the antique genius. They seem to have been conscious that they could not give the desired impulse to modern literature and art without contact with the classics; and, in spite of the splendour of their achievements in Italian, they found no immediate followers upon that path. The fascination of pure study was so powerful, the Italians at that epoch were so eager to recover the past, that during the 15th century we have before our eyes the spectacle of this great „ , ., nation deviating from the course of development begun *T,f oa in poetry by Dante and Petrarch, in prose by Boccaccio , "J? 3 "' and Villani, into the channels of scholarship and anti- scno i ar . quarian research. The language of the Canzoniere and s /,;„aurf Decameron was abandoned for revived Latin and dis- literature. covered Greek. Acquisition supplanted invention; imitation of classical authors suppressed originality of style. The energies of the Italian people were devoted to transcrib- ing codices, settling texts, translating Greek books into Latin, compiling grammars, commentaries, encyclopaedias, dictionaries, epitomes and ephemerides. During this century the best histories — Bruno's and Poggio's annals of Florence, for example — were composed in Latin after the manner of Livy. The best disserta- tions, Landino's Camaldunenses, Valla's De Voluptate, were laboured imitations of Cicero's Tusculans. The best verses, Pontano's elegies, Politian's hexameters, were in like manner Latin; public orations upon ceremonial occasions were delivered in the Latin tongue; correspondence, official and familiar, was carried on in the same language; even the fabliaux received, in Poggio's Facetiae. a dress of elegant Latinity. The noticeable barrenness of Italian literature at this period is referable to the fact that men of genius and talent devoted themselves to erudition and struggled to express their thoughts and feelings in a speech which was not natural. Yet they were engaged in a work of incalculable importance. At the close of the century the knowledge of Greece and Rome had been reappropriated and placed beyond the possibility of destruction; the chasm between the old and new world had been bridged; medieval modes of thinking and discussing had been superseded; the staple of education, the common culture which has brought all Europe into intellectual agreement, was already in existence. Humanism was now an actuality. Owing to the uncritical venera- tion for antiquity which then prevailed, it had received a strong tincture of pedantry. Its professors, in their revolt against the middle ages, made light of Christianity and paraded paganism. What was even worse from an artistic point of view, they had con- tracted puerilities of style, vanities of rhetoric, stupidities of weari- some citation. Still, at the opening of the 16th century, it became manifest what fruits of noble quality the Revival of Letters was about to bring forth for modern literature. Two great scholars, Lorenzo de' Medici and Politian, had already returned to the RENAISSANCE 87 practice of Italian poetry. Their work is the first absolutely modern work, — modern in the sense of having absorbed the stores of classic learning and reproduced those treasures in forms of simple, natural, native beauty. Boiardo occupies a similar position by the fusion of classic mythology with chivalrous romance in his Orlando Innamorato. But the victor's laurels were reserved for Ariosto, whose Orlando Furioso is the purest and most perfect extant example of Renaissance poetry. It was not merely in what they had acquired and assimilated from the classics that these poets showed the transformation effected in the field of literature by humanism. The whole method and spirit of medieval art had been abandoned. That of the Cinque Cento is positive, defined, mundane. The deity, if deity there be, that rules in it, is beauty. Interest is confined to the actions, passions, sufferings and joys of human life, to its pathetic, tragic, humorous and sentimental incidents. Of the state of souls beyond the grave we hear and are supposed to care nothing. In the drama the pedantry of the Revival, which had not injured romantic literature, made itself perniciQusly felt. Rules were collected from Horace and Aristotle. Seneca was chosen as the model of tragedy; Plautus and Terence supplied the groundwork of comedy. Thus in the plays of Rucellai, Trissino, Sperone and other tragic poets the nobler elements of humanism, considered as a revelation of the world and man, ob- tained no free development. Even the comedies of the best authors are too observant of Latin precedents, although some pieces of Machiavelli, Ariosto, Aretino, Cecchi and Gelli are admirable for vivid delineation of contemporary manners. The relation of the plastic arts to the revival of learning is similar to that which has been sketched in the case of poetry. Cimabue started with work which owed nothing directly to anti- Flnearts. q U ; ty j^ t aDO ut the same time Niccola Pisano (d. 1278) studied the style of sculpture in fragments of Graeco-Roman marbles. His manner influenced Ciotto, who set painting on a forward path. Fortunately for the unimpeded expansion of Italian art, little was brought to light of antique workmanship during the 14th and 15th centuries. The classical stimulus came to painters, sculptors and architects chiefly through literature. Therefore there was narrow scope for imitation, and the right spirit of humanism displayed itself in a passionate study of perspective, nature and the nude. Yet we find in the writings of Ghiberti and Alberti, we notice in the masterpieces of these men and their compeers Brunelleschi and Donatello, how even in the 15th century the minds of artists were fascinated by what survived of classic grace and science. Gradually, as the race became penetrated with antique thought, the earlier Christian motives of the arts yielded to pagan subjects. Gothic architecture, which had always flourished feebly on Italian soil, was supplanted by a hybrid Roman style. The study of Vitruvius gave strong support to that pseudo-classic manner which, when it had reached its final point in Palladio's work, overspread the whole of Europe and dominated taste during two centuries. But the perfect plastic art of Italy, the pure art of the Cinque Cento, the painting of Raphael, Da Vinci, Titian and Correggio, the sculpture of Donatello, Michelangelo and Sansovino, the architecture of Bramante, Omodco and the Venetian Lombardi, however much imbued with the spirit of the classical revival, takes rank beside the poetry of Ariosto as a free intelligent product of the Renaissance. That is to say, it is not so much an outcome of studies in antiquity as an exhibition of emancipated modern genius fired and illuminated by the masterpieces of the past. It indicates a separation from the middle ages, inasmuch as it is permanently natural. Its religion is joyous, sensuous, dramatic, terrible, but in each and all of its many-sided manifestations strictly human. Its touch on classical mythology is original, rarely imitative or pedantic. The art of the Renaissance was an apocalypse of the beauty of the world and man in unaffected spontaneity, without side thoughts for piety or erudition, inspired by pure delight in loveliness and harmony for their own sakes. In the fields of science and philosophy humanism wrought similar important changes. Petrarch began by waging relentless war against the logicians and materialists of his own day. rf" M( - ' tn t ' le a dvance made in Greek studies scholastic methods andphilo- Q j tn ; n ^.; n g f c u ; nto contemptuous oblivion. The newly sop y. aroused curiosity for nature encouraged men like Alberti, Da Vinci, Toscanelli and Da Porta to make practical experiments, penetrate the working of physical forces, and invent scientific instruments. Anatomy began to be studied, and the time was not far distant when Titian should lend his pencil to the epoch-making treatise of Vesalius. The middle ages had been satisfied with absurd and visionary notions about the world around them, while the body of man was regarded with too much suspicion to be studied. Now the right method of interrogating nature with patience and loving admiration was instituted. At the same time the texts of ancient authors supplied hints which led to discoveries so far-reaching in their results as those of Copernicus, Columbus and Galileo. In philosophy, properly so called, the humanistic scorn for medieval dullness^ and obscurity swept away theological metaphysics as valueless. But at first little beyond empty rhetoric and clumsy compilation was substituted. The ethical treatises of the scholars are deficient in substance, while Ficino's attempt to revive Platonism betrays an uncritical conception of his master's drift. It was something, however, to have shaken off the shackles of ecclesiastical authority; and, even if a new authority, that of the ancients, was accepted in its stead, still progress was being made toward sounder methods of analysis. This is noticeable in Pomponazzo's system of materialism, based on the interpreta- tion of Aristotle, but revealing a virile spirit of disinterested and unprejudiced research. The thinkers of southern Italy, Telesio, Bruno and Campanella, at last opened the two chief lines on which modern speculation has since moved. Telesio and Campanella may be termed the predecessors of Bacon. Bruno was the pre- cursor of the idealistic schools. All three alike strove to disengage their minds from classical as well as ecclesiastical authority, proving that the emancipation of the will had been accomplished. It must be added that their writings, like every other product of the Re- naissance, except its purest poetry and art, exhibit a hybrid between medieval and modern tendencies. Childish ineptitudes are mingled with intuitions of maturest wisdom, and seeds of future thought germinate in the decaying refuse of past systems. Humanism in its earliest stages was uncritical. It absorbed the relics of antiquity with omnivorous appetite, and with very im- perfect sense of the distinction between worse and better r ..., work. Yet it led in process of time to criticism. The c " tlc ' sm - critique of literature began in the lecture-room of Politian, in the printing-house of Aldus, and in the school of Vittorino. The critique of Roman law started, under Politian's auspices, upon a more liberal course than that which had been followed by the powerful but narrow-sighted glossators of Bologna. Finally, in the court of Naples arose that most formidable of all critical engines, the critique of established ecclesiastical traditions and spurious historical docu- ments. Valla by one vigorous effort destroyed the False Decretals and exposed the Donation of Constantine to ridicule, paving the way for the polemic carried on against the dubious pretensions of the papal throne by scholars of the Reformation. A similar criticism, conducted less on lines of erudition than of persiflage and irony, ransacked the moral abuses of the church and played around the very foundations of Christianity. This was tolerated with approval by men who repeated Leo X.'s witty epigram: " What profit has not that fable of Christ brought us !" The same critical and philosophic spirit working on the materials of history produced a new science, the honours of which belong to Machia- velli. He showed, on the one side, how the history of a people can be written with a recognition of fixed principles, and at the same time with an artistic feeling for personal and dramatic episodes. On the other side, he addressed himself to the analysis of man considered as a political being, to the anatomy of constitutions and the classification of governments, to the study of motives underlying public action, the secrets of success and the causes of failure in the conduct of affairs. The unscrupulous rigour with which he applied his scientific method, and the sinister deductions he thought himself justified in drawing from the results it yielded, excited terror and repulsion. Nevertheless, a department had been added to the intellectual empire of mankind, in which fel- low-workers, like Guicciardini at Florence, and subsequently Sarpi at Venice, were not slow to follow the path traced by Machiavelli. The object of the foregoing paragraphs has been to show in what way the positive, inquisitive, secular, exploratory spirit of the Renais- sance, when toned and controlled by humanism, penetrated the regions of literature, art, philosophy and science. It Educa- becomes at this point of much moment to consider how * social manners in Italy were modified by the same causes, since the type developed there was in large measure communicated together with the new culture to the rest of Europe. The first subject to be noticed under this heading is education. What has come to be called a classical education was the immediate product of the Italian Renaissance. The universities of Bologna, Padua and Salerno had been famous through the middle ages for the study of law, physics and medicine; and during the 15th and 16th centuries the first two still enjoyed celebrity in these faculties. But at this period no lecture-rooms were so crowded as those in which professors of antique literature and language read passages from the poets and orators, taught Greek, and commented upon the systems of philo- sophers. The medieval curriculum offered no defined place for the new learning of the Revival, which had indeed no recognizee! name. Chairs had therefore to be founded under the title of rhe- toric, from which men like Chrysoloras and Guarino, Filelfo and Poli- tian expounded orally to hundreds of eager students from every town of Italy and every nation in Europe- their accumulated know- ledge of antiquity. One mass of Greek and Roman erudition, including history and metaphysics, law and science, civic institu- tions and the art of war, mythology and magistracies, metrical systems and oratory, agriculture and astronomy, domestic manners and religious rites, grammar and philology, biography and numis- matics, formed the miscellaneous subject-matter of this so-styled rhetoric. Notes taken at these lectures supplied young scholars with hints for further exploration ; and a certain tradition of treat- ing antique authors for the display of general learning, as well as for the elucidation of their texts, came into vogue, which has 88 RENAISSANCE determined the method of scholarship for the last three centuries in Europe. The lack of printed books in the first period of the Revival, and the comparative rarity of Greek erudition among students, combined with the intense enthusiasm aroused for the new gospel of the classics, gave special value to the personal teaching of these professors. They journeyed from city to city, attracted by promises of higher pay, and allured by ever-growing laurels of popular fame. Each large town established its public study, academy or uni- versity, similar institutions under varying designations, for the exposition of the lilerae humaniores. The humanists, or professors of that branch of knowledge, became a class of the highest dignity. They were found in the chanceries of the republics, in the papal curia, in the council chambers of princes, at the headquarters of condottieri, wherever business had to be transacted, speeches to be made and the work of secretaries to be performed. Further- more, they undertook the charge of private education, opening schools which displaced the medieval system of instruction, and taking engagements as tutors in the families of despots, noblemen and wealthy merchants. The academy established by Vittorino da Feltre at Mantua under the protection of Gian Francesco Gonzaga for the training of pupils of both sexes, might be chosen as the type of this Italian method. His scholars, who were lodged in appro- priate buildings, met daily to hear the master read and comment on the classics. They learned portions of the best authors by heart, exercised themselves in translation from one language to another, and practised composition in prose and verse. It was Vittorino's care to see that, while their memories were duly stored with words and facts, their judgment should be formed by critical analysis, attention to style, and comparison of the authors of a decadent age with those who were acknowledged classics. During the hours of recreation suitable physical exercises, as fencing, riding and gym- nastics, were conducted under qualified trainers. From this sketch it will be seen how closely the educational system which came into England during the reigns of the Tudors, and which has prevailed until the present time, was modelled upon the Italian type. English youths who spend their time at Eton between athletic sports and Latin verses, and who take an Ireland with a first class in " Greats " at Oxford, are pursuing the same course of physical and mental discipline as the princes of Gonzaga or Montefeltro in the 15th century. The humanists effected a deeply penetrating change in social manners. Through their influence as tutors, professors, orators Social an< ^ court ' ers ' society was permeated by a fresh ideal of culture. To be a gentleman in Italy meant at this epoch manners. tQ ^ e a man ac q uam ted with the rudiments at least of scholarship, refined in diction, capable of corresponding or of speak- ing in choice phrases, open to the beauty of the arts, intelligently interested in archaeology, taking for his models of conduct the great men of antiquity rather than the saints of the church. He was also expected to prove himself an adept in physical exercises and in the courteous observances which survived from chivalry. The type is set before us by Castiglione in that book upon the courtier which went the round of Europe in the 16th century. It is further em- phasized in a famous passage of the Orlando Innamorato where Boiardo compares the Italian ideal of an accomplished gentleman with the coarser type admired by nations of the north. To this point the awakened intelligence of the Renaissance, instructed by humanism, polished by the fine arts, expanding in genial conditions of diffused wealth, had brought the Italians at a period when the rest of Europe was comparatively barbarous. This picture has undoubtedly a darker side. Humanism, in its revolt against the middle ages, was, as we have seen already, The moral mun dane, pagan, irreligious, positive. The Renaissance defects of ? an ' a ^ teT a "> be regarded only as a period of transition the Italian ln wn ' c h much of the good of the past was sacrificed while Renals- some of the evil was retained, and neither the bad nor the sance. g°°d of the future was brought clearly into fact. Beneath the surface of brilliant social culture lurked gross appetites and savage passions, unrestrained by medieval piety, untutored by modern experience. Italian society exhibited an almost un- exampled spectacle of literary, artistic and courtly refinement crossed by brutalities of lust, treasons, poisonings, assassinations, violence. A succession of worldly pontiffs brought the church into flagrant discord with the principles of Christianity. Steeped in pagan learning, emulous of imitating the manners of the ancients, used to think and feel in harmony with Ovid and Theocritus, and at the same time rendered cynical by the corruption of papal Rome, the educated classes lost their grasp upon morality. Political honesty ceased almost to have a name in Italy. The Christian virtues were scorned by the foremost actors and the ablest thinkers of the time, while the antique virtues were themes for rhetoric rather than moving-springs of conduct. This is apparent to all students of Machiavelli and Guicciardini, the profoundest analysts of their age the bitterest satirists of its vices, but themselves in- fected with its incapacity for moral goodness. Not only were the Italians vitiated ; but they had also become impotent for action and resistance. At the height of the Renaissance the five great powers in the peninsula formed a confederation of independent but mutually attractive and repellent states. Equilibrium was maintained by diplomacy, in which the humanists played a fore- most part, casting a network of intrigue over the nation which helped in no small measure to stimulate intelligence and create a common medium of culture, but which accustomed statesmen to believe that everything could be achieved by wire-pulling. Wars were conducted on a showy system by means of mercenaries, who played a safe game in the field and developed a system of blood- less campaigns. Meanwhile the people grew up unused to arms. When Italy between the years 1494 and 1530 became the battle- field of French, German and Spanish forces, it was seen to what a point of helplessness the political, moral and social conditions of the Renaissance had brought the nation. It was needful to study at some length the main phenomena of the Renaissance in Italy, because the history of that phase of evolution in the other Western races turns almost Diffusion entirely upon points in which they either adhered of the to or diverged from the type established there. Speak- Bew lea ">- ing broadly, what France, Germany, Spain and f^^° m England assimilated from Italy at this epoch was in the through- first place the new learning, as it was then called, out This implied the new conception of human life, Europe. the new interest in the material universe, the new method of education, and the new manners, which we have seen to be inseparable from Italian humanism. Under these forms of intellectual enlightenment and polite culture the renascence of the human spirit had appeared in Italy, where it was more than elsewhere connected with the study of classical antiquity. But that audacious exploratory energy which formed the motive -force of the Renaissance as distinguished from the Revival of Learning took, as we shall see, very different directions in the several nations who now were sending the flower of their youth to study at the feet of Italian rhetoricians. The Renaissance ran its course in Italy with strange indiffer- ence to consequences. The five great powers, held in equilibrium by Lorenzo de' Medici, dreamed that the peninsula could be maintained in statu quo by diplomacy. The church saw no danger in encouraging a pseudo-pagan ideal of life, violating its own principle of existence by assuming the policy of an aggrandizing secular state, and outraging Christendom openly by its acts and utterances. Society at large was hardly aware that an intellectual force of stupendous magnitude and in- calculable explosive power had been created by the new learning. Why should not established institutions proceed upon the customary and convenient methods of routine, while the delights of existence were augmented, manners polished, arts developed, and a golden age of epicurean ease made decent by a state religion which no one cared to break with because no one was left to regard it seriously? This was the attitude of the Italians when the Renaissance, which they had initiated as a thing of beauty, began to operate as a thing of power beyond the Alps. Germany was already provided with universities, seven of which had been founded between 1348 and 1409. In these haunts of learning the new studies took root after the year 1440, chiefly through the influence of travelling professors, Peter Reylvat ot Luder and Samuel Karoch. German scholars made their LearB '"Z way to Lombard and Tuscan lecture-rooms, bringing back ln Ger ~ the methods of the humanists. Greek, Latin and Hebrew ma °y- erudition soon found itself at home on Teutonic soil. Like Italian men of letters, these pioneers of humanism gave a classic turn to their patronymics; unfamiliar names, Crotus Rubeanus and Pierius Graecus, Capnion and Lupambulus Ganymedes, Oecolampadius and Melanchthon, resounded on the Rhine. A few of the German princes, among whom Maximilian, the prince cardinal Albert of Mainz, Frederick the Wise of Saxony, and Eberhard of Wiirttem- berg deserve mention, exercised a not insignificant influence on letters by the foundation of new universities and the patronage of learned men. The cities of Strassburg, Nuremberg, Augsburg, Basel, became centres of learned coteries, which gathered round scholars like Wimpheling, Brant, Peutinger, Schedel, and Pirckheimer, artists like Durer and Holbein, printers of the eminence of Froben. Academies in imitation of Italian institutions came into existence, the two most conspicuous, named after the Rhine and the Danube, holding their headquarters respectively at Heidelberg and Vienna. Crowned poets, of whom the most eminent was Conrad Celtes Pro- tucius (Pickel!), emulated the fame of Politian and Pontano. Yet, though the Renaissance was thus widely communicated to the centres of German intelligence, it displayed a different character from that which it assumed in Italy. Gothic art, which was indi- genous in Germany, yielded but little to southern influences. Such RENAISSANCE 89 work as that of Durer, Vischer, Cranach, Schongauer, Holbein, con- summate as it was in technical excellence, did not assume Italian forms of loveliness, did not display the paganism of the Latin races. The modification of Gothic architecture by pseudo-Roman elements of style was incomplete. What Germany afterwards took of the Palladian manner was destined to reach it on a circuitous route from France. In like manner the new learning failed to penetrate all classes of society with the rapidity of its expansion in Italy, nor was the new ideal of life and customs so easily substituted for the medieval. The German aristocracy, as Aeneas Sylvius had noticed, remained for the most part barbarous, addicted to gross pleasures, contemptuous of culture. The German dialects were too rough to receive that artistic elaboration under antique influences which had been so facile in Tuscany. The doctors of the universities were too wedded to their antiquated manuals and methods, too satisfied with dullness, too proud of titles and diplomas, too anxious to preserve ecclesiastical discipline and to repress mental activity, for a genial spirit of humanism to spread freely. Not in Cologne or Tubingen but in Padua and Florence did the German pioneers of the Renais- sance acquire their sense of liberal studies. And when they returned home they found themselves encumbered with stupidities, jealousies and rancours. Moreover, the temper of these more enlightened men was itself opposed to Italian indifference and immorality; it was pugnacious and polemical, eager to beat down the arrogance of monks and theologians rather than to pursue an ideal of aesthetical self-culture. To a student of the origins of German humanism it is clear that something very different from the Renaissance of Lorenzo de' Medici and Leo X. was in preparation from the first upon Teutonic soil. Far less plastic and form-loving than the Italian, the German intelligence was more penetrative, earnest, disputative, occupied with substantial problems. Starting with theological criticism, proceeding to the stage of solid studies in the three learned languages, German humanism occupied the attention of a widely scattered sect of erudite scholars; but it did not arouse the interest of the whole nation until it was forced into a violently militant attitude by Pfefferkorn's attack on Reuchlin. That attempt to extinguish honest thought prepared the Reformation; and humanism after 1518 was absorbed in politico-religious warfare. The point of contact between humanism and the Reformation in Germany has to be insisted on; for it is just here that the relation of the Reformation to the Renaissance in general makes Relation itself apparent. As the Renaissance had its precur- of human- sory movements in the medieval period, so the German ism to the Reformation was preceded by Wickliffe and Huss, by the discontents of the Great Schism and by the councils of Con- stance and Basel. These two main streams of modern progress had been proceeding upon different tracks to diverse issues, but they touched in the studies stimulated by the Revival, and they had a common origin in the struggle of the spirit after self-emancipation. Johann Reuchlin, who entered the lecture-room of Argyropoulos at Rome in 1482, Erasmus of Rotter- dam, who once dwelt at Venice as the house guest of the Aldi, applied their critical knowledge of Hebrew and of Greek to the elucidation and diffusion of the Bible. To the Germans, as to all nations of that epoch, the Bible came as a new book, because they now read it for the first time with eyes opened by humanism. The touch of the new spirit which had evolved literature, art and culture in Italy sufficed in Germany to recreate Christianity. This new spirit in Italy emancipated human intelligence by the classics; in Germany it emancipated the human conscience by the Bible. The indigna- tion excited by Leo X.'s sale of indulgences, the moral rage stirred in Northern hearts by papal abominations in Rome, were external causes which precipitated the schism between Teutonic and Latin Christianity. The Reformation, inspired by the same energy of resuscitated life as the Renaissance, assisted by the same engines of the printing-press and paper, using the same apparatus of scholar- ship, criticism, literary skill, being in truth another manifestation of the same world-movement under a diverse form, now posed itself as an irreconcilable antagonist to Renaissance Italy. It would be difficult to draw any comparison between German and Italian humanists to the disparagement of the former. Reuchlin was no less learned than Pico; Melanchthon no less humane than Ficino; Erasmus no less witty, and far more trenchant, than Petrarch ; Ulrich von Hutten no less humorous than Folengo; Paracelsus no less fantastically learned than Cardano. But the cause in which German intellect and will were enlisted was so different that it is difficult not to make a formal separation between that movement which evolved culture in Italy and that which restored religion in Germany, establishing the freedom of intelligence in the one sphere and the freedom of the conscience in the other. The truth is that the Reformation was the Teutonic Renaissance. It was the emanci- pation of the reason on a line neglected by the Italians, more impor- tant indeed in its political consequences, more weighty in its bearing on rationalistic developments than the Italian Renaissance, but none the less an outcome of the same ground-influences. We have already in this century reached a point at which, in spite of stubborn Protestant dogmatism and bitter Catholic reaction, we can perceive how the ultimate affranchisement of man will be the work of both. Ism to the German Reform a tion. The German Reformation was incapable of propagating itself in Italy, chiefly for the reason that the intellectual forces which it represented and employed had already found specific _.. outlet in that country. It was not in the nature of the catholic Italians, sceptical and paganized by the Revival, to be rev ival keenly interested about questions which seemed to revive ]n / ta i K< the scholastic disputes of the middle ages. It was not in ' their external conditions, suffering as they were from invasions, enthralled by despots, to use the Reformation as a lever for political revolution. Yet when a tumultuary army of so-called Lutherans sacked Rome in 1527 no sober thinker doubted that a new agent had appeared in Europe which would alter the destinies of the peninsula. The Renaissance was virtually closed, so far as it concerned Italy, when Clement VII. and Charles V. struck their compact at Bologna in 1530. This compact proclaimed the principle of monarchical absolutism, supported by papal authority, itself monarchically absolute, which influenced Europe until the outbreak of the Revolu- tion. A reaction immediately set in both against the Renaissance and the Reformation. The council of Trent, opened in 1545 and closed in 1563, decreed a formal purgation of the church, affirmed the fundamental doctrines of Catholicism, strengthened the papal supremacy, and inaugurated that movement of resistance which is known as the Counter-Reformation. The complex onward effort of the modern nations, expressing itself in Italy as Renaissance, in Germany as Reformation, had aroused the forces of conservatism. The four main instruments of the reaction were the papacy, which had done so much by its sympathy with the revival to promote the humanistic spirit it now dreaded, the strength of Spain, and two Spanish institutions planted on Roman soil — the Inquisition and the Order of Jesus. The principle contended for and established by this reaction was absolutism as opposed to freedom — monarchical absolutism, papal absolutism, the suppression of energies liberated by the Renaissance and the Reformation. The partial triumph of this principle was secure, inasmuch as the majority of established powers in church and state felt threatened by the revolutionary opinions afloat in Europe. Renaissance and Reformation were, moreover, already at strife. Both, too, were spiritual and elastic tendencies toward progress, ideals rather than solid organisms. The part played by Spain in this period of history was deter- mined in large measure by external circumstance. The Spaniards became one nation by the conquest of Granada and the union of the crowns of Castile and Aragon. The war of ^f "„ national aggrandizement, being in its nature a crusade, the Re- naissance inflamed the religious enthusiasm of the people. It Derfod _ was followed by the expulsion of Jews and Moors, and by '^ . the establishment of the Inquisition on a solid basis, with j e # ere> powers formidable to the freedom of all Spaniards from the peasant to the throne. These facts explain the decisive action of the Spanish nation on the side of Catholic conservatism, and help us to understand why their brilliant achievements in the field of culture during the 16th century were speedily followed by stag- nation. It will be well, in dealing with the' Renaissance in Spain, to touch first upon the arts and literature, and then to consider those qualities of character in action whereby the nation most distinguished itself from the rest of Europe. Architecture in Spain, emerging from the Gothic stage, developed an Early Renaissance style of bewildering richness by adopting elements of Arabic and Moorish decoration. Sculpture exhibited realistic vigour of indubitably native stamp; and the minor plastic crafts were cultivated with success on lines of striking originality. Painting grew from a homely stock, until the work of Velazquez showed that Spanish masters in this branch were fully abreast of their Italian compeers and contemporaries. To dwell here upon the Italianizing versifiers, moralists and pastoral romancers who attempted to refine the vernacular of the Romancero would be superfluous. They are mainly noticeable as proving that certain coteries in Spain were willing to accept the Italian Renaissance. But the real force of the people was not in this courtly literary style. It expressed itself at last in the monumental work of Don Quixote, which places Cervantes beside Rabelais, Ariosto and Shakespeare as one of the four supreme exponents of the Renaissance. The affectations of decadent chivalry disappeared before its humour; the lineaments of a noble nation, animated by the youth of modern Europe emerging from the middle ages, were portrayed in its enduring pictures of human experience. The Spanish drama, meanwhile, untram- melled by those false canons of pseudo-classic taste which fettered the theatre in Italy and afterwards in France, rose to an eminence in the hands of Lope de Vega and Calderon which only the English, and the English only in the masterpieces of three or four playwrights, can rival. Camoens, in the Lusiad, if we may here group Portugal with Spain, was the first modern poet to compose an epic on a purely modern theme, vying with Virgil, but not bending to pedantic rules, and breathing the spirit of the age of heroic adventures and almost fabulous discoveries into his melodious numbers. What has chiefly to be noted regarding the achievements of the Spanish race in arts and letters at this epoch is their potent national origin- ality. The revival of learning produced in Spain no slavish imitation as it did in Italy, no formal humanism, and, it may be added, very little of fruitful scholarship. The Renaissance here, as in England. 9 o RENAISSANCE displayed essential qualities of intellectual freedom, delight in life, exultation over rediscovered earth and man. The note of Renais- sance work in Germany was still Gothic. This we feel in the penetrative earnestness of Diirer, in the homeliness of Hans Sachs, in the grotesque humour of Eulenspiegel and the Narrenschiff, the sombre pregnancy of the Faust legend, the almost stolid mastery of Holbein. It lay not in the German genius to escape from the preoccupations and the limitations of the middle ages, for this reason mainly that what we call medieval was to a very large extent Teutonic. But on the Spanish peninsula, in the master- pieces of Velazquez, Cervantes, Camoens, Calderon, we emerge into an atmosphere of art, definitely national, distinctly modern, where solid natural forms stand before us realistically modelled, with light and shadow on their rounded outlines, and where the airiest creatures of the fancy take shape and weave a dance of rhythmic, light, incomparable intricacy. The Spanish Renaissance would in itself suffice, if other witnesses were wanting, to prove how inaccurate is the theory that limits this movement to the revival of learning. Touched by Italian influences, enriched and fortified by the new learning, Spanish genius walked firmly forward on its own path. It was only crushed by forces generated in the nation that produced it, by the Inquisition and by despotic Catholic absolutism. In the history of the Renaissance, Spain and Portugal represent the exploration of the ocean and the colonization of the other Bxolora- hemisphere. The voyages of Columbus and Vespucci Hon of *° America, the rounding of the Cape by Diaz and the the ocean, discovery of the sea road to India by Vasco da Gama, Cortes's conquest of Mexico and Pizarro's conquest of Peru, marked a new era for the human race and inaugurated the modern age more decisively than any other series of events has done. It has recently been maintained that modern European history is chiefly an affair of competition between confederated states for the possession of lands revealed by Columbus and Da Gama. Without challenging or adopting this speculation, it may be safely affirmed that nothing so pregnant of results has happened as this exploration of the globe. To say that it displaced the centre of gravity in politics and commerce, substituting the ocean for the Mediterranean, dethroning Italy from her seat of central importance in traffic, depressing the eastern and elevating the western powers of Europe, opening a path for Anglo-Saxon expansiveness, forcing philosophers and statesmen to regard the Occidental nations as a single group in counterpoise to other groups of nations, the European community as one unit correlated to other units of humanity upon this planet, is truth enough to vindicate the vast significance of these discoveries. The Renaissance, far from being the re-birth of antiquity with its civilization confined to the Mediterranean, with its Hercules' Pillars beyond which lay Cimmerian darkness, was thus effectively the entrance upon a quite incalculably wider stage of life, on which mankind at large has since enacted one great drama. While Spanish navies were exploring the ocean, and Spanish paladins were overturning empires, Charles V. headed the reaction Doematlc °^ Catholicism against reform. Stronger as king of Spain Catholi- than as emperor, for the Empire was little but a name, elsm. " h e ' ent tne we 'ght of his authority to that system of coercion and repression which enslaved Italy, desolated Germany with war, and drowned the Low Countries in blood. Philip II., with full approval of the Spanish nation, pursued the same policy in an even stricter spirit. He was powerfully assisted by two institutions, in which the national character of Spain expressed itself, the Inquisition and the Society of Jesus. Of the former it is not needful to speak here. But we have to observe that the last great phenomenon of the Spanish Renaissance was Ignatius Loyola, who organized the militia by means of which the church worked her Counter- Reformation. His motto, Perinde oc cadaver, expressed that recognition of absolutism which papacy and monarchy demanded for their consolidation (see JESUITS and Loyola). The logical order of an essay which attempts to show how Renaissance was correlated to Reformation and Counter- Fraace la Reformation has necessitated the treatment of Italy, the Re- Germany and Spain in succession; for these three aaissance na tj ons were t ne three main agents in the triple ' process to be analysed. It was due to their specific qualities, and to the diverse circumstances of their external development, that the re-birth of Europe took this form of duplex action on the lines of intellectual and moral progress, followed by reaction against mental freedom. We have now to speak of France, which earliest absorbed the influence of the Italian revival, and of England, which received it latest. The Renaissance may be said to have begun in France with Charles VIII. 's expedition to Naples, and to have continued until the extinction of the house of Valois. Louis XII. and Francis I. spent a considerable portion of their reigns in the attempt to secure possession of the Italian provinces they claimed. Henry II. 's queen was Catherine of the Medicean family; and her children, Charles IX. and Henry III., were Italianated French- men. Thus the connexion between France and Italy during the period 1494-1589 was continuous. The French passed to and fro across the Alps on military and peaceful expeditions. Italians came to France as courtiers, ambassadors, men of business, captains and artists. French society assumed a strong Italian colouring, nor were the manners of the court very different from those of an Italian city, except that externally they remained ruder and less polished. The relation between the crown and its great feudatories, the military bias of the aristocracy, and the marked distinction between classes which survived from the middle ages, rendered France in many vital points unlike Italy. Yet the annals o' that age, and the anecdotes retailed by Brantome, prove that the royalty and nobility of France had been largely Italianized. It is said that Louis XII. brought Fra Giocondo of Verona back with him to France, and founded a school of architects. But we need not have recourse to this legend for the explanation French of such Italian influences as were already noticeable archltec- in the Renaissance buildings on the Loire. Without ture. determining the French style, Italian intercourse helped to stimulate its formation and development. There are students of the 15th century in France who resent this intrusion of the Italian Renaissance. But they forget that France was bound by inexorable laws of human evolution to obey the impulse which communicated itself to every form of art in Europe. In the school of Fontainebleau, under the patronage of Francis I , that Italian influence made itself distinctly felt; yet a true French manner had been already formed, which, when it was subsequently applied at Paris, preserved a marked national quality. The characteristic of the style developed by Bullant, De l'Orme and Lescot,, in the royal or princely palaces of Chenonceaux, Chambord, Anet, Ecouen, Fontainebleau, the Louvre and elsewhere, is a blending of capricious fancy and inventive richness of decoration with purity of outline and a large sense of the beauty of extended masses. Beginning with the older castles of Touraine, and passing onward to the Tuileries, we trace the passage from the medieval fortress to the modern pleasure-house, and note how architecture obeyed the special demands of that new phenomenon of Renaissance civiliza- tion, the court. In the general distribution of parts these monu- mental buildings express the peculiar conditions wnich French society assumed under the influence of Francis I. and Diane de Poitiers. In details of execution and harmonic combinations they illustrate the precision, logic, lucidity and cheerful spirit of the national genius. Here, as in Lombardy, a feeling for serene beauty derived from study of the antique has not interrupted the evolution of a style indigenous to France and eminently characteristic of the French temperament. During the reign of Francis I. several Italian painters of eminence visited France. Among these, Del Rosso, Primaticcio, Del Sarto and Da Vinci are the most famous. But their example c renc t was not productive of a really great school of French paint- oa j n ti as! ing. It was left for the Poussins and Claude Lorraine anli in the next century, acting under mingled Italian and sculpture. Flemish influences, to embody the still active spirit of the classical revival. These three masters were the contemporaries of Corneille, and do not belong to the Renaissance period. Sculp- ture, on the contrary, in which art, as in architecture, the medieval French had been surpassed by no other people of Europe, was practised with originality and power in the reigns of Henry II. and Francis I. Ponzio and Cellini, who quitted Italy for France, found themselves outrivalled in their own sphere by Jean Goujon, Cousin and Pilon. The decorative sculpture of this epoch, whether combined with architecture or isolated in monumental statuary, ranks for grace and suavity with the best of Sansovino's. At the same time it is unmistakably inspired by a sense of beauty different from the Italian — more piquant and pointed, less languorous, more mannered perhaps, but with less of empty rhythmical effect. All this while, the minor arts of enamelling, miniature, glass-paint- ing, goldsmith's work, jewellery, engraving, tapestry, wood-carving, pottery, &c, were cultivated with a spontaneity and freedom which proved that France, in the middle point between Flanders and Italy, was able to use both influences without a sacrifice of native taste. It may indeed be said in general that what is true of France is likewise true of all countries which felt the artistic impulses of the Renaissance. Whether we regard Spain, the Netherlands, or Germany at this epoch, we find a national impress stamped upon the products of the plastic and the decorative arts, notwithstanding the prevalence of certain forms derived from the antique and Italy. It was only at a later period that the formalism of pseudo-classic pedantry reduced natural and national originality to a dead unanimity. RENAISSANCE 9* French literature was quick to respond to Renaissance influences. De Comines, the historian of Charles VIII. 's expedition to Naples, Preach differs from the earlier French chroniclers in his way of literature " e g ar ding the world of men and affairs. He has the perspicuity and analytical penetration of a Venetian ambassador. Villon, his contemporary, may rather be ranked, so far as artistic form and use of knowledge are concerned, with poets of the middle ages, and in particular with the Goliardi. But he is essentially modern in the vividness of his self-portraiture, and in what we are wont to call realism. Both De Comines and Villon indicate the entrance of a new quality into literature. The Rhetoriqueurs, while protracting medieval traditions by their use of allegory and complicated metrical systems, sought to improve the French language by introducing Latinisms. Thus the Revival of Learning began to affect the vernacular in the last years of the 15th century. Marot and his school reacted against this pedantry. The Renaissance displayed itself in their effort to purify the form and diction of poetry. But the decisive revolution was effected by Ronsard and his comrades of the Pleiade. It was their professed object to raise French to a level with the classics, and to acclimatize Italian species of verse. The humanistic movement led these learned writers to engraft the graces of the antique upon their native literature, and to refine it by emulating the lucidity of Petrarch. The result of their endeavour was immediately apparent in the new force added to French rhythm, the new pomp, richness, colouring and polish conferred upon poetic diction. French style gradually attained to fixity, and the alexandrine came to be recog- nized as the standard line in poetry. D'Aubigne's invective and Regnier's satire, at the close of the 16th century, are as modern as Voltaire's. Meanwhile the drama was emerging from the medieval mysteries; and the classical type, made popular by Garnier's genius, was elaborated, as in Italy, upon the model of Seneca and the canons- of the three unities. The tradition thus formed was continued and fortified by the illustrious playwrights of the 17th century. Translation from Greek and Latin into French progressed rapidly at the commencement of this period. It was a marked characteristic of the Renaissance in France to appropriate the spoils of Greece and Rome for the profit of the mother tongue. Amyot's Plutarch and his Daphnis and Chloe rank among the most exquisite examples of beautiful French prose. Prose had now the charm of simplicity combined with grace. To mention Bran- l6me is to mention the most entertaining of gossips. To speak of Montaigne is to speak of the best as well as the first of essayists. In all the literary work which has been mentioned, the originality and freshness of the French genius are no less conspicuous than its saturation with the new learning and with Italian studies. But the greatest name of the epoch, the name which is synonymous with the Renaissance in France, has yet to be uttered. That, of course, is Rabelais. His incommensurable and indescribable masterpiece of mingled humour, wisdom, satire, erudition, indecency, profundity, levity, imagina- tion, realism, reflects the whole age in its mirror of hyper- Aristophanic farce. What Ariosto is for Italy, Cervantes for Spain, Erasmus for Holland, Luther for Germany, Shakespeare for England, that is Rabelais for France. The Renaissance can- not be comprehended in its true character without familiarity with these six representatives of its manifold and many-sided inspiration. The French Renaissance, so rich on the side of arts and letters, was hardly less rich on the side of classical studies. The revival of learning has a noble muster-roll of names in France : hi Turnebus, the patriarch of Hellenistic studies; the SC hlo' U The ktiennes of Paris, equalling in numbers, industry and s „ £__.. learning their Venetian rivals; the two Scaligers; impas- llonln ' s ' one d Dolet; eloquent Murct; learned Cujas; terrible France Calvin; Ramus, the intrepid antagonist of Aristotle; De Thou and De Beze; ponderous Casaubon; brilliant young Saumaise. The distinguishing characteristics of French humanism are vivid intelligence, critical audacity and polemical acumen, perspicuity of exposition, learning directed in its appli- cations by logical sense rather than by artistic ideals of taste. Some of the names just mentioned remind us that in France, as in Germany and Holland, the Reformation was closely connected with the revival of learning. Humanism has never been in the narrow sense of that term Protestant; still less has it been strictly Catholic. In Italy it fostered a temper of mind decidedly averse to theological speculation and religious earnestness. In Holland and Germany, with Erasmus, Reuchlin and Melanchthon, it de- veloped types of character, urbane, reflective, pointedly or gentlv critical, which, left to themselves, would not have plunged the north of Europe into the whirlpool of belligerent reform. Yet none the less was the new learning, through the open spirit of inquiry it nourished, its vindication of the private reason, its enthusiasm for republican antiquity, and its proud assertion of the rights of human independence, linked by a strong and subtle chain to that turbid revolt of the individual consciousness against spiritual despotism draped in fallacies and throned upon abuses. To this rebellion we give the name of Reformation. But, while the necessities of antagonism to papal Rome made it assume at first the form of narrow and sectarian opposition, it marked in fact a vital struggle of the intellect towards truth and freedom, involving future results of scepticism and rationalistic audacity from which its earlier champions would have shrunk. It marked, moreover, in the con- dition of armed resistance against established authority which was forced upon it by the Counter-Reformation, a firm resolve to assert political liberty, leading in the course of time to a revolution with which the rebellious spirit of the Revival was sympathetic. This being the relation of humanism in general to reform, French learn- ing in particular displayed such innovating boldness as threw many of its most conspicuous professors into the camp at war with Rome. Calvin, a French student of Picard origin, created the type of Protestantism to which the majority of French Huguenots adhered. This too was a moment at which philosophical seclusion was hardly possible. In a nation so tumultuously agitated one side or the other had to be adopted. Those of the French humanists who did not proclaim Huguenot opinions found themselves obliged with Muretus to lend their talents to the Counter-Reformation, or to suffer persecution for heterodoxy, like Dolet. The church, terrified and infuriated by the progress of reform, suspected learning on its own account. To be an eminent scholar was to be accused of immorality, heresy and atheism in a single indictment; and the defence of weaker minds lay in joining the Jesuits, as Heinsius was fain to do. France had already absorbed the earlier Renaissance in an Italianizing spirit before the Reformation made itself felt as a political actuality. This fact, together with the strong Italian bias of the Valois, serves to explain in some degree the reason why the Counter-Reformation entailed those fierce entangled civil wars, massacres of St Bartholomew, murders of the Guises, regicides, treasons and empoisonments that ter- minated with the compromise of Henry IV. It is no part of the present subject to analyse the political, religious and social interests of that struggle. The upshot was the triumph of the Counter- Reformation, and the establishment of its principle, absolutism, as the basis of French government. It was ,a French king who, when the nation had been reduced to order, uttered the famous word of absolutism, " L'Etat, e'est moi." The Renaissance in the Low Countries, as elsewhere, had its brilliant age of arts and letters. During the middle ages the wealthy free towns of Flanders flourished under conditions not dissimilar to those of the Italian republics. They raised j™f miracles of architectural beauty, which were modified in ™<* er- the 15th and 16th centuries by characteristic elements /an< **— vi Liit new nLyic. 111c van r,ytits, luiioweu uy lviemiing, rf Metsys, Mabuse, Lucas van Leyden, struck out a new path ouLh in the revival of painting and taught Europe the secret oa i B ti„. of oil-colouring. But it was reserved for the 1 7th century to witness the flower and fruit time of this powerful art in the work of Porbus, Rubens and Vandyck, in the Dutch schools of landscape and home-life, and in the unique masterpieces of Rembrandt. We have a right to connect this later period with the Renaissance, because the distracted state of the Netherlands during the 16th century suspended, while it could not extinguish, their aesthetic development. The various schools of the 17th century, moreover, are animated with the Renaissance spirit no less surely than the Florentine school of the 15th or the Venetian of the 16th. The animal vigour and carnal enjoyment of Rubens, the refined Italianizing beauty of Vandyck, the mystery of light and gloom on Rembrandt's panels, the love of nature in Ruysdael, Cuyp and Van Hooghe, with their luminously misty skies, silvery daylight and broad expanse of landscape, the interest in common life displayed by Ter Borch, Van Steen, Douw, Ostade and Teniers, the instinct for the beauty of animals in Potter, the vast sea spaces of Vanderveldt, the grasp on reality, the acute intuition into char- acter in portraits, the scientific study of the world and man, the robust sympathy with natural appetites, which distinguish the whole art of the Low Countries, are a direct emanation from the Renaissance. The vernacular in the Netherlands profited at first but little by the impulse which raised Italian, Spanish, French and English to the rank of classic languages. But humanism, first of _. all in its protagonist Erasmus, afterwards in the long *J"„ *! h list of critical scholars and editors, Lipsius, Heinsius aa ° y and Grotius, in the printers Elzevir and Plantin, developed fjLjf itself from the centre of the Leiden university with p ' massive energy, and proved that it was still a motive force of intellectual progress. In the fields of classical learning the students of the Low Countries broke new ground chiefly by methodical collection, classification and comprehensive criticism of previously accumulated stores. Their works were solid and sub- stantial edifices, forming the substratum for future scholarship. In addition to this they brought philosophy and scientific thorough- ness to bear on studies which had been pursued in a more literary spirit. It would, however, be uncritical to pursue this subject further; for the encyclopaedic labours of the Dutch philologers belong to a period when the Renaissance was overpast. For the same reason it is inadmissible to do more than mention the name of Spinoza here. 92 RENAISSANCE The Netherlands became the battlefield of Reformation and Counter- Reformation in even a stricter sense than France. Hv" > _ . the antagonistic principles were plainly posed in the " C t course of struggle against foreign despotism. The T'a" ° rf conn ' ct ended in the assertion of political independence independ- as QppQggd j absolute dominion. Europe in large measure eace. owes the modern ideal of political liberty to that spirit of stubborn resistance which broke the power of Spain. Recent history, and in particular the history of democracy, claims for its province the several stages whereby this principle was developed in England and America, and its outburst in the frenzy of the French Revolution. It is enough here to have alluded to the part played by the Low Countries in the genesis of a motive force which may be described as the last manifestation of the Renaissance striving after self-emancipation. The insular position of England, combined with the nature of the English people, has allowed us to feel the vibration of England European movements later and with less of shock in the Re- than any of the continental nations. Before a wave naissance f progress has reached our shores we have had the pe od. opportunity of watching it as spectators, and of con- sidering how wc shall receive it. Revolutions have passed from the tumultuous stages of their origin into some settled and recognizable state before we have been called upon to cope with them. It was thus that England took the influences of the Renaissance and Reformation simultaneously, and almost at the same time found herself engaged in that struggle with the Counter-Reformation which, crowned by the defeat of the Spanish Armada, stimulated the sense of nationality and developed the naval forces of the race. Both Renaissance and Reformation had been anticipated by at least a century in England. Chaucer's poetry, which owed so much to Italian examples, gave an early foretaste of the former. Wickliffe's teaching was a vital moment in the latter. But the French wars, the Wars of the Roses and the persecution of the Lollards deferred the coming of the new age; and the year 1536, when Henry VIII. passed the Act of Supremacy through parliament, may be fixed as the date when England entered definitively upon a career of intellectual development abreast with the foremost nations of the continent. The circumstances just now insisted on explain the specific character of the English Renaissance. The Reformation had been adopted by consent of the king, lords and commons; and this change in the state religion, though it was not confirmed without reaction, agitation and bloodshed, cost the nation comparatively Combined little disturbance. Humanism, before it affected the influences bulk of the English people, had already permeated saace"and l tauan an( i French literature. Classical erudition Reforms- had been adapted to the needs of modern thought. tlon. The hard work of collecting, printing, annotating and translating Greek and Latin authors had been accomplished. The masterpieces of antiquity had been interpreted and made intelligible. Much of the learning popularized by our poets and dramatists was derived at second hand from modern literature. This does not mean that England was deficient in ripe and sound scholars. More, Colet, Ascham, Cheke, Camden were men whose familiarity with the classics was both intimate and easy. Public schools and universities conformed to the modern methods of study; nor were there wanting opportunities for youths of humble origin to obtain an education which placed them on a level with Italian scholars. The single case of Ben Jonson sufficiently proves this. Yet learning did not at this epoch become a marked speciality in England. There was no class corresponding to the humanists. It should also be remembered that the best works of Italian literature were introduced into Great Britain together with the classics. Phaer's Virgil, Chapman's Homer, Harrington's Orlando, Marlowe's Hero and Lcandcr, Fairfax's Jerusalem Delivered, North's Plutarch, Hoby's Courtier — to mention only a few examples — placed English readers simultaneously in posses- sion of the most eminent and representative works of Greece, Rome and Italy. At the same time Spanish influences reached them through the imitators of Guevara and the dramatists; French influences in the versions of romances; German in- fluences in popular translations of the Faust legend, Eultn- spiegcl and similar productions. The authorized version of the Bible had also been recently given to the people — so that almost at the same period of time England obtained in the vernacular an extensive library of ancient and modern authors. This was a privilege enjoyed in like measure by no other nation. It sufficiently accounts for the richness and variety of Elizabethan literature, and for the enthusiasm with which- the English language was cultivated. Speaking strictly, England borrowed little in the region of the arts from other nations, and developed still less that was original. What is called Jacobean architecture marks indeed an . . interesting stage in the transition from the Gothic style. 2*» But, compared with Italian, French, Spanish, German and T"t Flemish work of a like period, it is both timid and dry. ■»<"*« Sculpture was represented in London for a brief space by "T'nia. Torrigiani; painting by Holbein and Antonio More; music by Italians and Frenchmen of the Chape! Royal. But no Englishmen rose to European eminence in these departments. With literature the case was very different. Wyat and Surrey began by engrafting the forms and graces of Italian poetry upon the native stock. They introduced the sonnet and blank verse. Sidney followed with the scstine and terza rima and with various experiments in classic metres, none of which took root on English soil. The translators handled the octave stanza. Marlowe gave new vigour to the couplet. The first period of the English Renaissance was one of imitation and assimilation. Academies after the Italian type were founded. Tragedies in the style of Seneca, rivalling Italian and French dramas of the epoch, were produced. Attempts to Latinize ancestral rhythms, similar to those which had failed in Italy and France, were made. Tentative essays in criticism and dissertations on the art of poetry abounded. It seemed as thouglvthe Renaissance ran a risk of being throttled in its cradle by superfluity of foreign and pedantic nutriment. But the natural vigour of the English genius resisted influences alien to itself, and showed a robust capacity for digesting the varied diet offered to it. As there was nothing despotic in the temper of the ruling classes, nothing oppressive in English culture, the literature of that age evolved itself freely from the people. It was under these conditions that Spenser gave his romantic epic to the world, a poem which derived its allegory from the middle ages, its decorative richness from the Italian Renaissance, its sweetness, purity, harmony and imaginative splendour from the most poetic nation of the modern world. Under the same conditions the Elizabethan drama, which in its totality is the real exponent of the English Renaissance, came into existence. This drama very early freed itself from the pseudo-classic mannerism which imposed on taste in Italy and France. Depicting feudalism in the vivid colours of an age at war with feudal institutions, breathing into antique histories the breath of actual life, embracing the romance of Italy and Spain, the mysteries of German legend, the fictions of poetic fancy and the facts of daily life, humours of the moment and abstrac tions of philosophical speculation, in one homogeneous amalgani instinct with intense vitality, this extraordinary birth of time, with Shakespeare for the master of all ages, left a monument of the Re- naissance unrivalled for pure creative power by any other product of that epoch. To complete the sketch, wc must set Bacon, the expositor of modern scientific method, beside Spenser and Shake- speare, as the third representative of the Renaissance in England. Nor should Raleigh, Drake, Hawkins, the semi-buccaneer explorers of the ocean, be omitted. They, following the lead of Enrllsh Portuguese and Spaniards, combating the Counter-Re- reaction formation on the seas, opened for England her career . t of colonization and plantation. -All this while the political A,thH- policy of Tudors and Stewarts tended towards monarchical clsm, monarch- absolutism, while the Reformation in England, modified by contact with the Low Countries during their struggles, ,, 7~ h ~ was narrowing into strict reactionary intolerance. Pun- /?, tanism indicated a revolt of the religious conscience of so ™™' B ' the nation against the arts and manners of the Renais- * sance, against the encroachments of belligerentCatholicism, nal ' s * ace against the corrupt and Italianated court of James I., cuUure - against the absolutist pretensions of his son Charles. In its final manifestation during the Commonwealth, Puritanism won a tran- sient victory over the mundane forces of both Reformation and Renaissance, as these had taken shape in England. It also secured the eventual triumph of constitutional independence. Milton, the greatest humanistic poet of the English race, lent his pen and moral energies during the best years of his life to securing that principle on which modern political systems at present rest. Thus the geo- graphical isolation of England, and. the comparatively late adoption by the English of matured Italian and German influences, give peculiar complexity to the phenomena of Reformation and Re- naissance simultaneously developed on our island. The period of our history between 1536 and 1642 shows how difficult it is to separate these two factors in the re-birth of Europe, both of which contributed so powerfully to the formation of modern English nationality. RENAIX— RENAN 93 It has been impossible to avoid an air of superficiality, and the repetition of facts known to every schoolboy, in this sketch Ne W of so complicated a subject as the Renaissance, — em- poiitical bracing many nations, a great variety of topics and relations an indefinite period of time. Yet no other treatment dating was possible upon the lines laid down at the outset, from the where it was explained why the term Renaissance Renals- cannot now be confined to the Revival of Learning sance. an( j ^g e ff ec t f antique studies upon literary and artistic ideals. The purpose of this article has been to show that, while the Renaissance implied a new way of regarding the material world and human nature, a new concep- tion of man's destiny and duties on this planet, a new culture and new intellectual perceptions penetrating every sphere of thought and energy, it also involved new reciprocal relations between the members of the European group of nations. The Renaissance closed the middle ages and opened the modern era, — not merely because the mental and moral ideas which then sprang into activity and owed their force in large measure to the revival of classical learning were opposed to medieval modes of thinking and feeling, but also because the political and international relations specific to it as an age were at variance with fundamental theories of the past. Instead of empire and church, the sun and moon of the medieval system, a federation of peoples, separate in type and divergent in interests, yet bound together by common tendencies, common culture and common efforts, came into existence. For obedi- ence to central authority was substituted balance of power. Henceforth th.e hegemony of Europe attached to no crown, imperial or papal, but to the nation which was capable of winning it, in the spiritual region by mental ascendancy, and in the temporal by force. That this is the right way of regarding the subject appears from the events of the first two decades of the 16th century, Conserva- those years in which the humanistic revival attained its tive and highest point in Italy. Luther published his theses in s/ve™" I S I 7> sixty-four years after the fall of Constantinople, parties la twenty-three years after the expedition of Charles modem VIII. to Naples, ten years before the sack of Europe. Rome, at a moment when France, Spain and England had only felt the influences of Italian culture but feebly. From that date forward two parties wrestled for supremacy in Europe, to which may be given the familiar names of Liberalism and Conservatism, the party of pro- gress and the party of established institutions. The triumph of the former was most signal among the Teutonic peoples. The Latin races, championed by Spain and supported by the papacy, fought the battle of the latter, and succeeded for a time in rolling back the tide of revolutionary conquest. Mean- while that liberal culture which had been created for Europe by the Italians before the contest of the Reformation began continued to spread, although it was stifled in Italy and Spain, retarded in France and the Low Countries, well-nigh extirpated by wars in Germany, and diverted from its course in England by the counter-movement of Puritanism. The aulos da Ji of Seville and Madrid, the flames to which Bruno, Dolet and Paleario were flung, the dungeon of Campanella and the seclu- sion of Galileo, the massacre of St Bartholomew and the faggots of Smithfield, the desolated plains of Germany and the cruelties of Alva in the Netherlands, disillusioned Europe of those golden dreams which had arisen in the earlier days of humanism, and which had been so pleasantly indulged by Rabelais. In truth the Renaissance was ruled by no Astraea redux, but rather by a severe spirit which brought no peace but a sword, reminding men of sternest duties, testing what of moral force and tenacity was in them, compelling them to strike for the old order or the new, suffering no lukewarm halting between two opinions. That, in spite of retardation and retrogression, the old order of ideas should have yielded to the new all over Europe, — that science should have won firm standing-ground, and political liberty should have struggled through those birth-throes of its origin, — was in the nature of things. Had this not been, the Renaissance or re-birth of Europe would be a term without a meaning. (J. A. S.) Literature. — The special articles on the several arts and the literatures of modern Europe, and on the biographies of great men mentioned in this essay, will give details of necessity here omitted. Of works on the Renaissance in general may be mentioned Jacob Burckhardt, Die Cultur der Renaissance in Italien (Eng. trans., 1878) ; G. Voigt, Wiederbelebung des Classischen Alterthums (2 vols. 3rd ed., by M. Lehnerdt, 1893); J. A. Symonds, Renaissance in Italy; Marc Monnier, Renaissance de Dante a Luther; Eugene Miintz, Precur- seurs de la Renaissance (1882), Renaissance en Italie et en France (1885), and Hist, de I'art pendant la Renaissance (1889-95); Ludwig Geiger, Humanismus und Renaissance in Italien und Deutschland (1882), and Cambridge Modern History, vol. i., " The Renaissance " (Cambridge, 1903), where full bibliographies will be found. RENAIX, a town of Belgium in the province of East Flanders, 8 m. S. of Oudenarde. It has extensive dyeworks, bleaching grounds and manufactories for linen and woollen goods. Pop. (1904) 20,760. RENAN, ERNEST (1823-1892), French philosopher and Orientalist, was born on the 27th of February 1823 at Treguier. His father's people were of the fisher-clan of Renans or Ronans; his grandfather, having made a small fortune by his fishing smack, bought a house at Treguier and settled there, and his father, captain of a small cutter and an ardent Republican, married the daughter of Royalist trading-folk from the neigh- bouring town of Lannion. All his life Renan was divided between his father's and his mother's political beliefs. He was only five years old when his father died, and his sister Henriette, twelve years older than Ernest, a girl of remarkable character, was henceforth morally the head of the household. Having in vain attempted to keep a school for girls at Treguier, she left her native place and went to Paris as teacher in a young ladies' boarding-school. Ernest meanwhile was educated in the ecclesiastical seminary of his native place. His good-conduct notes for this period describe him as " docile, patient, diligent, painstaking, thorough." We do not hear that he was brilliant, but the priests cared little for such qualities. While the priests were grounding him in mathematics and Latin, his mother completed his education. She was only half a Breton. Her paternal ancestors came from Bordeaux, and Renan used to say that in his own nature the Gascon and the Breton were con- stantly at odds. In the summer of 1838 Renan carried off all the prizes at the college of Treguier. His sister in Paris told the doctor of the school in which she taught about the success of her brother, and he carried the news to F. A. P. Dupanloup, then engaged in organizing the ecclesiastical college of St Nicholas du Char- donnet, a school in which the young Catholic nobility and the most gifted pupils of the Catholic seminaries were to be educated together, with a view to cementing the bond between the aristocracy and the priesthood. Dupanloup sent for Renan at once. He was fifteen and a half. He had never been outside his Breton province. " I learned with stupor that knowledge was not a privilege of the church ... I awoke to the meaning of the words talent, fame, celebrity." Above all, religion seemed to him wholly different in Treguier and in Paris. The super- ficial, brilliant, pseudo-scientific Catholicism of the capital did not satisfy Renan, who had accepted the austere faith of his Breton masters. In 1840 Renan left St Nicholas to study philosophy at the seminary of Issy. He entered with a passion for Catholic scholasticism. The rhetoric of St Nicholas had wearied him, and his serious intelligence hoped to satisfy itself with the vast and solid material of Catholic theology. Reid and Malebranche first attracted him among the philosophers, and after these he turned to Hegel, Kant and Herder. Renan began to perceive the essential contradiction between the metaphysics which he studied and the faith that he professed, but an appetite for truths that can be verified restrained his scepticism. " Philo- sophy excites and only half satisfies the appetite for truth; I am eager for mathematics," he wrote to his sister Henriette. Henriette had accepted in the family of Count Zamoyski an en- gagement more lucrative than her former place. She exercised 94 ,RENAN the strongest influence over her brother, and her published letters reveal a mind almost equal, a moral nature superior, to his own It was not mathematics but philology which was to settle the gathering doubts of Ernest Renan. His course completed at Issy, he entered the college of St Sulpice in order to take his degree in philology prior to entering the church; and here he began the study of Hebrew. He saw that the second part of Isaiah differs from the first not only in style but in date; that the grammar and the history of the Pentateuch are posterior to the time of Moses; that the book of Daniel is clearly apocryphal. It followed from his training that, if you admit one error in a revealed text, you incriminate the whole. Secretly, Renan felt himself cut off from the communion of saints, and yet with his whole heart he desired to livt the life of a Catholic priest Hence a struggle between vocation and conviction; owing to Henriette, conviction gained the day. In October 1845 Renan left the seminary of St Sulpice for Stavistas, a lay college of the Oratorians. Finding himself even there too much under the domination of the church, a few weeks later he reluctantly broke the last tie which bound him to the religious life and entered M. Crouzet's school for boys as an usher. It is always dangerous to educate a really great mind in only one order of truth. Renan, brought up by priests in a world ruled by authority and curious only of feeling and opinion, was to accept the scientific ideal with an extraordinary expansion of all his faculties. He was henceforth ravished by the splendour of the cosmos. At the end of his life he wrote of Amiel, " The man who has time to keep a private diary has never understood the immensity of the universe." The certitudes of physical and natural science were revealed to Renan in 1846 by the chemist Marcellin Berthelot, then a boy of eighteen, his pupil at M. Crouzet's school. To the day of Renan's death their friendship continued. Renan was occupied as usher only in the evenings. In the daytime he continued his researches in Semitic philology. In 1847 he obtained the Prix Volney — one of the principal dis- tinctions awarded by the Academy of Inscriptions — for the manuscript of his " General History of Semitic Languages." In 1847 he took his degree as Agrege de Philosophie; that is to say, fellow of the university, and was offered a place as master in the lycee of Vendome. In 1848 a small temporary appoint- ment to the lycee of Versailles permitted him to return to the capital and resume his studies. The revolution of 1 848 aroused in Renan that side of him which loved the priesthood because " the priest lives for his fellows." He for the first time confronted the problems of Democracy. The result was an immense volume, The Future of Science, which remained in manuscript until 1890. L'Avenir de la science is an attempt to conciliate the privileges of a necessary Mile with the diffusion of the greatest good of the greatest number. The difficulty haunted Renan throughout his life. By the time he had finished his elaborate scheme for regenerating society by means of a devoted aristocracy of knowledge, and the diffusion of culture, the year 1848 was past, and with it his fever of Democracy. In 1849 the French government sent him to Italy on a scientific mission. He remained eight months abroad, during which he forgot his anxiety about the toilers' lot. Hitherto he had known nothing of art. In Italy the artist in him awoke and triumphed over the savant and the reformer. On his return to Paris Renan lived with his sister Henriette. A small post at the National Library, together with his sister's savings, furnished him with the means of livelihood. In the evenings he wrote for the Revue des deux mondes and the Debats the exquisite essays which appeared in 1857 and 1859 under the titles Etudes d'histoire religieuse and Essais de morale el de critique. In 1852 his book on Averroes had brought him not only his doctor's degree, but his first reputation as a thinker. In his two volumes of essays Renan shows himself a Liberal, but no longer a Democrat. Nothing, according to his philosophy, is less important than prosperity. The greatest good of the greatest number is a theory as dangerous as it is illusory. Man is not born to be prosperous, but to realize, in a little vanguard of chosen spirits, an ideal superior to the ideal of yesterday. Only the few can attain a complete development. Yet there is a solidarity between the chosen few and the masses which produce them; each has a duty to the other. The acceptance of this duty is the only foundation for a moral and just society The aristocratic idea has seldom been better stated. The success of the Etudes d'histoire religieuse and the Essais de morale had made the name of Renan known to a cultivated public. While Mademoiselle Renan remained shut up at home copying her brother's manuscripts or compiling material for his work, the young philosopher began to frequent more than one Parisian salon, and especially the studio of Ary Scheffer, at that time a noted social centre. In 1856 he proposed to marry Cornelie Scheffer, the niece and adopted daughter of the great Dutch painter. Not without a struggle Henriette consented not only to the marriage, but to make her home with the young couple, whose housekeeping depended on the sum that she could contribute. The history of this romance has been told by Renan in the memorial essay which he wrote some six years later, entitled Ma Sceur Henriette. His marriage brought much brightness into his life, a naturalness into his style and a greater attention to the picturesque. He did not forsake his studies in Semitic philology, and in 1859 appeared his translation of the Book of Job with an introductory essay, followed in 1859 by the Song of Songs. Renan was now a candidate for the chair of Hebrew and Chaldaic languages at the College de France, which he had desired since first he studied Hebrew at the seminary of St Sulpice. The death of the scholar Quatremere had left this post vacant in 1857. No one in France save Renan was capable of filling it. The Catholic party, upheld by the empress, would not appoint an unfrocked seminarist, a notorious heretic, to a chair of Biblical exegesis. Yet the emperor wished to conciliate Ernest Renan. He offered to send the young scholar on an archaeological mission to Phoenicia. Renan immediately accepted. Leaving his wife at home with their baby son, Renan left France, accompanied by his sister, in the summer of i860. Madame Renan joined them in January 1861, returning to France in July. The mission proved fruitful in Phoenician inscriptions which Renan published in his Mission de Phenicie. They form the base of that Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum on which he used in later years to declare that he founded his claim to re- membrance. He wished to complete his exploration of the upper range of Lebanon; he remained, therefore, with Henriette to affront the dangerous miasma of a Syrian autumn. At Amshit, near Byblos, Henriette Renan died of intermittent fever on the 24th of September 1861. Her brother, himself at death's door, was carried unconscious on board a ship waiting in harbour and bound for France. The sea air revived him, but he reached France broken apparently in heart and health. His sister in her last days had entreated him not to give up his candidature for the chair of Hebrew, and on the nth of January 1862 the Minister of Public Instruction ratified Renan's election to the post. But his opening lecture, in which, amid the applause of the students, Renan declared Jesus Christ " an incomparable Man," alarmed the Catholic party. Renan's lectures were pronounced a disturbance of the public peace, and he was suspended. On the 2nd of June 1864, on opening the newspaper, Renan saw that he had been transferred from the chair of Hebrew at the College of France to the post of sub- librarian at the National Library. He wrote to the Minister of Public Instruction: " Pecunia tua tecum sit!" He refused the new position, was deprived of his chair, and henceforth depended solely upon his pen. Henriette had told him to write the life of Jesus. They had begun it together in Syria, she copying the pages as he wrote them, with a New Testament and a Josephus for all his library. The book bears the mark of its origin — it is filled with the atmosphere of the East. It is the work of a man familiar with the Bible and theology, and no less acquainted with the inscrip- tions, monuments, types and landscapes of Syria. But it is scarcely the work of a great scholar: Renan's debt to the school RENARD 95 of Tubingen has been exaggerated, in so far as regards the Life of Jesus. The book appeared on the 23rd of June 1863; before November sixty thousand' copies of it were in circulation. Renan still used his literary gifts to pursue a scientific ideal. In the days when he had composed his huge, immature treatise on the Future of Science, he had written: " I envy the man who shall evoke from the past the origins of Christianity. Such a writer would compose the most important book of the century." He set to work to realize this project, and produced the Apostles in 1866, and St Paul in 1869, after having visited Asia Minor with his wife, where he studied the scenes of the labours of St Paul as minutely as in 1861 he had observed the material surroundings of the life of Jesus. Renan was not only a scholar. In St Paul, as in the Apostles, he shows his concern with the larger social life, his sense of fraternity, and a revival of the democratic sentiment which had inspired L'Avenir de la science. In 1869 he presented himself as the candidate of the liberal opposition at the parlia- mentary election for Meaux. While his temper had become less aristocratic, his Liberalism had grown more tolerant. On the eve of its dissolution Renan was half prepared to accept the Empire, and, had he been elected to the Chamber of Deputies, he would have joined the group of I' Empire liberal. But he was not elected. A year later war was declared with Germany, the Empire fell, and Napoleon III. went into exile. The Franco-German War was a turning-point in Renan's history. Germany had always been to him the asylum of thought and disinterested science. Now he saw the land of his ideal destroy and ruin the land of his birth; he beheld the German no longer as a priest, but as an invader. His heart turned to France. In La Reforme intcllectuelle et morale (187 1) he endeavoured at least to bind her wounds, to safeguard her future. Yet he was still under the influence of Germany. The ideal and the discipline which he proposed to his defeated country were those of her conqueror — a feudal society, a monarchical government, an elite, which the rest of the nation exists merely to support and nourish; an ideal of honour and duty imposed by a chosen few on the recalcitrant and subject multitude. The errors of the Commune confirmed Renan in this reaction. At the same time the irony always perceptible in his work grows more bitter. His Dialogues philosophiques, written in 1871, his Ecclesiastcs (1882) and his Antichrist (1876) (the fourth volume of the Origins of Christianity, dealing with the reign of Nero) are incomparable in their literary genius, but they are examples of a disenchanted and sceptical temper. He had vainly tried to make his country follow his precepts. He resigned himself to watch her drift towards perdition. The progress of events showed him, on the contrary, a France which every day left a little stronger, and he aroused himself from his disbelieving, disillusioned mood, and observed with genuine interest the struggle for justice and liberty of a democratic society. For his mind was the broadest of the age. The fifth and sixth volumes of the Origins of Christianity (the Christian Church and Marcus A urelius) show him reconciled with democracy, confident in the gradual ascent of man, aware that the greatest catastrophes do not really interrupt the sure if imperceptible progress of the world — reconciled also in some measure, if not with the truths, at least with the moral beauties of Catholicism, and with the remembrance of his pious youth. On the threshold of old age the philosopher cast a glance at the days of his childhood. He was nearly sixty when, in 1883, he published those Souvenirs d'enfance el de jeunesse which, after the Life of Jesus, are the work by which he is chiefly known. They possess that lyric note of personal utterance which the public prizes in a man already famous. They showed the Mas? modern reader that a world no less poetic, no less primitive than that of the Origins of Christianity exists, or still existed within living memory, on the north-western coast of France. They have the Celtic magic of ancient romance and the simplicity, the naturalness, the veracity which the 19th century prised so highly. But his Ecclesiastes, published a few months earlier, his Drames philosophiques, collected in 1888, give a more adequate image of his fastidious critical, disen- chanted, yet not unhopeful spirit. These books are often bitter and melancholy, yet not destitute of optimism. They show the attitude towards uncultured Socialism of a philosopher liberal by conviction, by temperament an aristocrat. We learn in them how Caliban (democracy), the mindless brute, educated to his own responsibility, makes after all an adequate ruler; how Prospero (the aristocratic principle, or, if we will, the mind) accepts his dethronement for the sake of greater liberty in the intellectual world, since Caliban proves an effective policeman, and leaves his superiors a free hand in the laboratory; how Ariel (the religious principle) acquires a firmer hold on life, and no longer gives up the ghost at the faintest hint of change. Indeed, Ariel flourishes in the service of Prospero under the external government of the many-headed brute. For the one thing needful is not destined to succumb. Religion and knowledge are as imperishable as the world they dignify. Thus out of the depths rises unvanquished the essential idealism of Ernest Renan. Renan was a great worker. At sixty years of age, having finished the Origins of Christianity, he began his History of Israel, based on a lifelong study of the Old Testament and on the Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum, published by the Academie des Inscriptions under Renan's direction from the year 1881 till the end of his life. The first volume of the History of Israel appeared in 1887, the third and finest volume in 1891, the last two only after the historian's decease. As a history of facts and theories the book has many faults; as an essay on the evolution of the religious idea it is (despite some passages of frivolity, irony, or incoherence) of extraordinary importance; as a reflec- tion of the mind ji Ernest Renan it is the most lifelike of images. In a volume of collected essays, Feuillcs detaches, published also in 1891, we find the same mental attitude, an affirmation of the necessity of piety independent of dogma. On the 12th of October 1892 he died after a few days' illness. In his last years he received many marks of honour, being made an administrator of the College de France and grand officer of the Legion of Honour. Two volumes of the History of Israel, his correspondence with his sister Henriette, his Letters to M. Berthelot, and the History of the Religious Policy of Philippe-le- Bel, which he wrote in the years immediately before his marriage, all appeared during the last eight years of the 19th century. See Desportes and Bournand, E. Renan, sa vie et son ceuvre (1892); E. Grant Duff, Ernest Renan, in memoriam (1893); Seailles, E. Renan, essai de biographie psychologique (1894); G. Monod, Les maitres de Vhistoire (1894) ; Allier, La Philosophie d"E. Renan (1895) ; M. J. Darmesteter, La vie de E. R. (1898); Platzhoff, E. Renan, ein Lebensbild (1900); Brauer Philosophy of Ernest Renan (1904); W. Barry, Renan (1905); Sorel, Le Systeme historique de R. (1905-1906). (A. M. F. D.;.X.) RENARD, ALPHONSE FRANCOIS (1842-1903), Belgian geolo- gist and petrographer, was born at Renaix, in Eastern Flanders, on the 27th of September 1842. He was educated for the church of Rome, and from 1866 to 1869 he was superintendent at the College de la Paix, Namur. In 1870 he entered the Jesuit Train- ing College at the old abbey of Maria Laach in the Eifel, and there, while engaged in studying philosophy and science, he became interested in the geology of the district, and especially in the volcanic rocks. Thenceforth he worked at chemistry and mineralogy, and qualified himself for those petrographical researches for which he was distinguished. In 1874 he became professor of chemistry and geology in the college of the Belgian Jesuits at Louvain, a few years later he was appointed one of the curators of the Royal Natural History Museum at Brussels, and in 1882 he relinquished his post at Louvain. In 1888 he was chosen professor of geology at the university of Ghent, and retained the post until the close of his life. Meanwhile he had been ordained priest in 1877, and had intended to enter the Society of Jesus. He was known as the Abbe Renard; but, as remarked by Sir A. Geikie, " As years passed, the longing for mental freedom grew ever stronger, until at last it overmastered all the traditions and associations of a lifetime, and he finally separated himself from the church of Rome." His first work, 96 RENAUD DE MONTAUBAN— RENAUDOT, T. written in conjunction with Charles de la Vallee-Poussin (1827- 1904), was the Mimoire sur les caracleres miner alogiques et stratigraphiques des roches dites pluloniennes de la Belgique et de I'Ardenne franqaise (1876). In later essays and papers he dealt with the structure and mineral composition of many igneous and sedimentary rocks, and with the phenomena of metamorphism in Belgium and other countries. In acknow- ledgment of his work the Bigsby Medal was in 1885 awarded to him by the Geological Society of London. Still more important were his later researches connected with the Challenger Expedi- tion. The various rock specimens and oceanic deposits were submitted to him for examination in association with Sir John Murray, and their detailed observations were embodied in the Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S. " Chal- lenger." Deep Sea Deposits (1891). The more striking additions to our knowledge included " the detection and description of cosmic dust, which as fine rain slowly accumulates on the ocean floor; the development of zeolitic crystals on the sea-bottom at temperatures of 32 and under; and the distribution and mode of occurrence of manganiferous concretions and of phos- phatic and glauconite deposits on the bed of the ocean " (Geikie). Renard died at Brussels on the 9th of July 1903. Obituaries by Sir A. Geikie in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, lx. 1904, and in Geol. Mag., Nov. 1903. RENAUD DE MONTAUBAN (Rinaldo di Montalbano), one of the most famous figures of French and Italian romance. His story was attached to the geste of Doon of Mayence by the 13th- century trouvere who wrote the chanson de geste of Renaus de Montauban, better known perhaps as Les quatre fils Aymon. The four sons of Aymon give their name to inns and streets in nearly every town of France, and the numerous prose versions show what a hold the story gained on the popular imagination. Renaud's sword Floberge, and his horse Bayard passed with him into popular legend. The poem of Renaus de Montauban opens with the story of the dissensions between Charlemagne and the sons of Doon of Mayence, Beuves d'Aigremont, Doon de Nanteuil and Aymon de Dordone. The rebellious vassals are defeated by the imperial army near Troyes, and, peace established, Aymon rises in favour at court, and supports the emperor, even in his persecution of his four sons, Renaud, Alard, Guichard and Richard. A second feud arises from a quarrel between Renaud and Bertolai, Charlemagne's nephew, over a game of chess, in the course of which Renaud kills Ber- tolai with the chess-board. The hero then mounts his steed Bayard, and escapes with his brothers to the Ardennes, where they build the castle of Montessor overlooking the Meuse. At Chateau Renaud, near Sedan, there existed in the 18th century a ruined castle with a tower called the " tour Maugis " and the reputed stable of Bayard. The outlaws are eventually persuaded to seek their fortune outside Charlemagne's kingdom, and cross the Loire to take service with King Yon of Gascony against the Saracens, accompanied by their cousin, the enchanter Maugis. Yon, however, is compelled by Charlemagne to withdraw his protection, and the castle of Montauban, which the brothers have built on the Dordogne, is besieged by the emperor. They next seek refuge beyond the Rhine, and sustain a third siege at Tremoigne (Dortmund), after which the emperor is per- suaded by the barons to make peace. Bayard is abandoned to Charlemagne, and thrown into the Meuse, only to rise again. He still gallops over the hills of the Ardennes on St John's Eve. Renaud, who throughout the story is a type of the Christian and chivalric virtues, makes a pilgrimage to the Holy Land and is invested with some of the exploits of Godfrey de Bouillon. On his return he gives himself up to religion, working as a mason on the church of St Peter at Cologne, where he receives martyrdom at the hands of his jealous fellow-labourers. The story is closely connected with the legend of Girard de Roussillon. The chanson de geste of Renaus de Montauban falls into sections which had probably been originally the subject of separate recitals. These may have arisen at different dates, and were not necessarily told in the first instance of the same person, the account of Renaud on the crusade being obviously a late interpolation. The outlaw life of the brothers in the Ardennes bears the marks of trustworthy popular tradition, and it was even at one time suggested that the Gascon and Rhenish episodes were reduplications of the story of Montessor. The connexion of the four brothers with Montessor, Dortmund, Mayence and Cologne, and the abundant local tradition, mark the heroes as originating from the region between the Rhine and the Meuse. Nevertheless, their adventures in Gascony are corroborated by historical evidence, and this section of the poem is the oldest. The enemy of Renaud was Charles Martel, not Charlemagne; Yon was Odo of Gascony, known indifferently as duke, prince, or king; the victory over the Saracens at Toulouse, in which the brothers are alleged to have taken part, was won by him in 721, and in 719 he sheltered refugees from the dominions of Charles Martel, Chil- peric II., king of Neustria, and his mayor of the palace, Ragin- fred, whom he was compelled to abandon. In a local chronicle of Cologne it is stated that Saint Reinoldus died in 697, and in the Latin rhythmical Vila his martyrdom is said to have taken place under Bishop Agilolf (d. 717). Thus the romance was evidently composite before it took its place in the Carolingian cycle. In Italy Renaud had his greatest vogue. His connexion with the treacherous family of Mayence was thrust into the back- ground, and many episodes were added, as well as the personage of the hero's sister, Bradamante. Rinaldo di Montalbano had been the subject of many Italian poems before II Rinaldo of Tasso. Bibliography. — The chanson of Maugis d'Aigremont and the prose romance of the Conqueste de Trebizonde belong to the same cycle. The prose Ystoire de Regnault de Montauban (Lyons, c. 1480) had a great vogue. It was generally printed asZ.es quatre fils Aymon, and was published in English, The Foure Sonnes of Aymon, by William Caxton, and subsequently by Wynkyn de Worde and William Copland. See Hist. litt. de la France, xxii., analysis by Paulin Paris; Renaus de Montauban (Stuttgart, 1862), edited by H. Michelant; F. Wulff, Recherches sur les sagas de Magus et de Geirard (Lund, 1873); Magus saga, ed. G. Cederschiold (Lund, 1876); Renout von Montalbaen, ed. J. C. Matthis (Groningen, 1873); A. Longnon, in Revue des questions historiques (1879); R. Zwick, Vber die Sprache des Renaut von Montauban (Halle, 1884) ; F. Pfaff, Das deutsche Volksbuch von den Heymonskindern (Freiburg in Breisgau, 1887), with a general introduction to the study of the saga; The Four Sonnes of Aimon (E. E. Text. Soc, ed. Octavia Richardson, 1884); a special bibliography of the printed editions of the prose romance in L. Gautier's Bibl. des chansons de geste (1897); rejuvenations of the story by Karl Simrock (Frankfort, 1845), and by Richard Steel (London, 1897); Storia di Rinaldino, ed. C. Minutoli (Bologna, 1865). Stage versions are: Renaud de Montauban, a play translated from Lope de Vega was played at the Th&itre italien, Paris, in 1717 ; Les quatre fils Aymon, opera comique by MM. de Leuven and Brunswick, music by Balfe, in 1884. RENAUDOT, EUSEBE (1646-1720), French theologian and Orientalist, was born in Paris in 1646, and educated for the church. Notwithstanding his taste for theology and his titlfe of abbe, much of his life was spent at the French court, where he attracted the notice of Colbert and was often employed in confidential affairs. The unusual learning in Eastern tongues which he acquired in his youth and maintained amid the dis- tractions of court life did not bear fruit till he was sixty-two. His best-known books are HistoriaPatriarcharum Alexandrinorum (Paris, 1713) and Liturgiarum orientalium collectio (2 vols., 1715-16). The latter was designed to supply proofs of the " perpetuity of the faith " of the church on the subject of the sacraments, the topic on which most of his theological writings turned, and which was then, in consequence of the controversies attaching to Arnauld's Perpituite de lafoi, a burning one between French Catholics and Protestants. Renaudot was not a fair controversialist, but his learning and industry are unquestion- able. He died in 1720. RENAUDOT, THEOPHRASTE (1586-1653), French physician and philanthropist, was born at Loudun (Vienna), and studied surgery in Paris. He was only nineteen when he received, by favour apparently, the degree of doctor at Mont- pellier. After some time spent in travel he began to practise in his native town. In 161 2 he was summoned to Paris by RENDEZVOUS— RENE I. 97 Richelieu, partly because of his medical reputation, but more because of his philanthropy. He received the titles of physician and councillor to the king, and was desired to organize a scheme of public assistance. Many difficulties were put in his way, however, and he therefore returned until 1624 to Poitou, where Richelieu made him " commissary general of the poor." It was six years before he was able to begin his work in Paris by opening an information bureau at the sign of the Grand Coq near the Pont Saint-Michel. This bureau d'adresse was labour bureau, intelligence department, exchange and charity organiza- tion in one; and the sick were directed to doctors prepared to give them free treatment. Presently he established a free dispensary in the teeth of the opposition of the faculty in Paris. The Paris faculty refused to accept the new medicaments pro- posed by the heretic from Montpellier, restricting themselves to the old prescriptions of blood-letting and purgation. In addition to his bureau d'adresse Renaud established a system of lectures and debates on scientific subjects, the reports of which from 1633 to 1642 were published in 1651 with the title Recueil des conferences publiques. Under the protection of Richelieu he started the first French newspaper, the Gazette (1631), which appeared weekly and contained political and foreign news. He also edited the Mercure franc,ais and published all manner of reports and pamphlets. In 1637 he opened in Paris the first Mont de Piete, an institution of which he had seen the advantages in Italy. In 1640 the medical faculty, headed by Guy Patin, started a campaign against the innovator of the Grand Coq. After the death of Richelieu and of Louis XIII. the victory of Renaudot's enemies was practically certain. The parlement of Paris ordered him to return the letters patent for the establish- ment of his bureau and his Mont de Piete, and refused to allow him to practise medicine in Paris. The Gazette remained, and in 1646 Renaudot was appointed by Mazarin historiographer to the king. During the first Fronde he had his printing presses at Saint-Germain. He died on the 25th of October 1653. His difficulties had been increased by his Protestant opinions. His sons Isaac (d. 1688) and Eusebe (d. 1679) were students for ten years before they could obtain their doctorates from the faculty. They carried on their father's work, and defended the virtues of antimony, laudanum and quinine against the schools. See E. Hatin, Theodore Renaudot (Poitiers, 1883), and La Maison du Coq (Paris, 1885); Michel Emery, Renaudot et I' introduction de la mMication chimique (Paris, 1889) ; and G. Bonnefont, Un Oublie. Theophraste Renaudot (Limoges, n.d.). RENDEZVOUS, a place of meeting appointed or arranged for the assembling of troops, ships or persons. The word was adopted in English at the end of the 16th century from the French substantival use of the imperative rendez vous, i.e. " render or betake yourselves." RENDSBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, situated on the Eider and on the Kaiser Wilhelm canal, in a flat and sandy district, 20 m. W. of Kiel, on the Altona-Vamdrup railway. Pop. (1905) 15,577. It consists of three parts — the crowded Altstadt, on an island in the Eider; the Neuwerk, on the south bank of the river; and the Kronwerk, on the north bank. .Rendsburg is the chief place in the basin of the Eider, and when in the possession of Denmark was main- tained as a fortress. Its present importance, however, rests on the commercial facilities afforded by its connexion with the North Sea and the Baltic through the Kaiser Wilhelm canal, by which transit trade is carried on in grain, timber, Swedish iron and coals. The principal industries are cotton-weaving, tanning and the manufacture of artificial manures. Rendsburg came into existence under the shelter of a castle founded by the Danes about the year 1100 on an island of the Eider, and was an object of dispute between the Danish kings and the counts of Holstein. In 1252 it was adjudged to the latter. The town was surrounded with ramparts in 1539, but the fortifications of the Kronwerk were not constructed till the end of the 17th century. During the Thirty Years' War Rendsburg was taken both by the Imperialists and the Swedes, but in 1645 it successfully resisted a second siege by the latter. The war of 1848-50 began with the capture of Rendsburg by the Holsteiners by a coup de main, and it formed the centre of the German operations. On the departure of the German troops in 1852 the Danes demolished the fortifications on the north side. Immediately after the death of King Frederick VII. (15th of November 1863) the town was occupied by the Saxon troops acting as the executive of the German Confederation, and it was the base of the operations of the Austrians and Prussians against Schleswig in the spring of the following year. On the termination of the Danish war in 1864 Rendsburg was jointly occupied by Austrian and Prussian military until 1866, when it fell to Prussia. See Warmstedt, Rendsburg (Kiel, 1850). RENE I. (1400-1480), duke of Anjou, of Lorraine and Bar, count of Provence and of Piedmont, king of Naples, Sicily and Jerusalem, was born at Angers on the 16th of January 1409, the second son of Louis II., king of Sicily, duke of Anjou, count of Provence, and of Yolande of Aragon. Louis II. died in 1417, and his sons, together with their brother-in-law, after- wards Charles VII. of France, were brought up under the guardianship of their mother. The elder, Louis III., succeeded to the crown of Sicily and to the duchy of Anjou, Rene being known as the count of Guise. By his marriage treaty (1419) with Isabel, elder daughter of Charles II., duke of Lorraine, he became heir to the duchy of Bar, which was claimed as the inheritance of his mother Yolande, and, in right of his wife, heir to the duchy of Lorraine. Rene, then only ten, was to be brought up in Lorraine under the guardianship of Charles II. and Louis, cardinal of Bar, both of whom were attached to the Burgundian party, but he retained the right to bear the arms of Anjou. He was far from sympathizing with the Burgundians, and, joining the French army at Reims in 1429, was present at the coronation of Charles VII. When Louis of Bar died in 1430 Rene came into sole possession of his duchy, and in the next year, on his father-in-law's death, he succeeded to the duchy of Lorraine. But the inheritance was claimed by the heir-male, Antoine de Vaudemont, who with Burgundian help defeated Rene at Bulgneville in July 1431. The Duchess Isabel effected a truce with Antoine de Vaudemont, but the duke remained a. prisoner of the Burgundians until April 1432, when he recovered his liberty on parole on yielding up as hostages his two sons, Jean and Louis of Anjou. His title as duke of Lorraine was confirmed by his suzerain, the Emperor Sigismund, at Basel in 1434. This proceeding roused the anger of the Burgundian duke, Philip the Good, who required him early in the next year to return to his prison, from which he was released two years later on payment of a heavy ransom. He had succeeded to the kingdom of Naples through the deaths of his brother Louis III. and of Jeanne II. de Duras, queen of Naples, the last heir of the earlier dynasty. Louis had been adopted by her in 1 43 1, and she now left her inheritance to Rene. The marriage of Marie de Bourbon, niece of Philip of Burgundy, with John, duke of Calabria, Rene's eldest son, cemented peace between the two princes. After appointing a regency in Bar and Lorraine, he visited his provinces of Anjou and Provence, and in 1438 set sail for Naples, which had been held for him by the Duchess Isabel. Rene's captivity, and the poverty of the Angevin resources due to his ransom, enabled Alphonso of Aragon, who had been first adopted and then repudiated by Jeanne II., to make some headway in the kingdom of Naples, especially as he was already in possession of the island of Sicily. In 1441 Alphonso laid siege to Naples, which he sacked after a six months' siege. Rene returned to France in the same year, and though he retained the title of king of Naples his effective rule was never recovered. Later efforts to recover his rights in Italy failed. His mother Yolande, who had governed Anjou in his absence, died in 1442. Rene took part in the negotiations with the English at Tours in 1444, and peace was consolidated by the marriage of his younger daughter, Margaret, with Henry VI. at Nancy. Rene now made over the government of Lorraine to John, duke of Calabria, who was, however, only formally installed as duke of Lorraine on the death of Queen Isabel io 11 9 8 RENEE OF FRANCE— RENFREWSHIRE 1453. Rene had the confidence of Charles VII., and is said to have initiated the reduction of the men-at-arms set on foot by the king, with whose military operations against the English he was closely associated. He entered Rouen with him in November 1449, and was also with him at Formigny and Caen. After his second marriage with Jeanne de Laval, daughter of Guy XIV., count of Laval, and Isabel of Brittany, Rene took a less active part in public affairs, and devoted himself more to artistic and literary pursuits. The fortunes of his house declined in his old age. The duke of Calabria, after repeated misfortunes in Italy, was offered the crown of Aragon in 1467, but died, apparently by poison, at Barcelona on the 16th of December 1470; the duke's eldest son Nicholas perished in 1473, also under suspicion of poisoning; Rene's daughter Margaret was a refugee from England, her son Prince Edward was murdered in 1471, and she herself became a prisoner, to be rescued by Louis XL in 1476. His only surviving male descendant was then Rene II., duke of Lorraine, son of his daughter Yolande, comtesse de Vaudemont, who was gained over to the party of Louis XL, who suspected the king of Sicily of complicity with his enemies, the duke of Brittany and the Constable Saint- Pol. Rene retired to Provence, and in 1474 made a will by which he left Bar to his grandson Rene II., duke of Lorraine; Anjou and Provence to his nephew Charles, count of Le Maine. Louis seized Anjou and Bar, and two years later sought to compel the king of Sicily to exchange the two duchies for a pension. The offer was rejected, but further negotiations assured the lapse to the crown of the duchy of Anjou, and the annexation of Provence was only postponed until the death of the count of Le Maine. Rene died on the 10th of July 1480, his charities having earned for him the title of " the good." He founded an order of chivalry, the Ordre du Croissant, which was anterior to the royal foundation of St Michael, but did not survive Rene. The king of Sicily's fame as an amateur of painting has led to the attribution to him of many old paintings in Anjou and Provence, in many cases simply because they bear his arms. These works are generally in the Flemish style, and were probably executed under his patronage and direction, so that he may be said to have formed a school of the fine arts in sculpture, painting, gold work and tapestry. Two of the most famous works formerly attributed to Rene are the triptych, the " Burning Bush," in the cathedral of Aix, showing portraits of Rene and his second wife, Jeanne de Laval, and an illumin- ated Book of Hours in the Bibliotheque nationale, Paris. The " Burning Bush " was in fact the work of Nicolas Froment, a painter of Avignon. Among the men of letters attached to his court was Antoine de la Sale, whom he made tutor to his son, the duke of Calabria. He encouraged the performance of mystery plays; on the performance of a mystery of the Passion at Saumur in 1462 he remitted four years of taxes to the town, and the representations of the Passion at Angers were carried out under his auspices. He exchanged verses with his kinsman, the poet Charles of Orleans. The best of his poems is the idyl of Regnault and Jeanneton, representing his own courtship of Jeanne de Laval. Le Livre des lournois, a book of ceremonial, and the allegorical romance, Conqueste qu'un chevalier nomme le Cuer d'amour espris feist d'une dame appelee Doulce Mercy, with other works ascribed to him, were perhaps dictated to his secretaries, or at least compiled under his direc- tion. His CEuwes were published by the comte de Quatrebarbes (4 vols., Paris and Angers, 1845-46). See A. Lecoy de la Marche, Le Roi Rene" (2 vols., 1875) ; A. Vallet de Viriville, in the Nouvelle Biographie generate, where there is some account of the MSS. of his works; and J. Renouvier, Les Peintres et enlumineurs du roi Rene (Montpellier, 1857). RENJSE OF FRANCE (1510-1575), second daughter of Louis XII. and Anne of Brittany, was born at Blois on the 25th of October rsic After being betrothed successively to Gaston de Foix, Charles of Austria (the future emperor Charles V.), his brother Ferdinand, Henry VIII. of England, and the elector Joachim II. of Brandenburg, she married in 1528 Hercules of Este, son of the duke of Ferrara, who succeeded his father six years later. Renee's court became a rendezvous of men of letters and a refuge for the persecuted French Calvinists. She received Clement Marot and Calvin at her court, and finally embraced the reformed religion. Her husband, however, who viewed these proceedings with disfavour, banished her friends, took her children from her, threw her into prison, and eventually made her abandon at any rate the outward forms of Calvinism. After his death in 1559, Renee returned to France and turned her duchy of Montargis into a centre of Protestant propaganda. During the wars of religion she was several times molested by "the Catholic troops, and in 1562 her chateau was besieged by her son-in-law, the duke of Guise. She died at Montargis. See B. Fontana, Renata di Francia (Rome, 1889 seq.); and E. Rodocanachi, Renee de France (Paris, 1896). RENEVIER, EUGENE (183 1- ), Swiss geologist, was born at Lausanne on the 26th of March 1831. In 1857 he became professor of geology and palaeontology in the university at Lausanne. He is distinguished for his researches on the geology and palaeontology of the Alps, on which subjects he published numerous papers in the proceedings of the scientific societies in Switzerland and France. With F. J. Pictet he wrote a memoir on the Fossiles du terrain aptien de la Perte-du- Rhone (1854). In 1894 he was appointed president of the Swiss Geological Commission, and also of the International Geological Congress held that year at Zurich, in the previous meetings of which he had taken a prominent part. He published a noteworthy Tableau des terrains s&dimentaires (1874); and a second more elaborate edition, accompanied by an explanatory article Chronographe geologique, was issued in 1897 as a supplement to the Report of the Zurich Congress. This new table was printed on coloured sheets, the colours for each geological system corresponding with those adopted on the International geological map of Europe. RENFREW, a royal, municipal and police burgh and county town of Renfrewshire, Scotland, near the southern bank of the Clyde, 7 m. W. by N. of Glasgow, via Cardonald, by the Glasgow & South-Western and Caledonian railways (5 m. by road). Pop. (1891) 6777; (1901) 9296. Industries include ship- building (the construction of dredgers and floating docks is a speciality), engineering, dyeing, weaving, chemicals and cabinet- making. The Clyde trust has constructed a large dock here. Renfrew belongs to the Kilmarnock district group of parlia- mentary burghs (with Kilmarnock, Dumbarton, Rutherglen and Port Glasgow). Robert III. gave a charter in 1396, but it was a burgh (Renifry) at least 250 years earlier. About 1160 Walter Fitzalan, the first high steward of Scotland, built a castle on an eminence by the side of the Clyde (still called Castle Hill), the original seat of the royal house of Stewart. Close to the town, on the site of Elderslie House, Somerled, lord of the Isles, was defeated and slain in 11 64 by the forces of Malcolm IV., against whom he had rebelled. In 1404 Robert II. bestowed upon his son James (afterwards James I.) the title of Baron of Renfrew, still borne by the prince of Wales. RENFREWSHIRE, a south-western county of Scotland, bounded N. by the river and firth of Clyde, E. by Lanarkshire, S. and S.W. by Ayrshire and W. by the firth of Clyde. A small detached portion of the parish of' Renfrew, situated on the northern bank of the Clyde, is surrounded on the landward side by Dumbartonshire. The county has an area of 153,332 acres, or 239-6 sq. m. Excepting towards the Ayrshire border on the south-west, where the principal heights are Hill of Stake (1711 ft.1, East Girt Hill (1673), Misty Law (1663) and Creuch Hill (1446), and the confines of Lanarkshire on the south-east, where a few points attain an altitude of 1200 ft. — the surface is undulating rather than rugged. Much of the higher land in the centre is well wooded. The Clyde forms part of the northern boundary of the shire. In the N.W. Loch Thom and Gryfe Reservoir provide Greenock with water, and Balgray Reservoir and Glen Reservoir reinforce the water-supply of a portion of the Glasgow area. The other lakes are situated in the S. and S.E. and RENFREWSHIRE 99 include Gastle Semple Loch, Long Loch, Brother Loch, Black Loch, Binend Loch and Dunwan Dam. The Glasgow, Paisley and Johnstone canal has been converted since 1882 into the track of the Glasgow & South-Western railway. Strathgryfe is the only considerable vale in the shire. It extends from the reservoir to below Bridge of Weir, a distance of 10 m. The scenery at its head is somewhat wild and bleak, but the lower reaches are pasture land. The wooded ravine of Glenkillock, to the south of Paisley, is watered by Killock Burn, on which are three falls. Geology. — Carboniferous rocks form the substratum of this county. The hilly ground from the neighbourhood of Eaglesham north- westward is formed of volcanic rocks, basalts, porphyrites, tuffs and agglomerates of the age of the Cementstone group of the Cal- ciferous Sandstone series. Here and there the sites of the volcanic cones are distinguishable, the best being those between Misty Law and Queenside Muir. Beneath the volcanic rocks are some red sandstones and conglomerates which occupy a small tract between Loch Thorn and the neighbourhood of Inverkip. Resting upon the volcanic rocks is the Carboniferous Limestone series which at the base consists of ashy sandstones and grits followed by the three subdivisions prevalent in southern Scotland. With unimportant exceptions, all the area north of the volcanic rocks is occupied by the Carboniferous Limestone series. The beds lie in a faulted basin around Linwood, and the following strata may be distinguished from below upwards: the Hurlet coal and limestone, Lillies oil shale, Hosie limestone, Johnstone clay ironstone and Cowglass lime- stone along with other beds of ironstone and coal. The sandstone of Giffnock, used for building; the limestone and coal of Orchard with a very fossiliferous shale bed; and the limestone and coal of Arden all belong to the same series. Besides the contemporaneous volcanic rocks numerous intrusive sheets are found in the Carbon- iferous rocks such as the large mass of basalt south of Johnstone; and doleritic sheet of Quarrelton and the similar sheets N.E. of Paisley. In the eastern part of the county, near the border the coals and ironstones of this series near Shawlands and Crossmyloof are faulted directly against the coal measures of Rutherglen. Tertiary basalt dikes cut the older rocks in a S.E.-N.W. direction, for example those on Misty Law. Glacial striae abound on the hilly ground, those in the north indicating that the ice took a south-easterly direction which farther south became south-westerly. Boulder clays, gravels and sands also cover considerable areas. Copper ore has been worked in the volcanic rocks near Lochwinnoch and in the grey sandstones near Gourock. Climate and Agriculture. — The climate is variable. As the prevailing west and south-west winds come in from the Atlantic warm and full of moisture, contact with the land causes heavy rains, and the western area of the shire is one of the wettest districts in Scotland, the mean annual rainfall exceeding 60 in. The temperature for the year averages about 48° F., for January 38°-5 F., and for July 58°-5 F. The hilly tract contains much peat-moss and moorland, but over those areas which are not thus covered the soil, which is a light earth on a substratum of gravel, is deep enough to produce good pasture. In the undulating central region the soil is better, particularly in the basins of the streams, while on the flat lands adjoining the Clyde there is a rich alluvium which, except when soured by excessive rain, yields heavy crops. Of the total area three-fifths is under cultivation, more than half of this being permanent pasture. Oats are grown extensively, and wheat and barley are also cultivated. Potatoes, turnips and swedes, and beans are the leading green crops. Near the populous centres orchards and market gardens are found, and an increasing acreage is under wood. Horses are kept mostly for farming operations, and the bulk of the cattle are maintained in connexion with dairying. Sheep-farming, though on the increase, is not prosecuted so vigor- ously as in the other southern counties of Scotland, and pig-rearing is on the decline. Other Industries. — Coal, iron, oil-shale and fireclay are the prin- cipal minerals. Limestone is largely quarried for smelting purposes, and for the manufacture of lime. Sandstone is also quarried. The thread industry at Paisley .is the most important in the world. Cotton spinning, printing, bleaching and dyeing are carried on at Paisley, Pollokshaws, Renfrew, Barrhead and elsewhere; woollens and worsteds are produced at Paisley, Greenock and Renfrew. Engineering works and iron and brass foundries are found at Greenock, Port-Glasgow, Paisley, Renfrew, Barrhead and Johnstone. Sugar is a staple article of trade in Greenock and there are chemical works at Hurlet, Nitshill and Renfrew. Brewing and distilling are carried on at Greenock, Paisley and other places. Shipbuilding is especially important at Greenock and Port-Glasgow. Paper mills are established in Greenock, Cathcart and Johnstone, and tanneries in Paisley and Kilbarchan. Numerous miscellaneous industries — such as the making of starch, cornflour and preserves- have also grown up in Paisley and elsewhere. The sea and river ports are Greenock, Port-Glasgow and Renfrew. Railway communication is ample in the north, the centre and towards the south-west. The Caledonian railway runs westwards from Glasgow by Paisley to Greenock, Gourock and Wemyss Bay; south-westwards to Barrhead and other stations; and southwards to Busby. The Glasgow & South-Western railway runs to Greenock by Paisley, Johnstone and Kilmalcolm; to Nitshill and other places south-westwards; by Lochwinnoch (for Dairy and Ardrossan in Ayrshire); and to Renfrew jointly with the Cale- donian. The Clyde and the railway steamers call at Renfrew, Prince's Pier (Greenock), Gourock and Wemyss Bay. Population and Administration. — In 1891 the population numbered 230,812, and in 1901 it was 268,980, or 11 23 to the sq. m. In 1901 there were 40 persons who spoke Gaelic only and 5585 Gaelic and English. Thus though the shire is but twenty-seventh in point of size of the 33 Scottish counties, it is fifth in respect of population, and only Lanarkshire and Mid Lothian are more densely populated. The county is divided into the upper ward, embracing the easterly two-thirds, with Paisley as district centre, and the lower ward, consisting of the parishes of Inverkip, Greenock, Port-Glasgow and Kil- malcolm, with Greenock as district centre. The chief towns are Paisley (pop. 79,363), Greenock (68,142), Port-Glasgow (16,857), Pollokshaws (11,369), Johnstone (11,331), Barrhead (9855), Renfrew (9296), Gourock (5261), Cathcart (5808). The shire returns one member to parliament for the eastern, and another for the western division. Paisley and Greenock return each one member, and Renfrew and Port-Glasgow belong to the Kilmarnock district group of parliamentary burghs. Renfrew- shire forms a sheriffdom with Bute, and there is a resident sheriff-substitute at Paisley and one at Greenock. The county is under school-board jurisdiction. For secondary and special- ized education there are an academy at Greenock and a grammar school and technical school at Paisley, while some of the schools in the county earn grants for higher education. The county secondary committee also makes provision for the free educa- tion of Renfrewshire children in Glasgow High School and the Spier School at Beith. The Paisley Technical School and the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College are subsidized out of the " residue " grant, part of which also defrays the travelling expenses of students and supports science and art and technological classes in the burghs and towns in the county. History. — At the time of the Roman advance from the Solway the land was peopled by the British tribe of Damnonii. To hold the natives in check the conquerors built in 84. the fort of Vanduara on high ground now covered by houses and streets in Paisley; but after the Romans retired (410) the territory was overrun by Cumbrian Britons and formed part of the kingdom of Strathclyde, the capital of which was situated at Alclyde, the modern Dumbarton. In the 7th and 8th cen- turies the region practically passed under the supremacy of Northumbria, but in the reign of Malcolm Canmore became incorporated with the rest of Scotland. During the first half of the 12th century, Walter Fitzalan, high steward of Scotland, ancestor of the royal house of Stuart, settled in Renfrewshire on an estate granted to him by David I. Till their accession to the throne the Stuarts identified themselves with the district, which, however, was only disjoined from Lanarkshire in 1404. In that year Robert III. erected the barony of Renfrew and the Stuart estates into a separate county, which, along with the earldom of Carrick and the barony of King's Kyle (both in Ayrshire), was bestowed upon his son, afterwards James I. From their grant are derived the titles of earl of Carrick and baron of Renfrew, borne by the eldest son of the sovereign. Apart from such isolated incidents as the defeat of Somerled near Renfrew in 1164, the battle of Langside in 1568 and the capture of the 9th earl of Argyll at Inchinnan in 1685, the history of the shire is scarcely separable from that of Paisley or the neighbouring county of Lanark. Bibliography. — Description of the Sheriffdom of Lanark and Renfrew (Maitland Club, 1831); W. Hector, Lichens from an Old Abbey (Paisley, 1876); Vanduara (Paisley, 1881); Gilmour, Paisley, Weavers of Other Days (Paisley, 1879); D. Campbell, His- torical Sketches of the Town and Harbours of Greenock (1879-81); Old Greenock (Greenock, 1888); Craig, Historical Notes on -Paisley (Paisley, 1881); A. H. Millar, Castles and Mansions of Renfrew (Glasgow, 1889). IOO RENNELL— RENNEVILLE RENNELL, JAMES(i742-i83o), British geographer, was born on the 3rd of December 1742, near Chudleigh in Devonshire. His father, an officer in the Artillery, was killed in action shortly after the birth of his son. He entered the navy as a mid- shipman in 1756, and was present at the attack on Cherbourg (1758), and the disastrous action of St Cast in the same year. At the end of the Seven Years' War, seeing no chance of pro- motion, he entered the service of the East India Company, and was appointed surveyor of the Company's dominions in Bengal (1764), with the rank of captain in the Bengal Engineers. To this work he devoted the next thirteen years. In 1766 he received a severe wound in an encounter with some Sannyasis, or religious fanatics, from which he never thoroughly recovered; and in 1777 he retired as major on a pension of £600 a year. The remaining fifty-three years of his life were spent in London, and were devoted to geographical research chiefly among the materials in the East India House. His most valuable works include the Bengal Atlas (1779), the first approximately correct map of India (1783), the Geographical System of Herodotus (1800), the Comparative Geography of Western Asia (183 1), and im- portant studies on the geography of northern Africa — in intro- ductions to the Travels of Mungo Park and Hornemann — and the currents of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. He also contributed papers to Archaeologia on the site of Babylon, the island of St Paul's shipwreck, and the landing-place of Caesar in Britain. He was elected F.R.S. in 1781; and he received the Copley medal of the Royal Society in 1791, and the gold medal of the Royal Society of Literature in 1825. While in India he had married (1772) Jane Thackeray, a great-aunt of the novelist. He died on the 29th of March 1830, and was buried in the nave of Westminster Abbey. See Sir Clements Markham Major James Rennell and the Rise of Modern English Geography Condon, 1895). RENNES, a town of western France, formerly the capital of Brittany and now the chief town of the department of Ule-et- Vilaine. Pop. town, 62,024; commune, 75,640. Rennes is situated at the meeting of the Me and the Vilaine and at the junction of several lines of railway connecting it with Paris (232 m. E.N.E.), St Malo (51 m. N.N.W.), Brest (155 m. W.N.W.). A few narrow winding streets with old houses are left in the vicinity of the cathedral, but the town was for the most part rebuilt on a regular plan after the seven days' fire of 1720. Dark granite was used as building material. The old town or Ville-Haute, where the chief buildings are situated, occupies a hill bounded on the south by the Vilaine, on the west by the canalized Me. The Vilaine flows in a deep hollow bordered with quays and crossed by six bridges leading to the new town or Ville-Basse on its left bank. The cathedral of Rennes was rebuilt in a pseudo-Ionic style between 1787 and 1844 on the site of two churches dating originally from the 4th century. The west facade with its twin towers was finished in 1700 and is in the Renaissance style. The interior is richly decorated, a German altar-piece of the 15th century being conspicuous for its carving and gilding. The archbishop's palace occupies in part the site of the abbey dedicated to St Melaine, whose church is the sole specimen of n-i3th cen- tury architecture among the numerous churches in the town. A colossal statue of the Virgin was placed above its dome in 1867. The Mordelaise Gate, by which the dukes and bishops used to make their state entry into the town, is a curious example of 15th-century architecture, and preserves a Latin inscription of the 3rd century, a dedication by the Redones to the emperor Gordianus. The finest building in Rennes is the old parliament house (now the law-court), designed by Jacques Debrosse in the 1 7th century, and decorated with statues of legal celebrities, carving, and paintings by Jean Jouvenet and other well-known artists. The town hall was erected in the first half of the 18th century. It contains the library and the municipal archives, which are of great importance for the history of Brittany. In the Palais Universitaire, a modern building occupied by the university, there are scientific collections and important galleries of painting =uid sculpture, the chief work being the " Perseus delivering Andromeda " of Paul Veronese. About 2 m. from the town is the castle (16th century) of La Prevalaye, a hamlet famous for its butter. Rennes is the seat of an archbishop and a prefect, head- quarters of the X. army corps and centre of an acadimie (educa- tional division). Its university has faculties of law, science and letters, and a preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy, and there are training colleges, a lycee and schools of agriculture, dairying, music, art, architecture and industry (Ecole pratique). The town is also the seat of a court of appeal, of a court of assizes, of tribunals of first instance and commerce, and of a chamber of commerce, and has a branch of the Bank of France. Tanning, iron-founding, timber-sawing and the production of furniture and wooden goods, flour-milling, flax-spinning and the manufacture of tenting and other coarse fabrics, bleaching and various smaller industries are carried on. Trade is chiefly in butter made in the neighbourhood, and in grain, flour, leather, poultry, eggs and honey. Rennes, the chief city of the Redones, was formerly (like some other places in Gaul) called Condate (hence Condat, Conde), probably from its position at the confluence of two streams. Under the Roman empire it was included in Lugdunensis Tertia, and became the centre of various Roman" roads still recognizable in the vicinity The name Urbs Rubra given to it on the oldest chronicles is explained by the bands of red brick in the founda- tions of its first circuit of walls. About the close of the 10th century Conan le Tort, count of Rennes, subdued the whole province, and his son and successor Geoffrey first took the title duke of Brittany. The dukes were crowned at Rennes, and before entering the city by the Mordelaise Gate they had to swear to preserve the privileges of the church, the nobles and the commons of Brittany. During the War of Succession the city more than once suffered siege, notably in 1356-57, when Bertrand du Guesclin saved it from capture by the English under Henry, first duke of Lancaster. The parlement of Brittany, founded in 1551, held its sessions at Rennes from 1561, they having been previously shared with Nantes. During the troubles of the League Philip Emmanuel, duke of Mercosur, attempted to make himself independent at Rennes (1589), but his scheme was defeated by the loyalty of the parlement. Henry IV. entered the city in state on the 9th of May 1598. In 1675 an insurrection at Rennes, caused by the taxes imposed by Louis XIV. in spite of the advice of the parlement, was cruelly suppressed by Charles, duke of Chaulnes, governor of the province. The parlement was banished to Vannes till 1689, and the inhabitants crushed with forfeits and put to death in great numbers. The fire of 1720, which destroyed eight hundred houses, completed the ruin of the town. At the beginning of the Revolution Rennes was again the scene of bloodshed, caused by the discussion about doubling the third estate for the con- vocation of the states-general. In January 1789, Jean Victor Moreau (afterwards general) , led the law-students in their demonstrations on behalf of the parlement against the royal government. During the Reign of Terror Rennes suffered less than Nantes, partly through the courage and uprightness of the mayor, Jean Leperdit. It was soon afterwards the centre of the operations of the Republican army against the Vendeans. The bishopric, founded in the 5th century, in 1859 became an arch- bishopric, a rank to which it had previously been raised from 1790 to 1802. In 1899 the revision of the sentence of Captain Alfred Dreyfus was carried out at Rennes. See Orain, Rennes et ses environs (Reims, 1904). RENNEVILLE, RENE AUGUSTE CONSTANTIN DE (1650- 1723), French writer, was born at Caen in 1650. In consequence of his Protestant principles, he left France for Holland in 1699, and on his return three years later he was denounced as a spy and imprisoned in the Bastille, where he remained until 17 13. During his imprisonment he wrote on the margins of a copy of Auteurs diguisis (Paris, 1690) poems which he called Olia bastiliaca. These were rediscovered by Mr James Tregaski in 1906. Renneville was set at liberty through the intercession of Queen Anne, and made his way to England, where he published RENNIE— RENOUF IOI his Histoire de la Bastille (7 vols., 1713-24), dedicated to George I. At the time of his death in 1723 he was a major of artillery in the service of the elector of Hesse. His other important work is a Recueil des voyages qui ont servi A I'itablissement de la Compagnie des Indes Orientates aux Provinces Unies (10 vols., new ed., Rouen, 1725). RENNIE, JOHN (1 761-1821), British engineer, was the youngest son of James Rennie, a farmer at Phantassie, Haddingtonshire, where he was born on the 7th of June 1761. On his way to the parish school at East Linton he used to pass the workshop of Andrew Meikle (17 19-1800), the inventor of the threshing machine, and its attractions were such that he spent there much of the time vhat was supposed to be spent at school. In his twelfth year he was placed under Meikle, but after two years he was sent to Dunbar High School, where he showed marked aptitude for mathematics. On his return to Phantassie he occasionally assisted Meikle, and soon began to erect corn mills on his own account. In 1780, while continuing his millwright's business, he began to attend the classes on physical science at Edinburgh University. Four years later he was commissioned by Boulton and Watt, to whom he was introduced by Professor John Robison (1739-1805), his teacher at Edinburgh, to super- intend the construction of the machinery for the Albion flour mills, which they were building at the south end of Blackfriars Bridge, London, and a feature of his work there was the use of iron for many portions of the machines which had formerly been made of wood. The completion of these mills established his reputation as a mechanical engineer, and soon secured him a large business as a maker of millwork of all descriptions. But his fame chiefly rests on his achievements in civil engineering. As a canal engineer his services began to be in request about 1790, and the Avon and Kennet, the Rochdale and the Lancaster canals may be mentioned among his numerous works in England. His skill solved the problem of draining and reclaiming extensive tracts of marsh in the eastern counties and on the Solway Firth. As a bridge engineer he was responsible for many structures in England and Scotland, among the most conspicuous being three over the Thames — Waterloo Bridge, Southwark Bridge and London Bridge — the last of which he did not live to see com- pleted. A noteworthy feature in many of his designs was the flat roadway. Among the harbours and docks in the construction of which he was concerned may be mentioned those at Wick, Torquay, Grimsby, Holyhead, Howth, Kingstown and Hull, together with the London dock and the East India dock on the Thames, and he was consulted by the government in respect of improvements at the dockyards of Portsmouth, Sheerness, Chatham and Plymouth, where the breakwater was built from his plans. He died in London on the 4th of October 1821, and was buried in St Paul's. In person he was of great stature and strength, and a bust of him by Chantrey (now in the National Gallery), when exhibited at Somerset House, obtained the name of Jupiter Tonans. Of his family, the eldest son George, who was born in London on the 3rd of September 1791 and died there on the 30th of March 1866, carried on his father's business in partnership with the second son John, who was born in London on the 30th of August 1794 and died near Hertford on the 3rd of September 1874. George devoted himself especially to the mechanical side of the business. John completed the con- struction of London Bridge, and at its opening in 1831 was made a knight. He succeeded his father as engineer to the Admiralty, and finished the Plymouth breakwater, of which he published an account in 1848. He was also the author of a book on the Theory, Formation and Construction of ■ British and Foreign Harbours (1851-54), and his Autobiography appeared in 1875. He was elected president of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1845, and held the office for three years. RENO, a city and the county-seat of Washoe county, Nevada, U.S.A., in the W. part of the state, on the Truckee river, and about 244 m. E. of San Francisco. Pop. (1890) 3563; (1900) 4500 (915 foreign-born); (1910 census) 10,867. It is served by the Southern Pacific, the Virginia & Truckee and the Nevada- California-Oregon railways. The city lies near the foot of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, 4484 ft. above the sea, and is in the most humid district of a state which has little rainfall. Among the public institutions are the university of Nevada (see Nevada), a United States Agricultural Experiment Station, a public library (1903), the Nevada Hospital for Mental Diseases (1882), the City and County Hospital and the People's Hospital. At Reno are railway shops (of the Nevada- California-Oregon railway) and re- duction works, and the manufactures include flour, foundry and machine-shop products, lumber, beer, plaster and packed meats. Farming and stock-raising are carried on extensively in the vicinity. On the site of the present city a road house was erected in 1859 for the accommodation of travellers and freight teams on their way to and from California. By 1863 this place had become known as Lake's Crossing, and five years later" it was chosen as a site for a station by the Central (now the Southern) Pacific railway, then building through the Truckee Valley. The new station was then named Reno, in honour of Gen. Jesse Lee Reno (1823-1862), a Federal officer during the Civil War, who was commissioned brigadier-general of volunteers in November 1861 and major-general of volunteers in July 1862, and led the Ninth Corps at South Mountain, where he was killed. The city twice suffered from destructive fires, in 1873 and 1879. Reno was incorporated as a town in 1879 and chartered as a city in 1899. Its city charter was withdrawn in 1901, but it was rechartered in 1903. RENOIR, FIRMIN AUGUSTE (1841- ), French painter, was born at Limoges in 1841. In his early work he followed, with pronounced modern modifications, certain traditions of the French 18th-century school, more particularly of Boucher, of whom we are reminded by the decorative tendency, the pink and ivory flesh tints and the facile technique of Renoir. In the 'seventies he threw himself into the impressionist movement and became one of its leaders. In some of his paintings he carried the new principle of the division of tones to its extreme, but in his best work, notably in some of his paintings of the nude, he retained much of the refined sense of beauty of colour of the 1 8th century. Renoir has tried his skill almost in every genre — in portraiture, landscape, flower-painting, scenes of modern life and figure subject; and though he is perhaps the most un- equal of the great impressionists, his finest works rank among the masterpieces of the modern French school. Among these are some of his nude " Bathers," the " Rowers' Luncheon," the " Ball at the Moulin de la Galette," " The Box," " The Terrace," " La Penste," and the portrait of " Jeanne Samary." He is represented in the Caillebotte room at the Luxembourg, in the collection of M. Durand-Ruel, and in most of the collections of impressionist paintings in France and in the United States. Comparatively few of his works have come to England, but the full range of his capacity was seen at the exhibition of impres- sionist art held at the Grafton Galleries in London in 1905. At the Viau sale in Paris in 1907, a garden scene by Renoir, " La Tonnelle," realized 26,000 frs., and a little head, " Inginue," 25,100 frs. RENOUF, SIR PETER LE PAGE (1822-1897), Egyptologist, was born in Guernsey, on the 23rd of August 1822. He was educated at Elizabeth College there, and proceeded to Oxford, which, upon his becoming a Roman Catholic, under the influence of Dr Newman, he quitted without taking a degree. Like many other Anglican converts, he proved a thorn in the side of the Ultramontane party in the Roman Church, though he did not, like some of them, return to the communion of the Church of England. He opposed the promulgation of the dogma of Papal Infallibility, and his treatise (1868) upon the condemnation of Pope Honorius for heresy by the council of Constantinople in A.D. 680 was placed upon the index of prohibited books. He had been from 1855 to 1864 professor of ancient history and Oriental languages in the Roman Catholic university which Newman vainly strove to establish in Dublin, and during part of this period edited the Atlantis and the Home and Foreign Review, which latter had to be discontinued on account of the hostility of the Roman Catholic hierarchy. In 1864 he was appointed a government inspector of schools, which position he 102 RENOUVIER— RENT held until 1886, when his growing celebrity as an Egyptologist procured him the appointment of Keeper of Oriental Antiquities in the British Museum, in succession to Dr Samuel Birch. He was also elected in 1887 president of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, to whose Proceedings he was a constant contri- butor. The most important of his contributions to Egyptology are his Hibbert Lectures on " The Religion of the Egyptians," delivered in 1879; and the translation of The Book of the Dead, with an ample commentary, published in the Transactions of the society over which he presided. He retired from the Museum under the superannuation rule iii 1891, and died in London on the 14th of October 1897. He had been knighted the year before his death. He married in 1857 Ludovica von Brentano, member of a well-known German literary family. RENOUVIER, CHARLES BERNARD (1815-1903), French philosopher, was born at Montpellier on the 1st of January 181 8, and educated in Paris at the Ecole Polytechnique. In early life he took an interest in politics, and the approval extended by Hippolyte Carnot to his Manuel republicain de I'homme et du citoyen (1848) was the occasion of that minister's fall. He never held public employment, but spent his life writing, retired from the world. He died on the 1st of September 1903. Ren- ouvier was the first Frenchman after Malebranche to formulate a complete idealistic system, and had a vast influence on the development of French thought. His system is based on Kant's, as his chosen term " Neo-criticisme " indicates; but it is a trans- formation rather than a continuation of Kantianism. The two leading ideas are a dislike to the Unknowable in all its forms, and a reliance on the validity of our personal experience. The former accounts for his acceptance of Kant's phenomenalism, combined with rejection of the thing in itself. It accounts, too, for his polemic on the one hand against a Substantial Soul, a Buddhistic Absolute, an Infinite Spiritual Substance; on the other hand against the no less mysterious material or dynamic substratum by which naturalistic Monism explains the world. He holds that nothing exists except presentations, which are not merely sensational, and have an objective aspect no less than a subjective. To explain the formal organization of our experience he adopts a modified version of the Kantian categories. The insistence on the validity of personal experience leads Renouvier to a yet more important divergence from Kant in his treatment of volition. Liberty, he says, in a much wider sense than Kant, is man's fundamental characteristic. Human freedom acts in the phenomenal, not in an imaginary notimenal sphere. Belief is not intellectual merely, but is determined by an act of will affirming what we hold to be morally good. In his religious views Renouvier makes a considerable approxima- tion to Leibnitz. He holds that we are rationally justified in affirming human immortality and the existence of a finite God who is to be a constitutional ruler, but not a despot, over the souls of men. He would, however, regard atheism as preferable to a belief in an infinite Deity. His chief works are: Essais de critique generate (1854-64), Science de la morale (1869), Uckronie (1876), Esqttisse d'une classification systematique des doctrines philosophiques (1885-86), Philosophic analytique de Vhistoire (1896-97), Histoire et solution des problemes metaphysiques (1901); Victor Hugo: Le Poete (1893), Le Philo- sophe (1900); Les Dilemmes de la metaphysique pure (1901); Le Personnalisme (1903) ; Critique de la doctrine de Kant (1906, pub- lished by L. Prat). See L. Prat, Les Dernier s entretiens de Charles Renouvier (1904) ; M. Ascher, Renouvier und der franzosische Neu-Kriticismus (1900) ; E. Janssens, Le Neocriticisme de C. R. (1904) ; A. Darlu, La Morale de Renouvier (1904); G. Seailles, La Philosophic de C. R. (1905); A. Arnal, La Philosophic religieuse de C. R. (1907). RENSSELAER, a city of Rensselaer county, New York, U.S.A., in the eastern part of the state, on the E. bank of the Hudson river, opposite Albany. Pop. (1900) 7466, of whom 1089 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 10,711. It is served by the New York Central and the Boston & Albany rail- ways, which have shops here, and is connected with Albany by three bridges across the Hudson. Rensselaer, originally called Greenbush, was first settled in 1631, and the site formed part of the large tract bought from the Indians by the agents of Killian van Rensselaer and known as Rensselaerwyck. In 1810 a square mile of land within the present city limits was acquired by a land speculator, was divided into lots and offered for sale. Development followed, and five years later the village was incorporated. In 1897 Greenbush was chartered as a city, and its name was changed to Rensselaer. Its limits were extended in 1902 by the annexation of the village of Bath (pop. in 1900, 2504) and the western part of the township of East Greenbush. Rensselaer manufactures knit-goods, wool shoddy, felt, &c. RENT. Various species of rent appear in Roman Law: rent (canon) under the long leasehold tenure of Emphyteusis; rent (reditus) of a farm; ground-rent (solarium); rent of state lands (vectigal); and the annual rent (prensio) payable for the jus superficiarum or right to the perpetual enjoy- ment of anything built on the surface of land. (See Roman Law.) English Law. (As to the rent of apartments, &c, see Lodger and Lodgings.) — Rent is a certain and periodical payment or service made or rendered by the tenant of a corporeal hereditament and issuing out of (the property of) such heredita- ment. Its characteristics, therefore, are (1) certainty in amount; (2) periodicity in payment or rendering; (3) the fact that rent is yielded and is, therefore, said " to lie in render," as distinguished from profits d prendre in general, which are taken, and are, therefore, said to lie in prendre; (4) that it must issue out of (the profits of) a corporeal hereditament. A rent cannot be reserved out of incorporeal hereditaments such as advowsons (Co. Litt. 47a, 142a). But rent may be reserved out of estates in reversion or remainder (see Real Property) which are not purely incorporeal. It is not essential that rent should consist in a payment of money. Apart from the rendering of services, the delivery of hens, horses, wheat; &c, may constitute a rent. But, at the present day, rent is generally a sum of money paid for the occupation of land. It is important to notice that this conception of rent was attained at a comparatively late period in the history of the law. The earliest rent seems to have been a form of personal service, generally labour on land, and was fixed by custom. The exaction of a competition or rack rent beyond that limited by custom was, if one may judge from the old Brehon law of Ireland, due to the presence upon the land of strangers in blood, probably at first outcasts from some other group. 1 The strict feudal theory of rent admitted labour on the lord's land as a lower form, and developed the military service due to the crown or a lord as a higher form. Rent service is the oldest and most dignified kind of existing rent. It is the only one to which the power of distress attaches at common law, giving the landlord a preferential right over other creditors exercisable without the intervention of judicial authority (see Distress). The increasing importance of socage tenure, arising in part from the convenience of paying a certain amount, whether in money or kind, rather than comparatively uncertain services, led to the gradual evolution of the modern view of rent as a sum due by contract between two independent persons. At the same time the primitive feeling which regarded the position of landlord and tenant from a social rather than a commercial point of view is still of importance. Rents, as they now exist in England, are divided C i a ff es t into two great classes — rent service and rent charge. Rent Service. — A rent service is so called because by 'it a tenure by means of service is created between the landlord and the tenant. The service is now represented by fealty, and is nothing more than nominal. Rent service is said to be incident to the reversion— that is, a grant of the reversion carries the rent with it (see Remainder). A power of distress is incident '"The three rents are: rack rent from a person of a strange tribe, a fair rent from one of the tribe, and the stipulated rent which is paid equally by the tribe and the strange tribe." — Senchus Mor, p. 159, cited by Maine, Village Communities, p. 187. See also Vinogradoff, Villainage in England (Oxford, 1892), pp. 181, 188, 215 ; The Growth of the Manor (by the same author) (London, 1905), pp. 230, 328; Pollock and Maitland, Hist. Eng. Law (Cambridge, 1895), ii. 128-134. RENT 103 at common law to this form of rent. Copyhold rents and rents reserved on lease fall into this class. Rent Charge. — A rent charge is a grant of an annual sum payable out of lands in which the grantor has an estate. It may be in fee, in tail, for life— the most common form— or for^ years. It must be created by deed or will, and may be either at common law or under the Statute of Uses (1536). The grantor has no reversion, and the grantee has at common law no power of distress, though such power may be given him by the instrument creating the rent charge. The Statute of Uses (1536) gave a power of distress for a rent charge created under the statute. The Conveyancing Act 1881, § 44, has given a power of distress for a sum due on any rent charge which is twenty-one days in arrear. By § 45 a power of redemption of certain per- petual rents in the nature of rent charges is given to the owner of the land out of which the rent issues. Rent charges granted since April 26th, 1855, otherwise than by marriage settlement or will for a life or lives or for any estate determinable on a life or lives must, in order to bind lands against purchasers, mort- gagees or creditors, be registered in the Land Registry in Lincoln's Inn Fields (Judgments Act 1855 and Land Charges Act 1900). In certain other cases it is also necessary to register rent charges, for instance, under the Improvement of Land Act 1864 and the Land Transfer Acts 1873 and 1897. Rent charges are barred by non-payment or non-acknowledgment for twelve years. The period of limitation for the arrears of such rent is six years. Various Forms of Rent Charge. — Forms of rent charge of special interest are tithe rent charge (see Tithes), and the rent charges formerly used for the purpose of creating " faggot votes." The device was adopted of creating parliamentary voters by splitting up freehold interests into a number of rent-charges of the annual value of 40s., so as to satisfy the freeholders' franchise. But such rent charges are now rendered ineffective by the Repre- sentation of the People Act 1884, § 4, which enacts (subject to a saving for existing rights and an exception in favour of owners of tithe rent charge) that a man shall not be entitled to be registered as a voter in respect of the ownership of any rent charge. A rent charge reserved without power of distress is termed a rent-seek {reditus siccus) or " dry rent," from the absence of the power of distress. But, as power of distress for rents-seek was given by the Landlord and Tenant Act 1736, the legal effect of such rents has been since the act the same as that of a rent charge. Other Varieties of Rent. — Rents of assize or Quit rents are a relic of the old customary rents. They are presumed to have been established by usage, and cannot be increased or diminished. A Quit rent {quietus reditus) is a yearly payment made from time immemorial by freeholders or copyholders of a manor to the lord. The term implies that the tenant thereby becomes free and quit from all other services. Owing to the change in the value of money, these rents are now of little value. Under the Conveyancing Act 1881 (s. 45) they may be compulsorily redeemed by the freehold tenant; and the Copyhold Act 1894 provides similarly for their extinction in the case of manors. Quit rents, like ordinary rent charges, are barred by non-payment, or non-acknowledgment, for twelve years. Those paid by freeholders are called chief rents. Fee farm rents are rents reserved on grants in fee. According to some authorities, they must be at least one-fourth of the value of the lands. They, like quit rents, now occur only in manors, unless existing before the Statute of Quia Emptores or created by the crown (see Real Property). A rent which is equivalent or nearly equivalent in amount to the full annual value of the land is a rack rent. A rent which falls appreciably short of a rack rent is usually styled a ground rent (q.v.). It is generally reserved on land which the lessee agrees to cover with buildings, and is calculated on the value of the land, though the buildings to be erected increase the security for the rent and revert to the lessor at the end of the term. A dead rent is a fixed annual sum paid by a person working a mine or quarry, in addition to royalties varying according to the amount of minerals taken. The object of a dead rent is twofold — first, to provide a specified income on which the lessor can rely; secondly (and this is the more important reason), as a security that the mine will be worked, and worked with reasonable rapidity. Rents in kind still exist to a limited extent; thus the corporation of London is tenant of some lands in Shropshire by payment to the crown of an annual rent of a fagot. All peppercorn, or nominal, rents seem to fall under this head. 1 The object of the peppercorn rent is to secure the acknowledgment by the tenant of the landlord's right. In modern building leases a peppercorn rent is sometimes reserved as the rent for the first few years. Services rendered in lieu of payment by tenants in grand and petit serjeanty may also be regarded as examples of rents in kind. Grand serjeanty is a form of tenure in chivalry under which the king's tenants (servientes) in chief owed special military or personal services to the king; e.g. carrying his banner. Petit serjeanty — a form of tenure in socage; — was usually applied to tenure of the king or a mesne lord by some fixed service of trivial value, e.g. feeding his hounds. These forms of tenure were abolished in 1660. Labour rents are represented by those cases, not untrequent in agricultural leases, where the tenant is bound to render the landlord a certain amount of team work or other labour as a part of his rent. It was held in the court of queen's bench in 1845 that tenants who occupied houses on the terms of sweeping the parish church and of ringing the church bell paid rent within the meaning of the Limitation Act of 1833 (see Doe v. Benham (1845), 7 Q.B. 976). As to the apportionment of rents, see Apportionment. Payment of Rent. — Rent is due in the morning "of the day appointed for payment, but a tenant is not in arrears until after midnight on that day. Rent made payable in advance by agreement between a landlord and his tenant is asto called forehand rent. It is not uncommon in letting payment. a furnished house, or as to the last quarter of the term of a lease of unfurnished premises, to stipulate that the rent shall be paid in advance. As soon as such rent is payable under the agreement the landlord has the same rights in regard to it as he has in the case of ordinary rent. If a tenant pays his rent before the day on which it is due, he runs the risk of being called upon in certain circumstances to pay it over again. Such a payment is an advance to the landlord, subject to an agreement that, when the rent becomes due, the advance shall be treated as a fulfilment of the tenant's obligation to pay rent. The payment is, therefore, generally speaking, a defence to an action by the landlord or his heirs. But if the landlord mortgages his reversion, either before or after the advance, the assignee will, by giving notice to the tenant, before the proper rent-day, to pay rent to him, become entitled to the rent then falling due. Pay- ment by cheque is conditional payment only, and if the cheque is dishonoured the original obligation revives. Where a cheque in payment of rent is lost in the course of transmission through the post, the loss falls on the tenant, unless the landlord has expressly or impliedly authorized it to be forwarded in that way: and the landlord's consent to take the risk of such trans- mission will not be inferred from the fact that payments were ordinarily made in this manner in the dealings between the parties. A tenant may deduct from his rent (i) the " land- lord's property tax " (on the annual value of the premises for income tax purposes), which is paid by the tenant, if the statute imposing the tax authorizes the deduction (which should be made from the rent next due after the payment); (ii) taxes or rates which the landlord had undertaken to pay but had not paid, payment having thereupon been made by the tenant; (iii) payments made by the tenant which ought to have been made by the landlord, e.g. rent due to a superior landlord; (iv) com- pensation under the Agricultural Holdings Acts 1883-1900. Remedies for Non-payment of Rent. — A landlord's main remedy for non-payment of rent is distress (Lat. distringere, to draw asunder, detain, occupy), i.e. the right to seize all goods found upon the demised premises, whether those of the tenant or of a stranger, except goods specially privileged, and to detain and, if need be, to sell them, in satisfaction of his claim. The requisites of a valid distress are these: (a) There must be " a certain and proper rent," i.e. rent due in respect of an actual tenancy of corporeal hereditaments: (b) the rent must be in arrear; (c) there must be a reversion in the person distrain- ing; and (d) there must be goods on the premises liable to be distrained. 1 When peppercorn rents were instituted, in the middle ages, they were not, however, nominal, the cost of spices being then very great. A peppercorn rent, generally an obligation to pay I ft) of pepper at the usual rent days, constituted a substantial impost even as late as the 18th century. 104 RENT All personal chattels are distrainable with the following excep- tions: (i) Goods absolutely privileged — (a) fixtures (q.v.); Q>) goods sent to the tenant in the way of trade; (c) things which cannot be restored, e.g. meat and milk; growing corn and corn in sheaves formerly fell within this category, but the Distress for Rent Act '737 ( s - 8) abolished this exemption in the case of the former, and a statute of 1690 abolished it' in that of the latter; (d) things in actual use, e.g. a horse while it is drawing a cart ; (e) animals ferae naturae (does and tame deer or deer in an enclosed park may be distrained) ; (/) things in the custody of the law, e.g. in the possession of a sheriff under an execution (q.v.) ; (g) straying cattle ; (h) in the case of agricultural holdings under the Agricultural Holdings Acts 1883-1900 hired agricultural machinery and breeding stock; (*') the wearing apparel and "bedding" — a term which includes " bedstead " — of tenant and his family, and the tools and implements of his trade to the value of £5 (Law of Distress Amendment Act 1888) ; (j) the goods of ambassadors and their suites (Diplomatic Privileges Act 1708). (ii) Goods conditionally privileged, i.e. privileged if there are sufficient goods of other kinds on the premises to satisfy the distress — (a) implements of trade not in actual use; (b) beasts of the plough and sheep; (c) agisted cattle; (d) growing crops sold under an execution (Landlord and Tenant Act 185 1, s. 2); (e) lodgers' goods. The Lodgers' Goods Protection Act 187 1 provides that where a lodger's goods have been seized by the superior landlord the lodger may serve him with a notice stating that the intermediate landlord had no interest in the property seized, but that it is the property, or in the lawful possession, of the lodger, and setting forth the amount of the rent due by the lodger to his immediate landlord. On payment or tender of such rent the landlord cannot proceed with the distress against the goods in question. In general, a landlord cannot distrain except upon the premises demised, but he has a statutory right to follow things clandestinely or fraudulently removed from the premises within 30 days after their removal, unless they have been in the meantime sold bona fide and for valuable consideration. A landlord may, by statute (Landlord and Tenant Act 1709, s. 6), distrain within six months after the determination of the lease provided that the tenant has remained in possession. A distress must be made in the daytime, i.e. not before sunrise or after sunset. Six years' arrears of rent only are recoverable by distress (Real Property Limitation Act 1833, s. 12): the Real Property Limitation Act 1874 (s. 1), which bars distress for rent after twelve years, applies to rent-charges and not to rent under a lease, and the six years' arrears may be recovered in spite of the lapse of time. In the case of agricultural tenancies falling within the Agricultural Holdings Acts 1883-1900, the right of distress is confined to one year's arrears of rent. Where the tenant is bankrupt, a distress levied after the bankruptcy is limited to six months' rent accrued due prior to the date of adjudica- tion; see Bankruptcy Act 1883 (s. 42) and 1890 (s. 28). Where a company is being wound up, the landlord may not distrain without the leave of the court. An extension of time is allowed in cases where in the ordinary course of dealing between landlord and tenant the payment of rent has been allowed to be deferred for a quarter or half year after the rent became legally due (act of 1883, s. 4). The landlord may distrain in person or may employ a certificated bailiff (Law of Distress Amendment Act 1888, s. 7). An uncerti- ficated person levying a distress is liable to a fine of £10, without prejudice to his civil liability (Law of Distress Amendment Act 1895, s - 2 )- The seizure must not be excessive (statute of Henry III., 1267); but enough must be taken to satisfy the claim, for the landlord cannot distrain twice for the same rent where he could have taken sufficient in the first instance. After being seized, the goods must be impounded (Distress for Rent Act 1707, s. 10; arid see the statute of 1690, s. 3, on impounding of corn, straw, hay; the Distress for Rent Act 1737, s. 8, on impounding of growing crops; and the statute of 1554 and the Cruelty to Animals Act 1849, s. 5, on impounding of cattle) ; and the landlord has a statutory power of sale (statute of 1690, s. 5). It is illegal to proceed with a distress if the tenant tenders the rent before the impounding; and a tenant has, by statute (1690, c. 5), five clear days' grace, excluding the date of seizure, between impounding and sale. On the written request of the tenant, this period will be extended to fifteen days (Law of Distress Amendment Act 1888, s. 6). A tenant may, before sale, recover goods illegally distrained by an action of replevin (L. Lat. replegiare, to redeem a thing taken by another). Where no rent was due to the distrainer the tenant may recover by action double the value of the goods sold (statute 1690, s. 5) ; and summary remedies for the recovery of the property have been created by modern enactments (Law of Distress Amendment Act 1895, s. 4, on distress of privileged goods; Agricultural Holdings Act 1883, s. 46). Where rent was due, but the distress was irregular, the tenant can only recover special damage (Distress for Rent Act 1737, s. 19). Goods taken under an execution {q.v.) are not removable till one year's rent has been paid to the landlord (Landlord and Tenant Act 1709). The landlord has, besides distress, his ordinary remedy by action. In addition, special statutory remedies are given in the case of tenants holding over after the expiration of their tenancy. By the Distress for Rent Act 1737 any tenant giving notice to quit, and holding over, is liable to pay double rent for such time as he continues in possession (see further under Ejectment). Ireland. — The main differences between Irish and English law have been caused by legislation (see Ejectment; Land- lord and Tenant). Scotland. — Rent is properly the payment made by tenant to landlord for the use of lands held under lease (see Landlord and Tenant). In agricultural tenancies the legal terms for the payment of rent are at Whitsunday after the crop has been shown, and at Martinmas after it has been reaped. But a landlord and tenant may substitute conventional terms of payment, either anticipating (fore, or forehand rent) or post- poning (back, or backhand rent) the legal term. The rent paid by vassal to superior is called feu-duty (see Feu). Its nearest English equivalent is the fee farm rent. The remedy of dis- tress does not exist in Scots law. Rents are recovered (i) by summary diligence, proceeding on a clause, in the lease, of consent to registration for execution; (ii) by an ordinary peti- tory action; (iii) by an action of " maills and duties " (the rents of an estate in money or grain: " maills " was a coin at one time current in Scotland) in the Sheriff Court or the Court of Session; and (iv) in non-agricultural tenancies by procedure under the right of hypothec, where that still exists; the right of hypothec over land exceeding 2 acres in extent let for agri- culture or pasture was abolished as from November 11, 1881 (see Hypothec); (v) by action of removing (see Ejectment). Arrears of rent prescribe in five years from the time of the tenant's removal from the land. Labour or service rents were at one time very frequent in Scot- land. The events of 171 5 and 1745 showed the vast influence over the tenantry that the great proprietors acquired by such means. Accordingly acts of 1716 and 1746 provided for the commutation of services into money rents. Such services may still be created by agreement, subject to the summary power of commutation by the sheriff given by the Conveyancing Act 1874 (§§ 2 °> 2I )- " In the more remote parts of Scotland it is understood that there still exist customary returns in produce of various kinds, which being regulated by the usage of the district or of the barony or estate cannot be comprehended under any general rule " (Hunter, Landlord and Tenant, ii. 298). Up to 1848 or 1850 there existed in Scot- land " steelbow " leases — analogous to the chetel de fer of French law (see Landlord and Tenant) — by which the landlord stocked the farm with corn, cattle, implements, &c, the tenant returning similar articles at the expiration of his tenancy and paying in addition to the ordinary rent a steelbow rent of 5 % on the value of the stock. As to the rent of apartments, &c, see Lodger and Lodgings. United Stales. — The law is in general accordance with that of England. The tendency of modern state legislation is unfavourable to the continuance of distress as a remedy. In the New England states, attachment on mesne process has, to a large extent, superseded it. In New York and Missouri it has been abolished by statute; in Mississippi the landlord has a claim for one year's rent on goods seized under an execution and a lien on the growing crop. In Ohio, Tennessee and Alabama it is not recognized, but in Ohio the landlord has a share in the growing crops in preference to the execution creditor. The legislatures of nearly all the states agree with the law of England as to the exemption from distress of household goods, wearing apparel, &c. (see Dillon's Laws and Jurisprudence of England and America, pp. 360, 361; also Homestead). As to the rent of apartments, &c, see Lodger and Lodgings. Fee farm rents exist in some states, like Pennsylvania, which have not adopted the statute of Quia Emptores as a part of their common law (Washburn's Real Property, ii. 252). Other Laws. — Under the French Code Civil (art. 2102) the land- lord is a privileged creditor for his rent. If the lease is by authentic act, or under private signature for a fixed term, he has a right over the year's harvest and produce, the furniture of the house and everything employed to keep it up, and (if a farm) to work it, in order to satisfy all rent due up to the end of the term. If the lease is not .by authentic act nor for a specified term, the landlord's claim is limited to the current year and the year next following (see law of 12th Feb. 1872). The goods of a sub-lessee are protected : and goods bailed or deposited with the tenant are in general not RENTON— REPLEVIN 105 liable to be seized. The French law is in force in Mauritius, and has been reproduced in substance in the Civil Codes of Quebec (arts. 2005 et seq.) and St Lucia (arts. 1888 et seq.). There are analogous provisions in the Spanish Civil Code (art. 1922). The subject of privileges and hypothecs is regulated in Belgium by a special law of the 16th Dec. 1 851; and in Germany by ss. 1 1 13 et seq. of the Civil Code. The law of British India as to rent (Transfer and Property Act 1882) and distress (cf., e.g., Act 15 of 1882) is similar to English law. The British dominions generally tend in the same direction. See, e.g., New South Wales (the consolidating Landlord and Tenant Act 1899); Newfoundland (Act 4 of 1899); Ontario (Act I of 1902, s. 22, giving a tenant five days for tender of rent and expenses after distress); Jamaica (Law 17 of 1900, certification of landlord's bailiffs) ; Queensland (Act 15 of 1904). Authorities. — English Law: Woodfall, Landlord and Tenant (18th ed., London, 1907) ; Foa, Landlord and Tenant (4th ed., London, 1907); Fawcett, Landlord and Tenant (3rd ed., London, 1905); Gilbert on Distress and Replevin (London, 1823) ; Bullen, Law of Distress (2nd ed., London, 1899) ; Oldham and Foster, Law of Distress (2nd ed., London, 1889). Scots Law: Hunter on Landlord and Tenant (4th ed., Edin., 1876); Erskine's Principles (20th ed., by Rankine, Edin., 1903) ; Rankine's Law of Landowner ship in Scot- land (3rd ed., Edin., 1891); Rankine's Law of Leases in Scotland (2nd ed., Edin., 1893). American Law: McAdam, Law of Landlord and Tenant (New York, 1900) ; Bouvier's Law Dictionary (ed. G. Rawle) (London and Boston, 1897), tit. " Distress " in " Ruling Cases"; Landlord and Tenant (American Notes) (London and Boston, 1894-1901). (A. W. R.) RENTON, a manufacturing town of Dumbartonshire* Scotland. Pop. (1901) 5067. It is situated on the Leven, 2 m. N.N.W. of Dumbarton by the North British and Caledonian railways. The leading industry is Turkey red dyeing, and calico-printing and bleaching are also carried on. A parish church stands on the site of Dalquhurn House, the birthplace of Tobias Smollett the novelist, to whose memory a Tuscan column was erected in 1774, the inscription for which was revised by Dr Johnson when he visited Bonhill in that year with Boswell. The town was founded in 1782 by Mrs Smollett— previously Mrs Telfer — of Bonhill (sister of Tobias Smollett), who resumed her maiden name when she succeeded to the Smollett estates; it was named after Cecilia Renton, daughter of John Renton of Blackadder, who had married Mrs Smollett's son, Alexander Telfer. RENWICK, JAMES (1662-1688), Scottish covenanting leader, was born at Moniaive in Dumfriesshire on the 15th of February 1662, being the son of a weaver, Andrew Renwick. Educated at Edinburgh University, he joined the section of the Covenanters known as the Cameronians about 1681 and soon became pro- minent among them. Afterwards he studied theology at the university of Groningen and was ordained a minister in 1683. Returning to Scotland " full of zeal and breathing forth threats of organized assassination," says Mr Andrew Lang, he became one of the field-preachers and was declared a rebel by the privy council. He was largely responsible for the " apologetical declaration " of 1684 by which he and his followers disowned the authority of Charles II.; the privy council replied by ordering every one to abjure this declaration on pain of death. Unlike some of his associates, Renwick refused to join the rising under the earl of Argyll in 1685; in 1687, when the declarations of indulgence allowed some liberty of worship to the Presbyterians, he and his followers, often called Renwickites, continued to hold meetings in the fields, which were still illegal. A reward was offered for his capture, and early in 1688 he was seized in Edinburgh. Tried and found guilty of disowning the royal authority and other offences, he refused to apply for a pardon and was hanged on the 17th of February 1688. Ren- wick was the last of the convenanting martyrs. See R. Wodrow, History of the Sufferings of the Church of Scot- land, vol. iv. (Glasgow, 1838); and A. Smellie, Men of the Covenant (1904) ; also Renwick's life by Alexander Shields in the Biographia Presbyteriana (1827). REP, Repp, or Reps, a cloth made of silk, wool or cotton. The name is said to have been adapted from the French reps, a word of unknown origin; it has also been suggested that it is a corruption of " rib." It is woven in fine cords or ribs across the width of the piece. In silk it is used for dresses, and to some extent for ecclesiastical vestments, &c. In wool and cotton it is used for various upholstery purposes. REPAIRS (from Lat. reparare, to make ready again), acts necessary to restore things to a sound state after damage; the question of repairs is important in the relations between landlord and tenant. (See the articles Flat; Landlord and Tenant.) REPEAL (O.F. rapel, modern rappel, from rapeler, rappder, revoke, re and appeler, appeal), the abrogation, revocation or annulling of a law (see Abrogation and Statute). The word is particularly used in English history of the movement led by Daniel O'Connell (q.v.) for the repeal of the act of Union between Great Britain and Ireland in 1830 and 1841-46, which in its later development became known as the Nationalist or Home Rule movement (see Ireland, History). REPIN, ILJA JEFIMOVICH (1844- ), Russian painter, was born in 1844 at Tschuguev in the department of Charkov, the son of parents in straitened circumstances. He learned the rudiments of art under a painter of saints named Bunakov, for three years gaining his living at this humble craft. In 1863 he obtained a studentship at the Academy of Fine Arts of St Petersburg, where he remained for six years, winning the gold medal and a travelling scholarship which enabled him to visit France and Italy. He returned to Russia after a short absence, and devoted himself exclusively to subjects having strong national characteristics. In 1894 he became professor of historical painting at the St Petersburg Academy. Repin's paintings are powerfully drawn, with not a little imagination and with strong dramatic force and characterization. A brilliant colourist, and a portrait-painter of the first rank, he also became known as a sculptor and etcher of ability. His chief pictures are " Procession in the Government of Kiev," " Home-coming," " The Arrest," " Ivan the Terrible's murder of his Son," and, best known of all, " The Reply of the Cossacks to Sultan Mahmoud IV." The portraits of the Baroness V. I. Ulskiil, of Anton Rubinstein and of Count Leo Tolstoy are among his best achievements in this class. The Tretiakov gallery at Moscow contains a very large collection of his work. See " Professor Repin," by Prince Bojidar Karageorgevich, in the Magazine of Art, xxiii. p. 783 (1899); " Russian Art," a paper by E. Brayley Hodgetts in the Proceedings of the Anglo-Russian Literary Society (5th of May 1896); " Ilja Jefimovich Repin," by Julius Norden, in Velhagen and Klasing's Monatshefte, xx. p. I (1905) ; also R. Muther, History of Modern Painting (ed. 1907), iv. 272. (E. F. S.) REPINGTON (or Repyngdon), PHILIP (d. 1424), English bishop and cardinal, was educated at Oxford and became an Augustinian canon at Leicester before 1382. A man of some learning, he came to the front as a defender of the doctrines taught by John Wycliffe; for this he was suspended and after- wards excommunicated, but in a short time he was pardoned and restored by Archbishop William Courtenay, and he appears to have completely abandoned his unorthodox opinions. In 1394 he was made abbot of St Mary de Pre at Leicester, and after the accession of Henry IV. to the English throne in 1399 he became chaplain and confessor to this king, being described as " clericus specialissimus domini regis Henrici." In 1404 he was chosen bishop of Lincoln, and in 1408 Pope Gregory XII. made him a cardinal. He resigned his bishopric in 1419. Some of Repington's sermons are in manuscript at Oxford and at Cambridge. REPLEVIN, an Anglo-French law term (derived from replevir, to replevy; see Pledge for further etymology) signifying the recovery by a person of goods unlawfully taken out of his possession by means of a special form of legal process; this falls into two divisions — (1) the " replevy," the steps which the owner takes to secure the physical possession of the goods, by giving security for prosecuting the action and for the return of the goods if the case goes against him, and (2) the " action of replevin " itself. The jurisdiction in the first case is in the County Court; in the second case the Supreme Court has also jurisdiction in certain circumstances. The proceedings are now regulated by the County Courts Act 1888. At common law, the ordinary action for the recovery of goods wrongfully taken would be one of detinue; but no means of immediate recovery io6 REPNIN— REPORTING was possible till the action was tried, and until the Common Law Procedure Act 1854 the defendant might exercise an option of paying damages instead of restoring the actual goods. The earliest regulations with regard to the action of replevin are to be found in the Statute of Marlborough (Marlebridge), 1267, cap. 21. For the early history, see Blackstone's Com- mentaries, iii. 145 seq. Only goods and cattle can be the subjects of an action for replevin. Although the action can be brought for the wrongful taking of goods generally, as long as the initial taking was wrongful and it was from the possession of the owner, it is practically confined to goods taken by an illegal as opposed to an excessive distress (see Distress and Rent, § Legal). REPNIN, the name of an old Russian princely family, the first of whom to gain distinction was Prince Anikita Ivanovich Repnin (1668-17 26), Russian general, and one of the collaborators of Peter the Great, with whom he grew up. On the occasion of the Sophian insurrection of 1689, he carefully guarded Peter in the Troitsa monastery, and subsequently took part in the Azov expedition, during which he was raised to the grade of general. He took part in all the principal engagements of the Great Northern War. Defeated by Charles XII. at Holowczyn, he was degraded to the ranks, but was pardoned as a reward for his valour at Lyesna and recovered all his lost dignities. At Poltava he commanded the centre. From the Ukraine he was transferred to the Baltic Provinces and was made the first governor-general of Riga after its capture in 17 10. In 1724 he succeeded the temporarily disgraced favourite, Menshikov, as war minister. Catherine I. created him a field-marshal See A. Bauman, Russian Statesmen of the Olden Time (Rus.), vol. i. (Petersburg, 1877). His grandson, Prince Nikolai Vasilevich Repnin (1734- 1801), Russian statesman and general, served under his father, Prince Vasily Anikitovich, during the Rhenish campaign of 1748 and subsequently resided for some time abroad, where he acquired " a thoroughly sound German education." He also participated in the Seven Years' War in a subordinate capacity. Peter III. sent him as ambassador in 1763 to Berlin. The same year Catherine transferred him to Warsaw as minister pleni- potentiary, with especial instructions to form a Russian party in Poland from among the dissidents, who were to receive equal rights with the Catholics Repnin convinced himself that the dissidents were too poor and insignificant to be of any real support to Russia, and that the whole agitation in their favour was factitious. At last, indeed, the dissidents themselves even petitioned the empress to leave them alone. It is clear from his correspondence that Repnin, a singularly proud and high- spirited man, much disliked the very dirty work he was called upon to do. Nevertheless he faithfully obeyed his instructions, and, by means more or less violent or discreditable, forced the diet of 1 768 to concede everything. The immediate result was the Confederation of Bar, which practically destroyed the ambas- sador's handiwork. Repnin resigned his post for the more congenial occupation of fighting the Turks. At the head of an independent command in Moldavia and Walachia, he prevented a large Turkish army from crossing the Pruth (1770); distin- guished himself at the actions of Larga and Kagula; and captured Izmail and Kilia. In 1771 he received the supreme command in Walachia and routed the Turks at Bucharest. A quarrel with the commander-in-chief, Rumyantsev, then induced him to send in his resignation, but in 1774 he participated in the capture of Silistria and in the negotiations which led to the peace of Kuchuk-KainarjL, In 1775-76 he was ambassador at the Porte. On the outbreak of the war of the Bavarian Suc- cession he led 30,000 men to Breslau, and at the subsequent congress of Teschen, where he was Russian plenipotentiary, compelled Austria to make peace with Prussia. During the second; Turkish war (1787-92) Repnin was, after Suvarov, the most successful of the Russian commanders. He defeated the Turks at Salcha, captured the whole camp of the seraskier, Hassan Pasha, shut him up in Izmail, and was preparing to reduce the place when he was forbidden to do so by Potemkin (1789). On the retirement of Potemkin (q.v.) in 1791, Repnin succeeded him as commander-in-chief, and immediately routed the grand vizier at Machin, a victory which compelled the Turks to accept the truce of Galatz (31st of July 1791). In 1794 he was made governor-general of the newly acquired Lithuanian provinces. The emperor Paul raised him to the rank of field-marshal (1796), and, in 1798, sent him on a diplomatic mission to Berlin and Vienna in order to detach Prussia from France and unite both Austria and Prussia against the Jacobins. On his return unsuc- cessful, he was dismissed the service. See A. Kraushar, Prince Repnin in Poland, 1764-8 (Pol.) (Warsaw, 1900); "Correspondence with Frederick the Great and others" (Rus. and Fr.), in Russky Arkhiv (1865, 1869, 1874, Petersburg); M. Longinov, True Anecdotes of Prince Repnin (Rus.) (Petersburg, 1865). (R. N. B.) REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rapporler, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c), an account or statement of events, speeches, proceedings, the results of investigations, &c, " brought back " by one who was present either casually or sent for the specific purpose, hence reputation, rumour. A special sense, that of a loud noise, as of the explosion of firearms, appears as early as the end of the 16th century. For the reports of speeches, parliamentary debates, &c, in the daily press see Reporting below, and for the particular form of law reporting see English Law; American Law. REPORTING, the art or business of reproducing in readable form, mainly for newspapers, but also for such publications as the Parliamentary or Law Reports, the words of speeches, or describing in narrative form the events, in contemporary history, by means of the notes made by persons known generally as reporters. The special business of reporting is a comparatively modern one, since it must not be confounded with the general practice of quoting, or of mere narrative, which is as old as writing. There was no truly systematic reporting until the beginning of the 19th century, though there was parliamentary reporting of a kind almost from the time when parliaments began, just as law reporting (which goes back to 1292) began in the form of notes taken by lawyers of discussions in court. The first attempts at parliamentary reporting, in the sense of seeking to make known to the public what was done and said in parlia- ment, began in a pamphlet published monthly in Queen Anne's time called The Political State. Its reports were mere indications of speeches. Later, the Gentleman's Magazine began to publish reports of parliamentary debates. Access to the Houses of Parliament was obtained by Edward Cave (q.v.), the publisher of this magazine, and some of his friends, and they took surreptitiously what notes they could. These were subsequently transcribed and brought into shape for publication by another hand. Dr Johnson for some years wrote the speeches, and he took care, as he admitted, not to let the " Whig dogs " get the best of it; the days of verbatim reporting were not yet come, and it was considered legitimate to make people say in print what substantially was supposed to represent their opinions. There was a strict parliamentary prohibition of all public reporting; but the Gentleman's Magazine appears to have continued its reports for some time without attracting the attention or rousing the jealousy of the House of Commons. The publisher, encouraged by immunity from prosecution by parliament, grew bolder, and began in his reports to give the names of the speakers. Then he was called to account. A standing order was passed in 1728, which declared " that it is an indignity to, and a breach of, the privilege of this House for any person to presume to give, in written or printed news- papers, any account or minute of the debates or other proceed- ings; that upon discovery of the authors, printers or publishers of any such newspaper this House will proceed against the offenders with the utmost severity." Under this and other standing orders, Cave's reports were challenged, with the result that they appeared without the proper names of the speakers, and under the guise of " Debates in the Senate of Lilliput," REPORTING 107 or some other like title. France was Blefuscu; London was Mildendo; pounds were sprugs; the duke of Newcastle was the Nardac secretary of state; Lord Hardwicke was the Hurgo ' Hickrad; and William Pulteney was Wingul Pulnub. In the latter half of the century the newspapers began to report parliamentary debates more fully, with the result that, in 1 771, several printers, including those of the Morning Chronicle and the London Evening Post, were ordered into custody for publishing debates of the House of Commons. A long and bitter struggle between the House and the public ensued. John Wilkes took part in it. The lord mayor of London and an alderman were sent to the Tower for refusing to recognize the Speaker's warrant for the arrest of certain printers of parlia- mentary reports. But the House of Commons was beaten. In 1772 the newspapers published the reports as usual; and their right to do so has never since been really questioned. Both Houses of Parliament, indeed, now show as much anxiety to have their debates fully reported as aforetime they showed resentment at the intrusion of the reporter. Elaborate pro- vision is made in the House of Lords and in the House of Commons for reporters. They have a Press Gallery in which they may take notes, writing rooms in which those notes may be extended, and a special dining-room. Reporting is nowhere carried to such an extent as in the United Kingdom, since in most other countries the newspapers do not find it sufficiently interesting " copy " for their readers to justify the amount of space required. Consequently the verbatim reports, though now no longer hindered by law, and made possible by shorthand (which was first employed in the service of parliament in 1802) and by all the arts of communication and reproduction, are considerably restricted. But parliamentary work is only a small part of newspaper reporting. The newspapers in the beginning of the 19th century rarely contained more than the barest outline of any speech or public address delivered in or in the neighbourhood of the towns where they were published. After the peace of 1815 a period of much political fermentation set in, and the newspapers began to report the speeches of public men at greater length. It was not, however, until well into what may be called the railway era that any frequent effort was made- by English newspapers to go out of their own district for the work of reporting. The London newspapers had before this led the way. Early in the 19th century, greater freedom of access to both Houses was given, and the manager of the Morning Chronicle established a staff of reporters. Each reporter took his "turn"— that is, he took notes of the proceedings for a certain time, and then gave place to a colleague. The reporter who was relieved at once extended his notes, and thus prompt publication of the debates was made possible. The practice grew until there was a good deal of competition among the papers as to which should first issue a report of any speech of note in the country. Reporters had frequently to ride long distances in post-chaises, doing their best as they jolted along the roads to transcribe their notes, so that they might be ready for the printer on arrival at their destination. Charles Dickens, whose efforts in the way of reporting were celebrated, used to tell several stories of his adventures of this kind while he held an engagement on the Morning Chronicle. One result was that the provincial news- papers were stimulated to greater efforts, and as daily news- papers sprang up in all directions, and the electric telegraph provided greater facilities for reporting, the old supremacy of the London journals in this department of newspaper work gradually disappeared. No public man made a speech but it was faithfully reproduced in print. Local governing bodies, charitable institutions, political associations, public companies — all these came in a short time to furnish work for the reporter, and had full attention paid to them. By the second half of the 19th century, parliamentary reporting was a leading feature of the London newspapers. They had a monopoly of it. All * the reporting arrangements in the House of Lords and in the House of Commons were made with sole regard to their require- ments. There had indeed been a long battle between The Times and some of the other London newspapers as to which should have the best parliamentary report, and The Times had established its supremacy, which has never been shaken. The provincial newspapers were in the main obliged to copy the London reports, and rarely made any attempt to get reports of their own. When the electric telegraph came into use for commercial purposes a change began. The company which first carried wires from London to the principal towns in the country started a reporting service for the country newspapers. In addition, it procured admission to the parliamentary galleries for reporters in its employment, and began to send short accounts of the debates to the newspapers in the country. These news- papers were thus enabled to publish in the morning some account of the parliamentary proceedings of the previous night, instead of having to take like reports a day later from the London journals. The telegraph companies (not yet taken over by the state) for a long time could or would do no more than they had begun by doing; and they offered no inducements to the pro- vincial newspapers to telegraph speeches. The public meanwhile wanted to know more fully what their representatives were saying in parliament, and gradually the leading provincial newspapers adopted the practice of employing reporters in the service of the London journals to report debates on subjects of special interest in localities; and these reports, forwarded by train or by post, were printed in full, but of course a day late. The London papers paid little attention to debates of local interest, and thus the provincial papers had parliamentary reporting which was not to be found elsewhere. Bit by bit this feature was developed. It was greatly accelerated by a movement which the Scotsman was the first to bring about. About 1865, a new company having come into existence, it was agreed that wires from London should be put at the disposal of such newspapers as desired them. Each newspaper was to have the use of a wire — of course on payment of a large subscrip- tion — from six o'clock at night till three o'clock in the morning. This was the beginning of the " special wire " which now plays so important a part in the production of almost all newspapers. The arrangement was first made by the Scotsman and by other newspapers in Scotland. The special wires were used to their utmost capacity to convey reports of the speeches of leading statesmen and politicians; and, instead of bare summaries of what had been done, the newspapers contained pretty full reports. When the telegraphs were taken over by the state in 1870 the facilities for reporting were increased in every direction. The London papers, with the exception of The Times, had given less and less attention to parliamentary debates, while on the other hand several of the provincial newspapers were giving more space than ever to the debates. These newspapers had to get their reports as best they could. The demand for such reporting had led, on the passing of the telegraphs into the hands of the state, to the formation of news agencies, which undertook to supply the provincial papers. These agencies were admitted to the reporters' galleries in the Houses of Parliament, but the reports which any agency supplied were identical; that is to say, all the newspapers taking a particular class of report had exactly the same material supplied to them — the reporter producing the number of copies required by means of manifold copying paper. Accordingly attempts were made to get separate reports by engaging the services of some of the reporters employed by the London papers. The ' ' gallery " was shut to all save the London papers and the news agencies. The Scotsman sought in vain to break through this exclusiveness. The line, it was said, must be drawn somewhere, and the proper place to draw it was at the London Press. Once that line was departed from every newspaper in the kingdom must have admission. But in 1880 a select committee of the House of Commons was appointed to consider the question. It took evidence, and it reported in favour of the extension of the gallery and of the admission of provincial papers. The result was that three or four papers which would be satisfied with the same report joined in providing the necessary reporting io8 REPOUSSE— REPRESENTATION staff. In other cases individual newspapers put themselves on the same footing as the London newspapers by engaging separate staffs of reporters. The effect of telegraphic improvements may be partially gauged by the fact that in 1871 the number of words handed in for transmission through the British Post Office for Press purposes (special rates being allowed) was 22,000,000, and that in 1900 it had risen to 835,000,000. Meanwhile the evolution of the modern newspaper had brought many other kinds of reporting, besides parliamentary, into play. What is commonly called " descriptive reporting " has in some cases nearly shouldered the reporting of speeches out of news- papers. The special correspondent or the war correspondent is a " descriptive reporter." The '' interviewer " came into great prominence during the " eighties " and " nineties," and the influence of American journalistic methods, which made smart reporting the most valuable commercial asset of the popular newspaper, and the reporter correspondingly important, spread to other countries. No daily newspaper now confines its reporting to the affairs of the part of the country in which it is published. The electric telegraph has made the work of the reporter more arduous and his responsibility greater. The variety of work open to reporting causes considerable difference, of course, in the professional status of the journalists who do such work. This subject generally is discussed in the article Newspapers, but one instance of the recognition of the modern reporter's responsibility is worth special mention. In the year 1900, in the English case of Walter v. Lane (see Copyright), it was decided, on the final appeal to the House of Lords, that the reporter of a speech, printed verbatim in a newspaper, was under the Copyright Act of 1842 to be considered the " author." Absurd as it might seem to call the reporter the author of another man's speech, the decision gave effect to the fact that it is his labour and skill which bring into existence the " copy " to which alone can right of property attach. Strictly speaking, he is the author of the report of the speech ; but for literary purposes the report is the speech. It must, however, be borne in mind that there may be more than one verbatim report, and therefore more than one " author." See also Newspapers; Shorthand; Press Laws; Telegraph. REPOUSSE (Fr. " driven back "), the art of raising designs upon metal by hammering from the back, while the " ground " is left relatively untouched (see Metal Work and Plate). The term is often loosely used, being applied indifferently to " embossing." Embossing is also called " repousse sur coquille " and " estampage," but the latter consists of embossing by mechanical means and is therefore not to be considered as an art process. Moreover, it reverses the method of repousse, the work being done from the front, and by driving down the ground leaving the design in relief. Gold, silver, bronze, brass, etc., being easily malleable metals, are specially suitable to repouss6, which at the present day, in its finer forms, is mainly employed for silver-plate and jewelry. The silver-plate in repousse of Gilbert Marks (d. 1905) in England, and the portrait-plaques from life by Stephan Schwartz (b. in Hungary, 1851) in Austria, are noteworthy modern examples of the art. Repousse — a term of relatively recent adoption, employed to differentiate the process from embossing — has been known from remote antiquity. Nothing has ever excelled, and little has ever approached, the perfection of the bronzes of Siris (4th century B.C., in the British Museum), of which the armour- plate — especially the shoulder-pieces — presents heroic figure- groups beaten up from behind with punches from the flat plate until the heads and other portions are wholly detached— that is to say, in high relief from the ground of which they form a part. Yet the metal, almost as thin as paper, is practically of constant thickness, and nowhere is there any sign of puncture. The " Bernay treasure," in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, discovered in 1830, belongs to the 2nd century B.C., and includes silver vases of Roman execution decorated with groups in mezzo-relief, beaten up in sections and soldered together. The best of these, of which perhaps the finest is that known from its subject as " La nymphe de la fontaine Pirene et Pegase," belong to the noblest period of Roman art. The Hildesheim treasure (discovered 1868) comprises a patera on the ground of which is a superb emblema representing Minerva in high relief. These repousse emblemata were usually of another metal and applied to the vase which they decorated; indeed repousse was of leading importance in caelatura, or the metallic art (statuary excepted) of classic times. Thus the patera of Hildesheim, the patera of Rennes, and the earlier shoulder-plate of the Siris bronze may be accepted as illustrative of the highest develop- ment of repouss6. The art was not only Greek and Graeco-Roman in its early practice; it was pursued also by the Assyrians, the Phoenicians, and other oriental peoples, as well as in Cyprus and elsewhere, and was carried forward, almost without a break, although with much depreciation of style and execution, into medieval times. In the nth century the emperor Henry II. presented as a thank- offering to the Basel cathedral the altar-piece, in the Byzantine style, decorated with fine repousse panels of gold (representing Jesus Christ with two angels and two saints), which is now in the Cluny Museum in Paris. Up to this time, also, repousse instead of casting in metal was practised for large work, and Limoges became a centre for the manufacture and exportation of sepul- chral figures in repousse bronze. These were affixed to wooden cores. By the time of Benvenuto Cellini the art was confined almost entirely to goldsmiths and silversmiths (who, except Cellini himself, rarely cast their work) ; and to them the sculptors and artists of to-day are still content to relegate it. The elementary principle of the method, after the due prepara- tion and annealing of the plate, was to trace on the back of it the design to be beaten up, and to place it face downwards upon a stiff yet not entirely unresisting ground (in the primitive stage of development this was wood), and then with hammers and punches to beat up the design into relief. According to Cellini, his master Caradosso da Milano would beat up his plate on a metal casting obtained from a pattern he had previously modelled in wax; but he is not sufficiently explicit to enable us to judge whether this casting was hollow mould, which would result in true repousse, or in the round, which is tantamount to repoussi sur coquille, or embossing. Nowadays the plate is laid upon and affixed to a " pitch- block," a resinous ground docile to heat, usually composed of pitch mixed with pounded fire-brick, or, for coarser work such as brass, with white sand, with a little tallow and resin. This compound, while being sufficiently hard, is elastic, solid, adhesive and easy to apply and remove. Gold and silver are not only the densest and most workable but the most ductile metals, admitting of great expansion without cracking if properly annealed. The tools include hammers, punches (in numerous shapes for tracing, raising, grounding, chasing and texturing the surfaces), together with a special anvil called in French a recingle or ressing, in English " snarl." The recingle, or small anvil with projecting upturned point, was known in the 16th century. This point is introduced into the hollow of the vase or other vessel such as punch and hammer cannot freely enter, which it is desired to ornament with reliefs. A blow of a hammer on that part of the anvil where the prolongation first projects from it, produces, by the return spring, a corresponding blow at the point which the operator desires to apply within the vase. The same effect is produced by the modern " snarl " or " snarling iron " — a bar of steel, with an inch or two of the smaller end upturned and ending in a knob — held firmly in a tightly screwed- up vice, whereby the blow is similarly repeated or echoed by vibration. The repousse work, when complete, is afterwards finished at the front and chased up. The same vase, to be worked up by embossing, would be filled with " cement " and laid on a sand-bag, and finally the whole would be heated and the cement run out. In the case of repousse the vase itself may be beaten up out of the metal on the pitch-block. It must be understood that in order to obtain a result not merely excellent in technique but artistic and unmechanical in effect, the blows of the hammer must be made with feeling and " sentiment,' 1 otherwise the result cannot be a work of art. See C. G. Leland, Repousse Work (New York, 1885); and Gaw- thorp, A Manual of Instruction in the Art of Repousse (London, 2nd ed., 1899). (M. H. S.) REPRESENTATION, a term used in various senses in different connexions, but particularly in a political meaning, which has developed out of the others. REPRESENTATION 109 The word. The word "represent " comes from Lat. re-praesentare, to " make present again," or " bring back into presence," and its history in English may be traced fairly well by the citations given in the New English Dictionary of its earliest uses in literature in senses which are still common. Thus we find the verb meaning (1380) simply to "bring into presence," and Barbour uses it (1375) in the sense of bringing clearly before the mind, whence the common sense of " explain," "exhibit," "portray." In 1513 it is used as synonymous with " describe," or " allege to be." In 1460 we find it em- ployed for the performance of a play or a part in a play, whence comes the sense of symbolizing, standing in the place of some one, or corresponding to something; and in 1655 for acting as authorized agent or deputy of some one. This is a notable point in the development of the word. In Cromwell's speech to the parliament, January 22, 1655, he says: "I have been careful of your safety, and the safety of those you repre- sented." This strictly political use of the verb developed, it will be seen, comparatively late. The noun " representation " passed through similar stages. In 1425 we find it equivalent to " image," " likeness," " repro- duction," " picture," from which is derived a meaning hardly distinguishable from "pretence." In 1553 it means a "state- ment " or " account," a sense which leads later (1679) to that of a formal and serious plea or remonstrance. In 1589 it occurs for a performance of a play. In 1647 it is used in psychology for the action of mental reproduction, a technical sense which applies especially to the " immediate object of imagination " (Sir W. Hamilton), and in Kantian language becomes the generic term for percepts, concepts and ideas. In 1624 it comes to mean " substitution of one thing or person for another," " substituted presence " as opposed to " actual presence," or " the fact of standing for, or in place of, some other thing or person," especially with a right or authority to act on their account. Its application to a political assembly then becomes natural, but for some time it is not so found in literature, the sense remaining rather formal. Good instances of this use are: Gataker, Transubst. 4: "The Rocke was Christ onely symbolically and sacramentally, by representation or re- semblance " ; and R. Coke, Power and Subj. iii. : " So cannot these members be formed into one body but by the king, either by his Royal Presence or representation." Thus " presence " and " representation " are used in distinctive meanings. In Scots law (1693) it obtains the technical meaning of the assump- tion by an heir of his predecessor's rights and obligations. The term " representative," now specially applied to an elected member of a national or other assembly, deriving his authority from the constituency which returns him, appears to have been first used to denote not the member but the assembly itself. In the act abolishing the office of king, after Charles I.'s execution, 1649, section iv. runs: " And whereas by the abolition of the kingly office provided for in this Act, a most happy way is made for this nation (if God see it good) to return to its just and ancient right of being governed by its own Representatives or national meetings in council, from time to time chosen and entrusted for that purpose by the people, it is therefore resolved and declared by the Commons assembled in Parliament," &c, " and that they will carefully provide for the certain choosing, meeting and sitting of the next and future Representatives," &c. But the application of the term to the persons who sat in parliament was at all events very soon made, for in 1651 Isaac Penington the younger published a pamphlet entitled " The fundamental right, safety and liberty of the People; which is radically in themselves, derivatively in the Parliament, their substitutes or representatives." It is worth while to dwell on the historical evolution of the various meanings of " represent," " representation " and " representative," because it is at least curious that it was not till the 17th century that the modern political or parliamentary sense became attached to thern; and it is well to remember that though the idea of political representation is older and thus afterwards is expressed by the later meaning of. the word, the actual use of " representation " in such a sense is as modern as that. In Burke's speeches of 1769 1 and 1774-1775, relating to taxation, we find the word in this sense already in common use, but the familiar modern doctrine of " no taxation without representation," however far back the idea may be traced, is not to be found in Burke in those very words. The " originator of that immortal dogma of our {i.e. American) national greatness " was, according to the American writer M. C. Tyler (Amer. Lit. i. 1 54), the politician and philanthropist Daniel Gookin (1612-1687), an Irish settler in Virginia, who, moving to Boston and becoming speaker of the Massachusetts legislature, became prominent in standing up for popular rights in the agitation which resulted in the withdrawal of the colonial charter (1686). But it was the vogue of the " dogma " in America, not its phrase, that he seems to have originated; and while the precise form of the phrase does not appear to be attributable to any single author, the principle itself was asserted in England long before the word " representation," in a political sense, was current. In English constitutional history the principle was substantially established in 1 297 by the declaration De Tallagio non concedendo, 1 confirmed by the Petition of Right in 1628. The growth of the parliamentary system in England is traced in the article Parliament, but the account there given may be supplemented here by a more precise reference to The idea the evolution of the idea of political " representa- ot political tion " as such, and of its embodiment in the word now represen- employed to express it. The simple idea of the substi- ""' lution of one person for another, in some connexion, e.g. hostage, pledge, victim, is so old as to be only describable as primitive; it is found in the proxy system, e.g. in marriage, and in diplo- macy, the legate or ambassador being the alter ego of his sovereign; but, so far as general political legislative action, by one man in an assembly on behalf of others, is concerned, no systematic employment of a " deputy " (the word still used both in a general sense and in politics as a synonym for "repre- sentative ") is known among the ancients. So long as political power rests in a small privileged class, such an idea must be slow to develop; and the primitive notion of a law-making body is that of all the members present in person, as in ancient Greece. But, as Stubbs {Const. Hist. i. 586) points out, the early English jury system (see Jury) shows the germ of the true idea of representation in England; it was the established practice of electing or selecting juries to present criminal matters before the king's judges, and assessors to levy taxes on the county, that suggested the introduction of popular representation in the English political system, and thus brought " the commons " into play in addition to the Crown and the nobles. Under Henry III., in 1254, we have the writ (see Parliament) requir- ing the sheriff of each county to " cause to come 3 before the King's Council two good and discreet Knights of the Shire, whom the men of the county shall have chosen for this purpose in the stead of all and of each of them, to consider along with knights of other shires what aid they will grant the king." But the definite establishment of the principle of political representa- tion, in a shape from which the later English system of repre- sentation lineally descended, may be traced rather to the year 1295, in Edward I.'s famous writ of summons to parliament, of which the following is the important part. In the volume of Select Documents of English Constitutional History (1901), selected by G. B. Adams and H. M. Stephens, whose version from the Latin we quote, the section is headed (ante-dating the use of the vital word), " Summons of representatives of the counties and boroughs ": — " The king to the sheriff of Northamptonshire. Since we intend to have a consultation and meeting with the earls, barons and other principal men of our kingdom with regard to providing remedies 1 The New English Dictionary, for its first citation of " repre- sentation " in an assembly, quotes Burke, Late St Nat., Works, ii. 138, i.e. in 1769. 2 " No tallage or aid shall be laid or levied by us or our heirs in our realm, without the goodwill and assent of the archbishops, bishops, earls, barons, knights, burgesses and other freemen of our realm. * " Venire facias," not " elegi facias." no REPRESENTATION la England. against the dangers which are in these days threatening the same kingdom : and on that account have commanded them to be with us on the Lord's Day next after the feast of St Martin in the ap- proaching winter, at Westminster, to consider, ordain and do as may be necessary for the avoidance of these dangers: we strictly require you to cause two knights from the aforesaid county, two citizens from each city in the same county and two burgesses from each borough, of those who are especially discreet and capable of labouring, to be elected without delay, and to cause them to come to us at the aforesaid time and place. Moreover, the said knights are to have full and sufficient power for themselves and for ihe com- munity of the aforesaid county, and the said citizens and burgesses for themselves and the communities of the aforesaid cities and boroughs separately, then and there, for doing what shall then be ordained according to the Common Council in the premises, so that the aforesaid business shall not remain unfinished in any way for defect of this power. And you shall have there the names of the knights, citizens and burgesses, and this writ." The words " Elegi facias," instead of " venire facias " (which were retained in 1275; see Parliament), still appear to make the parliament of 1295 the model, rather than that of 1275, though in other respects the latter appears now to have established the summoning of county and borough representatives. In this summoning by the king of the two knights and two burgesses with full and sufficient power for themselves and for Growth ^ e community, we find therefore the origin of political ofrepre- representation of the commons, as opposed to the sentailoa actual presence and personal attendance of the peers. The older English national assemblies had consisted of the privileged class fully summoned as individuals. The change involved has been well explained by E. A. Freeman (Ency. Brit., 9th ed., viii. 297), when he says: "The national assemblies changed their character ... by no cause so much as by the growth of the practice of summons. ... In the great assembly at Salisbury (1086), where all the land- owners of England became the men of the king (William the Conqueror), we see the first germs of Lords and Commons. The Witan are distinguished from the ' land-sitting men.' By the Witan, so called long after the Conquest, we are doubtless to understand those great men of the realm who were usually summoned to every assembly. The vast multitude who came to do their homage to the king were summoned only for that particular occasion. The personal right of summons is the essence of the peerage. . . . The earls and bishops of England, by never losing their right to the personal summons, have kept that right to personal attendance in the national assembly which was once common to all freemen, but which other free- men have lost. The House of Lords represents 1 by unbroken succession the Witan of the assembly of Salisbury, that is, it represents by unbroken succession the old assemblies of the Teutonic democracy. . . . The ' land-sitting men,' on the other hand, not summoned personally or Fegularly, but summoned in a mass when their attendance was specially needed, gradually lost the right of personal attendance, till in the end they gained the more practical right of appearing by their representatives." From the same authority the account of the intermediate stages in the adoption of the representative principle may be further quoted: — - " By the time of Henry II. the force of circumstances, especially the working of the practice of summons, had gradually changed the ancient assembly of the whole nation into a mere gathering of the great men of the realm. ... It is in the reign of Richard I. that we begin to see the first faint glimmerings of parliamentary represen- tation. . . . The object of his wise ministers, of Archbishop Hubert among the first, was to gain the greatest amount of money for their master with the least amount of oppression towards the nation. Under Hubert's administration, chosen bodies of knights or other lawful men, acting in characters which became more and more dis- tinctly representative, were summoned for every kind of purpose. How far they were nominated, how far freely elected, is not always clear. It seems most likely that in one stage they were nominated by the sheriff in the county court, while at a later stage they were chosen by the county court itself. In other words, the principle of representation was first established, and then the next stage naturally 1 The inevitable use of the word " represent " in its wider sense (" corresponds to "), is worth noting in this passage from Freeman, side by side with the more technical one in representative " (" chosen delegate "). was that the representatives should be freely chosen. Summo*ed bodies of knights appear in characters which are the forerunners of grand jurors and of justices of the peace. They appear also in a character which makes them distinctly forerunners of the knights of the shire which were soon to come. A chosen body of knights have to assess the imposts on each shire. From assessing the taxes the next stage was to vote or to refuse them. In 1213 the sheriffs are called on to summon four discreet men from each shire, to come and speak with the king about the affairs of the realm. When we have reached this stage, we have come very near to a parliament, name and thing. The reign of John, in short, is marked by common consent as the time from which Englishmen date the birth of their national freedom in its later form . . The (Great) Charter (1215) is the first solemn act of the united English nation after Norman conquerors and Norman settlers had become naturalized Englishmen. . . . Representation was already fast growing up; but it had hardly yet reached such a stage that it could be ordained in legal form. But rules are laid down out of which, even if it had not begun already, representation in the strictest sense could not tai; shortly to arise. The distinction which had been growing up ever since the Conquest, and indeed before, between the Witan and the land-sitting men, now receives a legal sanction. The practice oi summons makes the distinction. Certain great men, prelates, earls and greater barons, are to receive the personal summons. The rest of the king's tenants-in-chief are to be summoned only in a body. Here we have almost come to a separation of Lords and Commons. But in modern ideas those names imply two distinct houses; and it was not yet settled, it had not yet come into men's minds to consider, whether the national council should consist of one house or a dozen. But if is decreed in so many words that the acts of those who came would bind those who stayed away. On such a provision, representation, and not only representation but election o.f the representatives, follows almost as a matter of course- The mass stay away: a few appear, specially commissioned to act in the name of the rest. The Charter mentions only the king's tenants-in-chief; so far had things been marred or feudalized by the influence of the Conquest. But as the election could only be made in the, ancient county court, every freeholder at least, if not every freeman, won back his ancient right. If he could not come himself to say Yea or Nay, he at least had a voice in choosing those who could do so with greater effect." .(Ibid. pp. 307, 308.) " The constitution of the (national) assembly, as defined in the Great Charter, did not absolutely imply representation; but it showed that the full establishment of representation could not be long delayed. The work of the period 1217-1340 was to call up, alongside of the gathering of prelates, earls and other great men specially summoned, into which the ancient Witanagemot had shrunk up, another assembly directly representing all other classes of the nation which enjoyed political rights. This assembly, chosen by various local bodies, communitates or universitates, having a quasi corporate being, came gradually to bear the name of the commons. The knights of the shire, the barons, citizens and burgesses of the towns, were severally chosen by the communa or communitas of that part of the people which they represented." 2 " The notion of local representation, by which shires and boroughs chose representatives of their own communities, had to some extent to strive with another doctrine, that of the representation of estates or classes of men. The 13th century was the age when the national assemblies, not only of England but of most other Euro- pean countries, were putting on their definite shape. And in most of them the system of estates prevailed. These in most countries were three, — clergy, nobles and commons. By these last were commonly meant only the communities of the chartered towns, while the noblesse of foreign countries answered to the lesser barons and knights, who in England were reckoned among the commons. The English system thus went far to take in the whole free popula- tion, while the estates of other countries, the commons, no less than the clergy and nobles, must be looked on as privileged bodies. In England we had in truth no estates: we had no nobility in the foreign sense. . . . Yet the continental theory of estates so far worked in the development of our parliamentary system that the ' Three Estates of England ' became a familiar phrase. It was meant to denote the lords, the commons and the clergy in their parliamentary character. For it is plain that it was the intention of Edward I. to organize the clergy as a parliamentary estate, alongside of the lords and commons. This scheme failed, mainly through the unwillingness of the clergy themselves to attend in a secular assembly. This left, so far as there were any estates at all, two estates only, — lords and commons. This led to the common 2 Professor Masterman, lecturing (1908) on the House of Commons, has pointed out how fortunate it was that this beginning of the organization of the communes into a central body did not come earlier than it did. Had there been one assembly representing the local communitates at any earlier time it would have been far too sectional in character and far too little conscious of any common interest. The organization did not begin till England had become a self-conscious body, realizing its common interests and the common destiny that belonged to it as a nation. REPRESENTATION in mistake of fancying the three estates to be king, lords and commons. The ecclesiastical members of the House of Lords kept their seats there; but the parliamentary representation of the clergy as an estate came to nothing. So far as the clergy kept any parliamentary powers, they exercised them in the two provincial convocations. These anomalous assemblies, fluctuating between the character ol an ecclesiastical synod and of a parliamentary estate, kept, from Edward I. to Charles II., the parliamentary power of self -taxation. For a long time lords and commons taxed themselves separately. So did the clergy ; so sometimes did other bodies. . . . " During the reign of Henry III. assemblies were constantly held, and their constitution is often vaguely described. But in a great many cases phrases are used which, however vague, imply a popular element. We read of knights, of tenants in chief, of freemen, sometimes even of freemen and villeins, sometimes, more vaguely still, of ' universi,' ' universitas Angliae,' and the like. In some cases we are abte better to interpret these vague phrases. For instance, in 1224 each shire sends four knights chosen by the ' milites et probi homines.' Whether these knights were or were not to vote along with the magnates, they were at all events to transact business with them. We must always remember that in these times formal voting in the modern sense is not to be looked for." 1 (Ibid. pp. 314, 315.) This summary shows clearly how the idea of " representa- tion " as opposed to " presence in person " was applied to the The English parliament, so as to give the commons a Theory of proper voice in it as well as the lords. It is unnecessary Repre- h ere t trace further the gradual increase in power of seniatton. ^ e jj ouse f Commons till it became the predominant partner in the English bicameral constitution (see Parliament) . But from the point of view of historical theory it is important to note that its representative character does not essentially depend upon the particular method (election by vote) by which its members have for so long been chosen. It is a common error to regard the House of Commons as having a national authority higher than that of the House of Lords merely on the ground that it is composed of elected members, and to stigmatize the House of Lords as "unrepresentative" because it is not elected. But in strictness the question of election, as such, has nothing to do with the matter. 2 The proper distinction (ignoring for the moment the later inclusion in the House of Lords of a certain representative element — strictly so regarded — in the Scotch and Irish peers) is that the House of Lords, as still constituted in 1910, remained a presenlative chamber, while the House of Commons was essentially a representative one; in the former the members, summoned personally as individuals, were entitled to speak in the great council of the nation, while in the latter the members were returned as the mouthpieces of whole eommuni- lates, to whom, in the person of the sheriffs, the summons had been directed to send persons to speak for them. 3 The pre- ponderant authority of the House of Commons is due not to its v members being elected— that is only one way of settling who the mouthpieces of the commons shall be — but to the progress of 1 " Election " in these early times has its simple meaning of "choice." " We must guard ourselves from supposing that the citizens and burgesses, who were summoned to Parliament, were absolutely elected by the inhabitants of the towns as their repre- sentatives. _ Their presence in Parliament is another instance of representation without election. They were often nominated by the sheriff of the county, and even when that great officer, from negli- gence or favour, permitted the return to be made by those interested in the transaction, the nomination was confined to the small govern- ing body, who returned two of their members, in general very un- willing missionaries, to the great council " (Disraeli, Vindication of the British Constitution, 1835). 2 In the American federal system the bicameral legislature is divided into a " House of Representatives," composed of members elected by popular vote in each state, and a " Senate," composed of members elected by the legislature in each state. In spite of the nomenclature, both houses are really composed of " representatives." But under a republican system there is no room for a purely pre- sentative assembly, and the term " representative " comes to imply a more direct choice by the " commons." 3 There was at one time, it may be noted, a sort of " representative " element even in the case of the House of Lords, in so far as peers (including peeresses in their own right, abbesses, &c.) could send deputies or proxies. But it must be remembered that the privilege flowed "directly from the personal and presentative character of the summons to a peer, who as such could name a deputy. It is quite illegitimate to strain from it an analogy with the election of a repre- sentative by the commons, who had no personal right to a summons. popular government. The two British houses have historically existed as assemblies of the separate estates of the realm — the House of Lords of the two estates of lords spiritual and temporal, and the House of Commons of the commons. The third estate has so increased in power as to become predominant in the country; but the authority of its own assembly simply depends on the powers of those it represents. If the balance of political power had hot been shifted in the country itself, the authority and competence of the peers, speaking for themselves in a primary assembly, would in theory actually appear higher, so far as their order is concerned, than that of members of the House of Commons, who can only " represent " the popular constituencies. Moreover, the fact that most members of the House of Commons are elected by a party vote is apt to make them very often even less authoritative spokesmen of their constituencies — the communitates — than if they were selected by some method which would indicate that they had the full confidence of the whole body they " represent." It is notorious that many members of a modern House of Commons, or of any other " representative " assembly, have only been elected by the votes of a minority of their constituency, or (where there have been more than two candidates) a minority even of those who voted; and there always comes a time when it is certain that if a representative has to come again before the electorate for their votes he will be defeated; he, in fact, no longer reflects their views, while he still sits and legislates. The real desires of the commons in a certain British constituency may even be more faithfully, even if only accidentally, reflected by a local peer whose only right to speak in parliament is technically presentative. In his Vindication of the British Constitution (1835), Disraeli, writing of the Reform Bill of 1832, observed that " in the effort to get rid of representation without election, it will be well if eventually we do not discover that we have only obtained election without representation." A truer word was never spoken. A man may be representative, practically consensu omnium, although no vote, resulting from a division of opinion, has been taken for the purpose of selecting him. The vote is merely a method of selection when there is a definite division of opinion involving an uncertainty; and even in the modern House of Commons many members are returned " un- opposed," no actual voting taking place. A well-recognized representative character (as regards the functions involved) attaches, for instance, in British public life to other persons in whose selection the method of popular voting has had no place; such as the king himself, the Cabinet (in relation to the political party in power), or the bishops (as regards the Church of England). The question of remodelling the constitution of the British House of Lords was prominently before the country in 1910 ; and a large number even of those who were prepared to ~. defend its actions in the past were ready to accept British changes which would make it in form and composi- Houses tion a Second Chamber representative of the nation ofPariia- rather than presentative of its historic order. But ment ' it is important to remember, in connexion with the House of Lords question, that, in a country like England, where the con- stitution has provided for a Second Chamber which is composed of members of an estate or estates distinct in the nation from the estate of the commons, these persons may to a predominant degree nevertheless be really representative men by common consent; while their being so. though not theoretically the reason for their legislative power, is substantially the reason why it has so long persisted. In the absence of a written constitution, theoretical considerations have in England always been second to the force of circumstances. Most people regarded the House of Lords, as still unreformed in 1910, as purely a hereditary body; its members had been summoned to parliament as peers (the important question of their right to a summons need not here be discussed), and most peers enjoyed their titles by hereditary succession. But the constant creation of peers by both political parties had in fact introduced even into the constitution of the House of Lords 112 REPRESENTATION an essentially representative ele nent (though not resulting from direct election), apart altogether from the fact that heredity maintained there a number of persons whose title had des- cended from men who were originally representative Englishmen, and whose successors, on the whole, were no less so. In the days when kings really governed in England, the most powerful check on the king, in the interest of the nation at large, was the peerage; the earls and barons, in parliament, were the chief bulwark of the people against tyranny. It was they who stood for the nation in extorting Magna Carta from King John; and as time went on, the representation of the commons in parliament was largely due, not to any direct popular pressure, but to the desire of the kings to influence the lower ranks of society independently of the nobles. Up to the reign of Charles I., at all events, the House of Lords was actually the predominant partner in parliament; the House of Commons was recruited from and returned by only a small section of the commons as now understood; and Oliver Cromwell — certainly a " popular " leader in the ordinary sense — made as short work of it as he did of the king himself. Up to 1832, when the first modern Reform Act was passed, the House of Commons was an oli- garchical body, and the electors themselves were a small and privileged class. It is only since then — except in the granting of supplies — that first equality, and then predominance, in respect of the House of Lords, has been asserted by the House of Commons, owing to the fact that an extended suffrage has made the estate of the commons more adequately coincident with the nation as a whole. Prior to 1832 it was the king who directly made and unmade ministries; in 1835 for the first time the result of a general election caused a change of ministry; and the modern view of the House of Lords as purely a revising chamber dates only from then. But the very fact that the responsibility for creating new peerages now passed to ministers dependent on popular suffrage may well justify the contention that hence- forth it indirectly included a select number of representative men of the nation, holding their seats in virtue of authoritative nomination and not by heredity. In the sixty years preceding 1006 no fewer than 419 new peerages were created, 238 by the Liberal party, 181 by the Conservative, or a balance of 57 creations on the Liberal side. 1 It is fair to assume that all these new peers were created as being representative men in the nation for one reason or another. And an analysis of the composition of the House of Lords in 1906 would have led an unprejudiced outside observer to suppose that its competence to speak on national affairs had not been weakened by any dependence on the hereditary title. It included 166 men who had been M.P.'s (i.e. had been elected by popular vote to the House of Commons) , 172 who had held government office, 140 who had been mayors of county councils, 207 who had served in the army or navy, 40 who had been judges or lawyers, 7 ex-viceroys, 16 ex- governors of colonies, 50 who had been eminent in art, letters, manufactures or trade, and 21 archbishops or bishops (appointed by ministerial recommendation, but only after they had worked up to eminence from being curates, and therefore had wide experience of the social life of the people). It is possible to compare a chamber so composed some- what favourably with a modern House of Commons, if the point at issue — the provision of " representative men " (i.e. men generally accepted as national spokesmen) — be strictly considered, apart from the method of selecting them by direct popular vote. 2 In the House of Lords the method is heredity plus selection by the political party which the popular vote has put in power; while in the election of members of the House 1 Between January 1906 and January 1910 thirty-five more new peers were created by Liberal premiers, and seven more in June 1910. 2 Speaking at Oldham on December 15, 1909, Lord Curzon said: " I have taken out the figures of the past 200 years, and I tell you this, that during that time 41 of our prime ministers have sat in the Lords and only 17 in the Commons; of our foreign secretaries, 56 in the Lords and only 8 in the Commons ; of our colonial secretaries, 46 in the Lords and 25 in the Commons; of our war ministers, 29 in the Lords and 31 in the Commons; of first lords of the Admiralty, i& in the Lords and 28 in the Commons." of Commons the popular choice is doubly limited — first, by the fact that only the enfranchised commons can vote (in 1910 about 7 J millions out of 43); and secondly, because the choice must be made from among candidates who are themselves not disqualified for various reasons (for instance they must not be clergymen, nor entitled to seats in ihe House of Lords). Now, to carry out the real " will of the nation '.' in parliament must require (1) a reasonable knowledge of the wishes of the nation, and (2) an understanding of the best ways of expressing those wishes in legislation and adminis- tration. In the case of the peers, those who sit as having been originally created and therefore selected for the purpose — a considerable section of those actively attending — the quali- fications are obvious: and it is only necessary to deal with those qualified by inheritance of title. Here too, in a number of cases, preceding experience in the House of Commons, to which the popular vote has returned them while they were only in the succession to a peerage, is a frequent factor; but, apart from that, the art of legislation is one which may well be con- sidered to require a certain special disposition and rhental equipment. Though allowance must be made for exceptional cases, it is obvious that the son of a man who has been respon- sible for legislating, who has himself been brought up as one who will have to take his part in legislating, is most likely, in any society, to have qualified himself for the business, as in the case of any profession or trade. He has been accustomed to breathe the parliamentary atmosphere, and as one of a leisured class has had the opportunity to study the subject of legislation, and to obtain experience of its conditions. This is so generally accepted that, in fact, the same theory is com- monly applied to candidates for the House of Commons, and predominantly to members of that House who are given office. The names of more than one generation are writ large in English history in the case of the Pitts, Foxes, Grenviiles, Cannings, Cecils, Stanleys and Cavendishes. The sons of famous political commoners, a Gladstone, a Harcourt, a Churchill, a Primrose, a Chamberlain, have by consent a superior claim, even within the radical or popular party, by no means resting originally or primarily on known personal merit or proved experience, for selection as candidates and then for preferment to office; and it is a very common occurrence for younger sons of peers to be selected as candidates (liberal as much as conservative) for parliament, even though from general intellectual considera- tions they may appear in no way the equals of other men. They have been brought up to the business; and they are -therefore adapted for it by heredity. If the House of Commons were deprived of those members who obtained their seats or their offices primarily for reasons of heredity, it would lose many of its best men — as indeed it occasionally does, to its disadvantage and possibly to the chagrin of the individuals themselves, when succession to a peerage forces a prominent parliamentarian to relinquish his seat in the Lower House and to take his place in the " unrepresentative " chamber. It remains nevertheless the fact that, in politics, " repre- sentative " government means not so much government by men really representative of the nation as government in Expres . the name of the whole body of citizens (and predomi- s i oa f nantly the estate of the commons) through a chamber the" Wilt or chambers composed of elected deputies. The j£**f „ object in view is the expression of the " will of the people " — the people, that is, who are sovereign. Clearly the only pure case of such government can be in a republic, where there is only one " estate," the free citizens. The home and historical type of representative government, the United Kingdom, is strictly no such case, since the monarchy and the House of Lords exist and work on lines constitutionally independent of any direct contact with the electorate. British practice, however, is of vital importance for the theory of repre- sentative institutions, and it is worth while to point out that the " will of the people " may even so be effectively expressed — some people may think even more effectively expressed than in a pure republic. The king and the House of Lords, quti. REPRESENTATION 113 estates of the realm, are just as much part of " the people," in the widest sense, as " the commons " are; they are an integral part of the nation. In a republic they would as individuals be equal citizens, able to become candidates for the representative chamber or chambers; but as it is, since they are expressly debarred from taking part in elections to the House of Commons, they remain entitled and expected to use their historic method of playing a part in the government of the state. They assist to constitute " the people " in the wider sense, and in the narrower sense " the people " {i.e. the commons) know it and rely on it. Under the British constitution the commons have habitually relied on the monarchy and the House of Lords to play their part in the state, and on many occasions it has been proved, by various methods by which it is open to the commons themselves to show their real feeling, that action on the part of the monarch (e.g. in foreign affairs) or the House of Lords (in rejecting or modifying bills sent up by the House of Commons) , in which a popular vote has played no initiating or controlling part, is welcomed and ratified, by consent of a large majority, on the part of the nation at large. So much is this so that it is notorious, in the case of the House of Lords, that elected members of the House of Commons, tied by purely party allegiance and pledges, have constantly voted for a measure they did not want to see passed, relying on the House of Lords to throw it out. Ultimately, no doubt, the reconciliation of this " presentative " element in the British form of constitution with the growth of democracy . and the predominance of the " representative " system depends purely on the waiving of historical theory both by king and peers, and its adaptation to the fact of popular government through the recognition that their action rests for its efficient authority upon conformity with the " will of'the people." Thus it has become an established maxim in England that while it is the proper function of the House of Lords to reject a measure which in their opinion is not in accordance with the wishes of the nation, they could not repeat such a rejection after a general election had shown that its authors in the House of Commons were supported by the country. The experience of politics from 1832 to 1910 gave abundant justification to the House of Lords for supposing that in such cases they were interpreting the desire of the country better than the House of Commons; the case of the Irish Home Rule bill of 1893 is, of course, the classical example. 1 So that in practice the House of Lords only acts in opposition to the House of Commons, subject to the remedy of a dissolution of parliament (which depends strictly on the prerogative of the Crown, but in practice on the advice of the leader of the majority in the House of Commons), at which the view of the House of Commons might be confirmed and reasserted, and in that case would prevail. The violent attacks made on the House of Lords by the Liberal party, on occasions when that party has had a majority in the commons and has had its measures rejected or distastefully amended, have always been open to the criticism that if the majority in the House of Commons were really supported by the electorate in the country they had the remedy in their own hands. If it were shown by the result of a general election that their defeated measure were the " will of the people," the House of Lords, as was generally understood, must give way. Such a position, though naturally objectionable to a party in power in the House of Commons (because general elections are uncertain things in every respect but that of trouble and expense), could clearly be strong only in view of the confidence of the House of Lords in its action being more truly representative of public opinion. It therefore must be said to have acted, however clumsily and indirectly — and no direct way would be feasible except that of the Referendum — as a " representative " body, i.e. as carrying out what it judged to be the national will and not merely the will of the peers, although not constituted as 1 The result of the general election of January 1910, following on the rejection of the Budget by the House of Lords, cannot properly be said to show anything to the contrary. It was notorious that there was no genuine majority in the new House of Commons for the Budget, and that the Irish Nationalists only voted for it as part of an arrangement for ulterior purposes. such in the narrower sense. In practice, and in accordance with this view, it has on more than one occasion (e.g. in the case of the Trades Disputes Act of 1906) accepted and passed measures which it was notorious, and indeed avowed, that the peers themselves regarded as bad. The immense extension of the " representative principle " in government, by means of popular election, and its adaptation to municipal as well as national councils, has in recent times resulted in attracting much attention to the ™w es , B problem of making such elected bodies more accurately obtaining representative of public opinion than they frequently Repre- are. There are three distinct problems involved — sentation (1) that of making the number of enfranchised citizens tlon. correspond to a real embodiment of the nation; (2) that of getting candidates to stand for the office of representative who are competent and incorruptible exponents of the national will, and (3) that of adopting a system of voting which shall result in the elected representatives forming an assembly which shall adequately reflect the balance of opinion in the electorate. (1) The history of the gradual extension of the franchise in the United Kingdom is given under Parliament, and the conditions for other countries under their respective headings. But while, in countries with a representative suffraze system at all, the question as to the extent to which the male citizens shall have the vote is mainly one of degree — as to property or other qualification, up to the inclusion of all adults (see Vote and Voting) — the question of the incapacity of women, as a sex, raises a distinction which is more radical. The facts as to the progress of the movement for women's suffrage are given in the article Women. It is only necessary to say here that, where the franchise is limited to the male sex, the theory of "no taxation without representation " is under modern conditions of life carried out in a decidedly one- sided way. The question of women's suffrage is, however, one of public policy, in whatever state it is raised; and even where, as in Great Britain, it has been adopted for municipal affairs, a distinction is commonly made as regards the national assembly. So far as the historical facts as to the disability of women are concerned, it has been unanimously decided in England by the highest law-court of the realm (judgment of the House of Lords in the Edinburgh University case, December 1938), presided over on this occasion by a Liberal Lord Chancellor (Lord Loreburn), that, according to their authoritative statement of the common law, women never had in earlier^ times any legal right to vote for members of parliament; this judgment is therefore entirely adverse to such ingenious arguments to the contrary as are ably expressed in Mrs Charlotte Carmichael Stopes's British Free- women (1907). Sex, however, apart, there are various interesting questions as to the principles which should govern the extension of the suffrage and its limitations, to which a brief reference may here be made. It is noteworthy that John Stuart Mill, the philo- sophical radical whose work on Representative Government (first published in 1861) is a classic on the subject, and who regarded the representative system as the highest ideal of polity, made a good many reservations which have been ignored by those who frequently quote him. Mill's ideal was by no means that popular government should involve a mere counting of heads, or absolute equality of value among the citizens. While holding that " no arrangement of the suffrage can be permanently satisfactory in which any person or class is peremptorily excluded, or in which the electoral privilege is not open to all persons of full age who desire to obtain it," he insisted on " certain exclusions." Thus he demanded that universal education should precede universal enfranchisement, and laid it down that if education to the required amount had not become universally accessible and thus a hardship arose, this was " a hardship that had to be borne." He would not grant the suffrage to any one who could not read, write and perform a. sum in the rule of three. Further, he insisted on the electors being taxpayers, and emphasized the view that, as a condition annexed to representation, such taxation should descend to the poorest class ii4 REPRESENTATION " in a visible shape," by which he explained that he did not mean " indirect taxes," a " mode of defraying a share of the public expenses which is hardly felt." He advocated for this purpose " a direct tax, in the simple form of a capitation " on every grown person. But even more than this, he was in favour of a form of plural voting, so that the intellectual classes of the community should have more proportionate weight than the numerically larger working-classes: " though every one ought to have a voice, that every one should have an equal voice is a totally different proposition." The well-informed and capable man's opinion being more valuable than that of the barely qualified elector, it should be given more effect by a system of plural voting, which should give him more votes than one. As to the test of value of opinion, Mill was careful to say he did not mean property — though the principle was so important that he would not abolish such a test where it existed — but individual mental superiority, which he would gauge by the rough indica- tion afforded by occupation in the higher forms of business or profession, or by such a criterion as a university degree or the passing of an examination of a fairly high standard. " Until there shall have been devised some mode of plural voting, which may assign to education as such the degree of superior in- fluence due to it, and sufficient as a counterpoise to the numerical weight of the least educated class, for so long the benefits of completely universal suffrage cannot be obtained without bringing with them, as it appears to me, more than equivalent evils." " Equal voting," he repeated, " is in principle wrong, because recognizing a wrong standard, and exercising a bad influence on the voter's mind. It is not useful, but hurtful, that the constitution of the country should declare ignorance to be entitled to as much political power as know- ledge." Modern democracy may ignore Mill's emphatic plea for plural voting, as it ignores his equally strong arguments against the ballot 1 — his contention being that secret voting violated the spirit of the suffrage, according to which the voter was a trustee for the public, whose acts should be publicly known — but Mill's discussion of the whole subject proceeds on high grounds which are still worth careful consideration. Where a representative system, as such, is extolled as the ideal polity, the reservations made by Mill, a liberal thinker who cannot be dismissed as a prejudiced reactionary, should be remembered. Mill postulated, in any event, a state of society which was worthy of such a system, no less than the necessary checks and balances which should make it correspond to the real conditions of rational government. " Representative institutions," he pointed out, " are of little value, and may be a mere instrument of tyranny or intrigue, when the generality of electors are not sufficiently interested in their own government to give their vote, or, if they vote at all, do not bestow their suffrages on public grounds, but sell them for money, or vote at the beck of some one who has control over them, or whom for private reasons they desire to propitiate. Popular election, as thus practised, instead of a security against misgovernment, is but an additional wheel in its machinery." When, in modern days, advocates of repre- sentative institutions seem ready to extend them to all countries, they become doctrinaires who depart widely from the standpoint of Mill, and forget that democracy is itself only a " form of government," as Sir Henry Maine insisted, for which all com- munities may not be ripe or fitted. The ideal form of govern- ment must be relative to a certain state of civilization and certain conditions of national life, and its advantages can only be tested by results and practical working. (2) As regards the important question of the selection of candidates (which depends partly on their willingness to stand, Selection and partly on the means available for discovering of Candi- suitable persons) , modern practice is entirely dominated es " by the organization of political parties and the require- ments of party allegiance. Though much has been said as to the desirability or not of paying members for their services (see Payment or Members), this is certainly overshadowed by the question of the availability of really capable men at all to the number required, for all candidates become " professional " 1 Before 1872, when the Ballot Act was passed, voting was public. politicians, whether paid or not. The ideal of having a " repre- sentative man " in the broader sense as a " representative " in the narrower is only very roughly attained where the conditions of public life make a capacity for electioneering a necessity. To a large extent the political candidate depends purely upon the support of a party organization. His choice rests with party wire-pullers, and the average individual elector is confronted with the task of voting for some one of whom he may personally know very little, except that, if returned, the candidate will in parliament vote for measures embodying certain general prin- ciples as indicated in some vague party programme. Since the elector as a rule himself supports a party, he votes accord- ingly, but there are always a good many electors who under such a system fail to get a chance of voting for a candidate who fully represents their views. The supremacy of party interests, resulting from the difficulty of having any other form of electoral organization, is apt to bring many evils in its train, including the corruption of the electorate, and the practice of " lobbying," i.e. the pressure upon members in parliament of important " interests " whose electoral assistance is indispensable. (3) The more important point to be considered here is the third. When a representative assembly is to be elected by a direct popular vote, it is obviously necessary (a) that Systems either there should be some system by which the whole of Voting. body as a unit should elect all the members en bloc, or, as this usually appears impracticable, that the mass of electors should be divided within defined areas, or " constituencies "; and (b) that in the latter case voting shall take place for the purpose of electing one or more representatives of each such area according to some method by which due effect shall be given to the preferences of the - electors. In theory there can be no perfectly fair arrangement as between constituency and constituency, where a single repre- sentative is to be returned, except on the terms that they are ex- actly equal in the number of electors; each elector's voice would then count equally with that of any other in the nation (or mutatis mutandis in the municipality, &c). But in practice it is difficult to the point of impossibility to attempt more than an arbitrary distribution of electoral areas, more or less approximating to equality; and recourse is had to the formation of constituencies out of geographical districts taken as units for historical or practical reasons, and necessarily fluctuating from time to time in population or influence. It may become necessary periodi- cally to revise these areas by what in England are called Re- distribution Acts, but it has to be admitted that any perfect system of representation is always stultified by the necessary inequalities involved; and what is known as " gerrymandering " is sometimes the result, when a party in power so recasts the electoral districts as to give more opportunity for its own candidates to be returned than for those of its opponents. This flaw is particularly noticeable when the arrangement for the method of voting is that which allots only one member or representative to each district {scrutin d'arrondissement). The essential vice of this single-member system, which prevails in the United Kingdom 2 and the United States, is the lack of correspondence between the proportions in which the elected members of each party stand to one another and the proportions in which the numbers of the electors who returned them similarly stand; and it may well be that the minority party in the country obtains a majority of representatives in the assembly, or at any rate that .a substantial minority obtains an absurdly small representation. " As a result of the district system," writes Pro- fessor J. R. Commons of Wisconsin (Proportional Representation, I 9°7), " the national House of Representatives (in America) is scarcely a representative body. In the Fifty-first Congress, a majority of representatives were elected by a minority of the voters "; the figures being 5,348,379 Republican votes with 164 elected, and 5,502,581 Democratic votes with 161 elected. In 2 The House of Commons in 1910 was elected by 643 constituencies, of which 27 (including three universities) returned two members each, and the rest one; and the Royal Commission, which reported in that year, recommended the abandonment of the existing two member constituencies " at the earliest convenient opportunity." REPRESENTATION ii5 the case of the Fifty-second Congress, the Democrats, with 50-6% of the votes, returned 71-1% of the representa- tives; the Republicans, with 42-9% of the votes, returning 26-5% of the representatives. Lord Avebury (Propor- tional Representation, 1890; new ed. 1906) has given various similar experiences in England; thus, at the general election of 1886, the Liberals, with 1,333,400 votes, only obtained 176 seats, while the Unionists, with 1,423,500, obtained 283 (not counting 99 unopposed returns on the Liberal side, and in on the Unionist). In the general election of 1895, at which 132 Unionist seats and 57 Liberal were unopposed, the result in the 481 seats contested was the return of 279 Unionists and 202 Liberals; yet the actual votes given were 1,800,000 for the Liberals, and 1,775,000 for the Unionists. Again, in 1906, the Unionist vote, though 44% of the total cast, returned only 28% of the members, and the Liberal majority, which in strict proportion would have been 68, actually was 256. The establishment of mere party majority rule, which is char- acteristic of a representative system, is a necessity, no doubt, in popular government; but the way in which a substantial minority of voters may only obtain a contemptible minority of members, and may in practice be tyrannized over in con- sequence, somewhat detracts from its blessings, and leads to extreme party measures. The division of the whole electoral body into constituencies is, after all, only a device for getting over the difficulty of the electors voting en bloc, and it does not seem to justify the conversion of a real majority in the country into a minority as represented in parliament, nor the complete exclusion of a substantial number of the electorate from parlia- mentary representation — so far as their views are concerned — at all. Yet under the English system such results are possible as the capture of every seat in Wales (34), in 1906, by the Liberal party, with 217,462 votes, the 100,547 Unionist voters having no representation in parliament; while in Warwickshire, though 22,490 votes were given to the Unionist candidates against 22,021 for the Liberal, three Liberals were returned against one Unionist. The attempt to rectify this flaw in the representative method has led to the suggestion of various devices by the adoption Prooor- °^ w hich the elected members may correspond more tlonal equally to the divisions of opinion in the electorate. repre- Under the plan of scrutin de lisle (or " general ticket ") sentatlon. j ar g er districts are created, each returning several members, and each voter has as many votes as there are members to elect; but while this system apparently provides the opportunity for the return of candidates with different views, it only requires a solid party vote to capture the whole of the representation for a majority. What is known as the " limited vote " is a form of scrutin de liste by which the elector has less votes than there are seats to be filled; with (say) three to be elected, the elector has only two votes. Systems of " limited vote " are in force in Portugal, Spain and Japan. A somewhat better plan is the " cumulative vote, " which gives each elector as many votes as there are members to be elected, but allows him to divide them as he pleases (instead of giving only one vote to any one candidate). This enables an organized minority, by concentrat- ing their votes, to elect at all events some representative; but the " cumulative vote " works rather capriciously, and is com- monly defeated by careful party organization. A more elaborate plan, but depending like the " limited " vote and the " cumulative " vote on the formation of constitu- encies returning three or more members each, is that of the " transferable vote. " By this device an elector can indicate on his ballot paper not only his first choice, but also his second or third, &c. To ensure election a candidate need not obtain a majority of the votes polled, but only a certain number, so fixed that it can be obtained by a number of candidates equal to the number of seats to be filled, but by no more; this number of votes is called the " quota. " At the first count first choices only are reckoned, and those candidates who have received a " quota " or more are declared duly elected. If all the seats have not then been filled up, the surplus votes of those candi- dates who have received more than the " quota " are trans- ferred according to the names marked (2) on them. If these transfers still do not bring the requisite number of candidates up to the " quota, " the lowest candidate is eliminated and his votes transferred according to the next preferences, and so on till the seats are filled This system, which is the one usually associated with the term " proportional representation " was first suggested by Thomas Hare, who published in 1857 a pamphlet on The Machinery of Representation, and in 1859 a more complete scheme in his treatise on The Election of Representatives. John Stuart Mill, in Representative Govern- ment (1861) warmly endorsed Hare's proposal. Hare wished to treat the whole country as one constituency, but by later supporters of the " transferable vote " that plan was abandoned as impracticable; and the principle will work so long as the constituencies adopted each return several members. Lord Courtney, in his evidence before the British Royal Commission in 1909, said that his minimum constituency would be a three- membered one, but he would create a fifteen-membered con- stituency without hesitation. The simple " transferable vote " has been adopted in Tasmania for all elections (1907)', after experimental adoption in the constituencies of Hobart and Launceston in 1896-1901, and in the election of the Tasmanian members of the Commonwealth leglislature in 1900. It was proposed in the draft of the South African constitution, but abandoned. The principle has also been adopted in the " list systems " of Belgium, some Swiss cantons, Sweden, Finland and parts of Denmark, Wiirttemberg and Servia, where candi- dates are grouped in lists and all votes given to individual candidates on the list count first as votes for the list itself, the seats being divided among the lists in proportion to the total number of votes obtained by the list. The use of the general term " proportional representation " for all of these is, however, somewhat misleading; people often suppose that only one identical system of voting is meant, whereas in fact some 300 possible varieties have been proposed, and each of the states mentioned has a different one from all the others. The only common element is the device of the " transferable vote, " i.e. the method of having an " electoral quota, " and the filling up of seats, where a quota is not provided by the first choices, by votes transferred from the second choices, and so on. It may be noted here that the " transferable vote " is calculated to multiply candidates to a point at which the minds of the electorate may well be embarrassed as to their preferences (the largest Belgian constituency returns 22 mem- bers), and, while undoubtedly providing for " minority repre- sentation, " to encourage what may be called " minority thinking " and particularist politics. The " transferable vote " is commonly objected to as puzzling to the electors and too complicated for the scrutineers, while it is not much favoured by " machine " party organizations, which generally prefer the simpler plan of rough-and-ready majorities; but it has received a growing amount of theoretical support, as well as success in practical experiment, in recent years. The " second ballot " is a device for securing absolute majority, instead of relative majority, representation. Where the two- party system prevails, it is usual for only two The candidates, one for each party, to stand for each second single-member constituency. But there is nothing ballot, to prevent a third or even a fourth candidate standing, and this multiplication of candidates becomes the more com- mon in proportion as parliamentary organization- is split up into groups. The consequence is that the candidate who heads the poll may well have only a relative, not an absolute, majority of votes, and to meet this objection the " second ballot " has been introduced, and is in operation in Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy and Russia. Under this system, if no candidate receives an absolute majority of all the votes, a second election is held, at which, as a rule, only the two candidates compete who received most; or in cases where more than one seat is to be filled, twice as many candidates compete as there n6 REPRIEVE— REPRODUCTION are seats. In principle the second ballot has much in its favour, though it does not necessarily reflect the real opinion of the electorate, but only what is practicable; and while leading to political bargaining it does nothing for minority representation. In England the importance of the whole subject of the method of elections was recognized at the end of 1908 by the appoint- ment of a Royal Commission to inquire and report. Its con- clusions were published in 1910, after much interesting evidence had been taken, but they attracted little attention, being in the main adverse to innovation. The one positive recommenda- tion was for the adoption of the " alternative vote " (already in use in Queensland and Western Australia) by which the electors might mark their choices 1, 2, 3, &c; this would not be for the purpose already discussed as part of the method of the " transferable vote," but the indications of preference would only be used for the same purpose as the " second ballot," while saving the voters the trouble of further elections. One objection to this " alternative vote," however, as compared with the " second ballot," is that it does not allow the voter to change his mind as to his preference, as he well might do after he knew the result of the original voting. It may be said broadly that all the devices which have been proposed for mitigating or redressing the defects of electoral methods ignore the essential fact that in any case a representative system can only result in a rather arbitrary approximation to correspondence with the opinions of the electorate. It is by no means certain even that " proportional representation " in any of its forms would always result in the return of a repre- sentative assembly reflecting with mathematical accuracy the balance of opinion in the electorate; and even if it did, the electors have a way of changing their opinions long before their representatives come up for re-election. It was stated before the British Royal Commission that in Belgium, in spite of '' proportional representation," both in 1900 and in 1902 a majority of members was returned by a minority of votes. While under majority rule, as Mr Augustine Birrell once re- marked, " minorities must suffer " — even large minorities — it is on the other hand not likely to conduce to the popularity of representative government that minorities should obtain too great a share of political power. The fact is that no " representation " can reflect the views of those " represented " as accurately as " presentation " by those entitled personally to speak. This conclusion, while in no necessary degree qualify- ing the importance of " popular government," undoubtedly detracts from the value of the representative method. The result is seen in the increasing desire in really democratic countries to supplement representative government by some form of Referendum, or direct appeal to the electors for their own personal opinion on a distinct issue — a method which involves fundamentally the addition of a " presentative " element to the representative system. Literature. — The number of separate works on various aspects of the theory, history and practice of political representation — a much wider subject than representative government — is too large for detailed mention. A general reference can only be made here to the standard treatises on constitutional law. The chapter in Sir G. Cornewall Lewis's Remarks on the Use and Abuse of some Political Terms (Sir T. Raleigh's edition, 1898) should also be noted. In addition to works cited above, a valuable account of all parts of the electoral " machine " is given in M. Ostrogorski's Democracy and the Organization of Political Parties (1902). The Congressional Library, Washington, U.S.A., issued in 1904 a " List of Books relat- ing to Proportional Representation," which constitutes a complete bibliography of that subject up to that date. The best discussion of the various methods for securing adequate representation is, however, now to be found in the Report (1910) of the British Royal Commission on Systems of Election (Parliamentary Paper, Cd. 5163). It is chiefly valuable for its description of the devices in use in different countries and for its weighty criticism of the proposals for minority representation. (H. Ch.) REPRIEVE {reprise, from Fr. reprendre), in English law, a term which originally meant remand to prison: later and more usually, the suspension for a time of the execution of a sentence passed on conviction of crime. The term is now seldom or never used except with reference to sentences of death. In the case of capital felonies other than murder the recording of sentence of death has the effect of a reprieve by the court. The court which can award a sentence is said to possess as of common right a discretionary power of granting a reprieve. Courts of justice, however, do not grant reprieves by way of dispensation from the penalties of the law, which is not for the judicial department, but for temporary purposes, e.g. of appeal or inquiry as to the state of mind or health of the convict, or to enable him to apply for a pardon. Under the old system of transportation it was a common practice to reprieve convicted felons as a step to induce them to consent to transportation to the American colonies (see the Old Bailey Regulations of 1662, J. Kelyng, ed. 1873, p. 1). In cases of conviction of wilful murder the reprieve, if any, is granted by the home secretary on behalf of the crown, and on convictions of murder the court seems now to have no power to reprieve except in the case of a pregnant woman. See Hawkins, P.C, bk. 2, c. 51 ; Blackstone, Commentaries. REPRISALS (Fr. represailles, from reprendre; Lat. repre- hendere, to take back), properly speaking, the act of forcibly seizing something belonging to another state by way of retalia- tion, but currently used for the retaliation itself. They are acts of violence which are a casus belli according to the manner in which the state against which they are exercised regards them and is able to resist or resent them. Two comparatively recent cases have occurred in which this form of redress was resorted to. In the one case a demand by the British government for an indemnity for injuries inflicted on the British vice-consul and certain other British subjects by Nicaraguan authorities in the Mosquito reserve not having been complied with, British naval forces were landed on April 27th, 1895, at Corinto, where they occupied the customs house and other public buildings till an agreement was arrived at. In the other case the French government in November 1901 ordered the occupation by French naval forces of the customs house at Mytilene until redress was obtained for divers claims of French citizens. A Hague Con- vention of 1907 now places limitations on the employment of force for the recovery of contract debts, and forbids recourse to armed force unless " the debtor state refuses or neglects to reply to an offer of arbitration, or after accepting the offer prevents any compromise from being agreed on, or after arbitration fails to submit to the award " (art. 1). (T. Ba.) REPRODUCTION, in biology, the generation of new organ- isms from existing organisms more or less similar. It is a special case of growth, and consists of an increase of living substance in such fashion that the new substance is either set free as a new individual, or, whilst remaining attached to the parent organism, separated by some sort of partition so as to have a subordinate individuality. Y. Delage has distinguished as multiplication those cases in which the new individual arises from a mass of cells which remain a part of the maternal tissues during differ- entiation, reserving the term reproduction for those cases in which the spore or cell which is the starting-point of the new individual begins by separating from the maternal tissues; but the distinction is inconvenient in practice and does not appear to carry with it any fundamental biological significance. The general relation between parent and filial organisms is discussed under Heredity and Embryology; many of the details of the cellular processes are dealt with under Cytology, and the modes of reproduction exhibited by different kinds of animals and plants are treated of in the various articles describing individual groups. Finally, some of the special problems involved are discussed under the heading Sex. As reproduction is a general biological phenomenon, its manifestations should be dealt with simultaneously in the case of animals and plants, but many of the special details differ so much that it is practically convenient to make two headings. Reproduction of Animals A. Asexual. — Many animals possess a more or less limited capacity to repair portions of the body that have been accident- ally removed (see Regeneration), and this capacity may be so ANIMALS] REPRODUCTION 117 extensive that, if the whole body be cut in pieces, each portion may grow into a new organism. Such a mode of artificial propagation, familiar in horticultural operations, has been made use of in such animals as sponges, and has been performed experimentally in hydroids and some worms. In many Protozoa asexual reproduction by simple division is a normal event. In Coelentera it is common, the plane of division usually passing through the long axis of the body, as in Actinians and many Hydroids, or being horizontal, as in the repeated divisions by which medusae are produced from an asexual polyp; the new individual may separate completely, or serve to build up a colonial or compound organism. In some Turbellarians (Microstomum) and Chaetopods (Sy'lis, Myrianida, Nereis, Eunice viridis (the palolo-worm of Samoa), asexual reproduction occurs in a form that is partly fission and partly budding; portions are constricted transversely or laterally, very much smaller than- the whole animal, and these grow out into new animals which may separate or remain attached in chains. In Salps, chains are formed sometimes by transverse constriction, sometimes by budding. True budding is much more common than fission; it occurs in Protozoa, Coelentera, Sponges, Polyzoa, Tunicates and some Flatworms and Chaetopods, the bud being a multicellular portion of the tissues which is partly or completely separated from the parent before it proliferates into the new form. In various larval stages of many animals, asexual reproduction by fission or budding may be produced experimentally or may occur naturally. It has been suggested that cases of identical twins in vertebrates and many monstrous forms, including even dermoid cysts, are due to embryonic asexual fission or budding. The artificial subdivision of young embryos has been performed successfully by several investi- gators (see Heredity). In Lumbricus trapezoides the gastrula stage of the embryo divides and each half produces a complete individual; and multiplication by budding is common at various stages of the life-history of many parasitic worms. Spore formation, or cellular budding, appears to be limited to the Protozoa amongst animals. B. Sexual. — Apart from the special and probably secondary cases presently to be considered under the subheading partheno- genesis, sexual reproduction or amphimixis may be defined as the production of a new organism from a zygote, and a zygote may be defined as the cell resulting from the conjugation of two gametes or sexual cells derived from the specialized reproductive tissue of the parent or parents. In asexual reproduction by spore formation, the spore proliferates without the aid of another spore; in true sexual reproduction the gametes may be regarded as special kinds of spores which appear in two forms, the egg- cell, ovum or female gamete not proceeding to proliferate into a new organism until it has been stimulated by partial or complete fusion with the other form, the spermatozoon or male gamete. The act of fusion or conjugation in question is usually spoken of as fertilization, and the zygote, or starting-point of the new organism, is the fertilized egg-cell. Among protozoa and the lower plants there occur a series of forms of conjugation leading towards the specialized form characteristic of the sexual reproduction of higher animals. The conjugation may be isogamous, that is to say the conjugating cells may be actually or at least apparently indistinguishable. The fusion between the cells may be complete, or may concern only the nuclei. The conjugation may be followed by reproduction, or may apparently have no relation to reproduction. In true sexual reproduction the conjugation is heterogamous, i.e. the gametes are unlike; the fusion is chiefly nuclear, and the process is the prelude of the development of the zygote into the new organism. In all the Metazoa the gametes arise from special reproductive tissues which are supposed to contain (see Heredity) the reproductive material or germ-plasm. In the lower (or simpler and possibly degenerate Metazoa) the reproductive or germinal tissue consists of a few cells, sometimes in a group, sometimes scattered and sometimes migratory; in the vast majority of the Metazoa the germinal tissue becomes aggregated in distinct organs, of which those that give rise to ova or female gametes are known as the ovaries, and those that give rise to the sper- matozoa or male gametes are known as the testes. The ovary and the testis are the primary reproductive organs; the details of their anatomy and position in the various groups need not be discussed here (see Reproductive System). The male gamete or spermatozoon was first seen in 1677 by Ludwig van Hammen, a pupil of A. Leeuwenhoek, with the microscope that had been constructed by his master. Leeu- wenhoek, under the influence of the current preformationist ideas, interpreted these actively moving bodies in the seminal fluids as preformed germs and described them as animalculae spermetia or spermatozoa. Throughout the 18th century the general tendency was to regard them as parasites of no con- sequence in fertilization. In 1837 R. Wagner established that they were present in all sexually mature males and absent in infertile male hybrids, and in 1841 A. Kolliker showed that they were cells proliferated in the testes. The spermatozoon is one of the smallest of known cells, frequently being no more than one hundred thousandth of the size of the ovum, although the extraordinary case of a small Cypris has been recorded in which the spermatozoa are longer than the animal. It is produced in enormous quantities and relatively to other minute cells is extremely tenacious of life. It may retain its vitality in the male organism for a long time after it has become a separate cell, and may exist for lengthy periods in the female organism. The queen-bee is impregnated only once, and the spermatozoa may remain functional within her body for three years. Lord Avebury (Sir J. Lubbock) has described the case of a female ant which laid fertile eggs thirteen years after she had been im- pregnated. It is undoubted that in snakes, birds and many mammals, fertilization may not take place for many days after impregnation. The spermatozoa, with a few exceptions, are actively motile, being elongated in shape, with a vibratile tail sometimes provided with a swimming membrane. In a few cases, chiefly of crustaceans, the spermatozoa are spherical with radiating processes, but are capable of amoeboid movements. The cell nucleus is generally situated near the rounded or pointed extremity, with a centrosome immediately behind it, whilst the scanty protoplasm forms the body and vibratile tail; but there appears to be no general significance in the various configura- tions that occur amongst different animals. The process of spermatogenesis, or production of spermatozoa from the per- manent cells of the testis, varies extremely amongst different animals and has been the subject of many elaborate investiga- tions and much confusing nomenclature. Two factors are involved: first, the arrangements to produce a very large crop of cells so to provide for the enormous numbers of spermatozoa produced by most animals; and second, the final changes of shape and of nucleus by which the ripe spermatozoa arise from the indifferent testis-cells, and these processes may to a certain extent overlap. The point of general significance relates to the nuclear changes. The nuclear matter that occurs in the tissue cells of animals, when these cells divide, breaks up into a number of chromosomes constant for each kind of animal, and the final stage of cell division is such that each chromosome splits and contributes a half to each daughter cell, so that the latter come to contain the number of chromosomes peculiar to the animal in which they occur. In the case of spermatozoa, however, a " reducing " division occurs, in which the chromosomes instead of dividing distribute themselves equally between the two daughter cells, with the result that each of the latter contains only half the number peculiar to the species. In its simplest form, what occurs in the last stage of spermatogenesis is that one cell breaks up into four spermatozoa by two successive divisions, the first of which is normal and the second reducing. The nuclear matter of spermatozoa, therefore, contains half the number of chromosomes normal to the tissue cells of the species, and we shall see later that a similar reduction takes place in the formation of the egg. Further complications, however, exist, at least in certain forms. In 1891 H. Henking showed that in a Hemipteran insect of the genus Pyrrochoris, two kinds of spermatozoa are produced in equal numbers, and F. C. Paulmier n8 REPRODUCTION [ANIMALS confirmed the observation in the case of some other insects a few years later, whilst other observers have extended the observation to over a hundred species. In all these cases half the spermatozoa differ from the other half by the presence of what E. B. Wilson calls the " X-element," and which, in the simplest cases, occurs as an unpaired chromosome of the mother cell which passes into one and not the other of the two spermato- zoa formed from that mother cell. The matter is still obscure, and it is not certain whether the facts are peculiar to insects or have a parallel in spermatogenesis universally. According to E. B. Wilson, the facts demonstrate that eggs fertilized by spermatozoa with the X-element invariably produce females (see Sex). The female gamete or ovum is in a large number of cases expanded by the presence of food-yolk and protective swathings to form the visible mass known as an egg, and the production of embryos from eggs has been studied from the time of Aristotle and Pliny. Galen had described the human ovaries as testes muliebres, and W.Harvey in 165 1 showed that the chick arose from the cicatricula of the yolk of the egg, compared these early stages with corresponding stages in the uterus of mammals, and laid down the general proposition — ovum esse primordium commune omnibus animalibus — that the ovum is a starting- point common to all animals. In 1664 N. Steno identified the sexual organ of the mammalian female with that of sharks, and first named it the ovary. In 1672 R. De Graaf described the structure of the ovary in birds and mammals, observed the ovum in the oviduct of the rabbit, and repeated Harvey's statement as to the universal occurrence of ova, although he mistook for ova the follicles that now bear his name. In 1825 J. E. Purkyne described the germinal vesicle in the chick, thus distinguishing between the structure of the egg as a whole and the essential germinal area, and in 1827 K. E. von Baer definitely traced the ovum back from the uterus to the oviduct and thence to its origin within the Graafian follicle in the ovary, and thus paved the way for identification of the ovum as a distinct cell arising from the germinal tissue of the ovary. The ovum or female gamete, unlike the spermatozoon, is a large cell, in most cases visible to the naked eye even in the ovary. Also, in definite contrast with the spermatozoon, it is a passive non-motile cell, although in certain cases it is capable of protruding pseudopodia. It is usually spherical, contains a large nucleus, a centrosome and abundant protoplasm, and is generally enclosed in a stout membrane which may or may not have a special aperture known as the micro- pyle. The protoplasm of all eggs contains nutritive material for the nourishment of the future embryo, and this material may be sufficient in quantity to make the whole cell, although remaining microscopic, conspicuously large, or to expand it to the relatively enormous mass of the yellow yolk of a fowl's egg. Finally, the cellular nature of the ovum is frequently further disguised by its being enclosed in a series of membranes such as the albumen and shell of the fowl's egg. Such complexities are ancillary to the growth or protection of the future embryo, and from the general biological point of view the ovum is to be regarded as a specialized cell derived from the germinal tissue of the ovary, just as the spermatozoon is a specialized cell derived from the corresponding stock of germinal material in the testis. The number of ova produced varies from a very few, as in mammals and birds, to a very large number, as in the herring and many invertebrates, but in all cases the number is relatively small compared with that of the spermatozoa produced by the male of the same species. The details of ovogenesis are more sharply divided than in the case of spermatogenesis into processes connected with the production of a crop of large cells bloated with food-yolk, and the peculiar nuclear changes. The latter changes are generally spoken of as the maturation of the ovum, and in most cases do not begin until the full size has been attained. As in the nuclear changes of spermatogenesis, the details differ in different animals, but the salient feature is that the mature ovum contains, like the ripe spermatozoon, half the number of chromosomes normal to the tissue cells of the animal to which it belongs. The simplest form in which the reduction takes place is that the nucleus of the ovum divides by an ordinary division, each chromosome splitting and sharing itself between the daughter nuclei. Of these nuclei one is extruded from the egg, forming what is called a polar body, and this polar body may again divide by a reducing division, so as to form two polar bodies, each with half the normal number of chromosomes. Finally, the daughter nucleus, remaining in the ovum, also divides by a reducing division, and one of the segments remains to form the nucleus of the ripe ovum, with half the normal number of chromosomes, whilst the other is extruded as a polar body. Very many suggestions as to the meaning of the extru- sion of the polar bodies have been made, but the least fanciful of these is to regard the ovum ready for maturation as homo- logous with the cell about to divide into four spermatozoa; in each case the nucleus divides twice and one of the divisions is a reducing division, so that four daughter nuclei are formed each with half the normal number of chromosomes. Many sper- matozoa are required, and each of the four becomes the nucleus of a complete active cell; relatively few ova are required, but each has a large protoplasmic body, and only one of the four becomes a functional mature egg, the other three being simply extruded and so to say wasted. It must be remembered, however, that there is no inherent probability in favour of the apparently simplest explanation of a very complex biological process. It is also to be noted that in many cases the first polar body does not divide, and it is not clearly established that when the first polar body remains single, it is always the result of a normal nuclear division. When the mature ova and spermatozoa come together in one of the various ways to be discussed later, fertilization, the con- jugation of the gametes to form the zygote, occurs. Alcmaeon (580 B.C.) is believed first to have laid down that fertilization in animals and plants consisted in the material union of the sexual products from both sexes, but it was not until 1761 that it was established experimentally by J. T. Kolreuter's work on the hybridization of plants. In 1780 L. Spallanzani artificially fertilized the eggs of the frog and tortoise, and successfully introduced seminal fluid into the uterus of the bitch, but came to the erroneous conclusion that it was the fluid medium and not the spermatozoa that caused fertilization. This error was corrected in 1824 by J. L. Prevost and J. B. Dumas, who showed that filtration destroyed the fertilizing power of the fluid. In 1843 M. Barry observed spermatozoa within the egg of the rabbit, whilst in 1849 R. Leuckart observed the fertilization of the frog's egg, and in 1851 H. Nelson noticed the entrance of sper- matozoa to the egg of Ascaris, whilst in 1854 a series of observa- tions published independently by T. L. W. Bischoff and Allen Thomson finally and definitely established the fact that ova were fertilized by the actual entrance of spermatozoa. Further advances in microscopical methods enabled a series of observers, of whom the most notable were E. van Beneden, H. Fol and 0. Hertwig, to follow and record the details of the process. They made it clear that the chief event in fertilization was entrance into the ovum of the nucleus or head of the spermatozoon where it formed the " male pronucleus," which gradually approached and fused with the female pronucleus or residual nucleus of the ovum. Still later observers, of whom E. B. Wilson is the most conspicuous, have studied the details of the process in many different animals and have shown that the nucleus of the spermatozoon invariably enters the ovum, that the centrosome generally does so, and that the cytoplasm usually plays no part. The nucleus of the zygote or fertilized ovum, then, possesses the number of chromosomes normal in the tissue cells of the animal to which it belongs, but of these half belong to the female gamete and are derived from the germ plasm of the parental ovary, and half to the male gamete or spermatozoon, derived from the germ plasm of the parental testis. The stimulus which leads to and induces the conjugation of the gametes appears to be chemotactic and to consist of some substance positively attractive to the male gamete, liberated by the mature female gamete, but the attraction is mutual, and in the final stages of approach a protoplasmic outgrowth of the ovum towards the spermatozoon frequently occurs. The ANIMALS] REPRODUCTION 119 fertilized zygote proceeds to form the embryo (see Em- bryology). Parthenogenesis is the production of the new organism from the female gamete without previous conjugation with the male gamete, and is to be regarded as secondary to and degenerate from true sexual reproduction. Aristotle recognized that it occurred in the bee. In 1745 C. Bonnet showed that it must occur in the case of Aphides or plant-lice, in which throughout the summer there were developed a series of generations con- sisting entirely of females. R. A. F. de Reaumur repeated the observations, but evaded the difficulty by suggesting that the Aphides were hermaphrodite, an explanation soon afterwards disproved by L. Dufour. In 1849 (Sir) R. Owen brought to- gether the facts as they were, then known and made a remark- able suggestion regarding them. " Not all the progeny of the primary impregnated germ cell are required for the formation of the body in all animals; certain of the derivative germ cells may remain unchanged and become included in that body which has been composed of their metamorphosed and diversely combined or confluent brethren; so included, any derivative germ cell or the nucleus of such may begin and repeat the same processes of growth by imbibition, and of propagation by spontaneous fission, as those to which itself owed its origin." Taking hold of the recently published views of J. J. S. Steenstrup on alternation of generations, he correlated the sexual and asexual alternation in hydroids and so forth with the virgin births of insects and Crustacea, and regarded the one and the other as instances, of the subsequent proliferation of included germ cells, applying the word parthenogenesis to the pheno- menon. His theory was a very remarkable anticipation of the germ-plasm theory of A. Weismann, but further knowledge showed that there was an important distinction between the reproduction of the asexual generations described by Steenstrup and the cases of Aphides and Crustacea, the germinal cells in the latter instances being true ova produced from the ovaries of true females, but capable of development without fertilization. In 1856 C. T. E. von Siebold established this fact and limited Owen's term parthenogenesis to the sense in which it is now used, the development without fertilization of ova produced in ovaries. True parthenogenesis occurs frequently amongst Rotifers, and in certain cases (Philodinadae) males either do not exist or are so rare that they have not been discovered. Amongst Crustaceans it is common in Branchiopods and Ostracods; in the case of Daphnids, large thick-shelled ova are produced towards winter, which develop only after fertilization and produce females; the latter, throughout summer, produce thin-shelled ova which do not require fertilization, and from which towards autumn both males and females are produced. Amongst insects it occurs in many forms in many different groups, sometimes occasional, sometimes as a regular occurrence. Apart from Aphides the classical instance is that of the bee, where eggs that are not fertilized develop parthenogenetically and produce only drones. What is known as pathological parthenogenesis has been observed occasionally in higher animals, e.g. the frog, the fowl and certain mammals, whilst in the case of human beings, ovarian cysts in which hair and other structures are produced have been attributed to the incomplete development of parthenogenetic ova. Finally, it has been shown in a number of different instances, notably by J. Loeb, that artificial parthenogenesis may be induced by various mechanical and chemical stimulations. It has been shown that ova may be induced to segment by the presence of spermatozoa belonging even to different classes of the animal kingdom — as, for instance, the ova of echinoderms by the spermatozoa of molluscs. In such cases the resulting embryos have purely maternal characters. A possible interpretation is that sperma- tozoa have two functions which may be exercised independently; they may act as stimulants to the ovum to segment, and they may convey the paternal qualities. The former function may be replaced by the chemical substances employed in producing artificial parthenogenesis. Juvenile or precocious partheno- genesis, in which there takes' place reproduction without fer- tilization in immature larvae, has been observed chiefly in insects (Dipterous midges), and to this the term paedogenesis has been applied. The theory of parthenogenesis remains doubtful. When Weismann and others began to study the polar bodies, they made the remarkable discovery that in some parthenogenetic eggs only one polar body was extruded, but the meaning of this distinction was blurred when other cases were described in which two polar bodies were formed. Later on, Weismann drew attention to the difference between normal and reducing divisions, and it now appears to be clear that, with one set of exceptions, ova which develop without fertilization are those in which no reducing division takes place and which, accordingly, contain the number of chromosomes normal to the tissue cells of the species. Such eggs, in fact, resemble the zygote except that all their chromosomes are of maternal origin and the centrosome which becomes active in the first segmentation is that of the ovum and not, as in normal fertilized eggs, that which came in with the spermatozoon. The case of the bee and other insects in which parthenogenetic development results in the pro- duction of males, is doubtful; it appears to be the case that a reduction division has taken place in the maturation of the egg. A. Petrunkevitch has made the ingenious suggestion, that after the reducing division the normal number of chromosomes is restored by the splitting of each into two. Cases of patho- logical and artificial parthenogenesis would fall into line, on the supposition that the stimulus acted by preventing the occurrence of a reducing division in an ovum otherwise mature. It is to be noticed, however, that such explanations of parthenogenesis are not much more than a formal harmonizing of the behaviour of the chromosomes in the respective cases of fertilized and parthenogenetic development; they do not provide a theory as to why the process occurs. Accessory Reproductive Organs and Processes. — It has been already stated that the primary organs of reproduction in animals are the germinal tissues producing respectively sper- matozoa and ova, and that in most cases these are aggregated to form testes and ovaries. In certain animals there are no accessory organs, and when the reproductive products are ripe, they are discharged directly to the exterior if the gonads are external, as in some Coelentera, or if they are internal, break through into some cavity of the body and escape by rupture of the body- wall or through some natural aperture. In a majority of cases, however, special ducts are developed, which in the male serve primarily for the escape of the spermatozoa, but secondarily may be associated with intromittent organs. Similarly, in the female, the primary function of the gonad ducts is to provide a passage for the ova, but in many cases they serve also for the reception of spermatozoa, for the development of embryos and for the subsequent exit of the young. Associated with the oVary and the oviducts are many kinds of yolk-glands and shell-glands, the function of which is to form nutritive material for the future embryo, to discharge this into or around the ovum, and to provide protective wrappings. Although, in the last resort, fertilization de- pends on impulses attracting the spermatozoa to the ova, probably chemical in their nature, the necessary proximity is secured in a number of ways. In many simple cases the ripe products are discharged directly into the surrounding water, and impregnation is a matter of accident highly probable because such animals discharge enormous quantities of ova and spermatozoa, are frequently sessile and live in colonies, and are mature about the same time. In other cases, as, for instance, Tunicates and many Molluscs, the spermatozoa are discharged, and, being drawn into the body of the female with the inhalent currents, there fertilize the ova. In yet a number of other cases, there is sexual congress without intromittence. The males of many fish, such as salmon, attend the females about to discharge their ova, and afterwards pour the male fluid over the liberated eggs; whilst amongst other fish the males seek out a suitable locality and prepare some kind of nest to which the female is enticed and which receives first the ova and then the milt. In many other animals, again; as for instance the frog, the male grasps the ripe female, embracing 120 REPRODUCTION [PLANTS her firmly for a prolonged period, during which ova and sper- matozoa are discharged simultaneously. Where internal fer- tilization occurs, there are usually special accessory organs. In the female, the terminal portion of the gonad-duct , or of the cloaca, is modified to receive the intromittent organ of the male, or to retain and preserve the seminal fluid. In the male, the terminal portion of the gonad-duct may be modified into an intromittent organ or penis, grooved or pierced to serve as a channel by which the semen is passed into the female. In arthropods, ordinary limbs may be modified for this purpose, or special appendages developed; in spiders, the terminal joints of the pedipalps, or second pair of appendages, are enlarged, and are dipped into the semen, which is sometimes shed into a special web, and are used as intromittent organs; in cuttlefish, one of the " arms " is charged with spermatozoa, is inserted into the mantle cavity of the female and there broken off. In many cases there is a temporary apposition of the apertures of the male and female, with an injection from the male without a special intromittent organ. The females are usually passive during coitus, and there are innumerable varieties of clasping organs developed by the male to retain hold of the female. Finally, the various secondary sexual characters which are developed in males and females and induce association between them by appeals to the senses, must be regarded as accessory reproductive organs and processes (see Sex). Another set of accessory organs and processes are concerned with what may be termed in the widest sense of the phrase " brood-care." In many cases the relation between parent and offspring ceases with the extrusion of the fertilized ovum, whilst others display every possible grade of parental care. Many of the lower invertebrates choose special localities in which to deposit the ova or embryos, and glands, the viscid secretion of which serves to bind the ova together or to attach them to some external object, are frequently present. In many insects, elaborate preparations are made; special food-plants are selected, cocoons are woven, or, by means of the special organ known as the ovipositor, the eggs are inserted in the tissues of a living or dead host, or in other cases a supply of food is pre- pared and stored with the young larvae. The eggs or larvae may be attached to the parent and carried about with it, as in the gills of bivalves, the brood-pouches of the smaller Crus- tacea, the back of the Surinam toad, the vocal sacs of the frog Rhinoderma, the expanded ends of the oviducts or the mar- supial pouch. In a large number of cases the young are nour- ished directly from the blood of the mother by some kind of placental connexion, as in some of the sharks, in Anablebs, a bony fish, in some lizards and in mammals. In other cases, the young after birth or hatching are fed by the parents, by the special secretion of the mammary glands in the case of mammals, by regurgitated food in many birds and mammals, by salivary secretions or by food obtained and brought to the young by the parents. Reproductive Period. — In a general way, reproduction begins when the limit of growth has been nearly attained, and the instances of paedogenesis, whether that be parthenogenetic as in midges, or sexual as in the axolotl, must be regarded as an exceptional and special adaptation. In lower animals, where the period of growth is short or indefinite, reproduction begins earlier and is more variable. But, in all cases, surrounding conditions play a great part in hastening or retarding the onset of reproduction. Increased temperature generally acceler- ates reproductive maturity, excess of food retards it, and sudden privation favours it. In a majority of cases it endures to the end of life, but in some of the higher forms, such as birds and mammals, there is a marked decrease or a cessation of reproductive activity, especially in the case of females, as life advances. In most animals, moreover, periods of re- productive activity alternate with periods of quiescence in a rhythmical series. In its simplest form, the rhythm is seasonal; but although at first associated with actual seasonal changes, it persists in the absence or alteration of these. Many animals brought to Europe from the southern hemisphere come into reproductive activity at the time of year corresponding to the spring or summer of their native home. " Heat," menstruation and ovulation in the higher mammals, including man, are rhythmical, and probably physiologically linked, but the ancestral meaning of the periodicity is unknown. Reproduction and Increase of the Race. — Two distinct factors are involved in this question — the potential fecundity of organisms, and the chances of the young reaching maturity. The first varies with , the actual output of zygotes, and is determined partly by the reproductive drain on the individual, and especially the female in cases where the ova are provided with much food-yolk, partly on the duration of reproductive maturity, and partly on the various adaptive and environ- mental conditions which regulate the chances of the gametes meeting for fertilization. It is to be noted that as the gametes are simply cells proliferating from the germinal tissue, the poten- tial number that can be produced is almost indefinite; and as it is found that in very closely allied forms the actual number produced varies within very wide limits, it may be assumed that potential fecundity is indefinite. The possibility of zygotes reaching maturity varies first with the individuation of the organism concerned — that is to say, the degree of complexity of its structure — and the duration of the period of its growth ; and secondly, with the incidence of mortality on the eggs and immature young. It is plain that a parasite capable of living only on a particular host may give rise to myriads of progeny, and yet, from the difficulty of these reaching the only environ- ment in which they can become mature, might not increase more rapidly than an elephant which carries a single foetus for about two years, and guards it for many years after birth. The probable adaptation of the variable reproductive processes to the average conditions of the race is discussed under the heading Longevity. It may be added here that the adapta- tion, in all successful cases, appears to be in excess of what would be required merely to replace fhe losses caused by death, and that there is ample scope for the Malthusian and Darwinian factors. The rate of reproduction tends to outrun the food- supply. Literature. — Almost any zoological publication may contain matter relating to reproduction, but text-books on Embryology must be specially consulted. The annual volumes of the Zoological Record, under the heading " General Subject " until 1906, and thereafter under " Comprehensive Zoology," give a classified subject-index of the literature of the year in which references to the separate parts of the subject are given. Amongst the older memoirs referred to in this article the following are the most im- portant: A. Leeuwenhoek, Epistolae ad societatem regiam Angliam (1719); R. A. F. de Reaumur, Memoires pour servir A I'histoire des insectes (Paris, 1734-1742) ; C. Bonnet, CEuvres d'histoire naturelle et de philosophic (Neuchatel, 1 779-1783); L. Spallanzani, Dissertations relative to the Natural History of Animals and Vegetables (Eng. trans., 2nd ed., London, 1789) ; J. L. Provost et J. B. Dumas, " Observations relatives a l'appareil gen^rateur des animaux males," Ann. Sci. Nat. i. (1824); K. E. von Baer, Epistola ad Academiam Scient. Petropolitanam; Heusinger, Zeitschrift, ii. (1828); Leon Dufour, Recherches anatomiques et physiologique sur les Hemipferes (Paris 1833) ; R. Wagner, " Recherches sur la generation," Ann. Sci. Nat. viii. (1837); A. Kolliker, Tiber das Wesen der sogenannten Saamenthiere, Froriep, Notizenxix. (1841) ; M. Barry, " Spermatozoa observed within the Mammiferous Ovum," Phil. Trans. (1743); J. J. S. Steenstrup, On the Alternation of Generations (Eng. trans., Ray Society, London, 1845) ; R. Leuckart, Beitrdge zur Lehre der Befruchtung (Gottingen Nachrichten, 1849) ; (Sir) R. Owen, On Parthenogenesis (London, 1849); H. Nelson, "The Reproduction of Ascaris mystax," Phil. Trans. (1852); C. T. E. von Siebold, On a True Parthenogenesis in Moths and Bees (Eng. trans., London, 1857); E. van Beneden, " Recherches sur la maturation de l'ceuf et la fecondation," Arch, de biol. (1883) ; O. Hertwig, " Das Problem der Befruchtung," Jen. Zeitsch. xviii. (1885). (P. C. M.) Reproduction of Plants The various modes in which plants reproduce their species may be conveniently classified into two groups, namely, vegetative propagation and true reproduction, the distinction between them being roughly this, that whereas in the former the production of the new individual may be effected by the most various parts of the body, in the latter it is always effected by means of a specialised reproductive cell. PLANTS! REPRODUCTION 121 I. Vegetative Propagation. The simplest case of vegetative multiplication is afforded by unicellular plants. When the cell which constitutes the body of the plant has attained its limit of size it gives rise to two either by division or gemmation; the two cells then grow, and at the same time become separated from each other, so that eventually two new distinct individuals are produced, each of which precisely resembles the original organism. A good example of this is to be found in the germination of the yeast plant. This mode of multiplication is simply the result of the ordinary processes of growth. All plant-cells grow and divide at some time or other of their life; but whereas in * multicellular plant the products of division remain coherent, and add to the number of the cells of which the plant consists, in a unicellular plant they separate and constitute new individuals. In more highly organized plants vegetative propagation may be effected by the separation of the different parts of the body from each other, each such part developing the missing members and thus constituting a new individual. This takes place spontaneously in rhizomatous plants, in which the main stem gradually dies away from behind forwards; the lateral branches thus become isolated and constitute new individuals. The remarkable regenerative capacity of plant-members is largely made use of for the artificial propagation of plants. A branch removed from a parent-plant will, under appropriate conditions, develop roots, and so constitute a new plant; this is the theory of propagation by " cuttings." A portion of a root will similarly develop one or more shoots, and thus give rise to a new plant. An isolated leaf will, in many cases, produce a shoot and a root, that is, a new plant; it is in this way that new begonias, for instance, are propagated. The production of plants from leaves occurs also in nature, as, for instance, in certain so-called " viviparous " plants, of which Bryophyllum calycinum (Crassulaceae) and many ferns [Nephrodium (Lastraea) Filix-mas, Asplenium (Athyrium) ■ Filix-foemina and other species of Asplenium] are examples. But it is in the mosses, of all plants, that the capacity for vegetative propagation is most widely diffused. Any part of a moss, whether it be the stem, the leaves, the rhizoids, or the sporogonium, is capable, under appropriate conditions, of giving rise to filamentous protonema, on which new moss-plants are then developed as lateral buds. '■'■'-■■ In a large number of plants provision is made for vegetative propagation by the development of more or less highly specialized organs. In lichens, for instance, there are the soredia, which are minute buds of the thallus containing both algal and fungal elements; these are set free on the surface in large numbers, and each grows into a thallus. In the Characeae there are the bulbils or " starch-stars " of Char a slelligera, which are under- ground nodes, and the branches with naked base and the pro- embryonic branches found by Pringsheim on old nodes of Chara fragilis. In the mosses small tuberous bulbils frequently occur on the rhizoids, and in many instances (Bryum annotinum, Aulacomnion androgynum, Tetraphis pellucida, &c.) stalked fusiform or lenticular multicellular bodies containing chlorophyll, termed gemmae, are produced on the shoots, either in the axils of the leaves or in special receptacles at the summit of the stem. Gemmae of this kind are produced in vast numbers in Marchantia and Lunularia among the liverworts. Similar gemmae are also produced by the prothallia of ferns. In some ferns (e.g. Nephro- lepis tuberosa and undulata) the buds borne on the leaves or in their axils become swollen and filled with nutritive materials, constituting bulbils which fall off and give rise to new plants. This conversion of buds into bulbils, which subserve vegetative multiplication, occurs also occasionally among Phanerogams, as for instance in Lilium bulbiferum, species of Poa, Polygonum viviparum, &c. But many other adaptations of the same kind occur among Phanerogams. Bulbous plants, for instance, produce each year at least one bulb or corm from which a new plant is produced in the succeeding year. In the potato, tubers are developed from subterranean shoots, each of which in the following year gives rise to a new individual. In the dahlia, Thladiantha dubia, &c, tuberous swellings are found on the roots, from each of which a new individual may spring. II. True Reproduction. This is effected by cells formed by the proper reproductive organs. These cells are of two principal kinds. There are, first, those cells each of which is capable of developing by itself into a new organism: these are the asexual reproductive cells, known generally as spores. Secondly, there are the cells which are incapable of independent germination; it is not until these cells have fused together in pairs that a new organism can be developed: these are the sexual reproductive cells or gametes. In some exceptional cases the normal mode of reproduction, sexual or asexual, does not take place: instead, the new organism is developed vegetatively from the parent. When sexual reproduction is suppressed the case is one of apogamy; when asexual reproduction by spores is suppressed the case is one of apospory. (Apogamy and apospory are discussed below in the section on Abnormalities of Reproduction.) Asexual .Re/o-odMcta'oM.— Reproduction by means of som& kind of spore (using the term in its widest sense, so as to include all asexually produced reproductive cells) is common to nearly all families of plants; it is wanting in certain Algae (Conjugatae, Fucaceae, Characeae), and in certain fungi (e.g. some Perono- sporeae). The structure of a spore is essentially this: it consists of a nucleated mass of protoplasm, enclosing starch or oil as re- serve nutritive material, usually invested by a cell- wall. In those cases in which the spore is capable of germinating immediately on its development the cell-wall is a single delicate membrane consisting of cellulose; but in those cases in which the spore may or must pass through a period of quiescence before germina- tion the wall becomes thickened and may consist of two layers, an inner, the endospore, which is delicate and consists of cellulose, and an outer, the exospore, which is thick and rigid, frequently darkly coloured and beset externally with spines or bosses, and which consists of cutin. In some few cases among the fungi, multicellular or septate spores are produced; these approximate somewhat to the gemmae mentioned above as highly specialized organs for vegetative propagation. In some cases, particularly among the algae, and also in some fungi (Peronosporeae, Saprolegnieae, Chytridiaceae, and the Myxomycetes) , spores are produced which are usually destitute of any cell-wall, and are further peculiar in that they are motile, and are therefore termed zoospores; they move sometimes in an amoeboid manner by the protrusion of pseudopodia, but more frequently they are provided with one, two, or many delicate vibratile protoplasmic filaments, termed cilia, by the lashing of which the spore is propelled through the water. The zoospore eventually comes to rest, withdraws its cilia, surrounds itself with a cell-wall, and then germinates. In the simplest case a single spore is developed from the cell of the unicellular plant, the protoplasm of which surrounds itself with the characteristic thick wall. This occurs only in plants of low organization such as the Schizophyta. In other cases the contents of the cell undergo division, each portion of the protoplasm constituting a spore. Examples of this are afforded, among unicellular plants, by yeast and the Protococcaceae ; and in multicellular plants by the Pandorineae, Confervaceae, Ulvaceae, &c, where any cell of the body may produce spores. . ' In such cases the spore-producing cell may be regarded as a rudimentary reproductive organ of the nature of a sporangium. In more highly organized plants special organs are differentiated for the production of spores. In the majority of cases the special organ is a sporangium, that is, a capsule in the interior of which the spores are developed; but in many fungi' the spores are formed by abstriction from an organ termed a sporophore. In the Thallophyta the sporangium is commonly a single cell. In the Bryophyta it is a multicellular capsule. In the Pteridophyta the sporangium is multicellular, but simple in structure, and this is true also of the Phanerogams. 122 REPRODUCTION [PLANTS It is important to note that in all the Bryophyta and in some of the Pteridophyta (most of the Filicinae, all existing Equisetinae, and the Lycopodiaceae and Psilotaceae) there is but one kind of sporangium and spore, the plants being homo- sporous or isosporous, whereas the rest of the Pteridophyta (Hydropterideae, Selaginellaceae) and the Phanerogams are heterosporous, having sporangia of two kinds; some produce one or a few large spores (megaspores) , and are hence termed mega- sporangia, while others give rise to a larger number of small spores (microspores) and are hence termed micros porangia. In the Phanerogams the two kinds of sporangia have received special names: the megasporangium, which produces as a rule only one mature spore (embryo-sac), is termed the ovule; the microsporangium, which produces a large number of micro- spores (pollen-grains), is termed the pollen-sac. The development of spores, except in the simpler Thallophyta, is more or less restricted to definite parts of the body. Thus in the Red Algae (Florideae) there are the organs known as stichidia, nemathecia. In the fungi the number and variety of such organs is very great; they may be described generally as simple and compound sporophores: but for a description the article Fungi should be consulted. In the higher plants the organs are less various. In the Bryophyta the production of spores is restricted to the sporogonium. In the vascular plants (Pteridophyta, Phanerogams) the development of sporangia, speaking generally, is confined to the leaves. In most ferns the sporangiferous leaves (sporophylls) do not differ in appearance from the foliage leaves; but in other Pteridophyta (Equisetaceae, Marsiliaceae, some species of Lycopodium and Selaginella) they present considerable adaptation, and notably in the Phanero- gams. In the Phanerogams the specialization is so great that the sporophylls have received special names; those which bear the microsporangia (pollen-sacs) are termed the stamens, and those which bear the megasporangia (ovules) are termed the carpels. The sporophylls are usually aggregated together on a short stem, forming a shoot that constitutes a flower. Many terms are employed to indicate the nature of the various kinds of spores, especially among the fungi, but the endless varieties of asexual (and asexually produced) reproductive cells may be grouped under two heads— (i) Gonidia, (2) Spores proper. The distinction between these two kinds of asexual repro- ductive cells is as follows. The gonidiumis a reproductive cell that gives rise, on germina- tion, to an organism resembling the parent. For instance, among the algae, the " zoospore " of Vaucheria develops into a Vaucheria-plant. There is thus a close connexion between vegetative multiplication and multiplication by means of gonida. The production of gonida is entirely limited to the Thallophyta, and is especially marked in the fungi, though the nature of all the many kinds of reproductive cells formed in this group has not yet been fully investigated. It is, however, wanting in certain algae (Conjugatae, Fucaceae, Characeae) and fungi (some Peronosporeae and Ascomycetes). The spore proper is a reproductive cell that as a rule gives rise, on germination, to an organism unlike that which produced it. For instance, the spore of a fern when it germinates gives rise, not to a fern-plant, but to a prothallium. The apparent exceptions to this rule occur only among the Thallophyta, and are explained below in the section on Life-history. The true spore is developed, usually in a sporangium, after a process of division which presents certain features that call for special notice. Observation of the process of division of the nucleus (karyo- kinesis) in plants generally has shown (for details see Cytology) that the linin-reticulum of the resting nucleus breaks up into a definite number of segments, the chromosomes, each of which bears a series of minute bodies, the chromatin-disks or chromo- meres, consisting largely of a substance termed chromatin. In the ordinary homotype divisions of the nuclei the characteristic number of chromosomes is always observable : but when the spore-mother-cells are being formed the number of chromosomes is reduced to one-half. This, if the number of chromosomes of the parent plant be expressed as 2X the number in the spore will be x. To take a concrete case: it has been observed by Guignard and others that in the early divisions taking place in the developing anther and ovule of the lily the number of chromosomes is 24; whereas in the later divisions which give rise to the pollen-mother-cells in the one case and to the mother- cell of the embryo-sac in the other, the number of chromosomes is only 12. Thus the development of a spore (as distinguished from a gonidium) is always preceded by a reducing- or heterotype- division, a process now more generally termed meiosis (Farmer). The reduced number of chromosomes in the nucleus of the spore-mother-cell persists in the spore, and in all the cells of the organism to which the spore may give rise. (Meiosis is discussed below in the section on Sexual Reproduction.) It should be explained that cells, to which the name " spore " has also been applied, are formed as the result of a sexual act: such are zygospores, oospores, and some carpospores. But these cells differ from spores proper not only in their mode of origin but also in that their nuclei contain the full double number (2x) of chromosomes; hence they may be distinguished as diplospores. Sexual Reproduction. — Sexual reproduction involves the development of sexual organs (gametangia) and sexual cells (gametes). When the organism is unicellular, as in the lower Green Algae (e.g. Protococcaceae, Conjugatae), the cell becomes a sexual organ and its whole protoplasm gives rise to one or more sexual cells: in the higher forms certain parts of the body are specialized as sexual organs. In many of the lower plants the organs present no external distinction of sex (e.g. lower Green Algae: the Chytridiaceae, Mucorinae, and some Ascomycetes among the fungi): it is impossible to distinguish between the male and female organs, although it cannot be doubted that the essential physiological difference exists; consequently the organs are merely described as gametangia. The gap between these plants and those with differentiated sexual organs is, however, bridged over by intermediate forms, as explained in the article Algae. When the sexual organs are more or less obviously differ- entiated into male and female, they present considerable variety of form in different groups of plants, and accordingly bear different names. Thus the male organ is a pollinodium in most of the fungi, a spermogonium in others (certain Ascomycetes, Uredineae); in all other plants it is an antheridium. Similarly the female organ is an oogonium in various Thallophyta (Green and Brown Algae: Oomycetous Fungi); a procarp in the Red Algae; an archicarp in certain Ascomycetous Fungi and in the Uredineae; an archegonium in all the higher plants. It is generally the case that the protoplasm of the sexual organ is differentiated into one or more sexual cells. Thus, the game- tangium usually gives rise to cells which, as they are externally similar, are termed isogametes or simply gametes. Certain forms of the male organ, the spermogonium and the antheridium, give rise to male cells which are termed spermatia when they are non- ciliate, spermatozoids when they are ciliated and free-swimming. Again, the female organs termed oogonia and archegonia produce one or more female cells called oospheres. But there are im- portant exceptions to this rule. Thus the protoplasm is not differentiated into cells in the gametangium of the Mucorinae; in the male organ (pollinodium), of fungi generally; and in the female organ (procarp) of the Red Algae and (archicarp) of the Ascomycetes and Uredineae. * The immediate product of the fusion of cells, or of undifferenti- ated protoplasm, derived from sexual organs of opposite sex may be generally termed the zygote; but it is not always of the same kind. Thus when two isogametes, or the undifferentiated contents of two gametangia, fuse together, the process is desig- nated conjugation, and the product is usually a single cell termed zygospore. When an oosphere fuses with a male cell, or with the undifferentiated contents of a male organ, the process is fertilization, and the product is a single cell termed oospore. When, finally, a female organ with undifferentiated contents receives a male cell, the process again is fertilization; here the PLANTS] REPRODUCTION 123 product is not a single cell, but a fructification termed cystocarp (Red Algae) , or ascocarp (Ascomycetes) or aecidium (Uredineae) , containing many spores (carpospores). As a consequence of the diversity in the sexual organs and cells, in the details of the sexual act, and in the product of it, several modes of the sexual process have to be distinguished, which may be conveniently summarized as follows : — I. Isogamy: the sexual process consists in the fusion of either two similar sexual cells (iso gametes), or two similar sexual organs (gametangia) : it is termed conjugation, and the product is a zygospore. Its varieties are :— (a) Gametes ciliated and free-swimming {planogametes), set free into the water where they meet and fuse: lower Green Algae (Protococcaceae, Pandorineae, most Siphonaceae and Confervaceae) ; some Brown Algae (Phaeo- sporeae) : (b) Gametangia fuse in pairs, and a gamete is differentiated in each: the gametes of each pair fuse, but are not set free and are not ciliated (the Conjugate Green Algae): or, no gametes are differentiated, the undifferentiated con- tents of the gametangia fusing (Mucorinae among the Fungi). II. Oogamy: male and female organs distinct: the protoplasm of the female organ is differentiated into one or (rarely) more oospheres which usually remain enclosed in the female organ : the contents of the male organ are usually differentiated into one or more male cells: the process is fertilization, the product is an oospore. (A) The sexual organs are unicellular (or coenocytic as in certain Siphonaceous Green Algae and in the Oomycetous Fungi); the female organ is an oogonium. (a) The male organ is an antheridium giving rise to one or more free-swimming ciliated spermatozoids : (1) The oogonium contains a single oosphere which is fertilized in situ: higher Green Algae (Volvox, Vaucheria, Oedogonium, Coleochaete, Characeae) ; some Brown Algae (Tilopteris) ; among the Fungi, Monoblepharis, the only fungus known to have spermatozoids : (2) The oogonium produces a single oosphere which is extruded and is fertilized in the water : Dictyota and some Fucaceae (Brown Algae) : (3) The oogonium contains several oospheres which are fertilized in situ : Sphaeroplea (Siphonaceous Green Alga) : (4) The oogonium produces more than one oosphere (2-8) which are extruded and are fertilized in the water : certain Brown Algae (Pelvetia, Ascophyllum, Fucus): (/S) The male organ is a pollinodium which applies itself closely to the oogonium: the amorphous male cell is not ciliated and is not set free: (1) The oogonium contains a single oosphere which is fertilized in situ : Peronosporaceae (Oomycetes) : (2) The oogonium contains several oospheres; Saprolegnia- ceae: but it is debated whether or not fertilization actually takes place. (B) The male and female organs are (as a rule) multicellular; the male organ is an antheridium, the female an archegonium: the archegonium always contains a single oosphere which is fertilized in situ. (a) The male cell is a free-swimming ciliated spermatozoid : the antheridium produces more than one (usually very many) spermatozoids, each of which is developed in a single cell: all Bryophyta (mosses, &c.) and Pterido- phyta (ferns, &c.) : the only Phanerogams in which spermatozoids have been observed are the gymno- spermous species Ginkgo biloba, Cycas revoluta, Zamia integrifolia. (/S) The male cell is amorphous and passes directly from the pollen-tube into the oosphere {siphonogamy) : all Phanero- gams except the species just mentioned. It roust be explained that in the angiospermous Phanerogams, the male and female organs are so reduced that each is represented by only a single cell : the male, by the generative cell, formed in the pollen-grain, which usually divides into two male cells: the female, by the oosphere. The gradual reduction can be traced through the Gymnosperms. Attention may here be drawn to the fact (see Angiosperms) that, in several cases, the second male cell has been seen to enter the embryo-sac from the pollen-tube, and its nucleus to fuse with the definitive nucleus (endosperm-nucleus) or with one of the polar nuclei. The significance of this remarkable observation is dis- cussed in the section on the Physiology of Reproduction. III. Carpogamy: the sexual organs are (as a rule) differentiated into male and female: the protoplasm of the unicellular or multi- cellular female organ (archicarp, procarp) is never differentiated into an oosphere: in many cases definite male cells, spermatia, are' produced and are set free, but they are not ciliated, and fre- quently have a cell- wall : the process is fertilization : the product is a fructification derived essentially from the female organ con- taining several (sometimes very many) spores {carpospores) : characteristic of the Red Algae and of the Ascomycetous Fungi. (A) There are definite male cells {spermatia): (a) The female organ is a procarp, consisting of an elongated, closed, receptive filament, the trichogyne, and of a basal fertile portion, the carpogonium: on fertilization the latter grows and gives rise directly or indirectly to a cysto- carp: the spermatia are each formed in a unicellular antheridium and have no cell-wall at first: they fuse with the tip of the trichogyne : Red Algae (Rhodophyceae or Florideae) : ; (/S) The female organ {archicarp) resembles the preceding : in fertilization the fertile portion {ascogonium) develops into an ascocarp containing one or more asci (sporangia) each containing usually eight ascospores: the spermatia are formed by abstriction from the filaments (sterigmata) lining special receptacles, the spermogonia, which are the male organs: certain Ascomycetous Fungi {e.g. Laboul- beniaceae, some Lichen-Fungi, Polystigma). For the Uredineae, see Abnormalities of Reproduction, below). (B) There are no definite male cells: the more or less distinct male and female organs come into contact, and their undiffer- entiated contents fuse : the product is an ascocarp: (a) The male and female organs are obviously different : the female organ is an ascogonium, the male a pollinodium: e.g. Pyronema, Sphaerotheca (Ascomycetes) : (/3) The male and female organs are quite similar : e.g. Eremas- cus, Dipodascus (Ascomycetes). It may be explained that carpogamy is the expression of sexual degeneration. In the cases last mentioned, when the sexual organs are quite similar, they have reverted to the condition of gametangia. Still further reduction is observable in other Ascomycetes in which one of the sexual organs, presumably the male, is either much reduced or is altogether wanting. Again in the rusts (Uredineae), there are spermatia, but they are functionless (see section on Abnormalities of Reproduction). In the highest Fungi, the Auto- basidiomycetes, no sexual organs have been discovered. Details of the Sexual Act. — It has been already stated that the sexual act consists in the fusion of two masses of protoplasm, commonly cells, derived from two organs of opposite sex : but this is only the first stage in the process. The second stage is the fusion of the nuclei, which usually follows quickly upon the fusion of the cells; but nuclear fusion may be postponed so that the two sexual nuclei may be observed in the zygote, as " conjugate " nuclei, and even in the cells of the organism developed from the zygote {e.g. Uredineae). The result of nuclear fusion is that the nucleus of the zygote contains the double number of chromo- somes — that is, if the number of chromosomes in each of the fusing sexual nuclei be x, the number in the nucleus of the zygote will be 2X. Moreover, this double number persists in all the cells of the organism developed from the zygote, until it is reduced to one-half by meiosis preceding either the development of the spores, or, less commonly, the development of the sexual cells. But there is yet a third stage, which consists in the temporary fusion of the chromosomes belonging to the two sexual nuclei. This always takes place as a preliminary to meiosis; it may be in the germinating zygote, or after many generations of cells have been formed from it. At the onset of meiosis the (2*) chromosomes are seen to be double, one of each pair having been derived from the male and the female cell respectively: the chromosomes of each pair then fuse so that their chromomeres unite along their length, constituting the pseudo-chromosomes. The paired chromosomes separate and eventually go to form the two daughter-nuclei, one to each, which thus have half (*) the original number of chromosomes. The daughter-nuclei at once divide homotypically, retaining the reduced {x) number of chromosomes to form the four nuclei of a tetrad of spores (more rarely, e.g. Fucus, of sexual cells). III. Life-history. It will have been gathered from the foregoing sections that plants generally are capable of both sexual and asexual repro- duction; and, further, that in different stages of their life-history they possess the diploid (23c) number of chromosomes in their nuclei, or the haploid {x) number. It may be at once stated that, in all plants in which sexual reproduction and true meiotic spore-formation exist, these two modes of reproduction are restricted to distinct forms of the plant; the sexual form bears only the sexual organs and is haploid; the asexual form/only 124 REPRODUCTION [PLANTS produces spores and is diploid. Hence all such plants are to this extent polymorphic — that is, the plant assumes these two forms in the course of its life-history. When, as in many Thallophyta, one or other of these forms can reproduce itself by means of gonidia, additional forms may be introduced into the life- history, which becomes the more complicated the more pro- nounced the polymorphism. The most straightforward life-histories are those presented by the Bryophyta and the Pteridophyta, where there are but the two forms, the sexual and the asexual. In the life-history of a moss, the plant itself bears only sexual organs: it is the sexual form, and is distinguished as the gametophyte. The zygote (oospore) formed in the sexual act develops into an organism, the sporogonium, which is entirely asexual, producing only spores: it is distinguished as the sporophyte. When these spores germ- inate, they give rise to moss-plants. Thus the two forms, the sexual and the asexual, regularly alternate with each other — that is, the life-history presents that simple form of poly- morphism which is known as alternation of generations. Simi- larly, in the life-history of a fern, there is a regular alternation of a sporophyte, which is the fern-plant itself, with a gametophyte, which is the fern-prothallium. It is pointed out in the preceding section that, as the result of the sexual act, the nucleus of the zygote contains twice as many chromosomes as those of the fusing sexual cells. This 2X number of chromosomes persists throughout all the cell- generations derived from the zygote, that is, in the cells constituting the sporophyte, up to the time that it begins to produce spores, when meiosis takes place. Again, the cell- generations derived from the spore, that is, the cells constituting the gametophyte, all have the reduced x number of chromosomes in their nuclei up to the sexual act. Hence the sporophyte may also be designated the diplophyte and the gametophyte the haplophyte (Strasburger) : in other words, the sporo- phyte is the pre-meiotic, the gametophyte the post-meiotic generation. Twice in its life-history the plant is represented by a single cell: by the spore and by the zygote. The turning- points in the life-history, the transitions from the one genera- tion to the other, are (i) meiosis, (2) the sexual act. The course of the life-history in Phanerogams and in those Thallophyta which have been adequately investigated is essenti- ally the same as that of the Bryophyta and of the Pteridophyta as described above, though it is less easy to trace on account of the peculiar relation of the two generations to each other in the Phanerogams and on account of various irregularities that present themselves in the Thallophyta. In the Phanerogams, as in the Pteridophyta, the pre- ponderating generation is the sporophyte, the plant itself. Inasmuch as they are heterosporous, the gametophyte is represented by a male and a female organism or prothallium, both rudimentary. The male prothallium consists of the few cells formed by the germinating pollen-grain (microspore) ; and though it is quite independent, since the microspores are shed, it grows parasitically in the tissues upon which the microspore has been deposited in pollination. The female prothallium may consist of many cells with well-developed archegonia, as in the Gymnosperms, or of only a few cells with the female organ reduced to the oosphere, as in the Angiosperms. In either case it is the product of the germination of a megaspore (embryo-sac) which is not shed from its sporangium (ovule): hence it never becomes an independent plant, and was long regarded as merely a part of the sporophyte until its true nature was ascertained, chiefly by the researches of Hofmeister, who first explained the alternation of generations in plants. This intimate and persistent connexion between the two generations affords the explanation of the characteristic features of the Phanerogams, the seed and the flower. The ovule containing the embryo-sac, which eventually contains the embryo, per- sists as the seed — a structure that is distinctive of Phanero- gams, which have, in fact, on this account been also termed Spermatophyta. With regard to the flower, it has been already mentioned that it is, like the cone of an Equisetum or a Lyco- podium, a shoot adapted to the production of spores. But it is something more than this: for whereas in Equisetum or Lycopodium the function of the cone comes to an end when the spores are shed, the flower of the Phanerogam has still various functions to perform after the maturation of the spores. It is the seat of the process of pollination — that is, the bringing of the pollen-grain by one of various agencies into such a posi- tion that a part (the pollen-tube) of the male prothallium developed from it may reach and fertilize the oosphere in the embryo-sac. Thus the flower of Phanerogams is a reproductive shoot adapted not only for spore-production, but also for pollination, for fertilization, and for the consequences of fertiliza- tion, the production of seed and fruit. However, in spite of these complications, it is possible to determine accurately the limits of the two generations by the observation of the nuclei. The meiosis preceding the formation of the spores marks the beginning of the (haploid) gametophyte, male and female; and the sexual act marks that of the (diploid) sporophyte. The difficult task of elucidating the life-histories of the Thallophyta has been successfully performed in certain cases by the application of the method of chromosome-counting, with the result that alternation of generations has been found to be of general occurrence. To begin with the Algae. In the Dictyotaceae (Brown Algae) there are two very similar forms in the life-history, the one bearing asexual reproductive organs (tetrasporangia) , the other bearing sexual organs (oogonia and antheridia). It has been shown (Lloyd Williams) that the former is undoubtedly the sporophyte and the latter the gametophyte, since the nuclei of the former contain 32 chromo- somes, and those of the latter 16. Meiosis takes place in the mother-cell of the tetraspores, which, on germination, give rise to the sexual form. Quite a different life-history has been traced in Fucus, another Brown Alga. Here no spores are produced: there is but one form in the life-history, the Fucus- plant, which bears sexual organs and has, on that account, been regarded as a gametophyte. The investigation of the nuclei has, however, shown (Farmer) that the Fucus-pl&nt is actually diploid, that it is, in fact, a sporophyte; but since there is no spore-formation, meiosis immediately precedes the development of the sexual cells, which alone represent the gametophyte (see below, Apospory). Similarly, two types of life-history have been discovered in the Red Algae. In Polysiphonia violacea, a species in which the tetraspores and the sexual organs are borne by similar but distinct individuals, it has been ascertained (Yamanouchi) that, as in Dictyota, meiosis takes place in the mother-cell of the tetraspores, so that the nuclei of these spores, as also those of the sexual plants to which they give rise, contain 20 chromo- somes: and further, that the nuclei of the carpospores (diplo- spores) produced in the cystocarp as the result of fertilization, contain 40 chromosomes, as do also those of the asexual plant to which the carpospores give rise. Hence the sporophyte is represented by the cystocarp and the resulting tetraspor- angiate plants: the gametophyte, by the sexual plants. Though it is the rule in the Red Algae that the tetrasporangia and the sexual organs are borne on distinct individuals, yet cases are known in which both kinds of reproductive organs are borne upon the same plant; and to those the above conclusions obviously cannot apply. They have yet to be investigated. The second type of life-history has been traced in Nemalion. Here there is no tetrasporangiate form, consequently meiosis takes place at a different stage in the life-history. It has been observed (Wolfe) that the nuclei of the sexual plant contain 8 chromosomes; those of the gonimoblast-nlaments of the developing cystocarp contain 16, whilst those of the carpospores contain 8: hence meiosis takes place in the carpo- sporangia. Here the plant is the gametophyte; the sporophyte is only represented by the cystocarp. The carpospores here are true spores (haplospores). Among the Green Algae, Coleochaete is the only form that has been fully investigated (Allen). Here meiosis takes place in the germinating oospore: consequently the plant is the PLANTS] REPRODUCTION 125 gametophyte, and the sporophyte is represented only by the oospore, so that the life-history resembles that of Nemalion. It is probable that this conclusion is generally true of the whole group; at any rate of those forms (Desmids, Spirogyra, Oedogonium, Chara) which have been more or less investi- gated. Turning to the Fungi, somewhat similar results have been obtained in the few forms that have been studied from this point of view. In the sexual Ascomycetes it appears (Harper) that meiosis takes place in the ascocarp just before the develop- ment of the spores, so that the life-history essentially resembles that of Nemalion. Again, in certain Uredineae, having an aecidium-stage and a teleutospore-stage, which is apparently a sexual process has been observed (Blackman, Christman) which is described in the section on Abnormalities of Reproduction, and the life-history is as follows. The sexual act having taken place, a row of aecidiospores is developed in the aecidium, each of which contains two conjugate nuclei derived from the sexual nuclei. The mycelium developed from the aecidiospore, as well as the uredospores and the teleutospores that it bears, shows two conjugate nuclei. When, however, the teleuto- spore is about to germinate, the two nuclei fuse (thus completing the sexual act) and meiosis takes place. As a result the promy- celium developed from the teleutospore, and the sporidia that it produces, are uninucleate: so are also the mycelium developed from the sporidium, and the female organs (archicarps) borne upon it. Hence the limits of the sporophyte are the aecidio- spore and the teleutospore: those of the gametophyte, the teleutospore and the aecidiospore. Similar observations have been made upon other Uredineae with a more contracted life-history. Phragmidium Potentillae- canadensis is a rust that has no aecidium-stage: consequently the primary uredospores are borne by the mycelium produced on infection of the host by a sporidium. It has been observed (Christman) that the sporogenous hyphae fuse in pairs, suggest- ing a sexual act; then the primary uredospores are developed in rows from the fused pairs of hyphae which thus behave as sexual organs (archicarps), and each such uredospore contains two conjugate nuclei. Although the research has not been carried beyond this point, it may be inferred that in this case, as in the preceding, nuclear fusion and meiosis take place in the teleutospore. Here the sporophyte is represented by the uredo-form. Finally, in some of the fungi in which no sexual organs have yet been discovered, this method of investigation has made it probable that some kind of sexual act takes place nevertheless. Thus in the Uredine Puccinia mahacearum, which has only teleutospore- and sporidium-stages, it has been observed (Black- man) that the formation of the teleutospores is preceded by a binucleate condition of the hyphae. The same idea is suggested by the binucleate basidia of the Basidiomycetes, which corre- spond to the teleutospores of the Uredineae. The life-histories sketched in the preceding paragraphs show that one of the complexities met with in the Thallophyta is that meiosis does not always take place at the same point in the life-history. In the higher plants the incidence of meiosis is generally, though not absolutely, constant: it may be stated as a rule that in the Bryophyta, Pteridophyta and Phanerogams it takes place in the spore-mother-cells. In the Thallophyta this rule does not hold. In some of them, it is true, meiosis immediately precedes, as in the higher plants, the formation of certain spores, the tetraspores (Dictyotaceae, Polysiphonia), the teleutospores (Uredineae): but in others it immediately precedes the development of the sexual organs (Fucaceae), or follows more or less directly upon the sexual act (Green Algae, Nemalion, Ascomycetes). The life-history of most Thallophyta is further complicated by the capacity of the gametophyte of the sporophyte to repro- duce themselves by cells termed gonidia, a capacity that is wholly lacking in the higher plants. The karyology of gonidia has not yet been sufficiently investigated: but when, as in the Green Algae and the Oomycetous Fungi, the gonidia are developed by and reproduce the gametophyte, it may be inferred that they, like the gametophyte, are haploid. One case, at any rate, of the reproduction of the sporophyte by gonidia is fully known, that of the Uredineae just described, in which the uredo- form, which is a phase of the sporophyte, is reproduced by the uredo-spores which are binucleate, that is diploid, and may be distinguished as diplogonidia. In any case the result is that whereas in the higher plants each of the alternating generations occurs but once in the life-history, in these Thallophyta the life- history may include a succession of gametophytic or of sporo- phytic forms This is, in fact, a distinguishing feature of the group. The higher plants present a regular alternation of generations: whereas, in the Thallophyta, though they probably all present some kind of alternation of generations, yet it is irregular in the various ways and for the various reasons mentioned above Sufficient information has been given in the preceding pages to render possible the consideration of the origin of alternation of generations. To begin quite at the beginning, it may be assumed that the primitive form of reproduction was purely vegetative, merely division of the unicellular organism when it had attained the limits of its own growth. Following on this came reproduction by a gonidium: that is, the protoplasm of the cell, at the end of its vegetative life, became quiescent, surrounded itself with a proper wall, or was set free as a motile ciliated cell, having in some unexplained way become capable of originating a new course of life (rejuvenescence) on germination. Then, as can be well traced in the Brown and Green Algae (see Algae), these primitive reproductive cells (gonidia) began to fuse in pairs: in other words, they gradually became sexual. This stage can still be observed in some of these Algae {e.g. Ulothrix, Ectocarpus) where the zoospores (gonidia) may either germinate independently, or fuse in pairs to form a zygote. Gradually the sexuality of these cells became more pronounced: losing the capacity for independent germination, they acquired the external characters of more or less differentiated sexual cells, and the gametangia producing them developed into male and female sexual organs. But this advancing sexual differenti- ation did not necessarily deprive the plant of the primitive mode of propagation: the sexual organism still retained the faculty of reproduction by gonidia. The loss of this faculty only came with higher development: it is entirely wanting in some of the higher Thallophyta (e.g. Fucaceae, Characeae), and in all plants above them in the evolutionary series. With the introduction of the sexual act, a new kind of repro- ductive cell made its appearance, the zygote. This cell, as already explained, differs from other kinds of spores and from the sexual cells, in that its necleus is diploid; and with it the sporophyte (diplophyte) was introduced into the life-history. It has been mentioned that in some plants (e.g. Green Algae) the zygote is all that there is to represent the sporophyte, giving rise, or germination and after meiosis, to one or more spores. Passing to the Bryophyta, in fhe simpler forms (e.g. Riccia), the zygote develops into a multicellular capsule (sporogonium) ; and in the higher forms into a more elaborate sporogonium, producing many spores. In the Pteridophyta and the Phanerogams, the zygote gives rise to the highly developed sporophytic plant. Thus the evolution of the sporophyte can be traced from the unicellular zygote, gradually increasing in bulk and in in- dependence until it becomes the equal of the gametophyte (e.g. in Dictyota and Polysiphonia), and eventually far surpasses it (Pteridophyta, Phanerogams) . Moreover, the increase in size was attended by the gradual limitation of spore-production to certain parts only, the rest of the tissues being vegetative, assuming the form of stems, leaves, &c. These facts have been formulated in the theory of " progressive sterilization " (Bower), which states that the sporophytic form of the higher plants has been evolved from the simple, entirely fertile, sporophyte of the lower, by the gradually increasing development of the sterile vegetative tissue at the expense of the sporogenous, accompanied by increase in total bulk and in morphological and histological differentiation. In connexion with the study of the evolution of the sporophyte, 126 REPRODUCTION [PLANTS the question arose as to its morphological significance; whether it is to be regarded as a modified form of the gametophyte, or as an altogether new form intercalated in the life-history: in other words, whether the alternation is" homologous "or" antithetic." In certain plants there is a succession of forms which are un- doubtedly homologous: for instance, in Coleochaete where a succession of individuals without sexual organs is produced by zoospores (gonidia). The main fact that has been established is that the sporophyte, from the simple zygote of the Thallophyta to the spore-bearing plant of the Phanerogams, is character- ized by its diploid nuclei; that it is a diplophyte, in contrast to the haplophytic gametophyte. Were these nuclear characters absolutely universal, there could be no question but that the sporophyte is an altogether new antithetic form, and not an homologous generation. But certain exceptions to the rule have been detected, which are described under Abnormalities of Repro- duction: at present it will suffice to say that such things as a diploid gametophyte and a haploid sporophyte have been ob- served in certain ferns. It can only be inferred that alternation of generations is not absolutely dependent upon the periodic halving in meiosis and the subsequent doubling by a sexual act, of the number of chromosomes in the nuclei, though the two sets of phenomena usually coincide. It must not, however, be overlooked that these exceptional cases occur in plants presenting an abnormal life-history: the fact remains that where there is both normal spore-formation with meiosis, and a sub- sequent sexual act, the haploid form is the gametophyte, the diploid the sporophyte. But the actual observation of a haploid sporophyte and of a diploid gametophyte makes it clear that however generally useful the nuclear characters may be in the distinction of sporophyte and gametophyte, they do not afford an absolute criterion, and therefore their value in determining homologies is debatable. IV. Abnormalities of Reproduction. In what may be regarded as the type of normal life-history, the transition from the one generation to the other is marked by definite processes: there is the meiotic development of spores by the sporophyte, and the sexual production of a zygote, or something analogous to it, by the gametophyte. But it has been mentioned in the preceding pages that the transition may, in certain cases, be effected in other ways, which may be regarded as abnormal, though they are constant enough in the plants in which they occur, in fact as manifestations of reproductive degeneration. In the first place, the sporophyte may be developed either after an abnormal sexual act, or without any preceding sexual act at all, a condition known as apogamy. In the second, the gametophyte may be developed otherwise than from a post- meiotic spore, a condition known as apospory. Apogamy. — The cases to be considered under this head may be arranged in two groups:— . i. Pseudapogamy: sexual act abnormal. — lhe following abnor- malities have been observed ." — - (a) Fusion of two female organs : observed (Chnstman) in cer- tain Uredineae (Caeoma nitens, Phragmidium speciosum, Uromyces Caladii) where adjacent archicarps fuse: male cells (spermatia) are present but functionless. (6) Fusion between nuclei of the same" female organ : observed in the ascogonium of certain Ascomycetes, Humaria granu- lata (Blackman), where there is no male organ; Lachnea stercorea (Fraser) , where the male organ (pollinodium) is present but is apparently functionless. (c) Fusion of a female organ with an adjacent tissue-cell: ob- served (Blackman) in the archicarp of some Uredineae (Phragmidium violaceum, Uromyces Poae, Puccinia Poarum) : male cells (spermatia) present but functionless. (d) There is no-female organ: fusion takes place between two adjacent tissue-cells of the gametophyte; the sporophyte is developed from diploid cells thus produced, but there is no proper zygote as there is in a, b and c : observed (Farmer) in the prothallium of certain ferns (Lastraea pseudo-mas, var. polydactyla): male organs (and sometimes female) present but functionless. Another such case is that_ of Humaria rutilans (Ascomycete), in which nuclear fusion has been observed (Fraser) in hyphae of the hypothecium : the asci are developed from these hyphae, and in them meiosis takes place; there are no sexual organs. 2. Eu-apogamy: no kind of sexual act — (a) The gametophyte is haploid : (a) The sporophyte is developed from the unfertilized oosphere: no such case of true parthenogenesis has yet been observed. (fi) The sporophyte is developed vegetatively from the gameto- phyte and is haploid : observed in the prothallia ofcertain ferns, Lastraea pseudo-mas, var. cristata-apospora(Fsniasr and Digby), and Nephrodium molle (Yamanouchi). (b) The gametophyte is diploid (see under Apospory) : (a) The sporophyte is developed from the diploid oosphere: observed in some Pteridophyta, viz. certain , ferns (Farmer), Athyrium Filix-foemina, var. clarissima, Scolopendrium vulgare, var. crispum-Drummondae, and Marsilia (Strasburger) ; also in some Phanerogams, viz. Compositae (Taraxacum, Murbeck; Antennaria alpina, Juel ; sp. of Hieracium (Rosenberg) : Rosaceae (Eu- Alchemilla sp., Murbeck, Strasburger) : Ranunculaceae (Thalictrum purpurascens, Overton). (j3) The sporophyte is developed vegetatively from the game- tophyte: observed (Farmer) in the fern Athyrium Filix- foemina, var. clarissima. In all the cases enumerated under Eu-apogamy, apogamy is associated with some form of apospory except Nephrodium molle, full details of which have not yet been published. Many other ferns are known to be apogamous, but they are not included here because the details of their nuclear structure have not been investigated. Apospory. — The known modes of apospory may be arranged as follows: — 1. Pseudapospory: a spore is formed but without meiosis, so that it is diploid — observed only in heterosporous plants, viz. certain species of Marsilia (e.g. Marsilia Drummondii) where the megaspore has a diploid nucleus (32 chromosomes) and the resulting prothallium and female organs are also diploid (Strasburger) ; and in various Phanerogams, some Compositae (Taraxacum and Antennaria alpina, Juel), some Rosaceae (Eu-Alchemilla, Strasburger), and occasionally in Thalictrum purpurascens (Overton), where the megaspore (embryo- sac) is diploid; in some species of Hieracium it has been found (Rosenberg) that adventitious diploid embryo-sacs are developed in the nucellus : these plants are also apogamous. 2. Eu-apospory: no spore is formed — of this there are two varieties : (a) With meiosis: this occurs in some Thallophyta which form no spores; the sporophyte of the Fucaceae bears no spores, consequently meiosis takes place in the developing sexual organs; the Conjugate Green Algae also have no spores, meiosis taking place in the germinating zygospore which develops directly into the sexual plant. (b) Without meiosis: the gametophyte is developed upon the sporophyte by budding; that is, spore-reproduction is replaced by a vegetative process: for instance, in mosses it has been found possible to induce the development of protonema, the first stage of the gametophyte, from tissue- cells of the sporogonium: similarly, in certain ferns (varieties of Athyrium Filix-foemina, Scolopendrium vulgare, Lastraea pseudo-mas, Polystichum angulare, and in the species Pteris aquilina and Asplenium dimorphum), the gametophyte (prothallium) is developed by budding on the leaf of the sporophyte, and in some of these cases it has been ascertained that the gametophyte so developed has the same number (2x) of chromosomes in its nuclei as the sporophyte that bears it — that is, it is diploid. Apospory has been found to be frequently associated with apogamy; in fact, in the absence of meiosis, this association would appear to be inevitable. Combined Apospory and Apogamy. — Instances have been given of the occurrence of both apospory and apogamy in the same life-history; but in all of them there is a regular succession of sporophyte and gametophyte. The cases now to be con- sidered are those in which one or other of the generations gives rise directly to its like, sporophyte to sporophyte, gametophyte to gametophyte, the normally intervening generation being omitted. It is possible to conceive of this abbreviation of the life-history taking place in various ways. Thus, a sporophyte might be developed from a haploid spore instead of a gametophyte as is the normal case, but this has not been observed: again, a sporophyte might be developed from a diploid spore (as dis- tinguished from a zygote or a diploid oosphere), a possibility that is to some extent realized in the life-history of some Uredineae in which successive forms of the polymorphic sporo- phyte are developed from diplogonidia. Similarly a gameto- phyte might be developed from a fertilized or an unfertilized PLANTS] REPRODUCTION 127 female cell: the latter possibility is to some extent realized in those Algae (e.g. Ulothrix, Ectocarpus) in which the sexual cells (isogametes), if they fail to conjugate, germinate inde- pendently as gonidia, giving rise to gametophytes. The more familiar mode is that of vegetative budding, as already mentioned. When a " viviparous " fern or Phanerogam reproduces itself by a bud or a bulbil, both spore-formation and the sexual act are passed over: sporophyte springs from sporo- phyte. Remarkable cases of this have been observed in certain Phanerogams (Coelebogyne ilicifolia, Funkia ovata, Nothoscordum fragrans, Citrus, sp. of Euonymus, Opuntia vulgaris) in the ovule of which adventitious embryos are formed by budding from cells of the nucellus: with the exception of Coelebogyne, it appears that this only takes place after the oosphere has been fertilized. In other plants it is the gametophyte that reproduces itself by means of gemmae or bulbils, as commonly in the Bryophyta, the prothallia of ferns, &c. The abnormalities described are all traceable to reproductive degeneration; the final result of which is that true reproduction is replaced more or less completely by vegetative propagation. It may be inquired whether degeneration may have proceeded so far in any plant of sufficiently high organization to present spore-formation, or sexual reproduction, or both, as to cause the plant to reproduce itself entirely and exclusively by the vege- tative method. The only such case that suggests itself is that of Caulerpa and possibly some other Siphonaceous Green Algae. In this plant no special reproductive organs have yet been discovered, and it certainly reproduces itself by the breaking off of portions of the body which become complete plants: but it is quite possible that reproductive organs may yet be dis- covered. V. Physiology of Reproduction. The reproductive capacity of plants, as of animals, depends upon the fact that the whole or part of the protoplasm of the individual can develop into one or more new organisms in one or other of several possible ways. Thus, in the case of unicellular plants, the whole of the protoplasm of the parent gives rise, whether by simple division or otherwise, to one or more new plants. Reproduction necessarily closes the life of the individual: here, as August Weismann long ago pointed out, there is no natural death, for the whole of the protoplasm of the parent continues to live in the progeny. In multicellular plants, on the contrary, the reproductive function is mainly discharged by certain parts of the body, the reproductive organs, the remainder of the body being essentially vegetative — that is, concerned with the maintenance of the individual. In these plants it is only a part of the protoplasm that continues to live in their progeny; the remainder, the vegetative part, eventually dies. It is therefore possible to distinguish in them, on the one hand, the essentially reproductive protoplasm, which may be designated by Weismann's term germ-plasm, though without necessarily adopting all that his use of it implies, and the essentially vegetative, mortal protoplasm, the somatoplasm, on the other. In the unicellular plant no such distinction can be drawn, for the whole of the protoplasm is concerned in repro- duction. But even in the most highly organized multicellular plant this distinction is not absolute: for, as already explained, plants can, in general, be propagated by the isolation of almost any part of the body, that is vegetatively, and this implies the presence of germ-plasm elsewhere than in the special repro- ductive organs. If the attempt be made to distinguish between the organs of vegetative propagation and those of true reproduction, the nearest approach would be the statement that the former contain both germ-plasm and somatoplasm, whereas the latter, or at least the reproductive cells, consist entirely of germ-plasm. The question now arises as to the exact seat of the germ-plasm, and the answer is to be looked for in the results of the numerous researches into the structure and development of the reproductive cells that form so large a part of the biological work of recent years. The various facts already mentioned suffice to prove that the nucleus plays the leading part in the reproductive processes of whatever kind: the general conclusion is justified that no reproductive cell can develop into a new organism if deprived of its nucleus. It may be inferred that the nucleus either actually contains the germ-plasm, or that it controls and directs the activities of the germ-plasm present in the cell. It is not improbable that both these inferences may be true. At any rate there is no sufficient ground for excluding the co- operation of the cytoplasm, especially of that part of it dis- tinguished as kinoplasm, in the reproductive processes. Pursuing the ascertained facts with regard to the nucleus, it is established that the part of it especially concerned is the linin-network which consists of the chromosomes. The be- haviour, as already described, of the chromosomes in the various reproductive processes has led to the conclusion that the hereditary characters of the parent or parents are transmitted in and by them to the progeny: that they constitute, in fact, the material basis of heredity (see Heredity) . They can hardly, however, be regarded as the ultimate structural units, for the simple reason that their number is far too small in relation to the transmissible characters. It has been suggested (Farmer) that the chromomeres are the units, but the number of these would seem to be hardly sufficient. It seems necessary to fall back upon hypothetical ultimate particles, as suggested by Darwin, de Vries and Weismann, which may be generally termed pangens. The chromomeres may be regarded as aggregates of such particles, the " ids " of Weismann. The foregoing considerations make it possible to attempt an explanation of the various reproductive processes. Vegetative Propagation. — It is easily intelligible that the two individuals produced by the division of a unicellular plant should resemble the parent and each other; for, the division of the parent-nucleus being homotypic, the chromosomes which go to constitute the nucleus of each daughter-cell are alike both in number and in nature, and exactly repeat the constitution of the parent-nucleus. In the more complicated cases of propagation by bulbils, cuttings, &c, the development of the new individual, or of the missing parts of the individual (roots, &c), may be ascribed to the presence in the bulbil or cutting of the necessary pangens. Reproduction by Gonidia. — In this case a single cell gives rise to a complete new organism resembling the parent. The inference is that the gonidium is a portion of the parental germ- plasm, in which all the necessary pangens have been accumulated. Reproduction by Spores. — In this case, also, an entire organism is developed from a single cell, but with this peculiarity that the resulting organism is unlike that which bore the spore, a peculiarity which has not yet been explained. It has been already stated that the development of true spores involves meiosis, and this process is no doubt related to the behaviour of the spore on germination; but the nature of this relation remains obscure. It might be assumed that, as the result of meiosis, the nucleus of the spore receives only gametophytic pangens. But the assumption is rendered impossible by the fact that the spore gives rise to a sexual organism, the repro- ductive cells of which, after the sexual act, produce a sporo- phyte. Clearly sporophytic pangens must be present as well in the spore as in the gametophyte and in its sexual cells. It can only be surmised that they exist there in a latent condition, dominated, as it were, by the gametophytic pangens. Sexual Reproduction. — Here, again, as yet unanswered questions present themselves. The essence of a sexual cell is that it cannot give rise by itself to a new organism, it is only truly reproductive after the sexual act: this peculiarity is just what constitutes its sexuality. Minute investigation has not yet detected any essential structural difference between a sexual cell and a spore; on the contrary, the results so far obtained have established that they essentially agree in being post-meiotic (haploid). Why then do they differ so fundamentally in their reproductive capacities? Again, sexual cells differ in sex; but there are as yet no facts to demonstrate any essential structural difference between male 128 REPRODUCTION and female cells. What is known about them tends to prove their structural similarity rather than their difference. But it is possible that their difference may be chemical, and so not to be detected by the microscope. The normal sexual act has been described as consisting in the fusion, first, of two cells, then of their nuclei, and finally, often after a long interval, of their chromosomes and of their chromomeres in meiosis. What causes determined these fusions is a question that is only partly answered. It is known in certain cases (e.g. ferns and mosses) that the male cell is attracted to the female by chemical substances secreted for the purpose by the female organ; that it is a case of chemio- taxis. Probably this is more common than experiment has yet shown it to be. It is quite conceivable that the consequent cell-fusion, as also the subsequent fusions of nuclei and of chromosomes, are likewise cases of chemiotaxis, depending upon chemical differences between the fusing structures. The sexual process can only take place between cells which are related to each other in a certain degree (see Hybridism); that is, it depends upon sexual affinity. It is the general rule that it takes place between cells derived from different individuals of the same species; that is, cross-fertilization is the rule. This is necessarily the case when the male and female organs are developed upon different individuals, when the plant is said to be dioecious. When both kinds of organs are developed upon the same individual (monoecious), self-fertiliza- tion may and often does occur; but it is commonly hindered by various special arrangements, of which dichogamy is the most common; that is, that the male and female organs are not mature at the same time. But though these arrangements favour cross-fertilization, they do not absolutely prevent self- fertilization. In some cases, cleistogamic flowers, for instance, self-fertilization alone is possible (see Angiosperms). The general conclusion is that though cross-fertilization is the more advantageous form of sexual reproduction, still self-fertilization is more advantageous to the species than no fertilization at all. In considering this subject, it must be borne in mind that the terms used have different meanings when applied to certain heterosporous plants from those which they convey when applied to isosporus plants. In the latter cases their meaning is direct and simple : in the former it is indirect and somewhat complicated. In heterosporous plants generally the actual sexual organs are never borne upon the same individual, there is always necessarily a male and a female gametophyte; so that, strictly speaking, self-fertilization is impossible. But in the Phanerogams, where there is a process preliminary to fertiliza- tion, that of pollination, which is unknown in other plants, the terms and the conceptions expressed by them are applied, not to the real sexual organs, but to the spores. Thus a dioe- cious Phanerogam is one in which the microspores are developed by one individual, the megaspores by another; and again, self-fertilization is said to occur when the microspores (pollen) fall upon the stigma of the same flower (see Angiosperms) ; but this is really only self-pollination. To return to the sexual process itself. Whatever its nature, two sets of results follow upon the sexual act — (i) a zygote is formed, which is capable of developing into a new organism; from two cells, neither of which could so develop; (2) the hereditary sporophytic characters of the two parents are pos- sessed by the organism so developed. These two results will now be considered in some detail. (1) The Relation between the Sexual Act and Reproductive Capacity. — In the early days of the discovery of the sexual process, it was thought that the capacity for development imparted to the female cell was to be attributed to the doubling of its nuclear substance by the fusion with the male cell. Reproductive capacity does not, however, depend upon the bulk of the nuclear substance, for a spore, like an unfertilized female cell, contains but the x number of chromosomes, and yet it can give rise to a new organism. Again, it has been observed (Winkler) that a non-nucleated fragment of an oosphere of Cystoseira (Fucaceae) ran be " fertilized " by a spermatozoid and will then grow and divide to form a small embryo, though it necessarily contains only the x number of chromosomes. From this it would appear that some stimulating influence had been exerted by the male cell, and it is probably in this direction that the desired explanation is to be sought. Some important confirmatory facts have been recorded with regard to certain animals (sea-urchins). It has been observed (Loeb) that treatment with magnesium chloride will cause the ova to grow and segment; and similar results have been obtained (Winkler) by treating the ova with a watery extract of the male cells. Hence it may be inferred that the male cell carries with it, either in its cytoplasm (kinoplasm), or in its nucleus, extractable substances, perhaps of the nature of enzymes, that stimulate the female cell to growth. It may be mentioned that the stimulating effect of fertilization is not necessarily confined to the female cell; very frequently adjacent tissues are stimulated to growth and structural change. In a Phanerogam, for instance, the whole ovule grows and develops into the seed: the development of endosperm in the embryo-sac is initiated by another nuclear fusion, taking place between the second male nucleus and the endosperm-nucleus: the ovary, too, grows to form the fruit, which may be dry and hard or more or less succulent: the stimulating effect may extend to other parts of the flower; to the perianth, as in the mulberry; to the receptacle, as in the strawberry and the apple: or even beyond the flower to the axis of the inflorescence, as in the fig and the pine-apple. Analogous developments in other groups, are the calyptra of the Bryophyta, the cystocarps of the Red Algae, the ascocarps of the Ascomycetes, the aecidia of the Uredineae, &c. (2) The Relation oj the Sexual Act to Heredity. — The product of the sexual act is essentially a diploid cell, the zygote, which actually is or gives rise to a sporophyte. The sexual heredity of plants consequently presents the peculiar feature that the organism resulting from the sexual act is quite unlike its imme- diate parents, which are both gametophytes. But it is clear that the sporophytic characters must have persisted, though in a latent condition, through the gametophyte, to manifest them- selves in the organism developed from the zygote. The real question at issue is as to the exact means by which these characters are transmitted and combined in the sexual act. There is a considerable amount of evidence that the hereditary characters are associated with the chromomeres, and that it is rather their linin-constituent than their chromatin which is functional (Strasburger): that they constitute, in fact, the material basis of heredity. From this point of view it is probable that the last phase of the sexual act, the fusion of the chromomeres in meiosis, represents the combination of the two sets of parental characters. What exactly happens in the pseudo-chromosome stage is not known; at any rate this stage offers an opportunity for a complete redistribution of the substance of the chromomeres — in other words, of the parental pangens. It is a striking fact that, in the subsequent nuclear division, the distribution of the chromosomes derived from the male and female parents (when they can be distinguished) seems to be a matter of indifference: they are not equally distributed to the two daughter-nuclei. The explanation would appear to be this, that they are not any longer male and female as they were before meiotic fusion; and that it is because they now contain both male and female nuclear substance that their equal distribution to the daughter-nuclei is unimportant. The nature of this redistribution of the substance of the chromomeres is still under discussion. Some regard it as essentially a chemical process, resulting in the formation of new compounds: others consider it to be rather a physical process, a new material system being formed in the rearrangement of the pangens; here it must be left for the present. The various ways in which the parental characters manifest themselves in the progeny are fully dealt with in the articles Heredity, Hybridism, Mendelism. It will suffice to say that the progeny, though maintaining generally the characters of the species, do not necessarily exactly resemble either of the parents, nor do they, necessarily present exactly intermediate characters: REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 129 they may vary more or less from the type. It is an interesting fact, the full significance of which has not yet been worked out, that, as a rule, plants that vary profusely are those in which the characteristic 2X number of chromosomes is high (60-100). Brief reference may be made to the cases of abnormal sexual or pseudo-sexual reproduction described above under Apogamy. Taking first the cases of true apogamy, there is clearly no need for any sexual process, for, since no meiotic division has taken place, the gametophyte is diploid; its cells, whether vegetative or contained in female organs, possess the capacity for both development and the transmission of the sporophytic characters. It is not remarkable that such a gametophyte should be able to give rise directly to a sporophyte; but it is remarkable, in the converse case of apospory, that a sporophyte should give rise to a diploid gametophyte rather than to another sporophyte. In the latter case the tendency to the regular development of the alternate form appears to override the influence of the diploid nucleus. Turning to the various forms of pseudo-apogamy, there are first those in which fusion takes place between two apparently female organs (some Uredineae; Christman), and those in which it takes place between nuclei within the same female organ (Humaria; Blackman). If these are to be regarded physiologically as sexual acts, it must be inferred that the fusing organs or nuclei have, come to differ from each other to some extent; for it is unthinkable that equivalent female organs or cells should be able to fertilize, or to be fertilized by, one another. There are finally those cases in which apparently vegetative cells take part in the sexual act, as in Phragmidium (Blackman), where the female organ fuses with an adjacent vegetative cell, and in the fern-prothallium (Farmer), where the nuclei of two vegetative cells fuse. They would seem to indicate that vege- tative cells may, in certain circumstances, contain sufficient germ-plasm to act as sexual organs without being differentiated as such. An interesting question is that of the origin of apogamy. It is no doubt the outcome of sexual degeneration; but this general statement requires some explanation. In certain cases apogamy seems to be the result of the degeneration of the male organ; as in Humaria, where there is no male organ, and in Lachnea, where the male organ is rudimentary. In others, as in the Uredineae, it is apparently the female organ that has degenerated, losing its receptive part, the trichogyne; the male cells (spermatia) are developed normally, and there is no reason to believe that they might not fertilize the female organ were there the means of penetrating it. In yet other cases the degeneration occurs at a different stage in the life-history, in the development of the spores. In the apogamous ferns in- vestigated, meiosis is suppressed and apogamy results. In the heterosporous plants which have been investigated {e.g. Marsilia, Eu-Alchemilla) it has been observed that the microspores are so imperfectly developed as to be incapable of germinating, so that fertilization is impossible; and it is perhaps to this that the occurrence of apogamy is to be attributed. This abnormal development of the spores may be regarded as a variation; and in most cases it occurs in plants that are highly variable and often have a high 2X number of chromosomes. It will be observed that such physiological explanation as can be given of the phenomena of reproduction is based upon the results of the minute investigation of the changes in nuclear structure associated with them. The explanation is often rather suggested than proved, and some fundamental facts still remain altogether unexplained. But it may be anticipated that a method of research which has already so successfully justified itself will not fail in the future to elucidate what still remains obscure. Bibliography. — This article should be read in connexion with the following: Algae, Angiosperms, Bryophvta, Cytology, Fungi,Gymnosperms,Heredity, Hybridism, Mendelism, Plants, Pteridophyta. As the bibliographies to these articles include all the publications containing the facts and theories mentioned here, it will suffice to append only a few papers of general importance: Blackman and xxiii. 5 Vd; Fraser. " Further Studies on the Sexuality of the Uredineae," Ann. Bot. (1906) vol. xx. ; Farmer, " On the Structural Constituents of the Nucleus, and their Relation to the Organization of the In- dividual " (Croonian Lecture), Proc. Roy. Soc. (1907) vol. 79, series B ; Farmer and Digby, " Studies in Apospory and Apogamy in Ferns," Ann. Bot. (1907) vol. xxi. ; Strasburger, Vie stoffiichen Grundlagen der Vererbung (1905); " Apogamie bei Marsilia,", Flora (1907), vol. 97; D. M. Mottier, Fecundation in Plants (1904), Carnegie Institution, Washington. (S. H, V.*) REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM, IN ANATOMY.— The repro- ductive system in some parts of its course shares structures in common with the urinary system (q.v.). In this article the following structures will be dealt with. In the male the testes, epididymis, vasa deferentia, vesiculae seminales, prostate, penis and urethra. In the female the ovaries, Fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina and vulva. Male Reproductive Organs. The testes or testicles are the glands in which the male repro- ductive cells are formed. They lie, one on each side, in the scrotum surrounded by the tunica vaginalis (see Coelom and Serous Membranes)." Each is an oval gland about one and a half inches long with its long axis directed downward, backward and inward. There is a strong fibrous coat called the tunica albuginea, from which vertical and horizontal septa penetrate into the substance, thus dividing it into compartments or lobules in which the seminiferous tubes are coiled. It is estimated that the total length of these seminiferous tubes in the two glands is little short of a mile. (See fig. r.) At the posterior part of the testis the fibrous sheath is greatly thickened to form the mediastinum testis, and con- tains a plexus of tubules called the rete testis (see fig. 1), into which the semini- ferous tubes open. In this way the secretion of the gland is carried to its upper and back part, whence from fifteen From A. F. Dixon, Cunningham's Text-book to twenty small tubes (vasa 0/ Anatomy, eferentia) pass to the epidi- FlG ; I --Diagram to illustrate the f . '_ , r x, • structure of the testis and epidi- dymis. Each of these is dymis. convoluted before opening, and forms what is known as c - a conus vasculosus. Under the microscope the seminiferous tubules are seen to consist of a basement membrane surrounding several layers of epithelial cells, some of which are constantly being transformed into spermatozoa or male sexual cells. The epididymis (see fig. 1) is a soft body lying behind the testis; it is enlarged above to form the globus major or head, while below is a lesser swelling, the globus minor or tail. The whole epididymis is made up of a convoluted tube about 20 ft. long, from which one long diverticulum (vas aberrans) comes off. Between the globus major and the testis two small vesicles called the hydatids of Morgagni are often found. The vas deferens is the continuation of the tube of the epidi- dymis and starts at the globus minor; at first it is convoluted, but soon becomes straight, and runs up on the inner (mesial) side of the epididymis to the external abdominal ring in the abdominal wall. On its way up it is joined by several other structures, to form the spermatic cord; these are the artery (spermatic) and veins (pampiniform plexus) of the testis, the artery of the vas, the ilio-inguinal, genito-crural and sympathetic nerves, and the testicular lymphatics. After entering the external abdominal ring, these structures pass obliquely through the abdominal wall, lying in the inguinal canal for an inch and a half, until the internal abdominal ring is reached. Here they separate and the vas passes down the side of the pelvis and turns Coni vasculosi. Globus major. g.m'. Globus minor. Rete testis Septula testis. s.t. Seminiferous tubule. v.d. Vas deferens, p.c. Vas efferens. v.r. Tubuli recti. 130 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM inward to meet its fellow at the back of the bladder, just above the prostate. The whole length of the vas is 12 to 18 in. and it is remarkable for the great thickness of its muscular walls, which gives it the feeling of a piece of whipcord when rolled between the finger and thumb. A little above the globus major a few scattered tubules are found in children in front of the cord; these form the rudi- mentary structure known as the organ of Giraldes or paradidymis. As the vas deferens approaches the prostate it enlarges and becomes slightly sacculated to act as a reservoir for the secretion of the testis; this part is the ampulla (see fig. 2). and run, side by side, through the prostate to open into the floor of the prostatic urethra. The prostate is partly a muscular and partly a glandular struc- ture, situated just below the bladder and traversed by the urethra; it is of a somewhat conical form with the base upward in contact with the bladder. Both vertically and transversely it measures about an inch and a quarter, while antero-posteriorry it is only about three-quarters of an inch, though its size is liable to great variation. It is enclosed in a fibrous capsule from which it is separated by the prostatic plexus of veins anteriorly. It is often described as formed of three lobes two lateral and a median or posterior, but careful Posterior superior iliac spine Ureter Great sciatic notch Vas deferens Spine of ischium Vas deferens Seminal vesicle Bladder wall Levator ani Prostate Ischio-rectal fossa Tuberosity of I ischium J Gluteus maximus and recent throw doubt existence of Posterior superior iliac spine Cut end of rectum Apex of sacrum Great sciatic notch Ureter Peritoneum Spine of ischium Bladder wall Seminal vesicle Ampulla of vas deferens \ Cut end of great sacro- ? sciatic ligament Kpf f Common ejaculatory duct Oetter sections research on the the last. Microscopically the prostate consists of masses of long, slen- der, slightly branching glands, embedded in unstriped muscle and fibrous tissue; these glands open by deli- cate ducts (about twenty in number) into the prostatic urethra, which will be described later. In the anterior part of the gland are seen bundles of striped muscle fibres, which are of interest when the comparative ana- tomy of the gland is studied: they are seen in young Levator ani Tuberosity of ischium Ischio-rectal fossa Cut end of rectum External sphincter ani Gluteus maximus From A. F. Dixon, Cunningham's Text-book of Anatomy. Fig. 2. — View of the Base of the Bladder, Prostate, Seminal Vesicles and Vasa Deferentia from behind. The coccyx and the sacro-sciatic ligaments, together with the muscles attached to them, have been removed. The levatores ani have been separated along the median raphe, and drawn outwards. A considerable portion of the rectum and the upper part of the right seminal vesicle have been taken away. The vesiculae seminales are sac-like diverticula, one on each side, from the lower part of the ampullae of the vasa deferentia. They are about 2 in. long and run outward behind the bladder and parallel to the upper margin of the prostate for some little distance, but usually turn upward near their blind extremity. When carefully dissected and unravelled each is found to consist of a thick tube, about 5 in. long, which is sharply bent upon itself two or three times, and also has several short, sac-like pouches or diverticula. The vesiculae seminales are muscular sacs with a mucous lining which is thrown into a series of delicate net-like folds. The convolutions are held together by the pelvic cellular tissue, and by involuntary muscle continuous with that of the bladder. It is probable that these vesicles are not reservoirs, as was at one time thought, but form some special secretion which mixes with that of the testes. Where the vesiculae join the ampullae of the vasa deferentia the ejaculatory ducts are formed; these are narrow and thin-walled, than in old prostates. The male urethra begins at the bladder and runs through the prostate and perineum to the penis, which it traverses as far as the tip. It is divided into a prostatic, membran- ous and spongy part, and is altogether about 8 inches in length. The prostatic urethra runs downward through the prostate rather nearer the an- terior than the pos- terior part. It is about an inch and a quarter long, and in the middle of the gland it bends forward forming an angle (see fig. 5); here it is from a third to half an inch wide, though at the base and apex of the prostate it is narrower. When it is slit open from in front a longitudinal ridge is seen in its posterior wall, which is called the verumon- tanum or crista urethra, and on each side of this is a longitudinal depression, the prostatic sinus, into which numerous ducts of the prostate open, though some of them open on to the antero-lateral surface. Near the lower part of the verumontanum is a little pouch, the utriculus masculinus, about one-eighth of an inch deep, the opening of which is guarded by a delicate membranous circular fold, the male hymen. Close to the opening of the utriculus the ejaculatory ducts, already mentioned, open into the urethra by very small apertures. The part of the urethra above the openings of these ducts really belongs to the urinary, system only, though it is convenient to describe it here. After leaving REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM I 3 I this prostate the urethra runs more forward for about three- quarters of an inch, lying between the two layers of the triangular From C. S. Wallace's Prostatic Enlargement. 1 Fig. 3. — Coronal Section through the Pelvis, showing the relations of the bladder above, prostate and bulb below. ligament, both of which it pierces. This is known as the membranous urethra, and is very narrow, being gripped by the compressor urethrae muscle. The spongy urethra is that part which is enclosed in the penis after piercing the anterior layer of the triangular ligament. At first it lies in the substance of the bulb and, later, of the corpus spongiosum, while finally it passes through the glans. In the greater part of its course it is a transverse slit, but in tra- versing the glans it enlarges considerably to form the fossa navicularis, and here, in transverse section, it looks like an inverted T (J.), then an inverted Y (A), and finally at its opening From C. S. Wallace's Prostatic Enlargement. Fig. 4. — Transverse Section of a young Prostate, showing wavy striped muscle in front, urethra in the middle, and the two ejacu- latory ducts behind. (external meatus) a vertical slit. Into the whole length of the urethra mucous glands {glands of LittrS) open, and in the roof of 1 Figs. 3, 4, 5 and 9 of this article are redrawn from Cuthbert S. Wallace's Prostatic Enlargement by permission of the managers of The Oxford Medical Publications. the fossa navicularis the mouth of one of these is sometimes so large that it may engage the point of a small catheter and is known as the lacuna magna. As a rule the meatus is the narrowest part of the whole canal. Opening into the spongy urethra where it passes through the bulb are the ducts of two small glands known as Cowper's glands, which lie on each side of the membranous urethra and are best seen in childhood. The penis is the intromittent organ of generation, and is made up of three cylinders of erectile tissue, covered by skin and subcutaneous tissue without fat. In a transverse section two of these cylinders (the corpora cavernosa) are placed above, side by side, while one, the corpus spongiosum, is below. Pos- teriorly, at what is known as the root of the penis, the two corpora cavernosa diverge, become more and more fibrous in structure, and are attached on each side to the rami of the ischium, while the corpus spongiosum becomes more vascular and enlarges to form the bulb. It has already been pointed out that the whole length of the corpus spongiosum is traversed by the urethra. The anterior part of the penis is formed by the glans, a bell-shaped structure, apparently continuous with the corpus spongiosum, and having the conical ends of the cor- pora cavernosa fitted into depressions on its posterior surface. On the dorsum of the penis the rim of the bell-shaped glans projects beyond the level of the corpora cavernosa, and is From C. S. Wallace's Prostatic Enlargement. Fig. 5. — Sagittal Median Section of Bladder, Prostate and Rectum, showing one of the ejaculatory ducts. known as the corona glandis. The skin of the penis forms a fold which covers the glans and is known as the prepuce or foreskin ; when this is drawn back a median fold, the frenulum praeputii, is seen running to just below the meatus. After forming the prepuce the skin is reflected over the glans and here looks like mucous membrane. The structure of the cor- pora cavernosa consists of a strong fibrous coat, the tunica albuginea, from the deep surface of which numerous fibrous trabeculae penetrate the interior and divide it into a number of spaces which are lined with endothelium and communicate with the veins. Between the two corpora cavernosa the sheath is not complete and, having a comb-like appearance, is known as the septum pectinatum. The structure of the corpus spongiosum and glans resembles that of the corpora cavernosa, but the trabeculae are finer and the network closer. Female Reproductive Organs. The ovary is an organ which in shape and size somewhat resembles a large almond, though its appearance varies con- siderably in different individuals, and at different times of life. It lies in the side wall of the pelvis with its long axis nearly vertical and having its blunt end (tubal pole) upward. Its more pointed lower end is attached to the uterus by the liga- ment of the ovary, while its anterior border has a short reflection of peritoneum, known as the mesovarium, running forward to the broad ligament of the uterus. It is through this anterioi border that the vessels and nerves enter and leave the gland. Under the microscope the ovary is seen to be covered by a 132 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM layer of cubical cells, which are continuous near the anterior border with the cells of the peritoneum. Deep to these is the ovarian stroma, composed of fibrous tissue, and embedded in it are numerous nests of epithelial cells, the Graafian fol- licles, in various stages of development. During the child- bearing period of life some of these will be nearing the ripe condition, and if one such be looked at it will be seen to con- tain one large cell, the ovum, surrounded by a mass of small cells forming the discus proligerus. At one point this is con- tinuous with a layer of cells called the stratum granulosum which lines the outer wall of the follicle, but elsewhere the two layers are separated by fluid, the liquor folliculi. When the follicle bursts, as it does in time, the ovum escapes on to the surface of the ovary. The Fallopian tubes receive the ova and carry them to the uterus. That end of each which lies in front of the ovary is called the fimbriated extremity, and has a number of fringes (fimbriae) hanging from it; one of the largest of these is the ovarian fimbria and is attached to the upper or tubal pole of the ovary. The small opening among the fimbriae by which the tube communicates with the peritoneal cavity is known as the ostium abdominale, and from this the lumen of the tube runs from four to four and a half inches, until it opens into the cavity of the uterus by an extremely small opening. In the accompanying figure (fig. 6) the Fallopian tube and ovary Parovarium Fallopian tube I Ovary Ligament of ovary Uterus of uterus Hydatid Round ligament A. F. Dixon, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. . Fig. 6. — A. The Uterus and Broad Ligament seen from behind (the broad ligament has been spread out). a, b and c. the isthmus tubae, the ligament of the ovary, and the round ligament of the right side cut short. B. Diagrammatic Representation of the Uterine Cavity opened up from in front. are pulled out from the uterus; this, as has been explained, is not the position of the ovary in the living body, nor is it of the tube, the outer half of which lies folded on the front and inner surface of the ovary, The Fallopian tubes, like many other tubes in the body, are made chiefly of unstriped muscle, the outer layer of which is longitudinal and the inner circular; deep to this are the submucous and mucous coats, the latter being lined with ciliated epithelium (see Epithelial Tissues), and thrown into longitudinal pleats. Superficially the tube is covered by a serous coat of peritoneum. The calibre gradually contracts from the peritoneal to the uterine opening. The uterus or womb is a pear-shaped, very thick-walled, muscular bag, lying in the pelvis between the bladder and rectum. In the non-pregnant condition it is about three inches long and two in its broadest part, which is above. The upper half or body of the uterus is somewhat triangular with its base upward, and has an anterior surface which is moderately flat, and a posterior convex. The lower half is the neck or cervix and is cylindrical; it projects into the anterior wall of the vagina, into the cavity of which it opens by the os uteri externum. This opening in a uterus which has never been pregnant is a narrow transverse slit, rarely a circular aperture, but in those uteri in which pregnancy has occurred the slit is much wider and its lips are thickened and gaping and often scarred. The interior of the body of the uterus shows a com- paratively small triangular cavity (see fig. 6, B), the anterior and posterior walls of which are in contact. The base of the triangle is upward, and at each lateral angle one of the Fallopian tubes opens. The apex leads into the canal of the cervix, but between the two there is a slight constriction known as the os uteri internum. The canal of the cervix is about an inch long, and is spindle-shaped when looked at from in front; its anterior and posterior walls are in epntact, and its lining mucous membrane is raised into a pattern which, from its likeness to a cypress twig, is called the arbor vitae. This arrange- ment is obliterated after the first pregnancy. On making a mesial vertical section of the uterus the cavity is seen as a mere slit which is bent about its middle to form an angle the opening of which is forward. A normal uterus is therefore bent forward on itself, or anteflexed. In addition to this, its long axis forms a marked angle with that of the vagina, so that the whole uterus is bent forward or anteverted. As a rule, in adults the uterus is more or less on one side of the mesial plane of the body. From each side of the uterus the peritoneum is reflected outward, as a two-layered sheet, to the side wall of the pelvis; this is the broad ligament, and between its layers lie several structures of importance. Above, there is the Fal- lopian tube, already described; below and in front is the round ligament; behind, the ovary projects backward, and just above Lateral angle this, when the broad ligament is stretched out as in fig. 6, are the epoophoron and paroophoron with the duct of Gartner. The round ligament is a cord of un- striped muscle which runs from the lateral angle of its own side of the uterus forward to the internal abdominal ring, and so through the inguinal canal to the upper part of the labium majus. The epoophoron or parovarium is a collection of short tubes which radiate from the upper border of the ovary when the broad ligament is pulled out as in fig. 6. It is best seen in very young children and represents the vasa effer- entia in. the male. Near the ovary the tubes are closed, but nearer the Fal- lopian tube they open into another tube which is nearly at right angles to them, and which runs toward the uterus, though in the human subject it is generally lost before reaching that organ. It is known as the duct of Gartner, and is the homologue of the male epididymis and vas deferens. Some of the outermost tubules of the epoophoron are sometimes distended to form hydatids. Nearer the uterus than the epoophoron a few scattered tubules are occasionally found which are looked upon as the homologue of the organ of Giraldes in the male, and are known as the parodphoron. The vagina is a dilatable muscular passage, lined with mucous membrane, which leads from the uterus to the external genera- tive organs; its direction is, from the uterus, downward and forward, and its anterior and posterior walls are in contact, so that in a horizontal section it appears as a transverse slit. As the orifice is neared the slit becomes H-shaped. Owing to the fact that the neck of the uterus enters the vagina from in front, the anterior wall of that tube is only about z\ in., while the posterior is 3§. The mucous membrane is raised into a series of transverse folds or rugae, and between it and the muscular wall are plexuses of veins forming erectile tissue. The relation of the vagina to the peritoneum is noticed under Coelum and Serous Membranes. The vulva or pudendum comprises all the female external generative organs, and consists of the mons Veneris, labia majora and minora, clitoris, urethral orifice, hymen, bulbs of the vestibule, and glands of Bartholin. The mons Veneris is the Vaginai cavity B REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 133 elevation in front of the pubic bones caused by a mass of fibro- fatty tissue; the skin over it is covered by hair in the adult. The labia major a are two folds of skin, also containing fibro-fatty tissue and covered on their outer surfaces by hair, running down from the mons Veneris to within an inch of the anus and touching one another by their internal surfaces. They are the homologues of the scrotum in the male. The labia minora are two folds of skin containing no fat, which are usually hidden by the labia majora and above enclose the clitoris, they are of a pinkish colour and look like mucous membrane. The clitoris is the representative of the penis, and consists of two corpora cavernosa which posteriorly diverge to form the crura clitoridis, and are attached to the ischium; the organ is about an inch and a half long, and ends anteriorly in a rudi- mentary glans which is covered by the junction of the labia minora; this junction forms the prepuce of the clitoris. The orifice of the urethra is about an inch below the glans clitoridis and is slightly puckered. The hymen is a fold of mucous membrane which surrounds the orifice of the vagina and is usually only seen in the virgin. As has been pointed out above, it is represented in the male by the fold at the opening of the uterus masculinus. Occasionally the hymen is imperforate and then gives rise to trouble in menstruation. The bulbs of the vestibule are two masses of erectile tissue situated one on each side of the vaginal orifice: above they are continued up to the clitoris; they represent the bulb and the corpus spongiosum of the male, split into two, and the fact that they are so divided accounts for- the urethra failing to be enclosed in the clitoris as it is in the penis. The glands of Bartholin are two oval bodies about half an inch long, lying on each side of the vagina close to its opening; they represent Cowper's glands in the male, and their ducts open by minute orifices between the hymen and the labia minora. From the above description it will be seen that all the parts of the male external genital organs are represented in the female, though usually in a less developed condition, and that, owing to the orifice of the vagina, they retain their original bi-lateral form. For further details see Quain's Anatomy (London: Longmans, Green & Co.) ; Gray's Anatomy (London: Longmans, Green & Co.) ; Cunningham's Text-Booh of Anatomy (Edinburgh: Young J. Pent- land), or Macalister's Anatomy (London: Griffin & Co.). Embryology. The development of the reproductive organs is so closely interwoven with that of the urinary that some reference from this article to that on the Urinary System is necessary. It will here be convenient to take up the development at the stage depicted in the accompanying figure (fig. 7), in which the genital ridge (a) is seen on each side of the attachment of the mesentery; external to this, and forming another slight ridge of its own, is the Wolffian duct, while a little later the Miillerian duct is formed and lies ventral to the Wolffian. The early history of these ducts is indicated in the article on the Urinary System. Until the fifth or sixth week the development of the genital ridge is very much the same in the two sexes, and consists of cords of cells growing from the epithelium-covered surface into the mesenchyme, which forms the interior of the ridge. In these cords are some large germ cells which are distinguishable at a very early stage of development. It must, of course, be understood that the germinal epithelium covering the ridge, and the mesenchyme inside it, are both derived from the mesoderm or middle layer of the embryo. About the fifth week of human embryonic life the tunica albuginea appears in the male, from which septa grow to divide the testis into lobules, while the epithelial cords form the seminiferous tubes, though these do not gain a lumen until just before puberty. From the adjacent mesonephros cords of cells grow into the attached part of the genital ridge, or testis, as it now is, and from these the rete testis is developed. Recent research, however, points to these cords of the rete testis et ovarii as being derived from the coelomic epithelium instead of from the mesonephros. In the female the same growth of epithelial cords into the mesenchyme of the genital ridge takes place, but each one is Neural tube-— -' Aorta- Mesentery- Blood-vessel —-———. Spinal ganglion Spinal nerve ■Vein ■Wolffian duct - Intestine From A. F. Dixon, Cunningham's Tvxl-Book of Anatomy. Fig. 7. — Transverse Section through a Rat Embryo a. shows position of germinal epithelium. distinguished by a bulging toward its middle, in which alone the large germ cells are found. Eventually this bulging part is broken up into a series of small portions, each of which contains one germ cell or ovum, and gives rise to a Graafian follicle. Mesonephric cords appear as in the male; they do not enter the ovary, however, but form a transitory network (rete ovarii) in the mesovarium. As each genital gland enlarges it remains attached to the rest of the intermediate cell mass by a constricted fold of the coelomic membrane, known as the mesorchium in the male, and the mesovarium in the female. Lying dorsal to the genital ridge in the intermediate cell mass is the mesonephros, consisting ^ Ep.O. Mt.N. Fig. 8. — Diagram of the Formation of the Geni to-Urinary Apparatus. The first figure is the generalized type, the second the male and the third the female specialized arrangements. Suppressed parts are dotted. Pro. N Pronephros. N. Nephrostome. M.N. Mesonephros. M.C. Malpighian corpuscle. Mt.N. Metanephros. T. Testis. B. Bladder. E. Epididymis. Clo. Cloaca. O.G. Organ of Giraldes. R. Rectum. V.D. Vas deferens. M.D. Miillerian duct. TJ.M. Uterus masculinus. WD. Wolffian duct. 0. Ovary. Ur. Ureter. Ep.O. Epobphoron. S.H. Sessile hydatid. Par.O. Paro5phoron. P.H. Pedunculated hydatid. F.T. Fallopian tube. S.G. Sexual gland. U. Uterus. of numerous tubules which open into the Wolffian duct. This at first is an important excretory organ, but during development becomes used for other purposes. In the male, as has been shown, it may form the rete testis, and certainly forms the vasa efferentia and globus major of the epididymis: in addition to these, some of its separate tubes probably account for the vas aberrans and the organ of Giraldes (see fig. 8, E. and O.G.). In the female the tubules of the epoophoron represent the main part, 134 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM while the paroophoron, like the organ of Giraldes in the male, is probably formed from some separate tubes (see fig. 8, Ep. O. and Par. O.). The Wolffian duct, which, in the early embryo, carries the excretion of the mesonephros to the cloaca, forms eventually the body and tail of the epididymis, the vas deferens, and ejaculatory duct in the male, the vesicula seminalis being developed as a pouch in its course. In the female this duct is largely done away with, but remains as the collecting tube of the epoophoron, and in some mammals as the duct of Gartner, which runs down the side of the vagina to open into the vestibule. The Miillerian duct, as it approaches the cloaca, joins its fellow of the opposite side, so that there is only one opening into the ventral cloacal wall. In the male the lower part only of it remains as the uterus masculinus (fig. 8, U.M.), but in the female the Fallopian tubes, uterus, and probably the vagina, are all formed from it (fig. 8, F.T. and U.) . In both sexes a small hydatid or vesicle is liable to be formed at the beginning of both the Wolffian and Miillerian duct (fig. 8, P.H. and S.H.); in the male these are close together in front of the globus major of the epididymis, and are known as the sessile and pedunculated hydatids of Morgagni. In the female there is a hydatid among the fimbriae of the Fallopian tube which of course is Miillerian and corresponds to the sessile hydatid in the male, while another is often found at the beginning of the collecting tube of the epoophoron and is probably formed by a blocked mesonephric tubule. This is the pedunculated hydatid of the male. The development of the vagina, as Berry Hart {Journ. Anat. and Phys. xxxv. 330) has pointed out, is peculiar. Instead of the two Miillerian ducts joining to form the lumen of its lower third, as they do in the case of the uterus and its upper two-thirds, they become obliterated, and their place is taken by two solid cords of cells, which Hart thinks are derived from the Wolffian ducts and are therefore probably of ectodermal origin, though this is open to doubt. These cords later become canalized and the septum between them is obliterated. The common chamber, or cloaca, into which the alimentary, urinary and reproductive tubes open in the foetus, has the urinary bladder (the remains of the allantois) opening from its ventral wall (see Placenta and Urinary System). During development the alimentary or anal part of the cloaca is separated from the urogenital, and in the article Alimentary System the hitherto accepted method of this separation is described. The question has, however, lately been reinvesti- gated by F. Wood Jones, who says that the anal part is com- pletely shut off from the urogenital and ends in a blind pouch which grows toward the surface and meets a new ectodermal depression, the main point being that the permanent anus is not, according to him, any part of the original cloacal aperture, but a new perforation. This description is certainly more in harmony with the malformations occurring in this region than the old one, and only awaits confirmatory evidence to be gener- ally accepted. The external generative organs have at first the same appear- ance in the two sexes, and consist of a swelling, the genital eminence, in the ventral wall of the cloaca. This in the male becomes the penis and in the female the clitoris. Throughout the generative system the male organs depart most from the undifferentiated type, and in the case of the genital eminence two folds grow together and enclose the urogenital passage, thus making the urethra perforate the penis, while in the female these two folds remain separate as the labia minora or nymphae. Sometimes in the male the folds fail to unite completely, and then there is an opening into the urethra on the under surface of the penis — a condition known as hypospadias. In the undifferentiated condition the integument surrounding the genital opening is raised into a horseshoelike swelling with its convexity over the pubic symphysis and its concavity to- ward the anus; the lateral parts of this remain separate in the female and form the labia majora, but in the male they unite to form the scrotum. The median part forms the mons Veneris or mons Jovis. The Descent of the Testis. — It has been shown that the testis is formed in the loin region of the embryo close to the kidney, and it is only in the later months of foetal life that it changes this position for that of the scrotum. In the lower part of the genital ridge a fibro-muscular cord is formed which stretches from the lower part of the testis to the bottom of the scrotum ; it is known as the gubernaculum testis, and by its means the testis is directed into the scrotum. Before the testis descends, a pouch of peritoneum called the processus vaginalis passes down in front of the gubernaculum through the opening in the abdominal wall, which afterwards becomes the inguinal canal, into the scrotum, and behind this the testis descends, carrying with it the mesonephros and mesonephric duct. These, as has already been pointed out, form the epididymis and vas def- erens. At the sixth month the testis lies opposite the abdom- inal ring, and at the eighth reaches the bottom of the scrotum and invaginates the processus vaginalis from behind. Soon after birth the communication between that part of the pro- cessus vaginalis which now surrounds the testis and the general cavity of the peritoneum disappears, and the part which remains forms the tunica vaginalis. Sometimes the testis fails to pass beyond the inguinal canal, and the term " cryptorchism " is used for such cases. In the female the ovary undergoes a descent like that of the testis, but it is less marked owing to the fact that the guber- naculum becomes attached to the Miillerian duct where that duct joins its fellow to form the uterus; hence the ovary does not descend lower than the level of the top of the uterus, and the part of the gubernaculum running between it and the uterus remains as the ligament of the ovary, while the part running from the uterus to the labium is the round ligament. In rare cases the ovary may be drawn into the labium just as the testis is drawn into the scrotum. Comparative Anatomy. — In the Urochorda, the class to which Salpa, Pyrosoma and the sea squirts (Ascidians) belong, male and female generative glands (gonads) are present in the same individual; they are therefore hermaphrodite. In the Acrania (Amphioxus) there are some twenty-six pairs of gonads arranged segmentally along the side of the pharynx and intestine and bulging into the atrium. Between them and the atrial wall, however, is a rudimentary. remnant of the coelom, through which the spermatozoa or ova (for the sexes are distinct) burst into the atrial cavity. There are no genital ducts. In the Cyclostomata (lampreys and hags) only one median gonad is found, and its contents (spermatozoa or ova) burst into the coelom and then pass through the genital pores into the urogenital sinus and so to the exterior. It is probable that the single gonad is accounted for by the fact that its fellow has been suppressed. In the Elasmobranchs or cartilaginous fishes there are usually two testes or two ovaries, though in the dogfish one of the latter is suppressed. From each testis, which in fish is popularly known as the soft roe, vasa efferentia lead into the mesonephros, and the semen is conducted down the vas deferens or mesone- phric duct into the urogenital sinus, into which also the ureters open. Sometimes one or more thin-walled diverticula — the sperm sacs — open close to the aperture of the vas deferens. In the female the ova are large, on account of the quantity of yolk, and they burst into the coelum, from which they pass into the large Miillerian ducts or oviducts. In the oviparous forms, such as the common dogfish (Scyllium), there is an oviducal gland which secretes a horny case for the egg after it is fertilized, and these cases have various shapes in different species. Some of the Elasmobranchs, e.g., the spiny dogfish (Acanthias), are viviparous, and in these the lower part of the oviduct is enlarged and acts as a uterus. In male elasmo- branchs the anterior part of the Miillerian duct persists. Paired intromittent organs (claspers) are developed on the pelvic fins of the males; these conduct the semen into the cloaca of the female. In the teleostean and ganoid fishes (Teleostomi) the nephridial REPSOLD 135 ducts are not always used as genital ducts, but special coelomic ducts are formed (see Coelom and Serous Mem- branes). In the Dipnoi or mudfish long coiled Miillerian ducts are present, but the testes either pour their secretion directly into the coelom or, as in Protopterus, have ducts which are probably coelomic in origin. In both the Teleostomi and Dipnoi the testes and ovaries are paired. True hermaphroditism is known among fishes, the hag (Myxine) and the sea perch (Serranus) being examples. In many others it occurs as an abnormality. In the Amphibia both ovaries and testes are symmetrical. In the snakelike forms which are found in the order Gymno- phiona the testes are a series of separate lobules extending for a long distance, one behind the other, and joined by a connecting duct from which vasa efferentia pass into the Mal- pighian capsules of the kidneys, and so the sperm is conducted to the mesonephric duct, which acts both as vas deferens and ureter. The Miillerian ducts or oviducts are long and often coiled in Amphibia, and usually open separately into the cloaca. There is no penis, but in certain forms, especially the Gymno- phiona, the cloaca is protrusible in the male and acts as an intromittent organ. Corpora adiposa or fat bodies are present in all Amphibians, and probably nourish the sexual cells during the hibernating period. In Reptilia two testes and ovaries are developed, though they are often asymmetrical in position. In Lizards the vas deferens and ureter open into the cloaca by a common orifice; as they do in the human embryo. In these animals there are two penes, which can be protruded and retracted through the vent; but in the higher reptiles (Chelonia and Crocodilia) there is a single median penis rising from the ventral wall of the cloaca, composed of erectile tissue and deeply grooved on its dorsal surface for the passage of the sperm. In birds the right ovary and oviduct degenerates, and the left alone is functional. In the male the ureter and vas deferens open separately into the cloaca, and in the Ratitae (ostriches) and Anseres (ducks and geese) a well-developed penis is present in the male. In the ostrich this is fibrous, and bifurcated at its base, suggesting the crura penis of higher forms. Among the Mammalia the Monotremata (Ornithorhynchus and Echidna) have bird-like affinities. The left ovary is larger than the right, and the oviducts open separately into the cloaca and do not fuse to form a uterus. The testes retain their abdominal position; and the vasa deferentia open into the base of the penis, which lies in a separate sheath in the ventral wall of the cloaca, and shows an advance on that of the reptiles and birds in that the groove is now converted into a complete tunnel. In the female there is a well-developed clitoris, having the same relations as the penis. In the marsupials the cloaca is very short, and the vagina and rectum open separately into it. The two uteri open separately and three vaginae are formed, two lateral and one median. The two lateral join together below to form a single median lower vagina, and it is by means of these that the spermatozoa pass up into the oviducts. The upper median vagina at first does not open into the lower one, but during parturition a com- munication is established which in some animals remains permanent (see J. P. Hill, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1899 and 1900). This tripartite arrangement of the upper part of the marsupial vagina is of especial interest in connexion with the views of the embryology of the canal detailed by Berry Hart and already referred to. When, as in marsup ials, the two uteri open separately into the vagina by two ora, the arrangement is spoken of as uterus duplex. When the two uteri join below and open by one os externum, it is known as uterus bipartitus. When the uterus bifurcates above and has two horns for the reception of the Fallopian tubes (oviducts) , but is otherwise single, the term uterus bicornis is given to it, while the single uterus of man and other Primates is called uterus simplex. From the marsupials upward the ovarian end of the Fallopian tube has the characteristic fimbriated appearance noticed in human anatomy. • In some mammals, such as the sow and the cow, the Wolffian duct is persistent in the female and runs along the side of the vagina as the duct of Gartner. It is possible that the lateral vaginae of the marsupials are of Wolffian origin. In marsupials the testes descend into the scrotum, which lies in these animals in front of instead of behind the penis. In some mammals, such as the elephant, they never reach the scrotum at all; while in others, e.g. many rodents, they can be drawn up into the abdomen or lowered into the scrotum. The subject of the descent of the testicles has been very fully treated by H. Klaatsche, " Ueber den Descensus testiculorum," Morph. Jahrb., Bd. xvi. The prostate is met with in its most simple forms in marsupials, in which it is a mere thickening of the mucous membrane of the urethra; in the sheep it forms a bilateral elongated mass of gland tissue lying behind the urethra and surrounded by a well- developed layer of striped muscle. In the sloth it is said to be altogether absent, while in many of the insectivores and rodents it consists of many lobes which usually show a bilateral arrange- ment. The vesiculae seminales are usually present in the Eutheria or higher mammals, and sometimes, as in the hedge- hog, are very large, though they are absent in the Carnivora. Cowper's glands are usually present and functional throughout From C. S. Wallace's Prostatic Enlargement. Fig. 9. — Transverse Section of Sheep's Prostate. life. The uterus masculinus is also usually present, but there is grave doubt whether the large organ called by this name in the rabbit should not rather be regarded as homologous with part of the vesiculae seminales. The penis shows many diversities of arrangement; above the marsupials its two crura obtain an attachment to the ischium. In many mammals it is quite hidden by the skin in the flaccid condition, and its external orifice may range from the perineum in the marsupials to the middle of the ventral wall of the abdomen in the ruminants. In the Marsupialia, Rodentia, Chiroptera, Carnivora and some Primates an os penis is developed in connexion with the corpora cavernosa. The clitoris is present in all mammals; sometimes, as in the female hyena, it is very large, and at others, as in the lemur, it is perforated by the urethra. For further details and literature, see Oppel's Lehrbuch der ver- gleich. mikroskop. Anatomie der Wirbelthiere, Bd. iv. (Jena, 1904) ; also Gegenbaur's Vergleich. Anat. der Wirbelthiere, and Wiedersheim's Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates, translated by W. N. Parker (London, 1907). (F. G. P.) REPSOLD, JOHANN GEORG (1771-1830), German instru- ment maker, was born at Wremen in Hanover on the 23rd of September 1771, and became an engineer and afterwards chief of the fire brigade in Hamburg, where he started business as an instrument maker early in the 19th century. He was killed by the fall of a wall during a fire at Hamburg on the 14th of January 1830. The business was continued by his sons Georg (1804-1884) 136 REPTILES [HISTORY and Adolf (1806-1871), and his grandsons Johann Adolf and Oskar Philipp. J. G. Repsold introduced essential improvements in the meridian circles by substituting microscopes (on Jesse Ramsden's plan) for the verniers to read the circles, and by making the various parts perfectly symmetrical. For a number of years the firm furnished meridian circles to the observatories at Hamburg, Konigs- berg, Pulkova, &c; later on its activity declined, while Pistor and Martins of Berlin rose to eminence. But after the discon- tinuance of this firm that of Repsold again came to the front, not only in the construction of transit circles, but also of equatorial mountings and more especially of heliometers (see Micro- meter) . REPTILES (Lat. Reptilia, creeping things, from reptilis; refere, to creep; Gr. epnreiv, whence the term " herpetology," for the science dealing with them) . In the days before Linnaeus, writers comprised the animals which popularly are known as tortoises and turtles, crocodiles, lizards and snakes, frogs and toads, newts and salamanders, under the name of oviparous quadrupeds or four-limbed animals which lay eggs. Linnaeus, desirous of giving expression to the extraordinary fact that many of these animals pass part of their life in the water and part on land, 1 substituted the name of Amphibia for the ancient term. Subsequent French naturalists (Lyonnet 2 and Brisson 3 ) con- sidered that the creeping mode of locomotion was a more general characteristic of the class than their amphibious habits, and consequently proposed the scarcely more appropriate name of Reptiles. As naturalists gradually comprehended the wide gap existing between frogs, toads, &c, on the one hand, and the other oviparous quadrupeds on the other, they either adopted the name of Batrachia for the former and that of Amphibia for the latter, or they restricted the term Amphibia to Batrachians, calling the remainder of these creatures reptiles. Thus the term Amphibia, as used by various authors, may apply (1) to all the various animals mentioned, or (2) to Batrachians only (see Batrachia). The term Reptiles. (Reptilia) is used (1) by some for all the animals mentioned above, and (2) by others, as in the present article, for the same assemblage of animals after the exclusion of Batrachians. Equally varying are the limits of the term Saurians, which occurs so frequently in every scientific treatise on this subject. At first it comprised living crocodiles and lizards only, with which a number of fossil forms were gradually associated. As the characters and affinities of the latter became better known, some of them were withdrawn from the Saurians, and at present it is best to abandon the term altogether. I. History of Herpetology Certain kinds of reptiles are mentioned in the earliest written records or have found a place among the fragments of the oldest relics of human art. Such evidences, however, form no part of a succinct review of the literature of the subject such as it is proposed to give here. We distinguish in it six periods: (1) the Aristotelian; (2) the Linnaean (formation of a class Amphibia, in which reptiles and Batrachians are mixed); (3) the period of the elimination of Batrachians as one of the reptilian orders (Brongniart) ; (4) that of the separation of reptiles and Bat- rachians as distinct subclasses; (5) that of the recognition of a class Reptilia as part of the Sauropsida (Huxley) ; (6) that of the discovery of fossil skeletons sufficiently well preserved to reveal, in its general outlines, the past history of the class. 1. The Aristotelian Period. — Aristotle was the first to deal with the reptiles known to him as members of a distinct portion ..... of the animal kingdom, and to point out the character- istics by which they resemble each other and differ from other vertebrate and invertebrate animals. The plan of his 1 " Polymorpha in his amphibiis natura duplicem vitam plerisque concessit." * TMologie des insectes de Lesser (Paris, 1745), i. 91, note 5. 8 Regne animal divise en neuf classes (Paris, 1756). work, however, was rather that of a comparative treatise of the anatomical and physiological characters of animals than their systematic arrangement and definition, and his ideas about the various groups of reptiles are not distinctly expressed, but must be gleaned from the terms which he employs. Moreover, he paid less attention to the study of reptiles than to that of other classes. This is probably due to the limited number of kinds he could be acquainted with, to which only very few extra- European forms, like the crocodile, were added from other sources. But while we find in some respects a most remarkable accuracy of knowledge, there is sufficient evidence that he neglected everyday opportunities of information. Thus, he has not a single word about the metamorphoses of Batrachians, which he treats of in connexion with reptiles. Aristotle makes a clear distinction between the scute or scale of a reptile, which he describes as ohis, and that of a fish, which he designates as Xe7rw. He mentions reptiles (1) as oviparous quadrupeds with scutes, viz. Saurians and Chelonians; (2) as Oviparous apodals, viz. Snakes; (3) as oviparous quadrupeds without scutes, viz. Batrachians. He considered the first and second of these three groups as much more nearly related to each other than to the third. Accurate statements and descriptions are sadly mixed with errors and stories of, to our eyes, the most absurd and fabulous kind. The most complete accounts are those of the crocodile (chiefly borrowed from Herodotus) and of the chameleon, which Aristotle evidently knew from personal observation, and had dissected himself. The other lizards men- tioned by him are the common lizards (aavpa), the common seps (xaX/cw or f i/yvis) and the gecko (acrKaXaiSolmjs or KopSvXos). Of snakes (of which he generally speaks as o$cs) he knew the vipers (ex« or extSva), the common snake (i%>os), and the blindworm (rvcfrXivqs 6$is), which he regards as a snake; he further mentions the Egyptian cobra and dragons (dpanuv) — North-African serpents of fabulous size. Of Chelonians he describes in a perfectly recognizable manner land tortoises (xeXoji'i;), freshwater turtles (kfivs) and marine turtles (x&Mvy 1^ daKaTTia). Passing over eighteen centuries, we find the knowledge of reptiles to have remained as stationary as other branches of natural history, perhaps even more so. The reptile fauna of Europe was not extensive enough to attract the energy of a Belon or Rondelet; popular prejudice and the difficulty of preserving these animals deterred from their study; nor was man sufficiently educated not to give implicit credence to the fabulous tales of reptiles in the 15th and 16th centuries. The art of healing, however, was developing into a science based upon rational principles, and consequently not only those reptiles which formed part of the materia medica but also the venomous snakes became objects of study to the physician, though the majority of the writers were ignorant of the structure of the venom-apparatus, and of the distinction between non-venomous and venomous snakes. Nothing can show more clearly the small advance made by herpetology in this long post-Aristotelian period than a glance at the celebrated work, De Differenliis Animalium Libri decern (Paris, 1552), by Edward Wotton (1492- 1 555). Wotton treats of the reptiles which he designates as Quadrupedes oviparae et Serpentes in the sixth book of his work. They form the second division of the Quadrupedes quae sanguinem habent, and are subdivided in the following " genera": — Crocodilus et scincus (cap. cv.) ; Testudinum genera (cvi.) ; Ran- arum genera (cvii.) ; Lacertae (cviii.); Salamandra et seps quad- rupes (cix.); Stellio (ex.); Chamaeleo (cxi.); Serpentes (cxii.), a general account, the following being different kinds of serpents: Hydrus et alii quidam serpentes aquatiles (cxiii.) ; Serpentes terrestres et primo aspidum genera (cxiv.) ; Vipera, dipsas, cerastes, et hammodytes (cxv.) ; Haemorrhus, sepedon, seps, cenchris, et cenchrites (cxvi.); Basiliscus et alii quidam serpentes quorum venenum remedio caret (cxvii.) ; Draco, amphisbaena, et alii quidam serpentes quorum morsus minus affert periculi (cxviii.). Wotton's work might with propriety be termed " Aristoteles redivivus." The plan is the same, and the observations of the Greek naturalist are faithfully, sometimes literally, reproduced. Wotton. HISTORY] REPTILES i37 It is surprising that even the reptiles of his native country were most imperfectly known to the author. With the enlargement of geographical knowledge that of reptiles was also advanced, as is sufficiently apparent from the Johnston l ar 8 e encyclopaedic works of Gesner, Aldrovandi and Johnston. The last-named author especially, who published the various portions of his Natural History in the middle of the 17th century, was able to embody in his compilations notices of numerous reptiles observed by Francisco Hernandez in Mexico and by Marcgrave and Piso in Brazil. As the author had no definite idea of the Ray-Linnaean term " species," it is not possible to give the exact number of reptiles mentioned in his work. But it may be estimated at about fifty, not including some marine fishes and fabulous creatures. He figures (or rather reproduces the figures of) about forty — some species being represented by several figures. 2. Linnaean Period: Formation of a Class Amphibia. — Within the century which succeeded these compilatory works Precur- (1650-1750) fall the labours which prepared the way sorsof for and exerted the greatest influence on Ray and Linnaeus. L; nnaeus _ Although original researches in the field of herpetology were limited in extent and in number, the authors had freed themselves from the purely literary or scholastic tendency. Men were no longer satisfied with reproducing and commenting on the writings of their predecessors; the pen was superseded by the eye, the microscope and the knife, and statements were tested by experiment. This spirit of the age manifested itself, so far as the reptiles are concerned, in Chara's and Redi's admirable observations on the viper, in Major's and Vallisnieri's detailed accounts of the anatomy of the chameleon, in the researches of Jacobaeus into the metamorphoses of the Batrachians and the structure of lizards, in Dufay's history of the development of the salamander (for Batrachians are invariably associated with reptiles proper); in Tyson's description of the anatomy of the rattle- snake, &c. The natural history collections formed by insti- tutions and wealthy individuals now contained not merely skins of crocodiles or serpents stuffed and transformed into a shape to correspond with the fabulous descriptions of the ancient dragons, but, with the discovery of alcohol as a means of preserving animals, reptiles entire or dissected were exhibited for study; and no opportunity was lost of obtaining them from travellers or residents in foreign countries. Fossils also were now acknowledged to be remains of animals which had lived before the Flood, and some of them were recognized as those of reptiles. The contributions to a positive knowledge of the animal kingdom became so numerous as to render the need of a method- ical arrangement of the abundance of new facts more and more pressing. Of the two principal systematic attempts made in this period the first ranks as one of the most remarkable steps of the progress of natural history, whilst the second can only be designated as a signal failure, which ought to have been a warning to. all those who in after years classified animals in what is called an, " artificial system." As the latter attempt, originating with Klein (168 5-1 7 59), did not exercise any further influence on herpetology, it will be sufficient to have merely „ a mentioned it. John Ray (1628-1705) had recognized the necessity of introducing exact definitions for the several categories into which the animals had to be divided, and he maintained that these categories ought to be characterized by the structure of animals, and that all zoological knowledge had to start from the " species " as its basis. His definition of reptiles as " animalia sanguinea pulmone respirantia cor unico tantum ventriculo instructum habentia ovipara " fixed the class in a manner which was adopted by the naturalists of the succeeding hundred and fifty years. Nevertheless, Ray was not a herpetologist; his knowledge of reptiles is chiefly derived from the researches of others, from whose accounts, however, everything not based upon reliable demonstration is critically excluded. He begins with a chapter treating of frogs {Rana, with two species), toads {Bufo, with one species) and 23 tortoises 1 {Testudo, with fourteen species). The second group comprises the Lacertae, twenty-five in number, and includes the salamander and newts; and the third the Serpentes, nine species, among which the limbless lizards are enumerated. Except in so far as he made known and briefly characterized a number of reptiles, our knowledge of this class was not advanced by Linnaeus. That he associated in the j^uj^gg^ 12 th edition cartilaginous and other fishes with the reptiles under the name of Amphibia Nantes was the result of some misunderstanding of an observation by Garden, and is not to be taken as a premonitory token of the recent discoveries of the relation between Batrachians and fishes. Linnaeus places reptiles, which he calls Amphibia, as the third class of the animal kingdom; he divides the genera thus: — Order i. Reptiles. — Testudo (15 species); Rana (17 sp.); Draco (2 sp.); Lacerta (48 sp., including 6 Batrachians). Order 2. Serpentes. — Crotalus (5 species) ; Boa (10 sp.) ; Coluber (96 sp.); Anguis (15 sp.); Amphisbaena (2 sp.); Caecilia (2 sp.). None of the naturalists who under the direction or influence of Linnaeus visited foreign countries possessed any special knowledge of or predilection for the study of reptiles; all, however, contributed to our acquaintance with tropical forms, or transmitted well-preserved specimens to the collections at home, so that Gmelin, in the 13th edition of the Systema Naturae, was able to enumerate three hundred and seventy-one species. The man who, with the advantage of the Linnaean method, first treated of reptiles monographically, was Laurenti. In a small book 2 he proposed a new division of these ^ aurej0< ; animals, of which some ideas and terms have survived into our times, characterizing the orders, genera and species in a much more precise manner than Linnaeus, giving, for his time, excellent descriptions and figures of the species of his native country. Laurenti might have become for herpetology what Artedi was for ichthyology, but his resources were extremely limited. The circumstance that Chelonians are entirely omitted from his. Synopsis seems due rather to the main object with which he engaged in the study of herpetology, viz. that of examining and distinguishing reptiles reputed to be poisonous, and to want of material, than to his conviction that tortoises should be relegated to another class. He divides the class into three orders: — r: Salientia, with the genera Pipa, Bufo, Rana, Hyla, and one species of " Proteus," viz. the larva of Pseudis paradoxa. 2. Gradientia, the three first genera of which are Tailed Batrach- ians, viz. two species of Proteus (one being the P. anguinus), Triton and Salamandra; followed by true Saurians — Caudiverbera, Gecko, Chamaeleo, Iguana, Basiliscus, Draco, Cordylus, Crocodilus, Scincus, Stellio, Seps. 3. Serpentia, among which he continues to keep Amphisbaena, Caecilia and Anguis, but the large Linnaean genus Coluber is divided into twelve, chiefly from the scutellation of the head and form of the body. The work concludes with an account of the experiments made by Laurenti to prove the poisonous or innocuous nature of those reptiles of which he could obtain living specimens. The next general work on reptiles is by Lacepede. It appeared in the years 1788 and 1790 under the title Histoire naturelle des quadruples ovipares et des serpens (Paris, , ac A-i de 2 vols. 4to). Although as regards treatment of details and amount of information this work far surpasses the modest attempt of Laurenti, it shows no advance towards a more natural division and arrangement of the genera. The author depends entirely on conspicuous external characters, and classifies the reptiles into (1) oviparous quadrupeds with a tail, (2) oviparous quadrupeds without a tail, (3) oviparous 1 In associating tortoises with toads, Ray could not disengage himself from the general popular view as to the nature of these animals, which found expression in the German Schildkrdte {' ' Shield- toad "). 2 Specimen medicum exhibens Synopsin Reptilium emendatam cum experimentis circa venena et antidota Reptilium Austriacorum (Vienna, 1768, 8vo, pp. 214, with 5 plates). i 3 8 REPTILES [HISTORY bipeds (Chiroles and Pseudopus), (4) serpents, — an arrangement in which the old confusion of Batrachians and reptiles and the imperfect definition of lizards and snakes are continued, and which it is worthy of remark we find also adopted in Cuvier's Tableau ilimentaire de I'histoire naturelle des animaux (1798), and nearly so by Latreille in his Histoire naturelle des reptiles (Paris, 1801, 4 vols. 12 mo). Lacepede's monograph, however, remained for many years deservedly the standard work on reptiles. The numerous plates with which the work is illus- trated, are, for the time, well drawn, and the majority readily recognizable. 3. The Period of Elimination of Batrachians as one of the Reptilian Orders. — A new period for herpetology commences Broag- with Alex. Brongniart, 1 who in 1799 first recognized alart. the characters by which Batrachians differ from the other reptiles, and by which they form a natural passage to the class of fishes. Caecilia (as also Langaha and Acro- chordus) is left by Brongniart with hesitation in the order of snakes, but newts and salamanders henceforth are no more classed with lizards. He leaves the Batrachians, however, in the class of reptiles, as the fourth order. The first order com- prises the Chelonians, the second the Saurians (including crocodiles and lizards), the third the Ophidians — terms which have been adopted by all succeeding naturalists. Here, however, Brongniart's merit on the classification of reptiles ends, the definition and disposition of the genera remaining much the same as in the works of his predecessors. The activity in France in the field of natural science was at this period, in spite of the political disturbances, so great that only a few years after Lacepede's work another, almost identical in scope and of the same extent, appeared, viz. the Histoire naturelle generate et particuliere des reptiles of F. M. Daudin (Paris, 1802-3, 8 vols. 8vo). Written and illustrated with less care than that by Lacepede, it is of greater importance to the herpetologists of the present day, as it contains a considerable number of generic and specific forms described for the first time. Indeed, at the end of the work, the author states that he has examined more than eleven hundred specimens, belonging to five hundred and seventeen species, all of which he has described from nature. The system adopted is that of Brongniart, the genera are well defined, but ill arranged; it is, however, noteworthy that Caecilia takes now its place at the end of the Ophidians, and nearest to the succeeding order of Batrachians. The next step in the development of the herpetological system was the natural arrangement of the genera. This involved a stupendous amount of labour. Although many isolated con- tributions were made by various workers, this task could be successfully undertaken and completed in the Paris Museum only, in which, besides Seba's and Lacepede's collections, many other herpetological treasures from other museums had been deposited by the victorious generals of the empire, and to which, through Cuvier's reputation, objects from every part of the world were attracted in a voluntary manner. The men who devoted themselves to this task were A. M. C. Dumeril, DumirU, Oppel and Cuvier himself. Oppel was a German who, Oppel during his visit to Paris (1 807-1 808), attended the Cuvier. lectures of Dumeril and Cuvier, and at the same time studied the materials to which access was given to him by the latter in the most liberal manner. Dumeril 2 maintains that Oppel's ideas and information were entirely derived from his lectures, and that Oppel himself avows this to be the case. The passage, 3 however, to which he refers is somewhat ambiguous, 1 Bull. Acad. Sci. (1800), Nos. 35, 36. 1 Erpit. gener., i. p. 259. 3 " Ware es nicht die Ermunterung . . . dieser Freunde gewesen, so wttrde ich tiberzeugt von den Mangeln, denen eine solche Arbeit bei aller moglichen Vorsicht doch unterworfen ist, es nie gewagt haben, meine Eintheilung bekannt zu machen, obwohl selbe Herr Dumeril in seinen Lectionen vorn Jahre 1809 schon vorgetragen, und die Thiere im Cabinet darnach bezeichnet hat " (preface, p. viii). A few lines further on he emphatically declares that the classification is based upon his own researches. and it is certain that there is the greatest possible difference between the arrangement published by Dumeril in 1806 {Zoologie Analytique, Paris, 8vo) and that proposed by Oppel in his Ordnungen, Familien,undGattungen der Reptilien (Munich, 1811, 4to). There is no doubt that Oppel profited largely by the teaching of Dumeril; but, on the other hand, there is sufficient internal evidence in the works of both authors, not only that Oppel worked independently, but also that Dumeril and Cuvier owed much to their younger fellow-labourer, as Cuvier himself indeed acknowledges more than once. Oppel's classification may be shortly indicated thus: — Order i. TESTUDINATA or CHfiLONIENS. Fam. 1. Chelonii (gen. Mydas, Coriacea). Fam. 2. Amydae (gen. Trionyx, Chelys, Testudo, Emys). Order 2. SQUAMATA. Sect. A. Saurii. Fam. 1. Crocodilini (gen. Crocodilus, Gavialis, Alligator). Fam. 2. Geckoides (gen. Gecko, Stellio, Agama). Fam. 3. Iguanoides (gen. Camaeleo, Draco, Iguana, Basiliscus, Lophyrus, Anolis). Fam. 4. Lacertini (gen. Tupinambis, Dracaena, Lacerta, Tachy- dromus). Fam. 5. Scincoides (gen. Scincus, Seps, Scheltopusik, Anguis). Fam. 6. Chalcidici (gen. Chalcides, Bimanus, Bipes, Ophisaurus). Sect. B. Ophidii. Fam. 1. Anguiformes (gen. Tortrix, Amphisbaena, Typhlops). Fam. 2. Constrictores (gen. Boa, Eryx). Fam. 3. Hydri (gen. Platurus, Hydrophis). Fam. 4. Pseudo-viperae (gen. Acrochordus, Erpeton). Fam. 5. Crotahni (gen. Crotalus, Trigonocephalus). Fam. 6. Viperini (gen. Vipera, Pseudoboa). Fam. 7. Colubrini (gen. Coluber, Bungarus). Order 3. NUDA or BATRACII. In this classification we notice three points, which indicate a decided progress towards a natural system. (1) The four orders proposed by Brongniart are no more considered co- subordinate in the class, but the Saurians and Ophidians are associated as sections of the same order, a view held by Aristotle but abandoned by all following naturalists. The distinction between lizards and snakes is carried out in so precise a manner that one genus only, Amphisbaena, is wrongly placed. (2) The true reptiles have now been entirely divested of all hetero- geneous elements by relegating positively Caecilia to the Batrachians, a view for which Oppel had been fully prepared by Dum6ril, who pointed out in 1807 that " les cecilies se rapprochent considerablement des batraciens auxquels elles semblent lier l'ordre entier des serpens." 4 (3) An attempt is made at arranging the genera into families, some of which are still retained at the present day. In thus giving a well-merited prominence to Oppel's labours we are far from wishing to detract from the influence exercised by the master spirit of this period, Cuvier. Without his guid- ance Oppel probably never would have found a place among the promoters of herpetological science. But Cuvier's principal researches on reptiles were incidental or formed part of some more general plan; Oppel concentrated his on this class only. Cuvier adopts the four orders of reptiles proposed by Brong- niart as equivalent elements of the class, and restores the blind- worms and allied lizards and, what is worse, also the Caecilias, to the Ophidians. The chameleons and geckos are placed in separate groups, and the mode of dividing the latter has been retained to the present day. Also a natural division of the snakes, although the foreign elements mentioned are admitted into the order, is sufficiently indicated by his arrangement of the " vrais serpens proprement dits " as (1) non-venomous snakes, (2) venomous snakes with several maxillary teeth, and (3) venomous snakes with isolated poison-fangs. He distinguishes the species of reptiles with a precision not attained in any previous work. Cuvier's researches into the osteology of reptiles had also the object of discovering the means of understanding the fossil remains which now claimed the attention of French, English and German naturalists. Extinct Chelonian and Crocodilian * Memoires de zoologie et d'anatomie comparie (Paris, 1807, 8voX, p. 45- HISTORY] REPTILES r 39 Blala ville. Menem. remains, Pterodactylus, Mosasaurus, Iguanodon, Ichthyosaurus, Teleosaurus, became the subjects of Cuvier's classical treatises, which form the contents of the 5th volume (part 2) of his Recherches sur les ossetnens fossiles, oil Von rStablii les caracteres des plusieurs animaux dont les revolutions du globe ont dUruit les especes (new ed., Paris, 1824, 4to). All the succeeding herpetologists adopted either Oppel's or Cuvier's view as to the number of orders of reptiles, or as to the position Batrachians ought to take in their relation to reptiles proper, with the single exception of D. de Blainville. He divided the " oviparous subtype " of Vertebrates into four classes, Birds, Reptiles, Amphibians and Fishes, 1 a modification of the system which is all the more significant as he designates the reptiles " Squammiferes Ornilhoides, icailleux," and the amphibians " Nudipelliftres, Ichthyoides nus." In these terms we perceive clear indications of the relations which exist to the class of birds on the one hand, and to that of fishes on the other; but, unfortunately, Blainville himself did not follow up the ideas thus expressed, and abandoned even the terms in a- later edition of his systematic tables. The direct or indirect influence of the work of French anato- mists manifested itself in the systems of the other herpetologists of this period. The Crocodiles, especially, which hitherto (strange to say, even in Cuvier's classification) had been placed as one of the families of Saurians, now commence to be separated from them. Merrem (Versuch eines Systems der Amphibien, Marburg, 1820, 8vo) distinguishes two classes of " Amphibians," Pholidota and Batrachia. The Pholidota (or Reptiles) are divided into three orders, distin- guished chiefly by osteological and splanchnological characters: — ■ 1. Testudinata. 2. Loricata ( = Crocodiles). 3. Squamata ( = Oppel's Squamata, excluding Crocodiles). Merrem's subdivision of the Squamata into (1) Gradientia ( = limbed Lacertilia), (2) Repentia ( = limbless Lacertilia), (3) Serpentia ( = Snakes and Amphisbaena) , (4) Incedentia ( = Chirotes), and (5) Predentia ( = Chamaeleons) was based chiefly on the modi- fications of the limbs, and not adopted by his successors. The greater part of his work is occupied with a synopsis of all the species of Reptiles known, each being shortly characterized by a diagnosis; but, as only a small proportion (about one hundred and seventy) were known to him from autopsy, this synopsis has all the faults of a compilation. Latreixle, who commenced the study of reptiles as early as 1 801, had kept pace with the progress of science when he published, in 1825, his Families naturelles du regne animal (Paris, 1825, 8vo). He separated the Batra- chians as a class from the Reptiles, and the latter he divides into two sections only, Cataphracta and Squamosa — in the former Crocodiles being associated with the Chelonians. He bases this view on the development of a carapace in both, on the structure of the feet, on the fixed quadrate bone, on the single organ of copulation. None of the succeeding herpetologists adopted a combination founded on such important characters except J. E. Gray, who, however, destroyed Latreille's idea of Cataphracta by adding the Amphisbaenians 2 as a third order. A mass of new materials now began to accumulate from all parts of the world in European museums. Among others, Spix had brought from Brazil a rich spoil to the Munich Museum, and the Bavarian Academy charged Joh. Wagler to prepare a general system of reptiles and batra- chians. His work, 3 the result of ten years' labour, is a simple but lasting monument to a young naturalist, 4 who, endowed with an ardent imagination, only too frequently misinterpreted the evidence of facts, or forced it into the service of preconceived ideas. Cuvier had drawn attention to certain resemblances in l Bull. Set. Soc. Philomat., July 1816. * Catalogue of the Tortoises, Crocodiles and Amphisbaenians in the Collection of the British Museum (London, 1844, i6mo), p. 2. 3 Naturliches System der Amphibien mit vorangehender Classifica- tion der Saugethiere und Vogel — ein Beitrag zur vergleichenden Zoologie (Munich, 1830, 8vo). 4 Wagler was accidentally killed three years after the publication of his System. LatreiUe. Gray. Wagler. some parts of the osseous structure of Ichthyosaurus and Ptero- dactylus to dolphins, birds, crocodiles, &c. Wagler, seizing upon such analogical resemblances, separated those extinct Saurians from the class of Reptiles, and formed of them and the Monotremes a distinct class of Vertebrates, intermediate between mammals and birds, which he called Gryphi. We must admit that he made free use of his imagination by defining his class ol Gryphi as " vertebrates with lungs lying free in the pectoral cavity; oviparous development of the embryo (within or) without the parent; the young fed (or suckled?) by the parents." By the last character this Waglerian class is distinguished from the reptiles. Reptiles (in which Wagler includes Batrachians) are divided into eight orders: Testudines, Crocodili, Lacertae, Serpentes, Angues, Caeciliae, Ranae and Ichthyodi. He has great merit in having employed, for the subdivision of the families of lizards, the structure of the tongue and the mode of insertion of the teeth in the jaws. On the other hand, Wagler entirely failed in arrang- ing snakes in natural families, venomous and non-venomous types being mixed in the majority of his groups. L. Fitzinger was Wagler's contemporary; his first work 5 preceded Wagler's system by four years. As he says in the preface, his object was to arrange the reptiles in FHt- " a natural system." Unfortunately, in order to lager. attain this object, Fitzinger paid regard to the most superficial points of resemblance; and in the tabula affinitatum generum which he constructed to demonstrate " the progress of nature " he has been much more successful in placing closely allied generic forms in contiguity than in tracing the relationships of the higher groups. That table is prepared in the form of a genealogical tree, but Fitzinger wished to express thereby merely the amount of morphological resemblance, and there is no evidence whatever in the text that he had a clear idea of genetic affinity. The Batrachians are placed at the bottom of the scheme, leading through Hyla to the Geckos (clearly on account of the digital dilatations) and through Caecilia to Amphisbaena. At the top Draco leads through Pterodactylus to the Bats (Pteropus), Ichthyosaurus to the Cetaceans (Del- phinus), Emys to the Monotremes, Testudo to Manis, and the Marine Turtles to the Divers and Penguins. In Fitzinger's system the higher groups are, in fact, identical with those proposed by Merrem, while greater originality is shown in the subdivision of the orders. He differed also widely from Wagler in his views as to the relations of the extinct forms. The order of Loricata consists of two families, the Ichthyosauroidea and Croco- diloidea, the former comprising Iguanodon, Plesiosaurus, Sauro- cephalus and Ichthyosaurus. In the order Squamata Lacertilians and Ophidians are combined and divided into twenty-two families, almost all based on the most conspicuous external characters: the first two, viz. the Geckos and Chameleons, are natural enough, but in the three following Iguanoids and Agamoids are sadly mixed, Pterodactyles and Draco forming one family; Megalo- saurus, Mosasaurus, Varanus, Tejus, &c, are associated in another named Ameivoidea; the Amphisbaenidae are correctly defined; the Colubroidea are a heterogeneous assemblage of thirty genera; but with his family of Bungaroidea Fitzinger makes an attempt to separate at least a part of the venomous Colubrine Snakes from the Viperines, which again are differentiated from the last family, that of Crotaloidea. If this little work had been his only performance in the field of herpetology his name would have been honourably mentioned among his fellow-workers. But the promise of his early labours was not justified by his later work, and if we take notice of the latter here it is only because his name has become attached to many a reptile through the pedantic rules of zoological nomenclature. The labours of Wiegmann, Miiller, Dumeril and Bibron exercised no influence on him, and when he commenced to publish a new system of reptiles in 1843, 6 of which fortunately one fasciculus only appeared, he exhibited a classification in which morphological facts are entirely superseded by fanciful ideas of the vaguest kind of physiosophy, each class of vertebrates being divided 5 Neue Classification der Reptilien nach ihren naturlichen Ver- wandtschaften (Vienna, 1826, 4to). 6 Systema Reptilium (Vienna, 1843, 8vol. 140 REPTILES [HISTORY into five " sense " series, and each series into three orders, one comprising forms of superior, the second of medium and the third of inferior development. In the generic arrangement of the species, to which Fitzinger devoted himself especially in this work, he equally failed to advance science. We have now arrived at a period distinguished by the appear- ance of a work which superseded all its predecessors, which formed the basis for the labours of many succeeding years, and which will always remain one of the classical monuments of descriptive zoology — the Erp&ologie ginerale ou histoire DumStil naturelle complete des reptiles of A. M. C. Dumeril and and G. Bibjron (Paris, 8vo). The first volume appeared in Blbron. 1834, and the ninth and last in 1854. No naturalist of that time could have been better qualified for the tremendous undertaking than C. Dumeril, who almost from the first year of half a century's connexion with the then largest collection of Reptilia had chiefly devoted himself to their study. The task would have been too great for the energy of a single man; it was, therefore, fortunate for Dumeril that he found a most devoted fellow-labourer in one of his assistants, G. Bibron, whose abilities equalled those of the master, but who, to the great loss of science, died (in 1848) before the completion of the work. Dum6ril had the full benefit of Bibron's knowledge for the volumes containing the Snakes, but the last volume, which treats of the Tailed Batrachians, had to be prepared by Dumeril alone. The work is the first which gives a comprehensive scientific account of reptiles generally, their structure, physiology and literature, and again each of the four orders admitted by the authors is introduced by a similar general account. In the body of the work 121 Chelonians, 468 Saurians, 586 Ophidians and 218 Batrachians are described in detail and with the greatest precision. Singularly enough, the authors revert to Brong- niart's arrangement, in which the Batrachians are co-ordinate with the other three orders of reptiles. This must appear all the more strange as Von Baer 1 in 1828, and J. Muller 2 in 1831, had urged, besides other essential differences, the important fact that no Batrachian embryo possesses either an amnion or an allantois, like a reptile. 4. Period of the Separation of Reptiles and Batrachians as Distinct Classes or Subclasses. — In the chronological order which we have adopted for these historical notes, we had to refer in their proper places to two herpetologists, Blainville and Latreille, who advocated a deeper than merely ordinal separation of Reptiles from Batrachians, and who were followed by J. Matter F. S. Leuckart. But this view only now began to find- and more general acceptance. J. Muller and Stannius stannius. were guided ; n their classification entirely by ana- tomical characters, and consequently recognized the wide gap which separates the Batrachians from the Reptiles; yet they considered them merely as subclasses of the class Amphibia. The former directed his attention particularly to those forms which seemed to occupy an intermediate position between Lacertilians and Ophidians, and definitely relegated Anguis, Pseudopus, Acontias to the former, and Typhlops, Rhinophis, Tortrix, but also the Amphisbaenoids to the latter. Stannius interpreted the characteristics of the Amphisbaenoids differ- ently, as will be seen from the following abstract of his classi- fication: 3 — Subclassis: AMPHIBIA MONOPNOA (Leuckart). Sect. i. STREPTOSTYLICA (Stann.). Quadrate bone arti- culated to the skull; copulatory organs paired, placed out- side the cloacal cavity. Ordoi. OPHIDIA. Subordo 1. Eurystomata or Macrostomata (Mull.). The facial bones are loosely connected to admit of great extension of the wide mouth. Subordo 2. Angiostomata or Microstomata (Mull.). Mouth narrow, not extensile; quadrate bone attached to the skull and not to a mastoid. ' Entwicklungsgeschichte der Thiere, p. 262. 2 Tiedemann's Zeitschrift fur Physiologic, vol. iv. p. 200. 8 Siebold and Stannius, Handbuch der Zootomie — Zootomie der Amphibien (2nd ed., Berlin, 1856. 8vo). Oedo 2. SAURIA. Subordo 1. Amphisbaenoidea. Subordo 2. Kionocrania (Stann ) = Lizards. Subordo 3. Chamaeleonidea. Sect. 2. M ONIMOSTYLICA (Stann.). Quadrate bone sutur- ally united with the skull; copulatory organ simple, placed within the cloaca. Ordo 1. CHELONIA. Ordo 2. CROCODILIA. This classification received the addition of a fifth Reptilian order which with many Lacertilian characters combined im- portant Crocodilian affinities, and in certain other respects differed from both, viz. the New Zealand Hatteria, which by its first describers had been placed to the Agamoid Lizards. A. Gunther, 4 who pointed out the characteristics of this reptile, considered it to be co-ordinate with the other four orders of reptiles, and characterizes it thus: — ■ Rhynchocephalia. — Quadrate bone suturally and immovably united with the skull and pterygoid ; columella present. Rami of the mandible united as in Lacertilians. Temporal region with two horizontal bars. Vertebrae amphicoelian. Copulatory organs, none. 5. Period of the Recognition of a Class of Reptilia as Part of the Sauropsida. — Although so far the discovery of every new morphological and developmental fact had prepared naturalists for a class separation of Reptiles and Batrachians, it was left to T. II. Huxley to demonstrate, not merely that the weight of facts demanded such a class separation, but that the reptiles hold the same relation to birds as the fishes to Batrachians. In his Hunterian Lectures (1863) he divided the vertebrates into Mammals, Sauroids and Ichthyoids, subsequently substituting for the last two the terms Sauropsida and Ichthyopsida. 5 The Sauropsida contain the two classes of birds and reptiles, the Ichthyopsida those of Batrachians and fishes. 6. Period of the Consideration of Skeletons of Extinct Reptiles. — ■ Sir R. Owen, while fully appreciating the value of the osteological characters on which Huxley based his division, yet _ admitted into his consideration those. taken from the organs of circulation and respiration, and reverted to Latreille's division of warm- and cold-blooded (haematothermal and haematocryal) vertebrates, thus approximating the Batrachians to reptiles, and separating them from birds. 6 The reptiles (or Monopnoa, Leuck.) thus form the highest of the five subclasses into which, after several previous classifications, Owen 7 finally divided the Haematocrya. His division of this subclass, however, into nine orders, makes a considerable step in the progress of herpetology, since it takes into consideration for the first time the many extinct groups whose skeletons are found fossil. He shows that the number of living reptilian types bears but a small proportion to that of extinct forms, and therefore that a sys- tematic arrangement of the entire class must be based chiefly upon osteological characters. His nine orders are the follow- ing: a. Ichthyopterygia (extinct) — Ichthyosaurus. b. Sauropterygia (extinct) — Plesiosaurus, Pliosaurus, Notho- saurus, Placodus. c. Anomodontia (extinct) — Dicynodon, Rhynchosaurus, Ouden- odon. d. Chelonia. e. Lacertilia (with the extinct Mosasaurus). f. Ophidia. g. Crocodilia (with the extinct Teleosaurus and Streptospon- dylus) . h. Dinosauria (extinct) — Iguanodon, Scelidosaurus and Megalo- saurus. % i. Pterosauria (extinct) — Dimorphodon, Rhamphorhynchus and Pterodactylus. Owen was followed by Huxley and E. D. Cope, who, however, restricted still more the selection of classificatory characters by relying for the purposes of arrangement on a few parts of the 4 " Contribution to the Anatomy of Hatteria (Rhynchocephalus, Owen)," in Phil. Trans. (1867), part ii. 6 An Introduction to the Classification of Animals (London, 1869, 8vo), pp. 104 seq. 6 Anatomy of Vertebrates (London, 1866, 8vo), vol. i. p. 6. 7 Op. cit. p. 16. GENERAL CHARACTERS] REPTILES 141 Huxley. skeleton only. They attempted a further grouping of the orders which in Owen's system were merely serially enumerated as cosubordinate groups. Huxley used for this purpose almost exclusively the position and character of the rib-articulations to the vertebral centra, the orders themselves being the same as in Owen's system: — A. PLEUROSPONDYLIA. Dorsal vertebrae devoid of trans- verse processes and not movable upon one another, nor are the ribs movable upon the vertebrae. A plastron. Order I, Chelonia. , B. The dorsal vertebrae (which have either complete or rudi- mentary transverse processes) are movable upon one another, and the ribs upon them. No plastron. a. The dorsal vertebrae have transverse processes which are either entire or very imperfectly divided into terminal facets (ERPETOSPONDYLIA). o. Transverse processes long; limbs well developed, pad- dles; sternum and sternal ribs absent or rudiment- ary. Order 2, Plesiosauria ( = Sauropterygia, Ow.). /3. Transverse processes short. aa. A pectoral arch and urinary bladder. Order 3, Lacertilia. bb. No pectoral arch and no urinary bladder. Order 4, Ophidia. b. The dorsal vertebrae have double tubercles in place of trans- verse processes {PeROSPONDYLia) . Limbs paddle-shaped. Order 5, Ichthyosauria ( = Ichthyopterygia, Ow.). c. The anterior dorsal vertebrae have elongated and divided transverse processes, the tubercular being longer than the capitular division (SUCBOSPONDYUA). a. Only two vertebrae in the sacrum. Order 6, Croco- dilia. jS. More than two vertebrae in the sacrum. aa. Manus without a prolonged ulnar digit. aa. Hind limb Saurian. Order 7, Dicynodon- tia (= Anomodontia, Ow.). /?/3. Hind limb Ornithic. Order 8, Ornitho- scelida (= Dinosauria, Ow.). bb. Manus with an extremely long ulnar digit. Order 9, Pterosauria. Cope, 1 by combining the modifications of the quadrate and supporting bones with the characters used by Huxley, further developed Owen's classification, separating the Pythonomorpha and Rhynchocephalia as distinct orders from the Lacertilia. He eventually 2 elaborated the following classification, based entirely on osteological characters: — I. The quadrate bone immovably fixed to the adjacent elements by suture. A. Scapular arch external to ribs; temporal region with a complex bony roof ; no longitudinal postorbital bars. A tabular and supramastoid bones and a presternum; limbs ambulatory; vertebrae amphicoelous. Order 1, COTYLOSAURIA. .iA. Scapular arch internal to ribs ; temporal region with com- plex roof and no longitudinal bars. A presternum; limbs ambulatory. Order 2, Chelydo- sauria. AAA. Scapular arch internal to ribs; sternum extending below coracoids and pelvis ; one postorbital bar. No supramastoid ; a paroccipital ; clavicle not articulating with scapula. Order 3, Testudinata. AAAA. Scapular arch external to ribs; one longitudinal post- orbital bar (Synaptosauria) . A supramastoid and paroccipital bones; ribs two-headed on centrum; carpals and tarsals not distinct in form from metapodials; vertebrae amphicoelous. Order 4, Ichthyopterygia. A supramastoid; paroccipital not distinct; a postorbito- squamosal arch ; ribs two-headed ; a clavicle ; obturator foramen small or none ; vertebrae amphicoelous. Order 5, Theromora. No supramastoid; paroccipital not distinct-; a quadrato- iugal arch; scapula triradiate; no clavicle; ribs one- headed. Order 6, Plesiosauria. & AAAA. Scapular arch external to ribs; two longitudinal post- orbital bars (paroccipital arch distinct) (Archosauria). a. A supramastoid bone. Ribs two-headed; a clavicle and interclavicle ; aceta- bulum closed; no obturator foramen; ambulatory; vertebrae amphicoelous. Order 7, Pelycosauria. aa. No supramastoid. 1 Proc. Amer. Assoc, for the Advancement of Science, 10th meeting (Cambridge, 1871, 8vo), pp. 230 sq.; Amer. Naturalist (1889), vol. xxiii. p. 863. 2 Syllabus of Lectures on the Vertebrata (Philadelphia, 1898, 8vo), P- 54- Cope. Ribs two-headed; interclavicle not distinct; external digits greatly elongated to support a patagium for flight. Order 8, Ornithosauria. Ribs two-headed; no interclavicle; acetabulum open; ambulatory. Order 9, Dinosauria. Ribs two-headed; an interclavicle; acetabulum closed; ambulatory. Order 10, Loricata. Ribs one-headed; an interclavicle; acetabulum closed, a large obturator foramen; ambulatory. Order 11, Rhynchocephalia. II. The quadrate bone loosely articulated to the cranium and at the proximal end only (Streptostylica). No distinct supramastoid, nor opisthotic; one or no post- orbital bar; scapular arch, when present, external to ribs; ribs one-headed. Order 12, Squamata. While this classification was being considered and prepared, both Cope and G. Baur made a special study of the bones which surround the quadrate and arch over the biting muscles in the various groups of reptiles. This led to a series of discussions which ended in the idea, that the class could be most naturally divided into two great subclasses, the one culminating in tortoises and mammals, the other in crocodiles, lizards, snakes and birds. Professor H. F. Osborn in 1903 3 therefore proposed the following classification :— Osbora. Subclass Synapsida. Primarily with single or undivided temporal arches. Giving rise to the mammals through some unknown member of the Anomodontia. Orders Cotylosauria, Anomodontia, Testudinata and Sauropterygia. Subclass Diapsida. Primarily with double or divided temporal arches. Giving rise to the birds through some unknown type transitionat between Prolorosauria and Dinosauria. Orders Diaptosauria ( = Prolorosauria, Pelycosauria and Rhyn- chocephalia), Phytosauria ( = Belodon, &c), Ichthyosauria, Crocodilia, Dinosauria, Squamata and Pterosauria. The most exhaustive and modern general work on reptiles is by Dr C. K. Hoffmann in Bronn's Klassen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs (1879-90). A most useful and less technical treatise is the volume on Amphibia and Reptiles contri- Hoff " buted by Dr H. Gadow to the Cambridge Natural History mana. (London, 1902). (A. C. G. ; A. S. Wo.) II. General Characters of the Class Reptilia Reptiles, as known in the existing world, are the modified, and in many respects degenerate, representatives of a group of lung-breathing vertebrate animals which attained its maximum development in the Mesozoic period. So far as can be judged from the skeleton, some of the members of this group then living might have become mammals by very slight change, while others might as readily have evolved into birds. It is therefore probable that the class Reptilia, as now understood, comprises the direct ancestors both of the Mammalia and Aves. Assuming that its extinct members, which are known only by skeletons, were organized essentially like its existing representatives, the class ranks higher than that of the lowest five-toed vertebrates (class Batrachia) in the investment of the foetus by two membranous envelopes (the amnion and allantois), and in the total absence of gills even in the earliest embryos. It ranks below both the Mammalia and Aves in the partial mixture of the arterial blood with the venous blood as it leaves the heart, thus causing the organism to be cold-blooded; it also differs both from Mammalia and Aves in retaining a pair of aortic arches, of which only the left remains in the former, while the right one is retained in the latter. No feature in the endoskeleton is absolutely distinctive, except possibly the degeneration of the parasphenoid bone, which separates the Reptilia from the Amphibia. In the exoskeleton, however, the epidermis forms horny scales, such as never occur in Amphibia, while there are no traces of any structures resembling either hairs or feathers, which respectively characterize Mammalia and Ave's. There is little doubt that true reptiles date back to the latter part of the Palaeozoic period, but at that epoch the Amphibia approached them so closely in the characters of the skeleton that it is difficult to distinguish the members of the two classes among the fossils. Some of the Palaeozoic Amphibia — a few of the so-called Labyrinthodonts — are proved to have had well- developed gill-arches in their immature state, while there are conspicuous marks of slime-canals on their skulls. Others are ' Mem. American Mus. Nat. Hist. (November 1903), vol. i. art. viii. 142 REPTILES [GENERAL CHARACTERS merely regarded as Amphibia because they closely resemble the genera which are proved to have been gill-breathers when immature. All these genera, however, so far as known, agree with the existing Amphibia in the production of their large parasphenoid bone as far forwards as the vomers to form a rigid and complete basicranial axis (fig. 1, A). Those genera After Credner. After C. W. Andrews. Fig. i. — A, Palate of Palaeozoic Amphibian (Archegosaurus decheni). B, Palate of Mesozoic Reptile {Plesiosaurus macrocephalus) . b.occ, basioccipital ; bs, basisphenoid ; eept, ectopterygoid ; i.pt, inter- pterygoid vacuity; j, jugal; mx, maxilla; pas, parasphenoid; pi, palatine; pmx, premaxilla; pt, pterygoid; pt. nar, posterior nares; qu, quadrate; s.o, suborbital vacuity; v, vomer. which less resemble the typical Labyrinthodonts are charac- terized by the reduction of the parasphenoid bone so that it no longer reaches the vomers; in these animals the weakened skull exhibits a secondary basicranial axis formed by the approxima- tion of the- pterygoids to the median line (fig. 1, B). The latter condition is universal in existing reptiles, and may there- fore perhaps be regarded as a diagnostic feature. If so, the oldest known undoubted reptile is Palaeohatteria, from the Lower Permian of Saxony. In the structure of the skull Palaeohatteria is much like the existing Sphenodon, the cheek-plates which cover the temporal and masseter muscles on each side being pierced by two great vacuities, one superior-temporal, the other lateral-temporal. The majority of the earliest reptiles, however, either resemble the Labyrinthodonts in having the biting muscles completely covered with a roof of bony plates, or exhibit a slight shrinkage of this investment so that a superior-temporal vacuity appears. As the various groups or orders become differentiated, this shrinkage or reduction continues, while the shape of the ossify- ing ear-capsule changes, and the squamosal bone, which covers the organ of hearing in the fishes, and presumably also in the Palaeozoic Batrachia, is gradually thrust outwards from all connexion with this capsule except at its hinder angle. The resultant modifications are diagrammatically represented in fig 2. In one series of orders, comprising the Anomodontia, Chelonia, Sauropterygia and Ichthyopterygia (fig. 2, B, C), the superior- temporal vacuity (s) first appears, and the cheek- plates in the broad temporal arch thus formed may be variously fused together, sometimes even irregularly perforated — showing at first, indeed, the usual inconstancy of a new and not com- pletely established feature. From the earliest members of this series of reptiles, palaeontology seems to demonstrate that the Mammalia (with one robust temporal arcade or zygomatic arch) arose. In a second series, comprising the orders Rhyncho- cephalia, Dinosauria, Crocodilia and Ornithosauria (fig. 2, D), the broad arch of cheek-plates is regularly pierced by a lateral- temporal vacuity, which leaves a narrow bar above, another narrow bar below, and uncovers the middle part of the quadrate bone. By the constant loss of the lower, and the frequent loss of the upper, bar, some members of this series eventually pass into the order Squamata (Lacertilia+Ophidia), in which the quadrate bone is completely exposed and loosely attached to the skull (fig. 2, E) ; other reptiles exhibiting a similar modi- fication may readily have acquired the typical Avian skull (fig. 2, F) by the loss of the upper and the retention of the lower temporal bar in question. In view of these and other palaeontological con- siderations, the Reptilia may be classified into orders as follows : — Orders of Class Reptilia 1. Anomodontia. — Bones of postero-lateral region of skull forming a complete roof over the temporal and masseter muscles, or contracted into a single broad zygo- matic arch, leaving a superior-temporal vacuity. Pineal foramen present. Ribs completely or imperfectly double- headed. No abdominal ribs. A large separately ossified epicoracoid. Limbs for support as well as progression; third and fourth digits with not more than three phalanges. Dermal armour feeble or absent. Range. — Permian and Triassic. 2. Chelonia. — Postero-lateral region of skull as in Anomo- dontia, except bones of ear-capsule more modified. No pineal foramen. Ribs single-headed. No sternum. Pectoral and pelvic arches unique in being situated completely inside the ribs. No epicoracoid. Abdominal ribs replaced by three or four pairs of large plates, which, with the clavicles and interclavicle, form a plastron. Limbs only for pro- gression; third and fourth digits with not more than three phalanges. A regular dorsal carapace of bony plates in- timately connected with the neural spines, and ribs of seven to nine dorsal vertebrae. Range. — Upper Triassic. to Recent. 3. Sauropterygia. — Bones of postero-lateral region of skull contracted into a single broad zygomatic arch, leaving a superior-temporal vacuity. Pineal foramen present. No fused sacral vertebrae. All dorsal ribs single-headed, articulating with transverse processes of the neural arches. Abdominal ribs forming dense plastron. Apparently no sternum. Coracoid, pubis and ischium in form of much-expanded plates. Limbs modified as paddles, with not more than five digits, of which the third and fourth always have more than three phalanges; all digits usually consisting of numerous phalanges. No dermal armour. Range. — Upper Triassic to Cretaceous. 4. Ichthyopterygia. — Bones of postero-lateral region of skull contracted into a single broad zygomatic arch, leaving a superior- temporal vacuity. Pineal foramen present. Vertebral centra short and deeply biconcave, with feeble neural arches which are almost or completely destitute of zygapophyses. No fused sacral vertebrae. Cervical and dorsal ribs double-headed, articulating with tubercles on the vertebral centra. Abdominal ribs forming dense plastron. Apparently no sternum. Coracoid an expanded plate, probably with cartilaginous epicoracoid. Pelvis very small, not connected with vertebrae. Limbs modified as paddles, with digits of very numerous short phalanges, which are closely pressed together, sometimes with supplementary rows of similar ossicles. No dermal armour. A vertical triangular caudal fin, not supported by skeletal rays. Range.— Triassic to Cretaceous. 5. Rhynchocephalia. — Bones of postero-lateral region of skull contracted into two slender zygomatic bars, leaving a superior- temporal and a lateral-temporal vacuity, and partly exposing the quadrate bone from the side. Pineal foramen present or absent. Ribs single-headed. Abdominal ribs present. Sternum present. Epicoracoid cartilaginous. Limbs only for progression; third and fourth digits with four or five phalanges. Dermal armour feeble or absent. Range. — Lower Permian to Recent. 6. Dinosauria. — Postero-lateral region of skull as in Rhyncho- cephalia. No pineal foramen. Cervical and dorsal ribs double- headed. Rarely abdominal ribs. Sternum present, but apparently no clavicular arch. Limbs for support as well as progression ; third and fourth digits with four and five phalanges respectively. Dermal armour variable. Range.- — Triassic to Cretaceous. 7. Crocodilia. — Postero-lateral region of skull as in Rhyncho- cephalia. No pineal foramen. Cervical and dorsal ribs double- headed. Abdominal ribs present. Sternum present; also inter- clavicle, but no clavicles. Limbs only for progression on land or swimming; third and fourth digits with four or five phalanges. Dermal armour variable. Range. — Lower Jurassic to Recent. 8. Ornithosauria, — All bones extremely dense, light and hollow, the organism being adapted for flight. Postero-lateral region of skull as in Rhynchocephalia. No pineal foramen. Cervical and dorsal ribs double-headed. Abdominal ribs present. Sternum present, and keeled for attachment of pectoral muscles; no clavi- cular arch. Fifth digit of hand much elongated to support a wing- membrane, but with only four phalanges. Hind limb feeble. No dermal armour. Range. — Lower Jurassic to Cretaceous. GENERAL CHARACTERS] REPTILES H3 9. Squamata. — Bones of postero-lateral region of skull much reduced and partly absent, never forming more than a slender superior-temporal bar, thus completely exposing the quadrate, which is only loosely attached to the cranium at its upper end. Pineal foramen present. Ribs single-headed. No abdominal ribs. Sternum present when there are limbs. Limbs, when present, only for progression; third and fourth digits at least with more than three phalanges. Dermal armour feeble or absent. Range. — Cretaceous to Recent. Order 1. Anomodontia. — The Anomodonts are so named in allusion to the peculiar and unique dentition of the first-dis- covered genera. They are precisely intermediate between the and India) but they are best represented in the Karoo formation (Permian and Triassic) of South Africa. The Pariasauria most closely resemble the Labyrinthodont Amphibia, but have a single occipital condyle. Pariasauria itself is a massive herbivorous reptile, with a short tail, and the limbs adapted for excavating in the ground. It is known by several nearly complete skeletons, about 3 metres in length, from South Africa and northern Russia. Elginia, found in the Elgin sandstones of Morayshire, Scotland, is provided with horn-like bony bosses on the skull. Another apparently allied genus (Otocoelus) has a carapace suggesting that it may be an ancestral Chelonian. The Therio- 'qu.. From A. S. Woodward, Outlines of Vertebrate Palaeontology. Fig. 2. — Diagram of the Cranial Roof in a Labyrinthodont Amphibian, various types of Reptiles, and a Bird. A, Labyrin- thodont Amphibian {Mastodonsaurus giganteus). B, Generalized Anomodont or Sauropterygian, passing with slight modification into the Chelonian (sutures dotted to denote inconstancy in fusion of elements). C, Ichthyosaurus. D, Generalized Rhynchocephalian, Dinosaurian, Crocodilian, or Ornithosaurian. E, Generalized Lacertilian, often losing even the arcade here indicated. F, Generalized Bird. fr, frontal; j, jugal; /, lateral temporal vacuity; la, lachrymal; mx, maxilla; n, narial opening; na, nasal; 0, orbit; pa, parietal; pmx, premaxilla; prf, prefrontal; ptf, postfrontal; pto, postorbital; q.j, quadrato-jugal; qu, quadrate; s, supratemporal vacuity; s.t, supratemporals and prosquamosal ; sq, squamosal. Vacuities shaded with vertical lines, cartilage bones dotted. Labyrinthodont Batrachia and the lowest or Monotreme Mammalia. They flourished at the period when the former are known to have reached their culmination, and when the latter almost certainly began to appear. Many of them would, indeed, be regarded as primitive Mammalia, if they did not retain a pineal foramen, a free quadrate bone, and a complex mandible. The term Theromorpha or Theromora is thus sometimes applied to the order they represent. So far as known, they are all land-reptiles, with limbs adapted for habitual support of the body, and their feet are essentially identical with those of primitive mammals. Most of them are small, and none attain a gigantic size. They first appear in the Permian of Europe and North America, and also occur in the Triassic both of Europe dontia exhibit the marginal teeth differentiated (in shape) into incisors, canines and molars (fig. 3). They have two occipital condyles, as in mammals. They seem to have been all carni- vorous, or at least insectivorous, but the malariform teeth vary much in shape in the different genera. Cynognathus (fig. 3) and Lycosaurus have cutting teeth, while Tritylodon and Gompho- gnathus possess powerful grinders. The Dicynodontia have one pair of upper tusks or are toothless: their occipital condyle is trefoil-shaped, as in Chelonia. Dicynodon itself occurs in the Karoo formation of S. Africa, while other genera are represented in India, N. Russia and Scotland. Order 2. Chelonia. — This order occurs first in the Upper Triassic of Wurttemberg, where a complete " shell" has been 144 REPTILES [GENERAL CHARACTERS found (Proganocftelys) . Its members are proved to have been toothless since the Jurassic period, and have only changed very From A. S. Woodward, Outlines of Vertebrate Palaeontology. Fig. 3. — Skull of an Anoraodont (Theriodont) Reptile (Cynognathus craieronotus), about -/s natural size. — Karoo formation (Permian or Triassic), South Africa. d, dentary; j, jugal; l.t.f, incipient lateral temporal vacuity; la, lachrymal; mx, maxilla; na, nasal; orb, orbit; pa, parietal; pmx, premaxilla; prf, prefrontal; pto., postorbital; ptf, post- frontal ; s.t, supratemporal (prosquamosal) ; sq, squamosal. slightly since their first appearance. The marine turtles seem to have first acquired elongated paddles and vacuities in the shell during the Cretaceous period, and the Trionychia, destitute of epidermal shields, apparently arose at the same time. Order 3. Sauropterygia. — These are amphibious or aquatic reptiles (fig. 4). The head is comparatively small in most Fig. %.^—Plesiosaurus rostratus: restoration of skeleton by W. G. Ridewood. — Lower Lias, Dorsetshire. genera, and the neck is usually elongated though not flexible. The tail is insignificant, generally short, and both pairs of paddles seem to have been concerned in progression. The order appears to have arisen from a group of land-reptiles, for its earliest members, from the Triassic of Europe (Lariosaurus) and from the Permo-Carboniferous of S. Africa (Mesosaurus) and Brazil (Stereosternum) , are all amphibious animals. They are comparatively small, and their limbs are only just becoming paddle-like. The skull suggests affinities with the terrestrial effective paddles with elongated digits, and as the genera an> traced upwards in the geological formations it is possible to observe how the arches supporting the limbs become more rigid until the maximum of strength is reached. A few genera, such as Pliosaurus from the Jurassic and Polyptychodon from thfl Cretaceous of Europe, are distinguished by their relatively large head and stout neck. Some of the largest Upper Jurassic and Cretaceous species must have been 10 metres in length. They were cosmopolitan in their distribution, but became extinct before the dawn of the Tertiary period. Order 4. Ichthyopterygia. — The Ichthyosaurians are all fish-shaped, with a relatively large head and very short neck. Both pairs of paddles are retained, but the hinder pair is usually very small, and locomotion seems to have been chiefly effected by a large caudal fin. This fin, as shown in impression by certain fossils from Wurttemberg and Bavaria, is a vertical, triangular, dermal expansion, without any skeletal support except the hindermost part of the attenuated vertebral column, which extends along the border of its lower lobe (fig. 5). Another triangular fin, without skeletal support, is known to occur on the back, at least in one species (fig. 5). Some of the genera are proved to have been viviparous. Like the Sauropterygia, the Ichthyopterygia appear to have originated from terrestrial ancestors, for their earliest Triassic representatives (Mixosaurus) have the teeth less uniform and the limbs slightly less paddle-, shaped than the latter genera. In this connexion it is noteworthy that their hollow conical teeth exhibit curious infoldings of the wall, like those observed in many Labyrintho.donts, while their short, biconcave vertebrae almost exactly resemble those of the Labyrinthodont Mastodonsaurus and its allies. As the Ichthyosaurs are traced up- wards in geological time, some genera become almost, or quite, toothless, while the paddles grow wider, and are rendered more flexible by the persistence of cartilage round their constituent bones (Ophthalmosaurus). They were cosmopolitan in distribution, but dis- appeared from all seas at the close of the Cretaceous period. The largest forms, with a skull 2 metres in length, occur in the Lower Lias. Order 5. Rhynchocephalia. — These are small lizard-shaped reptiles, which have scarcely changed since the Triassic period. Though now represented only by Sphenodon or Hatteria, which survives in certain islands off New Zealand, in the Mesozoic epoch they ranged at least over Europe, Asia, and North America. They comprise the earliest known reptile, Palaeohatteria, from the Lower Permian of Saxony, which differs from the Triassic and later genera in having an imperfectly ossified pubis and ischium, more numerous abdominal ribs, and the fifth metatarsal Fig. 5. — Ichthyosaurus quadriscissus : outline of specimen showing dorsal and caudal fins, about one-sixth natural size. — Upper Lias, Wurttemberg. (After E. Fraas.) The irregularities behind the triangular dorsal fin are torn pieces of skin. Anomodontia, and the shape of the scapula seems to show some connexion with the Chelonia. The truly aquatic Sauropter- ygians of the Jurassic (fig. 4) and Cretaceous periods possess most bone normal. They are also represented in the Permian, chiefly of North America, by the so-called Pelycosauria, which have sharp teeth in sockets, and are remarkable for the extreme GENERAL CHARACTERS] REPTILES H5 elongation of the spines of their cervical and dorsal vertebrae (Dimetrodon, fig. 6). They seem to include various Triassic From Prof. E. C- Case's Revision of the Pelycosauria of North America, by permission of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Fig. 6.- -Dimetrodon incisivus : restoration of skeleton by E. C. Case, about one-eighteenth natural size. nearly similar, and is represented by at least one complete skele- ton in the Yale University Museum. There are also members of the same group with a heavy armour of bony plates and spines, sometimes termed Stegosauria. Stegosaurus itself occurs in the Upper Jurassic of Colorado, and Omosaurus, from the Kimmeridge and Oxford clays of England, is a nearly similar reptile. Polacanthus, from the Wealden of the Isle of Wight, has the hip-region armoured with a continuous bony shield. Triceratops (fig. 8) and its allies, from the Upper Cretaceous (Laramie) of western N. America, are the latest members of the group, with a bony frill over the neck, a pair of bony horn- cores above the eyes, and a median bony horn-core on the nose. The skull with the bony frill sometimes measures nearly two metres in length. Another suborder of herbivorous Dino- saurs, that of Sauropoda, comprises the largest known land animals of any age, some measuring from 17 to 25 metres in total length. They have a small head, long neck, and long tail, and must have been quadrupedal in gait. Their teeth are adapted for feeding on succulent water weeds, perhaps with an admixture of small animals living among these; and their vertebrae are of very light construction, while the ribs are raised high on the neural arches to increase the size of the body cavity, perhaps for unusually large lungs or air sacs. Their massive limbs have five toes, of which the three inner alone bear outwardly curved claws. Diplodocus and Brontosaurus, from the Jurassic of Wyoming and Colorado, U.S.A., are the best-known genera. Atlantosaurus, from the same formation, is usually noteworthy for size. Cetiosaurus, from the Jurassic of England, is also known by large parts of the skeleton in the British Museum and the Oxford Museum, indicating species nearly 20 metres in length. genera (e.g. Aetosaurus, Belodon), which may perhaps belong to the ancestral stock of the Dinosauria and CrOcodilia. Other Triassic genera (Hyperodapedon, Rhynckasaurus) scarcely differ from Sphenodon, except in the denti- tion and in the absence of the pineal foramen in the ;kull. In the late Cretaceous and early Eocene periods one genus {Champsosaurus) was truly aquatic, with gavial-shaped head. Order 6. Dinosauria. — The dinosaurs are land reptiles which flourished on all the continents during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, in the interval between the decline of the Anomodontia and the dominance of the Mammalia. They first appeared as carnivorous reptiles in the Triassic period in Europe, India, S. Africa, and N. America, but after- wards comprised numerous massive herbivores in nearly all parts of the world except the Australian and New Zealand regions. The skeleton in the carnivorous dinosaurs, or Theropoda, is of very light construction, the vertebrae and limb bones being hollow, with thin, dense walls and often perfectly fitting joints. The fore limbs are small, and the hind limbs are adapted for running, jumping or hopping on the toes. The sabre-shaped cutting teeth are fixed in sockets, and all the claws are sharp. Anchisaurus and Hallopus, from the Trias of N. America, and Scleromochlus from the Elgin sandstones of Scotland, are comparatively small animals. Ceratosaurus and Megalosaurus, from the Jurassic of North America and western Europe re- spectively, must have attained a length of from 5 to 6 metres. Tyrannosaurus, from the Cretaceous of Montana, U.S.A., has a skull more than a metre in length. The herbivorous Dinosaurs of the suborder Ornithopoda resemble the Theropoda in general shape, but are heavier in build, with a pelvis con- structed more nearly on the plan of that of a run- ning bird. It has, indeed, been suggested that certain arboreal Dinosaurs of bipedal gait may have been the ancestors of the class Aves. The best- F IG - 8.— Triceratops prorsus: restoration of skeleton by O. C. Marsh, known Ornithopod is Iguanodon (fig. 7), from the about one-eightieth natural size.— Cretaceous, Wyoming. Wealden of W. Europe, with species from 5 to 10 metres in 1 Order 7. Crocodilia. — Typical crocodiles can be traced length. Claosaurus, from the Cretaceous of N. America, is I downwards to the Lower Lias at the base of the Jurassic Fig. 7. — Iguanodon bernissartensis; restoration of skeleton by O. C. Marsh, about one-eightieth natural size.— -Wealden, Bernissart, Belgium. 146 REPTILES [GENERAL CHARACTERS formations, but all the Jurassic and some of the Cretaceous genera have the secondary bony plate less extended backwards than that in the Tertiary and existing genera, while their vertebrae have flattened or concave ends, instead of exhibiting a ball- and-socket articulation. Some of the Upper Jurassic crocodiles (Metriorhynchus) were more truly aquatic than any now living, with the fore limbs degenerate, the hind limbs much enlarged for swimming, and the dermal armour lacking. The end of the vertebral column is bent downwards, as in Ichthyosaurus, so they doubtless possessed a similar triangular tail-fin. Typical crocodiles and alligators date back to the close of the Cretaceous period, and they did not become extinct in Europe until the beginning of the Miocene period. Remains of an extinct alligator (Diplocynodon) are common in the Upper Eocene sands of the Hordwell cliffs, Hampshire. Order 8. Oenithosauria. — The flying reptiles or Ptero- dactyls (fig. 9) are completely evolved at their earliest known Fig. 9. — Pterodactylus spectabilis, natural size, from the Litho- graphic Stone, h, humerus; ru, radius and ulna; mc, metacarpals; pt, pteroid bone; 2, 3, 4, digits with claws; 5, elongated digit for support of wing-membrane; st, sternum, crest not shown; is, ischium; pp, prepubis. The teeth are not shown. (After H. von Meyer.) appearance in the Lower Lias (Dimorphodon), and exhibit little essential change as they are traced upwards through the Mesozoic formations. The latest Cretaceous genera, however, comprise the largest species, which have been found in Europe, N. America and Brazil. Some of these (Pleranodon) are tooth- less, and their wings are so large that for adequate support the pectoral arch is fixed to the vertebrae like a pelvis. The wings occasionally have a span of from 5 to 6 metres. The wing- membranes are only known in the European Jurassic genus, Rhamphorhynchus (fig. 10), found well preserved in the fine- grained lithographic stone of Bavaria. In this genus there is also a rhomboidal flap of membrane at the end of the tail. Order 9. Squamata. — The ancestors of the lizards and snakes can only be traced back definitely to the latter part of the Cretaceous period. They were then represented by two suborders of aquatic reptiles, the Dolichosauria and Pythono- morpha(or Mosasauria), which are in many respects intermediate between the existing Lacertilia and Ophidia. The Dolichosauria, from the Upper Cretaceous of Europe, are small and snake-like in shape, but with completely formed limbs. The Pythono- morpha are known from Europe, N. and S. America and New Zealand, and sometimes attained a very large size, the typical Mosasaurus camperi from Maastricht being about 15 metres in length. Their limbs are powerful paddles. Their trunk and Fig. 10. — Rhamphorhynchus phyllurus, from the Solenhofen Lithographic Stone, about f natural size, with the greater part of the wing-membranes preserved, x, caudal membrane; st, sternum; h, humerus; sc, scapula and coracoid; wm, wing- membrane. (After O. C. Marsh.) tail are often much elongated, so that their shape is snake-like, as shown by Clidastes (fig. n), from the Chalk of Kansas, U.S.A. The Lacertilia and Ophidia, so far as known, are exclusively Tertiary and Recent reptiles. Marine snakes (Palaeophis) occur in the Eocene of the London and Hampshire basins. Authorities. — General Works on Extinct Reptiles. — K. A. v. Zittel, Handbuch der Palaeontologie, vol. iii. (Munich, 1887-1889). • — H. A. Nicholson and R. Lydekker, Manual of Palaeontology, vol. ii. (Edinburgh, 1889). — R. Lydekker, Catalogue of the Fossil Reptilia and Amphibia in the British Museum, vols, i.-iv. (London, 1888-90). — A. S. Woodward, Outlines of Vertebrate Palaeontology (Cambridge, 1898). — K. A. v. Zittel, Text-book of Palaeontology, ed. C. R. Eastman, vol. ii. (London, 1902). Anomodontia: R. Owen. Catalogue of the Fossil Reptilia of South Africa in the Collection of the British Museum (London, 1876). — E. D. Cope, " The Reptilian Order Cotylosauria," Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. vol. xxxiv. (1896), p. 436, and vol. xxxv. (1896), p. 122. — E. T. Newton, " Some New Reptiles from the Elgin Sandstones," Phil. Trans., vol. 184B (1893), p. 431. — Various papers by R. Owen in Quart. Joum. Geol. Soc, 1876- 1884. by H. G. Seeley in Phil. Trans. (1889-1895), and by R. Broom in Proc. Zool. Soc, Ann. S. African Museum and Trans. S. African Phil. Soc (from 1900 onwards). Chelonia: G. Baur, " Bemerkungen iiber die Phylogenie der Schildkroten," Anat. Anzeiger, vol. xu. (1896), p. 561.— Technical papers by F. A. Quenstedt in Wurtt. Jahresh. vol xlv. (1889), p. 120 (Proganochelys).—G. R. Wieland in Amer. Joum. Sci. ser. 4, vol. ii. (1896), p. 399 (gigantic Cretaceous leathery turtle), and E. C. Case, Joum. Morphol. vol. xiv. (1897), ANATOMY) REPTILES 147 p. 21 (ditto). Sauropterygia: G. A. Boulenger, "On a Notho saurian Reptile from the Trias of Lombardy, apparently referable to Lariosaurus," Trans. Zaol. Soc. vol. xiv. (1896), p. 1. — H. G. Seeley, " The Nature of the Shoulder Girdle and Clavicular Arch in Sauropterygia," Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. li. (1892), p. 119, •-°?^%C3 &*> Fig. 11. — Skeleton of Clidastes. (After Cope.) and vol. liv. (1893), p. 160. Ichthyopterygia: [E. Fraas, Die Ichthyosaurier der suddeutschen Trias- und Jura-Ablagerungen (Tubingen, 1891). — J. C. Merriam, " Triassic Ichthyosauria," Mem. Univ. California, vol. j. No. I (1908). — Also technical papers by E. Fraas on fins in Wiirtt. Jahresh. (1894), p. 493, and Fbldtani Kozlony, vol. xxviii. (Budapest, 1898), p. T69. Rhynchocephalia: G. A. Boulenger, " On British Remains of Homoeosaurus, with Remarks on the Classification of the Rhynchocephalia," Proc. Zool. Soc. (1891), p. 167. — J. H. McGregor, The Phytosauria," Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. vol. ix. pt. ii. (1906) — E. C. Case, Revision of the Pelycosauria of North America (Carnegie Institution, Washing- ton, 1907). — Technical papers by H. Credner in Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges. vol. xl. (1888), p. 488 (Palaeohatteria), T. H. Huxley in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xliii. (1887), p. 675 (Hyperodapeaon), and L. Dollo in Bull. Soc. Belg. Geol. vol. v. (1891), Mem. p. 151 {Champsosaurus). Dinosauria: 0. C. Marsh, " The Dinosaurs of North America," Sixteenth Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey (1896). — Technical papers by L. Dollo in Bull. mus. roy. d'hist. not. Belg. vols, i.-iii. (1882-84) (Iguanodon), O. C. Marsh in Amer. Journ. Set. ser. 3, vol. 1. (1895), pi. viii. (restorations), J. B. Hatcher in Mem. Carnegie Museum, vol. i. No. 1 (1901), and W. J. Holland in Mem. Carnegie Museum, vol. ii. No. 6 (1906). Crocodilia: T. H. Huxley, " On Stagonolepis robertsoni, and on the Evolution of the Croco- dilia," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxi. (1875), p. 423.-~E. Koken, " Thoracosaurus macrorhynchus, Bl., aus der Tuffkreide von Maas- tricht," Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges. (1888), p. 754. — E. Fraas, " Thattosuchia," Palaeontogr. vol. xlix. (1902), p. 1. — L. Dollo, " Premiere note sur les crocodiliens de Bernissart," Bull. mus. roy. d'hist. nat. Belg. vol. ii. (1883), p. 309. — G. A. Boulenger, Catalogue of the Chelonians, Rhynchocephalians and Crocodiles in the British Museum (London, 1889). Ornithosauria: K. A. von Zittel, " Ueber Flugsaurier aus dera lithographischen Schiefer," Palaeontogr. vol. xxix. (1882), p. 49. — E. T. Newton, " On the Skull, Brain and Auditory Organ of a New Species of Pterosaurian," Phil. Trans, vol. 179B (1888), p. 503 — H. G. Seeley, Dragons of the Air (London, 1901). — Technical papers by O. C. Marsh in Amer. Journ. Sci. ser. 3, vol. xxiii. (1882), p. 251 (wing-membranes), S. W. Williston in Kansas Univ. Quarterly, vol. vi. (1897), p. 35 (restora- tion of Pteranodon), and G. F. Eaton in Amer. Journ. Set. ser. 4, vols, xvi., xvii. (1903-4). Squamata: R. Owen, " On the Rank and Affinities of the Reptilian Class of the Mosasauridae, Gervais," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxiii. (1877), p. 682, and vol. xxxiv. (1878), p. 748. — G. A. Boulenger, Catalogue of the Lizards in the British Museum, vols, i.-iii. (London, 1885-87); Catalogue of the Snakes in the British Museum, vols, i., ii. (London, 1893-94). — Technical papers by A. Komhuber in Abh. k. k. geol. Reichsanst. Wien. vol. v. (1873), No. 4, and vol. xvii. (1893), No. 3 (Dolicho- sauria), F. Noposa in Beilr. Palaont. Oesterr.- Ungarns, vol. xxi.(i908), and S. W. Williston in Kansas Univ. Quarterly, vols, i., ii., vi. (1892-1897) (Mosasaurid). (A. S. Wo.) III. Anatomy or Reptiles The Skull. Sphenodon has the most primitive and still most complex skull, the salient features of which it is easy to derive from Stegocephalian and early, generalized reptilian conditions; whilst in other directions, mostly by reduction, the skull of this "living fossil" affords the key to that of all the other groups of at least recent reptiles. The main features are the following. There are, in the temporal region, three complete bony arches, the supra-, infra-, and post-temporal, which subdivide the whole temporal fossa into four foramina. The supratemporal bridge is formed by the squamosal and post-orbital, the latter (j in fig. 1 2) being continued forwards and fused with the post-frontal. These three bones, with the parietal, enclose the supra- temporal foramen. The postorbital joins an ascending branch of the jugal, both together form- ing the hinder border of the orbit, and this is bordered below chiefly by the maxillary. The pos- teriortemporal bridge is formed by the parietal and squamosal, extends laterally over the quadrate and encloses a wide space between itself and the buttress-like transverse expansion of the lateral occipital- fJ7t s After Guother. FlG. 12. — Skull of Sphenodon. 1, Ventral aspect; 2, lateral aspect; 3, lateral aspect of mandible, or. articular; 60, basioccipital ; bs, basisphenoid ; c, coronoid; ca, columella auris; d, dentary; j, postorbital; m, maxilla; n, nasal; pa, parietal; pi, palatine; pm, premaxilla; pr, prefrontal; ps, pastlrontai; pt, pterygoid; g, quadrate in the upper figure, quadrato-jugal in the middle figure; qj, jugal; s, squamosal; sp, splenial; v, vomer. bone (these " parotic processes " are made up of the lat. occipital, parotic and opisthotic bones); this is the post- temporal foramen. The space enclosed between this occipital buttress, the quadrate and the pterygoidal support of the latter represents the wide and large cavity of the middle ear, 14-8 REPTILES [ANATOMY and as such is crossed by the auditory columellar chain. The infra-temporal bridge or jugal arch is formed by the jugal (qj in fig. 12), which joins the descending process of the squamosal, and the quadrato-jugal, which is very small and partly fused with the lateral side of the quadrate. Now, between the quadrate on the one side and the squamoso+quadrato-jugal+jugal on the other, is enclosed a gap, met with only in Sphenodon of recent reptiles. This fourth, or quadrato-squamosal foramen, with its squamoso-quadrato-jugal bridge, is, as a rule, not mentioned, being too small to be obvious. The quadrate is very firmly fixed. On the ventral side of the cranium we notice the broad and long bony palate, the large vomers, and the pterygoids meeting in the middle line; aside of the vomers are the long posterior nares; posteriorly the pterygoids diverge to rest upon short basi-sphenoid processes, and they articulate by short flanges with the quadrates. The occipital condyle is kidney-shaped, triple, composed of the basi and the lateral occipitals. The dorsal median roof of the cranium is formed by the paired parietals, near their anterior symphysis with the large pineal foramen, the paired frontals, nasals and premaxillaries. The outer nares are surrounded by the premaxillaries, maxillaries and nasals. Prefrontals and postfrontals exist. There is a complete cartilaginous, inter- orbital septum, and a cranial columella, a pair of upright buttresses arising in the alisphenoidal walls, connecting the parietals with the pterygoids. . The hyoid apparatus consists of a narrow base, with three pairs of arches; of these the first or hyoid arch is variously connected with the cranium near the paroccipital process, or with the extracolumella (see Middle Ear, below) ; the others are a long and stout pair of first and a smaller pair of second branchial arches. Crocodiles. — The temporal region is still bridged over by three arches, dividing the whole fossa into three, very much as in Sphenodon. The supratemporal foramen is bordered by the parietal, postfrontal (postorbital absent) and squamosal. The posttemporal foramen is very much reduced, sometimes to a narrow passage between the parietal, occipitals and squamosal, because the latter bone forms an extensive suture with the paroccipital process. The infratemporal or lateral fossa is wide and rather shallow, bordered above by the postfrontal and squamosal, in front by the postfrontal and jugal, below by the jugal and quadrato-jugal, behind by the latter, the quadrate, tip of the paroccipital and the squamosal. The quadrato-jugal being long and in an almost horizontal position, being wedged in between the jugal and nearly the whole length of the lateral edge of the quadrate, and there being no squamoso-quadrato- jugal bridge, the fourth foramen of Sphenodon is absent. The middle-ear cavity is reduced to a complicated system of narrow passages; one for the passage of the extra-columellar-mandi- bular string of the auditory chain (see Ear, below) , between the quadrate, paroccipital and lateral occipital bones; another passage {Eustachian) opens in the roof of the mouth, between basioccipital and basisphenoid; a third joins that of the other side and forms with it a median opening between the same bones, just behind the posterior pterygoid border of the choanae. These nares, being in the recent crocodiles shifted as far back as possible, communicate with the outer nostrils by very long passages, formed by the whole length of the pterygoids, palatines, maxillaries, vomers and pre-maxillaries, all of which form a long median suture. But this long bony palatal roof is interrupted by a pair of large palatal foramina, bordered usually by palatine, pterygoid, ectopterygoid, or transverse bone and maxillary. On the dorsal side of the cranium we notice the parietals fused into an unpaired bone, without a pineal hole and the likewise unpaired frontal. There are a pair of postfrontals, prefrontals and lacrymals perforated by the naso-lacrymal duct. The nasals vary much in length, mostly in conformity with that of the maxillaries; as a rule they reach the short premaxillaries, but not always the nasal groove. (For taxonomic detail see under Crocodile.) The occipital condyle is formed mainly by the basioccipital, which always borders part of the foramen magnum, but the lateral occipitals each send a flange to it, which in immature specimens still partakes of the articulation with the atlas. The opisthotic and eDiotic bones fuse early with the lateral and with supraoccipital bones; only the prootic remains longer as a separate element, anteriorly with a large hole for the exit of the third branch of the trigeminal nerve. The basisphenoid is scarcely visible, being overlaid by the pterygoids. The pre- sphenoid is larger, continued forwards and upwards into the inter-orbital septum, which remains mostly cartilaginous. Near the anterior and upper margin of the pre-sphenoid is a large notch on either side for the passage of the optic nerve, the three eye- muscle nerves and the first branch of the trigeminal. The place of the orbitosphenoids is taken by membrane or cartilaginous continuations of the interorbital septum, but the alisphenoids are large and abut upwards against the frontals and with a lateral flange against the postfrontals. These send down a conspicuous process which forms sutures with an upward process of the jugal and another of the ectopterygoid; it is this compound pillar which partly divides the orbit from the infratemporal or lateral fossa. The size of these and the upper temporal fossae stand in an inverse ratio to each other. The upper fossae are still comparatively large in the long-snouted Gavialis and Tomis- toma, whilst these holes almost completely disappear in the alligators, namely, in the broad- and short-snouted members of the order, which chew their prey. In extinct Crocodilians the upper fossae were the larger. The temporo-mandibular muscle which lifts or shuts the lower jaw arises from the walls of the upper fossa, passes beneath the jugal-arch and is inserted upon the supra-angular portion of the lower jaw. In the more recent crocodiles this muscle is more and more superseded by the pterygo-mandibular muscle, which, arising chiefly from the dorsal surface of the much-broadened pterygoid, fills the widened space between the latter and the quadrate, and is inserted into the outer surface of the angular bone. The arrangement of this muscle secures a more advantageous leverage of the jaw, and is capable of more powerful development than the other, which is con- sequently on the wane — a nice illustration of onward, ortho- genetic evolution. The dentary bones of the under jaw form a suture, later a symphysis; this is very long in the long-snouted genera, in which the splenials likewise form a long symphysis; in the others the mandibular symphysis is much shorter and the splenials remain widely separated. The articular bone is short, forms a transverse cup for the quadrate, or a saddle-shaped cup, and is perforated by the Siphonium (see below under Ear). The angle is upturned, formed by the articular, angular and, laterally, by the supra-angular bone; the opercular or counter- part of the splenial lies on the outer side, forming part of the anterior border of the oval foramen in the jaw. The Chelonian skull agrees in many important features with that of Sphenodon and of the crocodiles, but it is composed of fewer bones, the ectopterygoids, lacrymals and postorbitals being absent, often also the nasals, unless they are fused with the prefrontals. The vomer is unpaired and forms a septum between the nasal passages, which, except in Sphargis, are ventrally roofed over to a variable extent by wings sent out by the palatines, joining the sides of the vomer. Most of the con- figurations of the other cranial bones are well represented in the accompanying figures. The palatines form a continuous broad floor with the pterygoids, which are extensively and firmly joined to the quadrates and to the basisphenoid. There are no Eustachian tubes. The occipital condyle is distinctly triple and the basioccipital is frequently excluded from the foramen magnum. The lateral occipitals early send out a pair of stout wings, the ventral of which joins a stout ventrilateral process of the basioccipital, both forming a thick knob especially in Chelone, and a dorsolateral wing, which broadly joins the large opisthotic bone. This connects the lateral occipital and the supraoccipital with the upper portion of the quadrate. On the top of the quadrate and upon the lateral dorsal portion of this compound transverse process (which of course corresponds to the paroccipital process of crocodiles, &c.) lies the squamosal, about which more presently. The two wings of the lateral ANATOMY] REPTILES 149 occipital, part of the opisthotic, the quadrate, and part of the pterygoids, form the bony borders of the middle ear-cavity, pm Fig. 13. — Dorsal aspect of skull of Testudo tabulata (from nature), an, anterior nares; /, frontal, on either side of which are the orbits, bounded behind by ps, the postfrontal; bo, basioccipital; ep, epiotic; so, supra- occipital ; q, quadrate ; s, squamosal ; pa, parietal ; po, periotic bones. FlG. 14. — Ventral surface of skull of Tes- tudo tabulata (from nature), bo, basi- occipital ; bs, basisphenoid ; cp, epiotic ; m, maxilla; pi, palatine; pm, pre- maxilla; pt, pterygoid; q, quadrate; q j, quadrato-jugal ; so, supraoccipital. .vhich is open behind; through it extends horizontally the columellar rod, received with its outer portion by a notch on the posterior side of the quadrate. This is of very complicated shape. Its outer margins form most of the tympanic frame; the posterior margins being curved backwards leave a wide notch behind in the Cryptodira and in Sphargis, but in the Pleurodira this part of the quadrate is transformed into a trumpet, the rim of which, forming a complete ring, carries the tympanic mem- brane. The tympanic cavity thus formed often leads into a deep recess which extends into the hollowed-out squamosal (e.g. in Testudo) towards the opisthotic and bears some resem- blance to the intricate tympanic recesses which pervade that region of the crocodile's skull. With its upper anterior and Fig. 15. — Side view of skull of Testudo tabulata (from nature). an, angular; ar, articular; d, dentary; _f, frontal; j, jugal; m, mandible; n, naso-pref rontal ; pa, parietal; pi, palatine; ps, postfrontal; q, quadrate; qj, quadrato-jugal. inner portion the quadrate joins the large prootic bone which is usually completely fused with the rest of the opisthotic, but in Sphargis it remains separate, and in this turtle the sutures between the otic bones and the supraoccipital also persist. In front of the prootics the bony lateral walls of the brain-case end in Sphargis, but in most of the other Chelonians bony ali- sphenoids are represented by a pair of epipterygoids which rest upon short upward processes of the pterygoids and are joined by much longer, rather thin, but broad descending lamellae from the parietals. They represent of course the columellae cranii or pterygoidal columellae; if they are of alisphenoidal origin the term epipterygoids is a misnomer; the same applies to th«se structures in other reptiles. Through the space enclosed by the pterygoid, basioccipital, opisthotic and quadrate, enters the cranial carotid artery, sometimes piercing the posterior rim of the pterygoid; then the canal runs along the dorsal side of this bone and opens near the cranial columella. The arcades over the temporal region are most vari- able. Potentially Chelonians possess all the three arcades of the crocodiles, but it so happens that never more than one fenestra is present. The false roof over the temporal region is most complete in Sphargis and in the Chclonidae. Excepting Sphargis the supraoccipital extends far beyond the back of the cranium in shape of a long unpaired crest, which never diverges, or sends out lateral processes, but it is joined, and partly overlaid for a great part of its length, by the parietals in Chelonidae and Sphargis. In these genera the much-enlarged parietal, the equally large postfrontal, with the squamosal behind, the jugal below, and a large quadrato-jugal, form one continuous bony roof over the whole temporal fossa, which is widely open behind, the space being bordered by supraoccipital, opisthotic, squamosal and parietal. All other Chelonians show a great reduction of this roof. The parietal does not send out dorsolateral expan- sions; and the postfrontal likewise forms no ex- pansions. It joins the rather short malar, forming the posteriororbital bridge, which posteriorly is connected by the quadrato-jugal with the upper portion of the quadrate and with the squamosal. The latter rests upon the quadrate and is in no connexion with the parietal. Consequently the whole temporal fossa is quite open. The hori- zontal bridge or arcade is to a certain extent homologous with the infra-temporal arcade. All the bones which border the temporal fossa vary much in extent. The greatest reduction has taken place in Cistudo and in Geoemyda, the latter an Indian genus of Testudinidae, in which the quadrato-jugal is lost, leaving a wide gap in the horizontal arcade. — The Chelonians form an instruc- tive parallel to mammalian conditions by the broad contact of the squamosal with the malar, e.g. in Chelone, whilst the quad- jom Fig. 16. — Dorsal Aspect of Skull of Chelys matamata. bo, basi- occipital; eo, exoccipital; /, frontal; j, jugal; m, maxilla; pm, premaxilla; pa, parietal; pr, prefrontal; ps, pdstf rontal; pt, pterygoid; q, quadrate; s, squamosal; so, supraoccipital. rato-jugal, having in all Chelonians lost its original ventral connexion with the jugal, may actually get lost as in all the IS© REPTILES [ANATOMY Lacertilia. The zygomatic arch of the Mammalia is formed (cf. also Agamidae) out of the supratemporal arch of Sphenodon, pm Fig. 17. — Ventral Aspect of Skull of Chelys matamata. bo, basi- occipital; bs, basisphenoid ; mdl, mandible; oh, opisthotic; pi, palatine; pm, premaxilla; po, prootic; pb, pterygoid; q, quadrate; 5, squamosal; v, vomer. Fig. 18. — Lateral Aspect of Skull of Chelys matamata. an, an- gular; ar, articular; bo, basioccipital ; d, dentary; op, opisthotic; m, maxilla; pa, parietal; pm, premaxilla; pr, prefrontal; ps, postfrontal; pt, pterygoid; q, quadrate; 5, squamosal; sg, supra-angular. after the loss of the postorbital element and of the quadrato- jugal, the squamosal gaining connexion with the upper, not posterior and ventral, branch of the jugal or malar bone. The mandibular halves form a complete osseous symphysis, the only instance in reptiles; all the other elements retain their sutures. The articular portion of the articular bone forms several shallow cups and a slight anterior knob, best developed in Chelone. The angular bone does not help to form the posterior upper angle. The coronoid, or complementary element, is often small; the supra-angular and the splenial or opercular are always present, mostly also a pre-splenial wanting in Testudinidae (cf. G. Baur). The hyoid apparatus is well developed, and sometimes assumes large dimensions, especially in Chelys. The two pairs of " horns " are the first and second branchial arches, whilst the hyoid arches are reduced to a pair of small, frequently only cartilaginous nodules, attached near the anterior corners of the basis linguae, which generally fuses with the os entoglossum in the tip of the tongue. In Chelydidae the long median basal or copular piece forms a semi-canal for the reception of the trachea. In the skull of the Lacertilia the arcades over the temporal region vary much in composition and numbers. There are at most two arcades and two windows. First the posttemporal arcade, enclosing the posttemporal fenestra, which is framed mainly by the large paroccipital process below and the long parietal process above, both meeting distally, and the quadrate is carried by the paroccipital process. In the corner, in front, where the three bones meet, lies the squamosal, connecting parietal and quadrate. This squamosal, when not too much reduced, has an upper parietal and an anterior horizontal arm ; the latter is essential for the formation of the second horizontal arcade, which makes the lower border of the supra-temporal window. The infra-temporal arcade, namely a quadrato-jugal -f-jugal arch, is absent in all Lacertilians owing to the complete absence of the quadrato-jugal element. In Heloderma and Geckos the posttemporal is the only arcade. In the Amphisbaenids and in Aniella, practically also in Anelytropsis, all the arcades are lost. All the other families Fig. 19. — Skull of Chlamydosaurus kingii (old male), showing much differentiated teeth. 1, ventral aspect; 2, posterior; 3, profile, showing the enormous process at the hinder end of the lower jaw. of lizards and the chameleons have two arcades. We begin the description of the horizontal arcade with those families in which it is most complete, and most like that of Sphenodon. In Varanus it is formed by four bones. The postfrontal is short; to it is attached the postorbital, which sends a long horizontal process to join the squamosal 1 splint, and this connects with the 1 There is a much-debated question of the homologies of the one or two elements, both apparently membrane bones, which connect the upper end of the quadrate with the parietal and with the supra- temporal arch. The question becomes acute in the snakes, whether the single element connecting skull and quadrate has to be called squamosal or supratemporal. Space forbids here to expound the matter, which has been very ably reviewed by S. W. Williston (" Temporal Arches in the Reptiha," Biolog. Bulletin, vii. No. 4, 1904, pp. 175-192; cf. also F. W. Thyng, Tufts College Studies, II. 2, 1906). About ten different names have been applied to these two elements, and two, namely, squamosal and supratemporal, are being used quite promiscuously. When only one element is present, the present writer uses the term squamosal, and there are reasons making it probable that this element is the squamosum of mammals. When both elements are present, the more ventral or lateral of the two is termed squamosal, that which always helps to form the ANATOMY] REPTILES 151 upper anterior end of the quadrate; between the quadrate, the squamosal and the long parietal process lies the likewise splint-like supratemporal, attached by most of its length to the parietal process. The jugal has only one arm, and this connects the maxilla with the postorbital, completing the posterior orbital border. There is a wide gap between jugal and quadrate. In Tejidae the arcade is the same, but the squamosal reaches the jugal, both meeting the postorbital. In Lacerta the arcade is essentially the same, but the window is completely filled up by the postfrontal, which extends so far back as to reach the supra- temporal. In the Agamidae the arcade is strong and simplified. Postfrontal and postorbital are represented by one forked piece. This squamosal and the post- frontal mass are connected by the upper, much up-curved end of the jugal, which is thrust between them. This arrangement is further emphasized in Iguana, the upper end of the jugal being much enlarged so as to form the greater portion of the arcade, and keeping the postfrontal mass and the ^f simple squamosal widely asunder. In Heloderma post- and prefrontals are in contact with each other, Fig. 20. — Dorsal aspect of separating the frontal bone from skullofff elodermahorridum. the orbit; the jugal joins only f, frontal ;j, jugal ;/,lachry- th prefronta l and there is no mal ; m, maxilla ; n, nasal fa, parietal, pm, premax ilia ; pr,pref rental ; ps, post- frontal; pt, pterygoid; q further arcade whatever. A vestige of a supratemporal (?) . . . _ _ lies on the outside of the base quadrate; s, squamosal; so, of the squamosal between 5 and supraoccipital. • n q m fig. 20. The chameleons are peculiar. The posttemporal arcade, spanning a wide space, is formed by a long process of the supra- temporal - squamosal, which is directed up- and backwards to join the parietal, which ex- tends back by a long unpaired process. The horizontal arch is broad and short, squamosal and postfrontal, form- ing a broad suture; below they are joined by the jugal; above the suture lies, in cham- eleon, a tiny piece, perhaps a vestige of the dislodged post- orbital. The jugal bones, to continue the descrip- tion ,of the appendi- cular parts of the skull, are firmly joined to lateral processes of the pterygoids by the ectopterygoids; further forwards they are extensively connected with the maxillaries. These rest against strong transverse palatine processes. The pal- atines form a medium symphysis; posteriorly they diverge together with the pterygoids, which articulate with the quad- supratemporal bridge, generally with the postorbital, sometimes also with the jugal. The more dorsal element is mentioned as supratemporal; it is always smaller, and mostly restricted to the corner between the squamosal and the parietal process against which it rests. Either of these two elements articulate with the quadrate. Both elements are present in Labyrinthodonts and in most of the extinct groups of reptiles; among recent forms in Lacertidae, Varanidae, Tejidae; one three-armed piece in Sphenodon, chameleons and crocodiles, without, in Sphenodon at least, any trace of a compound nature; one piece, forked, in Agamidae; one simple piece in most of the other. Lacertilia, and in snakes. *jf ay y Fig. 21. — Skull of Chamaeleon vulgaris. ag, angular; ar, articular; bs, basisphe- noid; d, dentary; j, jugal; m, maxilla; me, median ethmoid ; p l and p 2 , parie- tals; pl, palatine; pr, prefrontal; pt, pterygoid ; q, quadrate; sg, supra-angu- lar; so, supraoccipital; sq, squamosal. rates and with the basisphenoid by a pair of strong basiptery- goid processes. A slender vertical rod of bone, the columella cranii, arises from the dorsal surface of each pterygoid and, passing at a distance from the cranial capsule, is sutured to a short lateroventral process of the parietals Such a pair of columellas exists in nearly all Lacertilia (distinguished by many systematists as Kionocrania) with the exception of the chame- leons and the Amphisbaenidae. In many lizards, however, this columella, or epipterygoid, does not quite reach the parietal, leaning instead against the prootic; possibly it has been evolved out of the alisphenoid, and Chelonians seem to support this view. The premaxillary bone is single, except in the Skinks and in some Geckos; ventrally it touches the vomers which vary much in size; they are always paired although suturally connected; posteriorly they pass into, and fuse with, the palatines before these send off their maxillary processes. Be- tween the vomer and its maxillary is a longitudinal hole. Often, e.g. in Lacerta, the vomers enclose a median hole near their anterior end, for Jacobson's organ. Dorsally the premaxilla sends a median process backwards to the nasals. These are paired, and fuse together only in Uroplates and in Varanus. The external nasal fossae are sometimes very large, and their anterior half appears blocked by the ossified turbinals, e.g. in Varanus and Tejus. Prefrontals are always present, often fused with the lacrymals; in Heloderma, in Aniella and in chameleons the prefrontals extend so far back as to meet the postfrontals, excluding thereby the frontals from the orbital rim. The frontals are either paired, as in Varanus, Lacertidae, Heloderma, Anguidae, Scincidae, Anelytropsidae, Aniella, Amphis- baenidae, and in some Geckoninae; or they are fused into one bone, as in the Eublepharinae, chameleons, Tejidae, Iguanidae, Agamidae, Xenosaurus. The parietals are double in the Geckos, in Uroplates and Xantusia; in all the others they form one coossified mass, generally with a pineal foramen, except in Eublepharinae, Amphisbaenidae, Tejidae, in Aniella and other degraded forms. In the majority the pineal fora- men lies in the middle of the parietal, but in the Iguanidae it is near the frontal, and actually in the frontal in chameleons. As regards the brain-case, there is a cartilaginous inter- orbital septum, connected posteriorly with the slender, bony presphenoid; ventrally on to this is fused a vestige of the parasphenoid, a narrow and thin splint which sometimes can be dislodged. The whole of the anterior wall of the brain-case is membranous, excepting a pair of separate ossifications, which do but rarely touch any of the cranial bones, as frontal, parietal or prootics. The ossifications are irregular in shape, each sending out a downward process which curves inwards almost to meet its fellow; between these issue the olfactory lobes. W. K. Parker recognized them as the alisphenoids; E. D. Cope named them postoptics, and remarked that in Sphenodon they coexist with an orbitosphenoid bone. The prootic has a notch in its anterior lateral margin for the passage of the trigeminal nerve. The opisthotic portion of the petrosal mass is intimately fused with the lateral occipital bones and their paroccipital process, and sometimes, e.g. Tejus, encloses with them many intricate recesses of the middle ear-chamber, which extend also into hollow and swollen thick downward processes of the basioccipital. These cavities of both sides communicate with each other through the cancellous substance of the basioccipital and basisphenoid. There are no Eustachian tubes opening into the mouth through the base of the skull. The occipital condyle is tripartite, the lateral occipitals partaking of the articulation; very rarely, e.g. in Amphis- baenidae (see fig. 22), the basioccipital portion is so much reduced that the skull articulates by two very broad condyles. The halves of the under jaw are but loosely united, either by ligament only or by an at least very movable suture. The jaw is compound and the numerous constituent bones mostly retain their sutures. Besides the dentary and articular, angular and supra-angular on the lateral side, and the opercular or splenial on the inner side, there lies on the dorsal side the coronoid, six pairs in all. The posterior angle of the jaw 1 52 REPTItES [ANATOMY is always formed by the articular bone, not by the angular which lies on the ventral side, about the middle of the jaw; it is fused with the articular in Geckos, some Tejidae, Amphis- baenidae, and some other bur- rowing kinds. The splenial is absent in chameleons; near the vanish- ing point in some of the Agamidae. The coronoid is always present, for the insertion o f masse ter muscles. In the pleurodont lizards the outer wall of the dentary forms a ledge, against the inner side of which are fixed the teeth with cementum. The snakes' skull shows many peculiarities, and most of the bones of the cranial capsule fuse together without sutures. The occipital condyle is triple, the lateral occipitals and the basi- occipital taking equal share in its composition; the basioccipital is excluded from the foramen magnum; frequently one common epiphysial pad covers this tripartite condyle. The supra- occipital is likewise excluded from the margin of the foramen magnum by the lateral occipitals. The basisphenoid is prolonged forwards into a long presphenoidal rostrum, on the upper sur- face of which the trabeculae cranii, which persist as cartilages, extend forwards to blend with the median ethmoidal cartilage. There are no ali- and no orbitosphenoids, their places being taken by downward extensions of the frontal bones, which descend to this sphenoidal rostrum and then turn inwards to meet together on the floor of the cranial cavity. There is consequently no interorbital septum. The parietals also de- scend laterally, but unite with the basisphenoid by suture. On a " " - - - - Fig. 22. — Skull of Monopeltis sphenorhynchus. I, dorsal aspect; 2, ventral aspect; 3, lateral aspect ; 4, posterior aspect, ar articular ; bs, basisphenoid ; d, dentary ;/, frontal ; m, max- illa; n, nasal; oc, oc, occipital condyles; of, occipital foramen ; pal, palatine ; pa, parietal ; pm, premaxilla ; ptg, pterygoid; q, quadrate; so, supraoccipital ; sq, squamosal; v, vomer. FlG. 23. — Skull of Python sebae. ar, articular; ca, columella auris; d, dentary; /, frontal; m, maxilla; p, parietal; pm, pre- maxilla; po, prootic; pr, prefrontal; ps, postfrontal; pt, ptery- goid; q, quadrate; s, squamosal; t, transversum; tb, turbinal. the base of the skull we note various processes for the insertion of ventral cervicooccipital muscles, much used during the act of vigorous striking. Boidae have a long sphenoidal ridge and thick basipterygoid processes; others have one or more median knobs or crests, and the Viperidae have a very pro- minent and large ridge. The parietals fuse together into an unpaired mass whence arises mostly a strong median crest Fig. 24. — Skull of Vipera nasicornis. ar, articular; ca, columella auris; d, dent- ary;/, frontal; m, maxilla; pf, poison fang; pm, premaxilla; pr, prefrontal; ps, post- frontal ; pt, pterygoid ; q, quadrate ; s, squa- mosal ; t, transversum or ectopterygoid. which projects a little beyond the occiput; there is no parietal or pineal foramen. There are paired frontals, postfrontals, prefrontals and nasals; the latter are said to coossify in Charina only. The position of the prefrontals is vari- able. In the boas, for instance, they meet, separating the nasals from the frontals; they are in contact with the nasals in the boas, burrowing snakes and in Xenopeltis, but more or less widely separated from them, and often from each other, in the Colubridae and Viperidae. The premaxillary is single-, and only in Glauconiidae connected with the maxillaries; in the others it is but loosely connected with the ethmoidal end of the skull, for instance, with the turbinals, which are osseous and well developed in pythons. The whole appendicular apparatus is most loosely attached to the skull, at least in the typical snakes, and since they do not chew their prey but only hook it in, so to speak, during the act of swallowing, the whole apparatus is as movable as possible. The whole palatal apparatus shows many modifications, but the maxillaries, palatines and pterygoids always remain widely asunder, and from the mid-line. Some of the modifications, so far as they are used for taxonomic purposes, are mentioned in the article Snakes: Classification. In the majority of snakes the maxillaries form the borders of the mouth, and they are but loosely attached to the other bones, to their palatine processes, to the palatines, and with their posterior ends, by the ectoptery- goids to the pterygoids. In the Viperidae the maxillaries are much shortened and articulate extensively with the prefrontals; they can be erected, or rather pushed forwards, by the ectoptery- goids (see Snakes) ; they are not connected with the palatines. The pterygoids diverge posteriorly and articulate loosely with the quadrates; in the original condition the articulation is near the distal end of the quadrate, e.g. in Boidae, and the pterygoids may form an additional attachment with the mandibles; in the Viperidae the pterygoids are somewhat shortened and are attached to about the middle of the quadrate shafts; in the Amblycepha- lidae they are still shorter and do not reach these bones. The ectopterygoids are lost by the burrowing Typhlopidae and Glau- coniidae. The quadrate is always extremely movable; besides being in a most curious way connected with the outer end of the columellar rod (see below, Ear), it is suspended from the skull by the squamosal. The squamoso-quadrate connexion is very loose; that of the squamosal with the skull varies much. In the majority of snakes it slides quite freely upon the parietal; it is much longer than the quadrate in the boas, much shorter than the elongated and slender quadrate in most of the poisonous snakes. Lastly, in most of the ancient burrowing snakes, e.g. Typhlops, Glauconia, Ilysia and Uropeltis, the squamosal has worked its way into the cranial wall so that the quadrate, itself also much shortened, rests directly upon the cranium. The Vertebral Column. The vertebrae of all reptiles are gastrocentrous, that is to say, the centra or bodies of the vertebrae are formed by the originally paired, interventral cartilages, while the basiventrals are reduced, persisting either as so-called intercentra or wedge-bones, or as intervertebral pads, or disappearing altogether; the basidorsal elements form the neural arch. At the earlier stages of develop- ment the gastrocentrous vertebrae behave in the same way as in the Urodela, except that the interdorsal pair of elements is suppressed from the beginning (the very elements which in ANATOMY] REPTILES 1 B3 Stegocephali and most Amira form the centre), therefore the typical batrachian vertebrae are notocentrous. If the re- maining three pairs of constituent elements of each vertebra (the neural arch, the centrum and the intercentra) remain separate, the vertebrae are called temnospondylous {rkuvw, I cut, o-irovSv'Kos, a vertebra) . If the neural arches and the centra are suturally united, or are fused with each other, the vertebrae are called stereospondylous (orepeos, solid). In many fossil reptiles most or many of the vertebrae are temnospondylous; in most of the recent Amniota 1 they are consolidated, but the atlas or first vertebra remains usually in a relatively primitive condition, and is temnospondylous but for the usual modification that its centrum becomes attached to that of the second vertebra and forms its odontoid process. The composition of gastrocent- rous vertebrae is best illustrated by the first and second cervical vertebrae of crocodiles, whence by reduction and fusion the structure of every other vertebra can be explained. We have only to add that the ribs are genetically derived from lateral outgrowths of the basiventral elements, whilst the chevron bones are mere ventral outgrowths from the same basal cartilages. The most primitive vertebral column is that of the Geckos. The IJ>JMf|B.D4 W) ml M jus/j gj[ 7 -^ 8 '/ 9 10 Fig. 25. — Composition of Vertebrae of Reptiles. In all the figures the right side looks towards the head. I . Diagram showing the relative position of the four pairs of arcualia which constitute a complete quadripartite vertebra. B.D., Basi- dorsal; B.V., basiventral; I.D., interdorsal; I.V., interyentral, shaded vertically in all figures; N., position of axil of the spinal nerve, i.e. behind the neural arch of its vertebra. 2, 3. Side views of the constituent cartilaginous blocks of a caudal vertebra (2) and a trunk vertebra (3) of Archegosaurus, as typical examples of temnospondyl- ous quadripartite and tripartite vertebrae. For comparison with Reptilian vertebrae. 4. Temnospondylous tripartite vertebra of the trunk of Eryops, a Permian reptile. 5. Composition of the second vertebra of a crocodile. 6. A vertebra of which the vasi- ventrals are reduced to an " interventrum." 7. Side view of the first and second 1 cervical vertebra of a crocodile. 8. The same analysed. Ni, N2 and N3, position of the first, second and third spinal nerves; S.D., occasionally called Proatlas, the detached spinous process, or supradorsal, of the atlas or first vertebra. 9. The first three vertebrae of Sphenodon. 10. The complete atlas vertebra of an adult Trionyx, still typically temnospondylous. vertebra consists chiefly of a large neural arch which rests broadly upon the centrum; this is a tube, more or less calcified and ossified, with a narrow waist in the middle, widening head- and tailwards. The tube is hollow, the chorda dorsalis passing through the whole column, and there are no proper joints between the centra, which are amphicoelous. Between the centra lies a separate element, the so-called intercentrum, which is ring-shaped and acts as an interarticular pad instead of a joint. The first of these rings forms the ventral half of the atlas ring; the second is attached to the cranial surface of the second centrum, and produces, like some of the next following ones, a vertical median blade of bone, a true hypapophysis. Such intercentra exist throughout the length of the vertebral column; in the tail they are enlarged and carry a pair of chevrons, which are cartilaginous and have the tendency of fusing by superficial 1 There remained a flaw in the correctness of the view that the bodies of the amniotic vertebrae are formed by the paired interven- )ral pieces, since the bodies were known always to appear from the first as unpaired, cartilaginous masses, until G. B. Howes found them to consist of a right and left pair in the embryos of Sphenodon^ ossification on to the caudal ends of the centrum next in front, to which they do not belong genetically. Exactly in the middle of each vertebra the thin shell of the centrum forms a cartil- aginous septum, of what is often wrongly called chordal car- tilage. When this septum is complete, and this seems to be the normal condition in the tail, the chorda is here rent asunder, otherwise it is only constricted. This septum is but slightly invaded by ossification, and consists of large cells which retain the appearance of young or embryonic cartilage. It coincides exactly with the line of transverse division of most of the caudal vertebrae into an anterior and a posterior half, the division gradually extend- ing right through the bone of the neural arch. The same kind of division, and from the same causes, exists in Sphenodon and in many lizards, in fact in all those reptiles which can Fig. 26. — Vertical section of four (7th to 10th) caudal vertebrae of Sphenodon. a, line passing through the middle of centrum and through part of the neural arch, where the vertebrae break off. (After Gimther.) reproduce their broken-ofl tail. It is from the septal cartilage that the regeneration starts 2 (fig. 26). Sphenodon also has biconcave vertebrae owing to the per- sistence of the chorda dorsalis in the intervertebral region; otherwise the vertebrae are solid. Intercentra- occur from the atlas regularly into the tail, where they carry chevron bones. The atlas-ring (fig. 25, 9) is composed of the first intercentrum and a pair of neural arches which remain quite separate and carry on the dorsal side a pair of ossicles, the disconnected supradorsal elements of the atlas, erroneously supposed to be the remnants of the " proatlas." Crocodiles. — Remnants of the chorda persist in the middle of the centra, which, in recent species, are mostly procoelous, and with a convex knob behind, but the first caudal is strongly biconvex. Cartilaginous intercentral rings, pads or menisci, occur throughout the column; in the tail they carry chevrons. For the instructive detail of the composition of the first and second cervical vertebrae see fig. 25, 7 and 8. Some of the posterior neck and anterior thoracic vertebrae have an unpaired hypapophysis arising from the centrum. The vertebrae have the usual processes, viz. spinous process, a pair of anterior and posterior zygapophyses arising from the neural arch, diapophyses likewise from this arch for the articulation with the tubercular portion of the rib; short parapophyses from the centra for the capitular ends of the ribs; the transverse processes of the 1 2th vertebra, and following, carry the whole rib, and are like the processes of the lumbar vertebrae diapapophyses; the so-called transverse processes of the tail are mainly the anchy- losed or fused ribs themselves. Chelonians. — The vertebrae are sometimes in the various regions of the same column opistho-pro-or amphicoelous, or even biconvex. Intercentra occur regularly on the first two or three cervicals, and on the tail as paired or unpaired nodules, or as chevrons, which articulate mostly with the previous centra and occasionally fuse with them. Intercentral, fibrocartilaginous disks occur regularly, mostly in the shape of rings; the first is the transverse ligament of the atlas-ring. In the Trionychidae (fig. 25, 10), but also in some other tortoises, the various pieces of the atlas do not anchylose, and the first centrum remains also movably attached to the second, although it sometimes carries, 2 Regeneration of the tail can take place in Sphenodon, all Geckos, Anguidae, Gerrhosauridae, Lacertidae, most Scincidae, and in many Tejidae and Iguanidae; certainly not in chameleons, Varanus, Agamidae, snakes, crocodiles and tortoises. Often the tail is so brittle and the muscular cones are so loosely connected that part can be thrown off by the muscular exertion of the creature itself. The reproduced tail is, however, only a sham tail, since neither centra nor arches, but only a non-segmented rod or tube of fibro- cartilage is produced. It is, however, invested with new muscles and with skin, but the scales often differ considerably from those of the normal organ, sometimes showing reversion to an ancestral form. For further detail see G. A. Boulenger, P.Z.S. (1888), p. 351, and (1891), p. 466. i54 REPTILES [ANATOMY and fuses with, the second intercentral piece. The entire atlas remains in a primitive, typically temnospondylous condition. On the other hand, in some Pleurodira, e.g. Platemys and Chelys, all the constituent parts of the atlas coossify and form a com- plete, solid vertebra, which articulates by a concave-convex joint with the true centrum of the second vertebra. The normal number of cervical vertebrae is eight in all Chelonians. The last cervical has sometimes, e.g. Chelydra, a very peculiar shape with strangely modified articular facets, in correlation with the retractile neck. The neural spines of the trunk verte- brae broaden out and fuse with the neural plates of the carapace. A tertiary modification takes place in many Pleurodira with the reduction of the neurals by the costal plates, which then meet in the dorsal line and cover the neural spinal processes. The caudal vertebrae are often much reduced in size, although not always in numbers, when the tail is very short, as in the marine turtles. In various species of Testudo about half a dozen of the last caudal vertebrae fuse together into a veritable urostyle, which is covered with a claw- or nail-shaped sheath of horn. In some of the gigantic tortoises of Mauritius this caudal vertebral complex is fully 3 in. long and 2 in. broad, of an extraordinary appearance. The vertebrae of the Lacertae, or Lizards proper, are a direct further development of those of Sphenodon. The chorda dis- appears; the vertebrae are procoelous, with an articulating knob behind. Intercentrals, in the shape of osseous, unpaired nodules or wedges, persist on most of the cervical vertebrae; they are absent in the trunk and reappear in the tail, either as wedges or with chevrons. The first intercentral forms the central half of the atlas, with the neural half of which it is con- nected by suture. The second fuses mostly with the cranial end of the second centre and with the caudal and ventral surface of the odontoid, forming a downward-directed hook. Fre- quently the fusion remains incomplete, or the wedges may completely merge into the epistropheal mass without leaving any outward traces. Boulenger has made the important observation that the intercentra of the tail are sometimes paired, e.g. in Heloderma. When the caudal vertebrae are strongly procoelous, the knob is very long and the chevrons are attached to its neck, having shifted on to the vertebra in front, while their basal intercentral piece, or pieces, remain in the original position. In Ophisaurus the chevrons are absolutely fused with the caudal ends of the centra and thus assume a superficial resemblance to the vertebrae of Urodela. The splitting of the tail- vertebrae and regeneration have been described on a previous page. The trunk-vertebrae of the Tejidae and the larger Iguanidae possess additional articulating processes and facets, besides the usual processes. The Zygosphene is a wedge-shaped process with two articular facets, which projects forward from the anterior side of each neural arch. The Zygantrum forms a corresponding excavation with a pair of articular surfaces on the hinder side of the arch. The crests on the tail and trunk of many lizards, e.g. Iguanidae, are entirely tegumentary structures and not supported by the axial skeleton, except in some chame- leons, e.g. Ch. cristatus, and in the peculiar genus Brookesia; in these the accessory much-complicated processes are enor- mously elongated and support the high cutaneous crest which arises from the back, especially in B. ebenaud. The vertebrae of the snakes are procoelous (figs. 27, 28, 29). Besides the zygapophyses, they have zygosphenes on the neural arches; the ribs articulate with the parapophyses. Long, unpaired hypapophyses arise from the centre of the anterior neck and trunk vertebrae to a variable extent. In Dasypeltis and Rhachiodon a considerable number of these processes perforate the oesophagus and act as crushers of the shell of the eggs which these snakes swallow. The often- repeated statement that these processes are capped with enamel is erroneous. The caudal vertebrae are devoid of chevron bones, but they carry paired hypapophyses, and they have transverse processes which also are generally bent downwards. Lastly, the numbers of vertebrae composing the whole column and its various regions. In the snakes we can distinguish only between atlas and epistropheus, trunk and tail. The numbers vary exceedingly, in the trunk up to several hundred. »*», .-** Fig. 27. — Lateral aspect of two trunk vertebrae of Python, a, articular processes of the zyga- pophyses ; wo, neural arches ; ns, neural spines; t, parapophyses. zs, zygosphene. Fig. 28. — Posterior aspect of a trunk vertebra of Python (from nature). a, zygapophyses ; b, ball on the surface of the centrum ; /, parapo- physis; zg, zygantrum. The tail may contain only a few, e.g. in the burrowing Typhlops, Glauconia, Uropeltis; or it may be very long, as for instance in Boa. There is no obvious reciprocal cor- relation between the length of the trunk and the tail. In the other orders of reptiles the neck is well ,, . , . . , , , . , 1 , , , r ig. 29. — Anterior aspect marked, except in the snake-shaped of a trunk vertebra of lizards. If we define as first thoracic vertebra that which is the first con- nected with the sternum, all those anterior being cervical, the neck- vertebrae number 5 in chameleons the Chelonians and in the lizards, with the exception of the majority of Varanus, which have 9 like the Crocodilia Python (from nature), a, zygapophyses; c, cup on the surface of the centrum. 7 in Sphenodon, 8 in The Number of Vertebrae of some Specimens in the Museum of Zoology, Cambridge, England Serial g& vertebrae, at a consider- organs of right and left sides- able distance from the between thera is the anal aperture; cloaca. In the embryo each PP< preanal plate, organ arises as a conical protuberance, or papilla, which projects out of the vent. Later it becomes inverted. Prob- ably this ontogenetic feature recapitulates the phylogeny of these organs, which have to be looked upon as swell- ing flaps or portions of the walls of the cloaca which were pro- truded during copulation, and which in time borrowed, and specialized, muscular fibres from the ventral tail muscles. On the outer everted side of each organ is a furrow for the reception of the semen. The apex is either single or more or less deeply bifurcated, each arm being followed by the likewise divided furrow. The outer investing membrane of these very muscular erectile bodies is epidermal; often, especially in snakes, pro- vided with numerous papillae, folds or other excrescences. In 170 REPTILES [ANATOMY many snakes these are spiny and hard, but according to Leydig this hardness is not due to a horny substance but to the deposi- tion of calcifying matter. E. D. Cope has investigated the almost endless minor modifications of these penial features and uses them for taxonomic purposes in the snakes. Vestiges of these organs occur in females of snakes and lizards. Close to these organs of the snakes lies a pair of anal glands of some size, which pour their very offensive secretion through an opening close to the base of each penis. The same glands occur in the same position in Sphenodon, which has no copulatory organs, and in crocodiles they appear as evertible musk glands. Hence J. E. V. Boas, not knowing of their existence in both sexes of snakes, tried to homologize them with the paired penes of reptiles, an error which has been repeated in C. Gegenbaur's Lehrbuch, vol. ii. p. 533. The crocodiles and tortoises possess a single, median copula- tory organ; it lies on the ventral or anterior end of the cloaca, the outer opening of which is therefore a longitudinal slit, hence the term ucthotremata. In the crocodiles the organ is attached to the caudal corner of the ischiadic symphysis by a strong and roundish fibrous band, which arises single from the ventral sides and forms partly the continuation of the two fibrous halves of the organ; the bulk of the crura, comparable to corpora cavernosa, is not attached to the pelvis, as generally stated, but projects backwards towards and into the pelvic cavity. This portion is especially rich in venous cavernosities. The outer coating of the glans possesses various papillary pro- jections, which are furnished with sensory, hedonic corpuscles. On the morphologically dorsal side of the organ, not on the dorsum penis, is a deep groove which ends towards the crura in a blind sac, into the farther corner of which open the vasa deferentia. In a full-grown Nile crocodile the whole organ is about 10 in. long. In young females up to a total length of 3 or 4 ft. the clitoris is nearly of the same size as the male organ, but it remains stationary and appears very small in large specimens. The organ of the tortoises is essentially of the same type as that of the crocodiles, but it is nowhere directly attached to the pelvis or to any other skeletal part. The whole organ, when withdrawn, lies in a ventral, long recess of the wide outer cloacal chamber, and its crura extend so far back as to form the continuation of the ventral and lateral walls of the recessus which is continued into the neck of the urinary bladder. Its orifice and those of the seminal ducts are enclosed by the walls of the deep groove which runs along the underside of the organ. This is always of considerable size, surprisingly large in Trionyx. The clitoris is small, sometimes tiny. The sexual act is extremely prolonged in Chelonians and still more so are the preliminaries, but in crocodiles it is the deed of a few seconds. Lizards and snakes insert only one side. There remains the question whether the unpaired organ of the crocodiles and tortoises, which is the prototype of the mammalian organ in every essential point, and the paired organs of the lizards and snakes, are to a certain extent homo- logous organs in so far as they can both be derived from the same indifferent condition. With this view we assume that originally the protrusible walls of the outer cloacal chamber became specialized into a right and left imperfect intromittent organ, that subsequently, in lizards, those hemipenes were shifted back towards the tail and were henceforth bound to develop separately, while in the crocodiles, tortoises, mammals and birds the two primitive lateral evertile flaps approached each other towards the ventral anterior side of the cloaca, and that this led to a fusion, beginning probably at the basal part, which at the same time was farther withdrawn from the surface and secured the reception of the sperma from both vasa deferentia into one canal. This hypothesis has been objected to by Boas, but accepted by Gegenbaur (p. 538) after having been rejected on p. 533 of his Lehrbuch. The Fat bodies belong at least physiologically to the genera- tive rystem. They are placed outside the peritoneum. In lizards they appear as two masses in the pelvic region, the black peritoneal lining covering only their dorsal side. They consist of a network of arteries and connective tissue, the meshy spaces of which are filled with " fat "; they each receive an artery from the femoral vessel which enters them in the inguinal region; the veins collect into the abdominal. In snakes the fat bodies are very long, extending from the cloaca to the liver. Tortoises seem to have only traces of them, but in Sphenodon and in crocodiles they resemble those of lizards. — The peculiar organ suspended from the right abdominal wall of crocodiles, variously mentioned as mesenteric gland or body, or fatty spleen, by Butler, is possibly related to the same category. The fat bodies of reptiles are sometimes vaguely alluded to as hibernating bodies; like the fat bodies which are attached to the generative glands of Amphibia they do not become reduced during the eventual hibernation but are largest before the pairing season, by the end of which they are exhausted, looking reddish or grey after the loss of their stores of fat and probably other important contents The Embryonic Development. Fertilization of the egg always takes place internally, and the egg containing a large amount of food-yolk is of course meroblastic. It is sufficient to mention that many lizards, some chameleons and many snakes (not Sphenodon, geckos, crocodiles and Chelonians) retain their, in these cases very thin-shelled, eggs in the oviducts until the embryo is ready to burst the egg-membrane during the act of parturition or immediately after it. Such species are usually called ovo- viviparous, although there is no difference between them and other viviparous creatures, for instance the marsupials. The majority of reptiles are oviparous and the egg is enclosed in a strong parchment shell, with or without calcareous deposits. Only gas exchange can take place between such an egg and the outside, and it loses by evaporation, whilst in the batrachian egg various other exchanges are easy through the thin membrane. The salamander embryo, within its thin egg-membrane, even grows to a size many times larger than the original egg, it does not only breathe, but it is also nourished through the gills, and by some means or other the waste products are partly eliminated without filling the bladder. The amphibia are born as larvae and live as such for a long time, often in a most imperfect condition. Nothing of all this applies to the reptile, which leaves the egg as a perfect little imago. A great amount of yolk supplying the material, and a large " bladder " to receive the waste products and to act as respiratory organ, have made this possible. That the allantois and the amnion behave precisely in the same way in the mammals with their much reduced yolk, only testifies to the superior value of these organs, and after all there is no difference in this respect between a monotreme and a reptile. These two organs seem to have come into existence with the reptiles and constitute the most reliable diagnostic feature between higher and lower vertebrates. All reptiles, birds and mammals have a navel, a feature unknown and impossible in Batrachia and fishes. A few remarks on these important embryonic organs may not be superfluous, especially concerning their possible origin. Whilst the urinary bladder of the Batrachia remains within the body throughout the embryonic stage, this organ undergoes in the higher vertebrates, reptiles, birds and mammals, con- siderable modifications, and it assumes, henceforth as Allantois, new important functions besides that of being the receptacle of the embryonic urine. The development of the Allantois is in intimate causal connexion with that of the Amnion. All the Allantoidea are also Amniota and vice versa, but the term Amniota is preferable, since the basal portion of the Allantois remains in the adult as the urinary bladder, as an organ hence- forth equivalent to and homologous with that of the Anamnia. The primary feature seems to be the allantois which leaves the body cavity, remains without the amniotic folds, even after these have enclosed the body within the amniotic bag, and ANATOMY] REPTILES 171 then spreads nearly all over the inner side of the egg-shell. Having thus come into the closest possible contact with the atmospheric air, the vessels of the allantois can exchange their carbon dioxide for oxygen and the allantois becomes the re- spiratory organ of the embryo. Herewith stands in direct correlation the complete absence of any internal and of external gills in the embryonic reptiles. The blood vessels of the allan- tois are fundamentally the same as those of the batrachian bladder, namely, branches from the pelvic arteries (later hypo- gastrics) and veins which return from the base of the bladder to the abdominal wall and thence to the liver. In the normal reptilian egg, surrounded by its non-yielding shell, space is absolutely limited, and whilst the yolk is being diminished and increased secretion of urine distends the bladder, this soon protrudes out of the body cavity proper into the extra-embryonal coelomatic space between the true amnion and the false amnion or serous membrane. It fills this space so far as the yolk-sac allows it. It seems reasonable to suppose that this growth of the allantois has been one of the causes of the caudal amniotic fold; the sinking of the embryo into the space of the diminishing yolk-sac is no doubt another cause, but the fact remains that the amnion is the chief hindrance to the closing of the body-wall at the region of the future navel. The life-histories of embryonic development are the domain of the embryographers. They are the imperfect accounts of the ways and means (often crooked and blurred, owing to short cuts and in adaptation to conditions which prevail during the embryonic period) by which the growing creature arrives at those features which form the account of the anatomical structure of the adult. Comparative anatomy, with physiology, alone lead through the maze of the endless embryonic vagaries and afford the clues for the reconstruction of the real life-history of an animal and its ancestry. For detail the reader is referred to numerous papers quoted in the list of literature, and to the various text-books, above all to the Handbuch d. vergleichenden Entwicklungsgeschichte d. Wirbelthiere, edited by O. Hertwig, Berlin. Authorities on Anatomy: Bibliography. — The appended list of papers (many with shortened titles) represents but a fraction of the enormous literature dealing with the anatomy of reptiles. Special stress has been laid upon the more recent publications. A great amount of information, general and detailed, is contained in Bronn's Klassen u. Ordnungen d. Thierreichs, the three volumes concerning reptiles having been written by C. K. Hoffmann (Leipzig, 1878-1890) ; E. D. Cope's Crocodilians, Lizards and Snakes of North America, U.S. Nat. Mus., Washington, 1900; H. Gadow's "Am- phibia and Reptiles," vol. xiii. of The Cambridge Natural History (London, 1901) ; above all in C. Gegenbaur's Vergleichende Anatomie d. Wirbelthiere (Leipzig, 1898-1901). Skeletal. — J. F. v. Bemmelen, " Schaedelbau v. Dermochelys coriacea," Festschr.f. Gegenbaur (1896); E. Gaupp, " Morphologic d. Schaedels," Morpholog. Arbeiten (1894), iv. pp. TJ-l.2%, pis.; ibid. (" Problems Concerning the Skull "),Anat.Ergebn. (1901), x. pp. 847- 1001. W. K. Parker," Skull of Lacertilia," Phil. Trans. 170 (1880), pp. 595-640 i pls. 37-45 ; " of Tropidonotus," ibid. (1879), 169, pp. 385-417, pis.; "Crocodilia,"' Trans. Zool. Soc. (1885), xi. pp. 263-310, pis.; " Chamaeleons," ibid. (1885), xi. pp. 77-105. pis. 15-19-; F. Siebenrock, " Kopfskelet d. Scincoiden, Anguiden u. Gerrhosaur- iden," Ann. Nat. Hofmuseum (Wien, 1892), vn. 3. Of the enormous, still increasing, literature concerning the homologies of the auditory ossicles, a few only can be mentioned ; the papers by Kingsley and Versluys contain most of the previous literature : WT Peters, several most important papers in Monatsber. Ak. Wiss. (Berlin, 21st Nov. 1867, 5th Dec. 1867, 7th Jan. 1869, 17th Jan. 1870, 15th Jan. 1874). H. Gadow, " Modifications of the First and Second Visceral Arches, and Homologies of the Auditory Ossicles," Phil. Trans. 179 (1888), B. pp. 451-485, pis. 7l~74; " Evolution of the Auditory Ossicles," Anat. Anz. (1901), xix. No. 16. J. Versluys, " Mittlere u. aussere Ohrsphare d. Lacertilia u. Rhynchocephalia," Zool. Jahrb. Anat. (1898), 12, pp. 161-406, pis. (most exhaustive and careful); ibid., " Entwickl. d. Columella auris b. Lacertiliern," ibid. (1903), 18, pp. 107-188, pis. J. S. Kingsley, "The Ossicula auditus," Tufts College Studies, No. 6 (1900). E. Gaupp, " Columella auris," Anat. Anz. (1891), vi. p. 107. T. H. Huxley, " The Repre- sentatives of the Malleus and Incus of the Mammalia in the other Vertebrata," P.Z.S., 1869. VV. K. Parker, " Struct, and Develop- ment of Crocodilian Skull," Trans. Zool. Soc. (1883), xi., especially pis. 68 and 69. H. Gadow," Evolution of the Vertebral Column of Amphibia and Amniota," Phil. Trans. (1896), 136, pp. 1-57 (with a list of ninety-three papers). G. B. Howes and H. H. Swinnerton, " Development of the Skeleton of Sphenodon," Trans. Zool. Soc. (1901), xvi. pp. 1-86, pis. 1-6. G. A. Boulenger, Catalogue of Chelonians, Rhynchocephalians and Crocodiles, Brit. Mus. 1889; Cat. of Lizards (3 vols., 1885-1887); Cat. of Snakes (3 vols., 1893- 1896); these volumes contain a great body of osteological obser- vations, ignored by most compilers of anatomical text-books; " Osteol. of Heloderma, and Vertebrae of Lacertilia," P.Z.S., pp. 109-118 (1891). L. Calori, "Skeleton of Varanus, Lacerta," Mem. Ace. Sci. Instil. Bologna (8, 1857, and 9, 1859). E. D. Cope, " Osteology of Lacertilia," Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. (1892), 30, pp. 185-221; "Degeneration of Limbs and Girdles," Journ. Morph. (1892), vii. pp. 223-244. E. Ficalbi, Osteologia del Plati- daltilo (Pisa, 1882). A. Goette, " Beitrage z. Skeletsystem," Arch, micr. Anat. (1877), 14, pp. 502-620. A. Gunther, Anatomy of Hatteria," Phil. Trans. (1867), 157, pp. 595-629, pis. S. Orlandi, " Note anatomiche s. Macrosincus," Atti S. Lig. (Geneva, 1894), v. 2 ; " Skelet d. Seine. Anguid. Gerrhosaurid," Ann. Naturhist. Hofmus. (1895), x. pp. 17-41; " Skelet d. Agamidae," Sitzb. Ak. Wiss. Wien (1895), 104, pp. 1089-1196. F. Siebenrock, " Skelet v. Brookesia," Sitzb. Ak. Wiss. Wien (1893), 102, pp. 71-118; "Skelet v. Uro- plates," Annal. Naturhist. Hofmuseum (1892), vii. pp. 517-536, 1893; "Skelet d. Lacertiden," Sitzb. Ak. Wiss. Wien (1894), 102, pp. 203-292. C. Smalian, " Anat. d. Amphisbaenid," Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. (1885), 42, pp. 126-202. A. Voeltzkow, " Biolog. u. Entwickl. von Crocodilus," Abh. Senckenb. Ges. (1899), 26, pp. 1-150, 17 pis. E. A. Case, " Osteology and Relationships of Protostega," Journ. Morph. (1897), xiv. pp. 21-60. H. Goette, " Entwickl. des Csrapax d. Schildkroeten," Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. (1899), 66, pp. 40-434, pis. O. P. Hay, " Morphogeny of Chelonian Carapace," Amer. Nat. (1898), 32, pp. 929-948. G. Baur, " Morphol. Unterkiefer d. Rept.," Anat. Anz. (1896), xi. pp. 410-415. M. Fiirbringer, " Brustschulter- apparat und Schultermuskeln. Reptilien," Jena Zeitschr. (1900), 34, pp. 215-718, pis. 13-17 (with a list of many titles of papers con- cerning reptiles ; and a new, unsatisfactory classification of the whole class). C. K. Hoffmann, " Becken d. Amphib. u. Reptil.," Niederl. Arch. f. Zool., iii. E. Mehnert, " Beckenguertel d. Emys lutaria," Morph. Jahrb. (1890), 16, pp. 537-571, pi.; " Os hypoischium, &c. d. Eidechsen," Morph. Jahrb. (1891), 17, pp. 123-144, pi. W. K. Parker, " Shoulder Girdle and Sternum," Roy. Soc. London, 1868. A. Rosenberg, " Development of Skeleton of Reduced Limbs," Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. (1873), 23, pp. 1^6-170, pis. A. Sabatier, " Comparaison des ceintures et des membres ant. et post," Mem. Ac. Montpellier (1880), xix. C. Gegenbaur, Untersuch. z. verg. Anat., " I. Carpus u. Tarsus " (1864), II. " Schulterguertel " (1865) (the most important monographs). A. Banchi, " Parafibula," Monitore Zool. Italiano (1900), xi. No. 7 (A nodule ][ between femur and fibula in Lacerta). G. Baur, " Carpus u. Tarsus d. Reptil.," Anatom. Anzeig. iv. No. 2. G. Born, " Carpus u. Tarsus d. Saurier," Morph. Jahrb. (1876), 2, pp. 1-26, pi. A. Carlsson, " Gliedmassenreste bei Schlan- gen," Svensk. Vetensk. Ac. Handlingar, ii. (1886). A. Johnson, " Development of Pelvic Girdle," Q.J. M.S. (1883), 23, pp. 1 399-411. G. Kehrer, " Carpus u. Tarsus," Ber. Naturf. Ges. (Freiburg, i. 1886). W. Kuekenthal, " Entwickl. d. Handskelets des Crocodiles," Morph. Jahrb. (1892), 19, pp. 42-55. H. F. Sauvage, " Membre anterieur du Pseudopus," Ann. Sci. Nat.-Zool. 7. art. 15 (1878). A. Stecker, " Carpus u. Tarsus bei Chamaeleon," Sitzb. Ak. Wiss. (1877), 75, 2, pis. R. Wiedersheim, Gliedmassenskelett, Schulter u. Beckenguertel (Jena, 1892). K. Baechtold, tlber die Giftwerkzeuge der Schlangen (Tubingen, 1843). A. Dugfa, " Venin de l'Heloderma," Jubil. Soc. Biol. (1899), pp. 34-137. D. F. Weinland, " On the Egg-tooth of the Snakes," Proc. Essex Institute (Salem, 1856); and in Wiirttemb. Jahresheft. Vereinvaterl. Naturk. (1856). G. S. West, " Buccal Glands and Teeth of Poisonous Snakes," P.Z.S. (1895), pp. 812-826, pis. 44-46. Tegumentary. — A. Batelli, " Bau der Reptilienhaut," Arch. mikr. Anat. (1880), 17, pp. 346-361, pis. J. E. V. Boas, " Wirbelthier- kralle," Morph. Jahrb. (1894), xxi. pp. 281-311, pis. A. Haase, " Bau d. Haftlappen bei den Geckotiden," Arch. Naturg. (1900), 61, pp. 321-345, pis. R. Keller, " Farbenwechsel d. Chamaeleons," Arch. ges. Physiol. (1895), 61, pp. 123-168. C. Kerbert, " Haut der Reptilien," Arch. mikr. Anat. (1876), 13, pp. 205-262. F. Maurer, Epidermis und ihre Abkoemmlinge (Leipzig, 1895). F. Schaefer, " Schenkeldruesen d. Eidechsen," Arch. Naturg (1902), 68, pp. 27-64, pis. F. Todaro, Ricerche f. nel labor, di anat, norm, di Roma (1878), II. I. F. Toelg, " Driisenartige Epidermoidalorgane d. Eidechsen u. Schlangen," Arb. Zool. Inst. Wien (1904), 15, pp. 1 19-154, pis. Nervous System. — J. F. Bemmelen, "Beitr. Kenntniss d. Halsgegend bei Reptilien Mededeel," Natura Artis Magistra (Amsterdam, 1887). L. Edinger, " Zwischenhirn d. Reptilien," Abh. Senckenb. Ges. (1899), 20, pp. 161-197, pis. J. G. Fischer, " Gehirnnerven d. Saurier," Abhandl. Naturwiss. Verein, Hamburg, II. (1852), pp. 115-213 (with many excellent illustrations). M. Fiirbringer, " Spino- occipital Nerven," &c, Festschr. f. Gegenbaur, iii. (1896). S. P„ Gage, " Brain of Trionyx," Proc. Am. Micr. Soc. (1895), xvii. pp. 185-222. E. Gaupp, " Anlage d. Hypophyse b. Sauriem," Arch. mikr. Anat. (1893), 42, pp. 569-680. Giuliani, " Struttura d. midolla spinale d. Lacerta viridis," Ric. Lab. di Anat. Roma, ii. J. Grimm, " Riickenmarkv. Vipera berus," Arch. Anat. Phys. (1864), 172 REPTILES [DISTRIBUTION pp. 502-51 1, pi. 12. C. L. Herrick, " Brain of Certain Reptiles," Journ. comp. Neurol. (1891), i. pp. 1-36, iii. (1893), pp. 77-106, 1 19-140, with many plates. O. D. Humphry, " Brain of Chelydra," Journ. comp. Neurol. (1894), pp. 73-116. H. v. Jhering, Das peripherische Nervensystem (4to, Leipzig, 1873). pis. St G. Mivart and R. Clarke, " Sacral Plexus of Lizards, &c.," Trans. Linn. Soc. Zool. i. (1877), PP- 5 I 3 _ 53 2 > pis. 66, 67. H. F. Osborn, " Origin of the Corpora callosa," Morph. Jahrb. xii. pp. 530-543. H. Rabl-Riickhard, " Centralnervensystem d. Alligator," Zeitschr. miss. Zool. (1878), xxx. pp. 336-373, pis. 19 and 20. " Python," ibid. (1894), lviii. pp. 694-717, pi. 41. G. Ruge, " Peripher. Gebiet. d. N. facialis " (masti- cator muscles, &c), Festschr. f. Gegenbaur (1896), iii. L. Stieda, " Centralnervensystem d. Emys," Zeitschr. miss. Zool. (1875), xxv. pp. 361-408. Sense Organs. — R. Hoffmann, " Thraenenwege d. Vogel u. Reptil.," Zeitschr. f. Naturm. (Nat. Verein Sachsen u. Thiiring., 1882). C. Rose, " Nasendriise u. Gaumendrusen d. Crocodils," Anat. Anz. (1893), viii. pp. 745-751. C. Ph. Sluitez, " Jacobson's Organ v. Crocodilus," Anat. Anz. (1892), vii. pp. 540-545. O. Seydel, " Nasen- hohle u. Jacobson's Organ d. Schildkroten," Festschr. f. Gegenbaur (1896), ii. B. Solger, " Nasenwand u. Nasenmuschelw. d. Reptil.," Morph. Jahrb. (1876), i. pp. 467-494, pi. E. Beraneck, " Parietal- auge d. Rept," Jen. Zeitschr. (1887), xxi. pp. 374-410, pis.; ibid., Anat. Anz. (1893), No. 20. P. Francotte, " L'CEil parietal, &c. chez les Lacertiliens," Mem. couronne Ac. Belgique (1898), 55, No. 3. H. W. de Graaf, Structure and Development of the Epiphysis in Amph. and Rept. (Leiden, 1886; written in Dutch). W. B. Spencer, " Presence and Structure of the Pineal Eye in Lacertilia," Q.J. M.S. (1886), 27, pp. 165-237, 7 pis. H. Strahl u. E. Martin, " Entwickl. d. Parietalauges b. Anguis u. Lacerta, " Arch. f. Anat. u. Phys. (1888), pp. 146-165, pi. 10. A. Dendy, " Development of Parietal Eye of Sphenodon," Q.J. M.S. (1899), 42, pp. 1-87 and pp. 111-153, 13 plates. H. Miiller, Schriften z. Anat. u. Physiol, d. Auges, edit. O. Becker (Leipzig, 1872). E. Ficalbi, " Palpebralapparat d. Schlangen u. Geckonen," Att. Soc. Tosc. Pisa, ix. C. K. Hoff- mann, " Anatomie d. Retina d. Amph. Rept. u. Vogel. Niederl.," Arch. Zool. (1875), iii. M. Borysiekiewicz, Retina v. Chamaeleo vulgaris (Leipzig, 1889), 7 pis. M. Weber, " Nebenorgane d. Auges d. Reptil.," Arch. f. Naturg. (1897), 43. E. Clason, " Gehororgan d. Eidechsen," Anatom. Studien (Leipzig, 1873). C. Hasse, " Gehor- organ d. Krokodile," &c, ibid; " Gehororgan d. Schildkroeten, von Tropidonotus natrix," ibid. G. Retzius, Gehororgan d. Wir- belthiere, i. (Stockholm, 1881). Muscles.— O. C. Bradley, " Muscles of Mastication of Lacertilia," Zool. Jahrb. Anat. (1902), 18, pp. 475-488. M. Fiirbringer, " Ver- gleich. Anatomie d. Schultermuskeln," Jena Zeitschr. (1873), vii. pp. 237-320; (1874), vii. pp. 175-280; (1900), xxx. pp. 215-718; Morph. Jahrb. (1875), i. pp. 636-816; Knochen u. Muskeln d. schlan gendhnlichen Saurier (Leipzig, 1870). H. Gadow, " Bauch- muskeln d. Crocod. Eidechs. Schildkroeten," Morph. Jahrb. (1882), vii. pp. 57-100, pi. ; " Myologie d. hinteren Extremitaet d. Rep- tilien," ibid. (1882), vii. pp. 327-466, pis. G. M. Humphrey, " Muscles of Pseudopus," Journ. An. Phys. (1872), vii. G. Killian, " Ohrmuskeln d. Crocodile," Jen. Zeitschr. (1890), xxiv. pp. 632- 656, pi. F. Maurer, " Ventrale Rumpfmuskulatur d. Reptil.," Festschr. f. Gegenbaur (1896), i. St G. Mivart, " Muscles of Iguana," P.Z.S. (1867), p. 766; "of Chamaeleon," ibid. (1870), p. 850. N. Ros^n, " Kaumuskeln d. Schlangen u. Giftdruese," Zool. Anz. (1906), 28, pp. 1-7. A. Sanders, " Muscles of Platydactylus," P.Z.S. (1870), p. 413; " of Liolepis," ibid. (1872), p. 154; " of Phry- rosoma," ibid. (1874), p. 71; F. Walther, " Visceralskelett u. Mus- kulatur b. Amph. u. Rept," Jen. Zeitschr. (1887), xxi. pp. 1-45, pis. Respiratory System. — F. E. Beddard, " Trachea and Lungs of Ophiophagus bungarus," P.Z.S. (1903), pp. 319-328. G. Butler, " Suppression of one Lung in various Reptiles," ibid. (1895), p. 691. S. H. Gage, " Pharyngeal Respiration in the Soft-shelled Turtle," Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. Sci. (1884), pp. 316-318; and Amer. Nat. (1886), xx. pp. 233-236. J. Henle, Vergl. anat. Beschreibung d. Kehlkopfes (1839). F. Siebenrock, " Kehlkopf u. Luftroehre d. Schildkroeten," Sitzb. Ak. Wien (1899), 108, pp. 563-595, pis. G. Tornier, " Kopflappen u. Halsluftsaecke bei Chamaeleonen," Zool. Jahrb. Anat. (1904), 21, pp. 1-40, pis. D. Bertelli, " Pieghe dei reni primitivi nei Rettili. Contribute alio sviluppo del dia- framma," Atti Soc. Toscan (Pisa, 1896), 15, (1898), 16. I. Bromann, Entwicklung d. Bursa omentalis und aehnlicher Recessbildungen (Wiesbaden, 1904). G. Butler, " Subdivision of Body-cavity in Lizards, Crocodiles and Birds," P.Z.S. (1892), pp. 452-474, 4 pis. ; " Subdivision of Body-cavity in Snakes," ibid. (1892), pp. 477- 497, pi. 6; "The Fat Bodies of the Sauropsida," ibid. (1889), p. 602, pis. 59-60. F. Hochstetter, Scheidewandbildungen in d. Leibeshbhle der Krokodile, Voeltzkow, Reise in Ostafrika, vol. iv. pp. 141-206, pis. n-15 (Stuttgart, 1906). Vascular System.— -F. E. Beddard, various papers on vascular system of Ophidia and Lacertilia, P.Z.S. (1904); " Notes on Anatomy of Boidae," ibid. (1903), pp. 107-121. F. E. Beddard and P. C. Mitchell, " Structure of Heart of Alligator," ibid. (1895). A. Greil, " Herz u. Truncus arteriosus d. Wirbelthiere Reptilien," Morph. Jahrb. (1903), 31, pp. 123-310, pis. O. Grosser and E. Brezina, " Entwickl. Venen d. Kopfes u. Halses bei Reptil.," Morph. Jahrb. (1895), pp. 289-325, pis. 20 and 21. F. Hochstetter. several important papers on vascular system of reptiles, Morph. Jahrb. (1891, 1892, 1898, 1901); ibid., " Blutgefass- System," O. Hertwig's Entwickl. d. Wirbelthiere (Jena, 19Q2) ; '"' Blutgefaess- System d. Krokodile," Voeltzkow, Reise in Ostafrika (Stuttgart, 1906, iv.). A. Laager, "Entwickl. Bulbus cordis bei Amph. u. Rept.," Morph. Jahrb. (1894), pp. 40-67. J. Y. Mackay, " Arterial System of Vertebrates, homologically considered," Memoirs and Memoranda in Anatomy (London and Edinburgh, 1889), i. B. Panizza, Sopra il sistema linfatico dei rettili (Pa via, 1833). C. Roese, " Vergl. Anat. d. Herzens d. Wirbelthiere," Morph. Jahrb. (1890), 16, pp. 27-96, pis. A. Sabatier, Etudes sur le cceur et la circulation centrale (Paris, 1873) ; " Transformat. du systeme aortique," Ann. Sc.Nat.Ser. (1874), 5, J. 19. H. Watney, " Minute Anatomy of Thymus," Phil. Trans. (1882), 173, pp. 1063-1123, pis. 83-95. Urino-genital System. — J. E. V. Boas, " Morphol. d. Begattungs- organe d. Wirbelth.," Morph. Jahrb. (1891), xvii. pp. 171-287, pi. 16. J. Budge, " Das Harnreservoir d. Wirbelthiere," Neu Vorpommern, Mittheil. 7 (1875), pp. 20-128, pi. W.'R. Coe and B. W. Kunkel, " Reproduct. Org. of Aniella," Amer. Natural. (1904), 38, pp. 487-490. H. Gadow, " Cloaca and Copulatory Organs of the Amniota," Phil. Trans. B. (1887), pp. 5-37, pis. 2-5. K. Hellmuth, "Kloake u. Phallus d. Schildkroeten u. Krokodile," Morph. Jahrb. (1902), 30, pp. 582-613. F. v. Moeller, " Urogenital- system d. Schildkroeten," Zeitschr. miss. Zool., 65, pp. 573-598, pis. F. W. Pickel, "Accessory Bladders of Testudinata," Zool. Bull. (1899), ii. pp. 291-301. F. Schoof, Zur Kenntniss d. Uro- genitalsy stems d. Saurier. Arch. f. Naturg. (1888), 54, p. 62. P. Unterhoessel, " Kloake u. Phallus d. Eidechsen u. Schlangen," Morph. Jahrb. (1902), 30, pp. 541-581. O. Schmidtgen, " Cloake und ihre Organe bei Schildkroter," Zool. Jahrb. (1907), pp. 357-412, Pi- 32, 33- (H. F. G.) IV. Distribution in Space This zoo-geographieal review deals only with modern reptiles; We begin with a survey of the faunas of some of the most obvious land-complexes which bear close resemblance to the now classical " regions " of P. L. Sclater and A. R. Wallace. None of these " regions " has definable frontiers, and what acts as a bar to one family may be tot-ally ignored by another. According to the several orders of reptiles the world is mapped out in very different ways. The African fauna does not stop at the Suez Canal, nor even at the Red Sea; there is a transitional belt notice- able in the countries from Syria to Arabia, Persia and India. To the north, Indian influence extends right into Turkestan, or vice versa; the Central Asiatic fauna passes into that of India. On the Chinese side prevailing conditions are still almost un- known; Wallace's line is more or less rigidly respected by Trionychidae, hooded Elaps, vipers and Lacertidae, while it has not the slightest influence upon crocodiles, pit vipers, Varanidae, Agamidae, &c. In the western hemisphere we : have a grand illustration of the interchange of two faunas and of the fact that it is neither a narrow strait nor an equally narrow isthmus which decides the limitation of two regions. Central America and the Antilles form one complex with S. America. The nearctic region ends at the edge of the. great Mexican plateau, which itself is a continuation of the north continent. Many nearctic forms have passed southwards into the tropics, even into far- off S. America, but the majority of the southerners, in their northern extension, have been checked by this plateau and have surged to the right and left along the Pacific and Atlantic tropical coastlands. The present writer happens to have made a special study of this part of the world (cf. " The Distribution of Mexican Amphibians and Reptiles," P.Z.S., 1905, pp. 191-294); the N. and S. American faunas have therefore been more fully treated in the following review of the various faunas. No doubt others can be treated in a similar manner, but the physical features between N. and S. America are unique, and the results are closely paralleled by those of the fauna of birds. The narrow and long neck of the isthmus of Panama (once no doubt much broader) is no boundary; if the meeting of N. and S. had taken place there, that narrow causeway would be crowded, and this is not' the case. New Zealand. — The only recent reptiles are Sphenodon (q.v.), which testifies to the great age of these islands; about half a dozen Scincidae of the genus Lygosoma, members of a cosmopolitan family; and some few geckos, e.g. Naultinus, of a family of great DISTRIBUTION] REBTILES J73 age, worid-wide distribution and with exceptional facilities of distribution. Australian Region. — Of crocodiles only C. johnstoni in N. Australia and Queensland; C. porosus on the N. coast, and occur- ring on various Pacific islands, as far E. as the Fiji Islands. Tor- toises are represented only by the pleurodirous Chelydidae, e.g. Chelodina; they are absent in Tasmania and on the Pacific islands. New Guinea possesses the aquatic Carettochelys, sole type of a family. The bulk of the Lacertilian fauna is composed of skinks, geckos, agamoids and Varanidae, with the addition of a small family which is peculiar to the region, the Pygopodidae. A peculiar type, Dibamus, inhabits the borderlands, namely, New Guinea, the Moluccas, Celebes and the Nicobar Islands; and, finally, a single iguanoid, Brachylophus , is common in the Fiji Islands; how it came there, or how it survived its severance from the American stock, is a mystery. The skinks are in this region more highly developed and more specialized than in any other part of the world; they exceed in numbers the geckos, which generally accompany the skinks in their range over the smaller islands of the Pacific ; in these islands members of these two families represent the whole of the Lacertilian fauna. The Australian agamoids are chiefly peculiar and partly much differentiated forms (e.g. Moloch and Chlamy- dosaurus), but some have distinct affinities to, or are even identical with, Indian genera. The ' Varanidae are also closely allied to Indian species. Of snakes, amounting to about one hundred species only, we note about one dozen Typhlopidae, and of Pythoninae simply Python, and the Boine Enygrus on the islands from New Guinea to Fiji. There are but surprisingly few innocuous colubrine snakes, scarcely a dozen, and all belonging to Indian genera. The bulk of the snakes belong to the poisonous Elapinae, all of genera peculiar to the region, e.g. Acanthophis, Pseudechis, Notechis. Such a prepon- derance of poisonous over harmless snakes is found nowhere else in the world. Tasmania is tenanted by poisonous snakes only. In Australia we meet, therefore, with the interesting fact that, whilst it is closely allied to S. America, but totally distinct from India by its Chelonians, its lizards and colubrine snakes connect it with this latter region. With regard to the other Ophidians, they have their nearest allies partly in India, partly in Madagascar, partly in S. America; and the character of the Australian snake fauna consists chiefly in its peculiar composition, differing thereby more from the other equatorial regions than those do among them- selves. Wallace's line marks the boundary between India and Australia only as far as Chelonians are concerned, but it is quite effaced by the distribution of lizards and snakes. Thus in New Guinea lizards of the Indian region are mixed with Pygopodidae, and an island as far E. as Timorlaut is inhabited by snakes, some of which are peculiarly Indian, whilst the others are as decidedly Australian. The islands N. of New Guinea and of Melanesia are not yet occupied by the Ophidian type, and only species of Enygrus have penetrated eastwards as far as the Low Archipelago, whilst the Fiji Islands and the larger islands of Melanesia have sufficiently long been raised above the level of the sea to develop quite peculiar genera of snakes. Indian Region. — Of Crocodilia C, palusiris, the " mugger " or marsh crocodile, and C. porosus; Gavialis gangeticus ; Tomistoma schlegeli in Borneo, Malacca and Sumatra. Of tortoises Platy- sternum megacephalum, type of a family from Siam to S. China; many Trionychidae and Testudinidae, mostly aquatic; whilst the terrestrial Testudo is very scantily represented. One species which is common in the Indian peninsula (T. stellata) is so similar to an African species as to have been considered identical with it; the Burmese tortoise is also closely allied to it, and the two others extend far into western-central Asia. Thus this type is to be considered rather an immigrant from its present headquarters, Africa, than a survivor of the Indian Tertiary fauna, which com- f>rised the most extraordinary forms of land tortoises. Wallace's ine marks the E. boundary of Trionyx; species of this genus are common in Java and Borneo, and occur likewise in the Philippine Islands, but are not found in Celebes, Amboyna or any of the other islands E. of Wallace's line. Agamidae are exceedingly numerous, and are represented chiefly by arboreal forms, e.g. Draco {a. v.) is peculiar to the region, Ceratophora and Lyriocephalus exclusively Ceylonese; terrestrial forms, like Agama and Uromastix, inhabit the hot and sandy plains in the N.W., and pass uninterruptedly into the fauna of western-central Asia and Africa. The Geckonidae, Scincidae and Varanidae are likewise well represented, but without giving a characteristic feature to the region by special modification of the leading forms except the gecko Ptychozoon homalocephalum in Malaya. The Lacertidae are represented by one characteristic genus, Tachydromus—Ophiops and Cabrita being more developed Beyond the limits assigned to this region. Finally, the Euble- pharidae and Anguidae, families whose living representatives are probably the scattered remains of once widely and more generally distributed types, have retained respectively two species in W. India, and one in the Khasi Hills, whilst the presence of a single species of chameleon in S. India and Ceylon reminds us again of the relations of <"his part of the fauna to that of Africa. The Indian region excels all the other tropical countries in the great variety of genuine types and numbers of species of snakes. Boulenger 1 recognizes 267 species, i.e. about one-fifth of the total number of snakes known. India is the only country in the world possessing viperine, crotaline and elapine poisonous snakes (their proportion to harmless snakes being about I : 10), e.g. Vipera russelli, the " daboia " (see Viper); Lachesis, e.g. gramineus, an arboreal pit viper; Naja tripudians, the cobra; Bungarus coeruleus, the "krait"; Callophis; and Hydrophinae along the coasts of the whole region. Several sub-families and families are peculiar to the region: the Uropeltidae with Rhinophis in southern India, and Uropeltis confined to Ceylon; Ilysiidae in Ceylon and Malay Islands, elsewhere only in S. America ; the opisthoglyphous Elachis- todon westermanni of Bengal ; the Homalopsinae, with many species from Bengal to N. Australia; further the Amblycephalidae; Xenopeltis unicolor, sole type of a family; and the Acrochordinae, a sub-family of aglyphous Colubridae, ranging from the Khasi Hills to New Guinea. Of other Colubridae, we notice numerous Tropidonotus , Coronella and Zamenis, the latter one of the most characteristic types of the warmer parts of Eurasia. Tree-snakes, e.g. Dipsas and Dendrophis, are common. Of other families we note a great number of Typhlopidae, of which T. braminus occurs even on Christmas Island. Lastly various species of Python, but no Glauconiidae, the only family not represented in the Indian region, which claims the Uropeltidae, Xenopeltidae and Amblycephalidae as peculiar to itself. Gunther remarks that to this region Japan has to be referred. This is clearly shown by the presence of species of Ophites, Callophis, Trimeresurus s. Lachesis, Tachydromus, characteristically Indian forms, with which species of Clemmys, Trionyx, Gecko, Halys, and some Colubrines closely allied to Chinese and Central Asiatic species are associated. Halys is a central Asiatic pit viper. The few reptiles inhabiting the northern part of Japan are probably of palaearctic origin. The African Continent. — Of crocodiles, C. vulgaris in the E., C. cataphractus and Osteolaemus tetraspis in the W. There are many Chelonians, especially small land tortoises of Testudo, and with Cinyxis which is peculiar to this continent ; the freshwater Clemmys only in the N.W. corner; several genera of the pleurodirous Pelo- medusidae, Pelomedusa galeata, which is equatorial and southern, with an outlying occurrence in the Sinai peninsula, and Sternothaerus with several tropical and southern species; of Trionychidae the tropical Cycloderma and Cyclanorbis peculiar to the country, and the large Trionyx triunguis which ranges from the Senegal and Congo into the Nile system with its big lakes, but occurring also in Syria. Of Lacertilia the geckos and skinks, and the typically old world families of Lacertidae and Varanidae are well represented; also Amphisbaenidae ; Gerrhosauridae and Zonuridae, peculiar to Africa and Madagascar ; a few Eublepharinae and a few of the so-called Anelytropidae in West Africa. But the most important feature of this Lacertilian fauna is the almost universal distribution of chameleons in numerous and some highly specialized forms, Chame- leon and Rhampholeon. We note the entire absence of Iguanidae and of Anguidae, the latter represented by Ophisaurus only in the north-western corner. Of snakes only one sub-family is peculiar, the Rhachiodontinae with the sole species Dasypeltis scabra, the egg-swallowing snake. Many Typhlopidae and Glauconiidae, but no Ilysiidae; large pythons, Eryx in the N., and a boa, Pelophilus fordi in the W. of Africa. Of poisonous snakes there is an abundance, notably the Viperinae have their centre in this continent; besides Echis, which is also Indian, there are peculiar to the continent Bitis, the puff- adder, Causus, Atractaspis, Cerastes, and Atheris which is an arboreal genus, all of which see under Viper. The pit vipers are entirely absent. Elapinae are numerous, e.g. hooded cobras like Naja haje and Sepedon the " ringhals." Many opisthoglyphous tree snakes and a considerable number of innocuous colubrines, e.g. Lycodon, Psammophis and Coronella or closely allied genera all also in India, but Coluber-like forms and Tropidonotus are very scantily represented, chiefly in the N. On the whole the reptilian fauna of Africa is not rich, considering the huge size of the continent, but this may be accounted for by the great expanse of desert in the N. half and of veld in the S. Lastly, the enormous central forests are still scarcely explored. Madagascar and certain other islands have a fauna which is as remarkable for its deficiencies as it is for its present forms. The following well-defined groups are absent: Trionychidae and Chely- didae; Agamidae, Lacertidae, Anguidae, Amphisbaenidae, Varanidae and Eublepharinae; all the Viperidae and Elapinae, so that this large island enjoys perfect absence of poisonous snakes, not counting the practically harmless opisthoglyphous tree snakes; there are further no pythons and no ilysias. The actual fauna consists of: Crocodilus vulgaris, which is said to be extremely abundant; of Chelonians, Pelomedusa galeata and 1 The same authority enumerates 536 species of reptiles for British India, i.e. about one-sixth of all the recent species of reptiles (Fauna of British India, edit. W. T. Blanford, London, 1890). 174 REPTILES [DISTRIBUTION Sternothaerus, both also in Africa, Podocnemis, which elsewhere occurs in South America only, and several Testudinidae ; of these Pyxis is peculiar to Madagascar, while Testudo has furnished the gigantic tortoises of Aldabra, the Seychelles, and recently extinct in Mauritius and Madagascar. Of lizards are present a few Gerrho- sauridae and Zonuridae, both African types; the remarkable occurrence of two iguanid genera Chalarodon and Hoplurus, both peculiar to the island; skinks, many geckos, and Uroplates, sole type of the Uroplatinae and an abundance of chameleons, of the genera Chameleon, with Ch. parsoni, the giant of the family, and the small species of Brookesia, a genus peculiar to Madagascar. Of snakes we note Typhlopidae and Glauconiidae, and the remarkable occurrence of Bomae, two of the genus Boa (Pelophilus), one of Corallus on the main island and Casarea on Round Island. There are opisthoglyphous mostly arboreal snakes, and the rest are innocuous colubrines, some few with Indian and African affinities, e.g. Zamenis s. Ptyas, more with apparently S. American relation- ship, or at least with resemblance in taxonomic characters. An analysis of this peculiarly compound and deficient fauna gives surprising results, namely, the almost total absence of affinity with the Indian region, close connexion with Africa by the posses- sion of Gerrhosauridae, Zonuridae, Chameleons and Pelomedusidae ; lastly, the presence of several tree boas, of Podocnemis and of Iguani- dae, i.e. families and genera which we are accustomed to consider as typically neo-tropical. Peculiar to Madagascar, autochthonous and very ancient, is only Uroplates. Ancient are also the tortoises, chameleons, geckos, boas, typhlops, gerrhosaurids and zonurids. The absent families may be as ancient as the others, but most of them, notably Varanus, lacertids and agamids are of distinctly northern, palaeotropical origin, and we can conclude with certainty that they had not spread into S. Africa before Madagascar and its satellites became severed from the continent. Europe and Temperate Asia. — The present reptilian fauna of this vast area is composed almost entirely of the leavings of those groups which are now flourishing with manifold differentiations under more genial climes, in Africa and India. Fossils, none too numerous, tell us that it was not always thus, since crocodiles, alligators and long-snouted gavials, all the main groups of chelo- nians, iguanoids, &c, existed in England, the crocodilians persisting even towards the end of the Tertiary period. There are no crocodiles now in the Eurasian sub-region, excepting small survivors in the Jordan basin, on the borderland of Africa; but the Yang-tse-Kiang is inhabited by an alligator, A. sinensis, while all its congeners are now in America. This finds, to a certain extent, a parallel in Trionyx, of which one species lives in the Eu- phrates basin, likewise borderland, and another, T. maacki, in rivers of N. China, e.g. in the Amoor. Of other Chelonians we note several species of Testudo, two of them European; Emys europaea, chiefly in Europe, with the other species E. blandingi in the eastern United States ; and a few species of Clemmys, a truly periarctic genus. Of Lacertilia we exclude the chameleon. Of geckos Hemidac- tylus turcicus extends from Portugal to Karachi; Platydactylus facetanus is at home in most S. Mediterranean countries; Teratos- cincus is peculiar to the steppes and deserts of Turkestan and Persia; other geckos in the transitional region from Asia Minor to India. Of Lacertae we have Anguidae, Agamidae, Lacertidae, Amphisbaenidae and Scincidae, most of them in Europe represented by but one or two species. Thus Blanus cinereus in Mediterranean countries, Asia Minor and Syria, represents the Amphisbaenidae which are found nowhere else in Europe or Asia, but plentiful in Africa and both Americas. Of the Anguidae, Anguis fragilis is peculiar to Europe, Ophisaurus apus in S.E. Europe, another in Indo-Burman countries, with the rest of the species in N. America. Of Scincidae few in Europe, e.g. Chalcides s. Seps s. Gongylus, others from Asia Minor eastwards, e.g. Scincus, and Ablepharus in Turke- stan. Agamidae do not occur in Europe but they exist in considerable numbers from Asia Minor and Turkestan to China, with Phryno- cephalus peculiar to central Asia. Lastly, the Lacertidae, of which several species of Lacerta, Psammodromus, Acanthodactylus in Europe, but the majority in Africa and warmer parts of India; in a similar manner the Manchurian forms are related to Chinese. The total number of palaearctic snakes amounts to about sixty, the majority living in the Mediterranean countries and in W. Asia. One Typhlops in the Balkan peninsula and in W. Asia, in Persia also Glauconia; Eryx jaculus extends into Greece from S.W. Asia as sole representative of the Boidae. Several vipers, the common viper, V. berus, from Wales to Saghalien Island, V. aspis, V. latastei and V. ammodytes in S. Europe; a pit viper, Ancistrodon, e.g. halys, in the Caspian district, thence this genus through China and again in N. America. Echis extends N. into Turkestan. The Indian cobra ranges N. to Transcaspia and far into China. All the other snakes belong to the aglyphous and opisthoglyphous Colubridae; of the latter Coelopeltis is peculiar to S. Europe and S.W. Asia; Macro- protodon cucullatus to S. Spain, the Balearic Islands and N. Africa; Tephrometopon peculiar to Turkestan and neighbouring countries; none extending into E. Asia. Of the aglyphous colubrines the most characteristic genus is Zamenis incl. Zaocys, very widely spread and including more species than any other palaearctic genus; several species of the wide-ranging genus Tropidonotus, besides Coluber, with Rhinechis scalaris in S.W. Europe. There are, besides, other genera, especially in the debatable countries of S.W. Asia, Persia and Afghanistan, and speaking generally the colubrines show less affinity to African than to Indian forms, just as we should expect from the prevailing geographical conditions. If it were not for the N.W. corner of Africa and portion of its N. coast, the European fauna would have very little in common with Africa. North America.— Of this huge continent only the United States and Mexico come into consideration, since N. of 45° latitude reptilian life is very scarce. The area, however, with these restrictions, is larger than the Indian and Malay countries, and larger than the Australian region. Yet the fauna is comparatively poor, very poor indeed, if it were not for Mexico and the Sonoran province, which seems to be the ancient centre of distribution of much of the present typically N. American fauna. Characteristic of the area is the abundance of Chelonians and Iguanidae, to which Tejidae have to be added in the S.; equally characteristic is the complete absence of Pleurodirous Chelonians, of Chameleons, Agamidae, Lacertidae, Varanidae and Viperinae. The fauna is composed as follows: Crocodilia, with Crocodilus americanus and Alligator mississippiensis in the S. Of Chelonians the Chelydridae, peculiar to the E. half but for the reappearance of a species of Chelydra in Central America; many Cinosternidae like- wise almost peculiar to the area; of Testudinidae an abundance of freshwater forms, notably Chrysemys, 'and Emys in common with Europe, whilst terrestrial tortoises are extremely scanty, namely one species of Testudo, T. ■polyphemus, the gopher, and two of Cistudo, e.g. C. Carolina; lastly, two Trionyx in the whole of the Mississippi basin and thence N. into Lake Winnipeg, 51 ° N. Lacer- tilia: Geckos are very scarce; N. America has received only Sphaerodactylus notatus from the Antilles into Florida, and Phyllo- dactylus tuberculosus into California from the Pacific side of Mexico; Eublepharinae are absent. Of Iguanidae we have a typically Sonoran set, e.g. Crotaphytus, Holbrookia, Uta, Phrynosoma, Scelo- porus, and a S. set of which only Anolis extends out of the tropics. It is significant that only a few species of Sceloporus and Phrynosoma extend into the United States, although far N. ; of the large genus Anolis only A. carolinensis enters Texas to Carolina. Sceloporus may be called the most characteristic genus of Sonoraland and Mexico. Of the tropical family of Tejidae only Cnemidophorus, with many species in Mexico, a few in the adjoining N. states, and with C. sexlineatus over the greater part of the Union. Anguidae: Ophisaurus ventralis in the United States; the other species in the Old World. Diploglossus peculiar to mountains of Mexico. Gerrho- notus, the main genus, centred in Mexico, but G. coeruleus ranges from Costa Rica along the Pacific side right into British Columbia, the most northern instance of a New World reptile. Xenosaurus grandis of Mexican mountains is the monotype of a family, and the same would apply to Heloderma (H. suspectum, the Gila monster of the hottest lowland parts of Arizona and New Mexico ; and H. horridum of Mexico) if it were not for Lanthanotus of Borneo. Scincidae: of this cosmopolitan family America possesses the smallest number, and it is significant that the number of species decreases from N. to S. ; Eumeces from Minnesota and Massachusetts through Mexico, with many species, and Lygosoma s. Mocoa laterale from S.E. and Central States to Mexico. Xantusiidae, a small family, is composed of a N. or Sonoran and a S. or Central American-Antillean group; e.g. Xantusia of the deserts of Nevada and California. Amelia, monotype of a family of California to El Paso, Texas, i.e. peculiar to Sonoraland, Amphisbaenidae with Rhineura in Florida and the marvellous Chirotes in Lower California and the Pacific side of Mexico ; the other members of this family are tropical so far as America is concerned. Snakes: of Typhlopidae only Anomalepis mexicana, peculiar to Nuevo Leon; of Glauconiidae several extending N. into Texas and Florida. Boinae continue N. as the arenicolous Lichanura of Lower California and Arizona, and the likewise arenicolous Charina boltae which extends from California to the state of Washington; the other members of the family are all tropical, extra-regional. Of Viperidae only pit vipers occur, but of them rattlesnakes cover the whole of the habitable area; Ancistrodon, without a rattle, e.g. the moccasin snake and the water viper, has other species in central and E. Asia. Of Elapinae, far into the E. United .States only the genus Elaps with a few species, of which E. fuhius, the commonest, ranges from S. Brazil far into the S. "and E. states. A few opis- thoglyphous, terrestrial, snakes just enter the United States from Mexico, e.g. Trimorphodon. Of aglyphous colubrines species of genera like or resembling Tropidonotus, Coronella and Coluber, in- cluding Pityophis and Spilotes, are abundant, the latter being very characteristic; Ischnognathus and Contia, Ficimia and Zamenis likewise are clearly nearctic, or Sonoran. The Greater Antilles have essentially neotropical, i.e. Central American and S. American affinities, but there is also some Sonoran infusion. — There is Crocodilus americanus; no Chelonians are natives except one or two Chrysemys. Of Lacertilia, geckos are abundant; of Iguanidae several arboreal forms, notably the large Iguana, and Metopoceras of Haiti, and Cyclura, both peculiar; of Anguidae Celestus, peculiar, but closely allied to Diploglossus; of Xantusiidae the peculiar genus Cricosaura s. Cricolepis. Of DISTRIBUTION] REPTILES 175 Amphisbaenidae Amphisbaena itself occurs in Puerto Rico and on the Virgin Islands. Of Tejidae only Ameiva, not Cnemidophorus. Snakes : a Typhlops in Puerto Rico ; of boas Epicrates, Ungalia and Corallus, the latter re-occurring in Madagascar. Absent are: Viperidae, Elapinae and Opisthoglyphs ; of aglyphous colu- brines the Central American genera Urotheca, Dromicus, Drymobius and Leptophis ; the genera of distinctly northern origin. South and Central America. — The fauna is very rich. It is advisable first to mention those groups which are either confined to Central America (including the hot lowlands of Mexico), e.g. the Dermatemydidae, Eublepharinae, Anelytropsis and the aglyphous colubrines: Urotheca, Dromicus, Drymobius, Leptophis, Rhadinea, Streptophorus, or which, from their N. centre have sent some genera into Central America, or beyond into the S. continent : e.g. Chelydra rossignoni, ranging from Guatemala to Ecuador; one Cinosternum extending into Guiana; Testudo tabulata, the only terrestrial tortoise of S. America, besides the gigantic creatures of the Gala- pagos Islands; a few Eublepharinae reaching Ecuador; of Anguidae Gerrhonotus coeruleus, extending S. to Costa Rica; of Scincidae, Mabuia and Lygosoma, which extend far into S. America, and the same applies to the Amphisbaenidae. Immigrants from the N. are probably also the Iguanidae, although they have found a congenial home in the S. countries, where they are now represented by an abundance of genera and species, e.g. Laemanctus and Corytho- phanes of Mexico, Anolis, Iguana, Basiliscus, Ctenosaura, Polychrus, Hoplurus, Chalaroddn. Amongst snakes the following appear to be of N. origin: Boidae (with the Pythonine Loxocaemus bicolor in Mexico), in spite of their great development of boas and anacondas in the S. ; certainly Crotalinae, of which only one species, C. terrificus, is found in S. America; further, some aglyphous colubrines, which have sent a few species only into Central, and still fewer into S. America,* e.g. Tropidonotus, Ischnognathus, Contia* Ficimia, Coluber, Spilotes, Pityophis, Coronella* and Zamenis. After these numerous restrictions we should expect the genuine autochthonous fauna of the S. American continent to be very scanty, especially if we remember those important Old World groups which are absent in America, e.g. Varanidae, Lacertidae, Agamidae and chameleons, and that Central and S. America have no Triony- chidae. The oldest S. American reptilian fauna is composed as follows. It is the only part of the world which possesses Chelydidae in abundance, e.g. of Chelys the Matamata, Hydromedusa, and of Pelomedusidae, Podocnemis, which re-occurs in Madagascar. Cro- codilia are represented by Crocodilus americanus and C. moreleti in the N. and by about five species of Caiman. Of Lacertilia geckos are rather few, mostly in the N.W. of the continent, more numerous in Central America and the Antilles. The Tejidae are clearly a neotropical family, with several dozen genera in S. America; of all these, only Ameiva and the closely allied Cnemidophorus extend through and beyond Central America: Ameiva into the E. and W. hot lands of Mexico and into the Antilles, Cnemidophorus through Mexico far into most of the United States with a few species. Of snakes there is an abundance. Typhlopidae and Glauconiidae are well represented. Of aglyphous colubrines many genera, some of these extending northwards into Mexico, but not to the Antilles, e.g. Atractes, Tropidodipsas, Dirosema, Geophis, Xenodon. Opisthoglypha are very numerous in genera and species both in S. and Central America, whence many of the arboreal forms extend into the hot countries of Mexico, while a few terrestrials have spread over the plateau and thence into the United States, none entering the Antilles; such typical neotropical genera are Himan- todes, Leptodira, Oxyrhopus, Erythrolamprus, Conophis, Scolecophis, Homalocranium, Petalognathus, Leptognathus. Most of the Ambly- cephalidae are neotropical, the others in S.E. Asia. Of Elapinae only the genus Elaps occurs, but with many species. Of the Cro- talinae, Lachesis is the essentially neotropical genus, with many species, some of which enter the hot lands of Mexico, e.g. L. lansbergi s. lanceolatus, a very widely distributed species, the only pit viper which has entered the Lower Antilles. The above survey of the world shows that but very few of the principal families of reptiles are peculiar to only one of the main regions." The occurrence of some freak, constituting a little family or sub-family by itself in some small district, and therefore put down as peculiar to a whole wide region, cannot be much of a criterion, e.g. Rhachiodon, Elachistodon, Acrochordinae, Uroplates, Xenosaurus, Heloderma, Aniellidae, Dibamus, Anelytropidae, Platysternum. They are not characteristic of large countries, but rather local freaks. Quite a number of very ancient families have such a wide distribution that they also are of little critical value, notably the peropodous snakes, which have survivors in almost any tropical country; such cosmopolitans are also geckos and skinks. A difficulty which is ever present in such zoogeographical in- vestigations is the uncertainty as to whether our zoological families and sub-families and even genera are genuine units, or heterogeneous compounds, as for instance the Anelytropidae, of which degraded skinks there is one in Mexico, two others in W. Africa. Heloderma in Mexico and Lanthanotus in Borneo are both without much doubt descendants of some Anguid stock, but when we now combine them, in deference to our highest authority, as one family, we thereby raise the tremendous problem of the present distribution of this family. Boas and pythons are likewise not above suspicion, cf. some boas in Madagascar and the python Loxocaemus in Mexico. The opisthoglyphous colubrines are almost certainly not a natural group, not to speak of numerous genera of the aglyphous assembly. To avoid arguing in a circle, such doubtful units had better be avoided whilst building hypotheses. G. Pfeffer has recently endeavoured to show by an elaborate careful paper (" Zoogeographische Beziehungen Siidamerikas," Zool. Jahrb., Suppl. viii., 1905), " that nearly all the principal groups of reptiles, amphibians and fishes had formerly a universal or sub- universal distribution, and that therefore it is not necessary to assume a direct land connexion of S. America with either Africa or Australia, with or without an Antarctic." Many cases of such a former universal distribution are undoubtedly true, but the question remains how the respective creatures managed to attain it. For true characterization of large areas we must resort to the combination of some of the large wide-ranging families, and equally important is the absence of certain large groups; both to be selected from the following table. i < £4 MS 1 3 W 4 3! a S3 'V 3 S bo ■§4 •93 4 Chelydridae l . + + O Testudinidae . o 2 + + + + + + Chelydidae + + Pelomedusidae + + + Trionychidae + + + + Chamaeleonidae + + Varanidae s + + + Agamidae + + + + Iguanidae + + + + Lacertidae + + + Zonuridae ) Gerrhosauridae > + + Anguidae + + + + + 3 + Amphisbaenidae + + + 6 + 4 + Tejidae .... + + Pygopodidae . + Viperinae + + + Crotalinae + + + 6 + Elapinae + + + 6 + + + 1 Including the related Dermatemydidae and Cinosternidae. 2 With an exception. 3 Entering, or in the borderland. 4 Mediterranean countries. 6 Rhineura ; formerly wider distribution. 6 In Asia. Deductions from this table show, for instance, that Australia is quite sufficiently characterized by the possession of Chelydidae and Varanidae; Madagascar by the presence of chameleons and Pelomedusidae. On the other hand, the separation of the whole of Africa from Asia, or the diagnosis of the palaearctic " region," would require the combination of several positive and negative characters. Chelonians are very diagnostic, expressed by the following com- binations of families : — America as a whole: Chelydridae and Cinosterridae and Der- matemydidae. N. America: Chelydridae and Trionychidae, but only E. of the Rockies. * S. America : Chelydidae and Pelomedusidae. Africa: Trionychidae and Pelomedusidae. Madagascar: Pelomedusidae and Testudinidae. India and Eurasia : Trionychidae and Testudinidae. Australia : Chelydidae only. That the Chelonians are regionally so very diagnostic that their main families are still in rational agreement with the main divisions of land, is perhaps due, first, to their being an ancient group ; secondly, to their limited means of distribution (none across the seas, omitting of course Cheloniidae, &c.) ; and lastly, to their being rather in- different to climate. Note, for instance, Trionyx ferox from the Canadian lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, Cinosternum pennsylvanicum from New York to New Orleans. It may be taken for certain that wherever a Testudo occurs as a genuine native, it has got there by land, be the locality the Galapagos, Aldabra, Madagascar or some Malay islands. The Trionychidae reveal themselves as of periarctic origin, being debarred from Australia, Madagascar and the neotropical region (alleged from Eocene Patagonia). Testu- dinidae are cosmopolitan, excluding Australia, and practically also the Antilles; and Testudo is most instructive with its almost similar distribution; but something has gone wrong with this genus in America, where it flourished in mid-Tertiary times. Pleurodira are less satisfactory than they appear to be from a merely statistical point of view. The Pelomedusidae, being known from European Trias and from nearctic cretaceous formations, 176 REPTON— REPUBLIC may have had a world-wide distribution; but Chelydidae may well have centred in an antarctic continent. Chelydridae were periarctic and have disappeared from Eurasia; N. American offshoots are the Cinosterridae and Dermatemydidae, the latter now restricted to Central American countries. Crocodilia, probably once universal, afford through the Chinese alligator an instance of the original intimate connexion of the whole holarctic region, paralleled by many other animals which now happen to be restricted to E. Asia and to eastern N. America. Lacerhlia are less satisfactory for short diagnoses. America alone combines Iguanidae and Tejidae: — N. America: Iguanidae, Anguidae, Tejidae (and Rhineura in Florida). S. America: Iguanidae, Anguidae, Tejidae and many Amphis- baenidae. Africa and Madagascar : Chameleons and Zonuridae and Gerrho- sauridae. Madagascar: Chameleons and Iguanidae. India : Varanidae, Agamidae and Lacertidae, all of which also in Africa. Australia alone has Pygopodidae. The Lacertilia are now distributed upon principles very different from those of the tortoises. According to the lizards the world is divided into an E. and a W. half. The W. alone has Iguanidae and Tejidae, the E. alone that important combination of Varanidae and Agamidae. Further subdivision is in most cases possible only by exclusion, e.g. exclusion of Lacertilia and chameleons _ from Australia; of Varanidae and Agamidae from Madagascar. Lizards are rather susceptible to climatic conditions, infinitely more than water tortoises. As regards Ophidia, America has Crotalinae and Elapinae, but no Viperinae. Eurasia and India alone combines Viperinae, Crotalinae and Elapinae. Africa, Viperinae and Elapinae but no Crotalinae. Australia only Elapinae. Madagascar none of these groups. The Viperinae must have had their original centre in the palae- arctic countries, and they have been debarred only from Australia and Madagascar. Both vipers ' and pit vipers are still in Asia, but true vipers are absent in America, with their fullest develop- ment now in Africa, whilst pit vipers went E., covering now the whole of America, and having developed the rattlesnakes in Sonora- land. The Elapinae are undoubtedly of Asiatic origin; they have overrun Africa, were too late for Madagascar, but early enough for Australia, where they are only poisonous snakes; and only one genus, Elaps, has got into, or rather, has differentiated in America, in the S. of which it is abundant. Opisthoglypha are useless for our purpose; they are cosmopolitan, with the exception of Australia, but probably they have one ancient centre in S. America, and another in the old world. Amblycephalidae afford another of those curious instances of apparent affinity between S.E. Asia and Central America; paral- leled by Pelamis bicolor, which ranges from Madagascar to Panama, while all the other Hydrophinae belong to the Indian Ocean and the E. Asiatic seas. Aglyphous Colubrines show undoubted affinity between N. America and Eurasia; the whole group is absolutely cosmopolitan, and many of the genera, e.g. Coluber, Tropidonotus and Coronella, have proved their success by having acquired an enormous range. Snakes have comparatively few enemies, and they possess exceptional means of distribution. It is rare for a terrestrial species to have such a wide range as Crotalus terrificus, from Arizona to Argentina, or as the India cobra, which, like the tiger, is equally at home in Malay islands, Manchuria and Turkestan. The tortoises divide the habitable world into a S. and a_N. world, much as do the anurous Batrachians; the lizards split it into an E. and a W. hemisphere. The poisonous' snakes, the most recent of reptiles in their full development and distribution, allow us to distinguish between Australia, America and the rest of the world. (H. F. G.) REPTON, a village in the S. parliamentary division of Derby- shire, England, 8 m. S.W. of Derby, on the Midland railway. Pop. (1001) 1695. It is famous for its school, founded in 1557 by Sir John Port, of the neighbouring village of Etwall, which has valuable entrance scholarships, and two leaving exhibitions to the universities annually. The number of boys is about 300. The school buildings are modern, but incorporate considerable portions of an Augustinian priory established in 1 1 7 2. There was an ecclesiastical establishment on this site in the 7th century, the first bishop of Mercia being established here. This was destroyed by the Danes in 874. In the second half of the 10th century, during the reign of Edgar, another church was founded. The existing parish church of St Wystan retains pre-Conquest work in the chancel, beneath which is a remarkably fine vaulted crypt, probably dating from the reign of Edgar, its roof sup- ported on fluted columns. The monastery was dissolved by Henry VIII. REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common- Wealth), a term now universally understood to mean a state v or polity, in which the head of the government is elective, and in which those things which are the interest of all are decided upon by all. This is notoriously a very modern interpretation of the term. In the ancient world of Greece and Rome the franchise was in the hands of a minority, who were surrounded by, and who governed, a majority composed of men personally free but not possessed of the franchise, and of slaves. Modern writers have often used respublica, and literal translation, as meaning only the state, even when the head was an absolute king, provided that he held his place according to law and ruled by law. " Republic," to quote one example only of many, was so used by Jean Bodin, whose treatise, commonly known by its Latin name De Republica Libri Sex, first appeared in French in 1577. Englishmen of the middle ages habitually spoke of the commonwealth of England, though they had no conception that they could be governed except by a king with hereditary right. The coins of Napoleon bear the inscription " Republique francaise, Napoleon Empereur." Except as an arbitrary term of art, or as a rhetorical expression, " republic " has, however, always been understood to mean a state in which the head holds his place by the choice of his subjects. Poland was a republic because its king had in earlier times to be accepted, and in later times was chosen by a democracy composed of gentry. Venice was a republic, though after the " closing of the great council " the franchise was confined to a strictly limited aristocracy, which was itself in practice dominated by a small oligarchy. The seven states which formed the confederation of the United Netherlands were republics from the time they renounced their allegiance to Philip II., though they chose to be governed by a stadtholder to whom they delegated large powers, and though the choice of the stadtholder was made by a small body of burghers who alone had the franchise. The varieties are many. What, however, is emphatically not a republic is a state in which the ruler can truly tell his subjects that the sovereignty resides in his royal person, and that he is king, or tsar, " pure and absolute," by the grace of God, even though he may hasten to add that " absolute " is not " despotic," which means government without regard to law. The case of Great Britain, where the king reigns theoretically by the grace of God, but in fact by a parliamentary title and under the Act of Settle- ment, is, like the whole British constitution, unique. There is in fact a fundamental incompatibility between the conceptions of government as a commonwealth and as an institution based on a right superior to the people's will. Where the two views endeavour to live together one of two things must happen. The ruler will confiscate the rights of the community to himself and will become the embodiment of sovereignty, which is what happened in most of the states of Europe at the close of the middle ages; or the community, acting through some body politic which is its virtual representative, will confine the head of the government to defined functions. The question of representation is dealt with separately (see Representation), but the conception of a republic in which all males, who do not belong to an inferior and barbarous race, share in the suffrage is one which would never have been accepted in the ancient or medieval world, for it is based on a foundation of which they knew nothing, — the political rights of man. When the Scottish reformer John Knox based his claim to speak on the government of the realm on the fact that he was " a subject born within the same " he advanced a pretension very new to his generation. But it was one which was fated to achieve a great fortune. The right of the subject, simply as a member of the community, to a voice in the community in which he was born, and on which his happiness depended, implied all " the rights of man " as they were to be stated by the American Declaration of Independence, and again by the French in 1789. As they could be vindicated only by revolt against monarchical governments in the old world and the new, and as they were incompatible with all the convictions which make monarchy possible, they embodied REPUBLICAN PARTY 177 themselves in the modern democratic republics of Europe and America. It is a form of government not much more like the republic of antiquity and the middle ages than the French sans- culottes was like Harmodius and Aristogeiton, whom he admired for being what they most decidedly were not — believers in equality and fraternity. But it does, subject to the imper- fections of human nature, set up a government in which all, theoretically at least, have a voice in what concerns all. REPUBLICAN PARTY. Of the three important American parties which have called themselves Republican, 1 this article deals only with that one which was organized during the years 1854 to 1856 and has been in control of the government of the United States during the larger portion of the half century since the presidential election of i860 Origin and Character. — Sectionalism, the movement which tended to break the Union into two separate republics, one based on free labour, the other on that of slaves, had gained before the middle of the 19th century such headway as to compel a reconstruction of the party system. The beginning of this reconstruction was heralded by the rise of the Liberty party (q.v.), in 1840, its completion by the disruption in i860 of the Democratic party along sectional lines, and the election of Abraham Lincoln by a sectional vote. The event which determined the date of the birth of the Republican party was the repeal by the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854 of that provision of the Compromise of 1820 which excluded slavery from national territory N. of the geographical line 36° 30' and the formal substitution in that bill of " squatter " for national sovereignty, in deciding the question of slavery in the Territories. The enactment of this bill introduced a new and highly critical stage in the relations between North and South. Down to 1850 the differences of the two sections over slavery had always been arranged by mutual concessions. In 1854 this expedi- ent was set aside. Without giving anything in return, Douglas and his supporters took from the free-labour section an invalu- able barrier against the extension of slavery: and through the doctrine of " squatter sovereignty " denied to Congress the power to erect such barriers in the future. But this only hast- ened a crisis that could not have been greatly delayed. Cal- houn had already discerned the true source and deadly nature of the growing Sectional estrangement, and Lincoln was soon to utter the prophetic words: "This government cannot endure permanently, half slave and half free." The immediate result of the agitation over the repeal was to convince a large number — which soon became a majority— of the best citizens of the North, irrespective of party, that the restriction of slavery was essential to the well-being both of the North and of the Union as a whole. In order to give effect to this conviction it was necessary to form a new party. The agitation which prepared the way for its rise began in Congress during the debates on the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, and spread thence throughout the North. The West was more quickly responsive than the East. But everywhere large elements of the existing parties came together and agreed to unite in resisting the extension of slavery. Before the discussion of the repeal in Congress had reached its later stages, a mass meeting of Whigs, Democrats and Free Soilers at Ripon, Wis- consin, resolved that if the Kansas-Nebraska Bill should pass: " They would throw old party organizations to the winds and organize a new party on the sole issue of the non-extension of slavery." The name Republican was formally adopted at a state convention of the new party held at Jackson, Michigan, on the 6th of July 1834, and by other Western state conven- tions on the 13th of the same month. The great majority of the new party had been either Whigs or Democrats. In two cardinal points they were agreed, namely, opposition to slavery and belief in the national, as opposed to the federative, nature of the Union. In other points there was at the beginning much disagreement. For- 1 The party organized by Thomas Jefferson; the National Republicans, 1824-1834; and the Republican party of the present. tunately the issues on which there was agreement overshadowed all others long enough to bring about a fusing of the two ele- ments. It was the union of the Whig who believed in making government strong and its sphere wide, with the Democrat who believed in the people and the people's control of govern- ment, that made the Republican party both efficient and popular. History. — Before its advent to power, from 1854 to i860, the tasks of the Republican party were three: to propagate the doctrine of slavery restriction by Congressional action; to oppose the extension of slavery under the operation of the doctrine of squatter sovereignty; and to obtain control of the Federal government. In each it was successful. Through- out the North and under such leaders as Seward, Lincoln, Chase, Sumner, Henry Ward Beecher and Horace Greeley, all the resources of the press, the platform, the pulpit and (an institu- tion then powerful but now forgotten) the lyceum or citizens' debating club, were fully enlisted in the propaganda. Other events that turned to the advantage of the Republicans were the brutal assault upon Charles Sumner in the Senate Chamber in 1856, the Ostend Manifesto, advising in the interest of slavery the acquisition of Cuba by force if Spain should refuse to sell, the enforcement — sometimes brutal and always hateful — of the Fugitive Slave Law (q.v.), and the quarrel of Douglas with the administration and the South over the application of Squatter sovereignty to Kansas. On the other hand, the decision of the Supreme Court in the case of Dred Scott, which the Re- publicans refused to accept as good law, and the raid of John Brown at Harper's Ferry, which they condemned, brought them into serious embarrassment. In the prosecution of the third task, the attainment of office, the party followed wise counsels and was fortunate. In its first national platform, that of 1856, the party affirmed its adherence to the principles of Washington and Jefferson, denied the constitutional right of Congress or a Territory to establish slavery, and declared that it was " both the right and duty of Congress to prohibit in the Territories those twin relics of barbarism, polygamy and slavery." At the close of the resolutions there was a demand for government aid to a Pacific railway and for the improvement of rivers and harbours. The platform of i860 was more comprehensive. It added to the planks of the first, an arraignment of the administration and the Dred Scott decision, and demands for a protective tariff and a homestead act. Although the popular vote for Abraham Lincoln was more than a half-million greater than that for John C. Fremont, the party's candidate in 1856, never- theless it was the disruption of the Democratic party that made the Republican triumph possible. On the other hand, the Republican party was the strongest member of the new party system as reorganized on the sectional principle. Moreover, in character and purpose, as well as numerical strength, it was better qualified than its rivals to meet the impending crisis. The War Period, 1861-1865. — Between the election of Mr Lincoln in November i860, and his inauguration on the following 4th of March, seven of the slave-holding states seceded, formed a Confederacy and withdrew their representatives from the national legislature. All attempts to arrange a compromise failed. The vacillation of President Buchanan, and the position taken in his annual message that the national government had no right to coerce a seceding state, gave strong support to the disunion movement. These events forced upon the Republican party a change of policy. Hitherto its efforts had been directed chiefly to excluding slavery from the Territories. Now the first duty was to save the Union from disruption. In order to do this it was necessary to unite the North, and to bring to the support of the Union a large proportion of those border slave states, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee and Missouri, in which there was considerable Union sentiment. Hence the party laid aside completely the earlier issue of slavery restriction and accepted as the sole issue of the hour the main- tenance of the Union. Indeed, in order to secure more easily the co-operation of loyal Democrats, it even gave up its own name for a time and called itself the Union party. 178 REPUBLICAN PARTY During the early period of the war the President checked all efforts on the part of zealous subordinates, civil and military, to make the war for the Union even incidentally a war upon slavery. In his efforts to unionize the border states Mr Lincoln in March 1862 urged that Congress should co-operate with any state in providing for a voluntary, gradual and compensated emancipation. Congress acceded, but not one of the border states would undertake emancipation. Many of the Republican leaders rejected the border state policy of the President and urged a more radical course towards slavery. In replying to Horace Greeley, who voiced the discontent in a public letter, to which he gave the title, The Prayer of Twenty Millions of People, Mr Lincoln in August 1862 wrote: " My paramount object is to save the Union and not either to save or destroy slavery." But as evidence accumulated that slavery was a strong military support of the Confederacy the policy of destroying slavery as a means of saving the Union grew in favour. To this policy Mr Lincoln on the 22nd of September 1862 com- mitted himself, the Republican party and the cause of the Union. The first response was distinctly unfavourable. The immediate effect was " to unite the South and divide the North." A considerable element of the Democratic party became disloyal, while the party as a whole opposed all measures looking to the destruction of slavery. The autumn elections greatly reduced the Republican majority in Congress. But the new policy steadily gained ground until the Republican party in its third national convention, which met on the 7th of June 1864, resolved: " that as slavery was the cause and now constitutes the strength of this rebellion, justice and national safety demand its utter and complete extirpation from the soil of the republic." In the following year slavery was finally abolished by the Thirteenth Amendment. On the Republican party, since it had an effective majority in each house of Congress, rests the responsibility for the legisla- tion of the war period. The theory of loose construction of the Constitution was accepted. Throughout the Civil War, Congress, proceeding upon this theory, made prompt provision for the prosecution of the war. It passed Legal Tender Acts; it established a system of national banks; greatly raised the tariff rates; and in order to hasten the settlement of the Far West and to make that section an integral part of the Union, it passed a Homestead Act and an act providing for a railway to the Pacific. For a time, while disloyalty was most rife in the North, there was a sharp curtailment of the rights of the individual citizen through the suspension, initiated by the President and approved by Congress, of the writ of Habeas Corpus. Most of the acts, which their opponents held to be violations of the Constitution, were in general acts of question- able utility. The results of the war, which came to a close early in 1865, vindicated in a signal way the principles, policies and leadership of the Republican party. It had saved the Union; it had established the national character of the Union so firmly as to bring to an end the doctrine of the right of secession; and it had destroyed slavery. The party had been singularly fortunate in its founders and leaders. Of these three were pre-eminent: Horace Greeley, William H. Seward and Abraham Lincoln — Greeley in the field of journalism, Seward in the two realms of idealistic and practical politics, and, greatest of all, Abraham Lincoln who won and held the people. Reconstruction. — The larger tasks of the period from the close of the Civil War in 1865 to the inauguration of Rutherford B. Hayes in 1877 were three: first, to accomplish with the least possible disturbance the transition from war to peace; second, to settle certain matters of dispute with France and England that had arisen during the progress of the war; and third, to reconstruct the South. Full responsibility for the way in which these tasks were discharged rests upon the Republican party, for it was in control of the presidency and the Senate throughout the period and of the House until December 1875. In the first and second it was notably successful. The soldiers of North and South returned at once to the fields of productive labour. The colossal war establishment was quickly reduced to the requirements of peace. The French withdrew from Mexico. The Alabama Claims were submitted to arbitration. But the reconstruction of the South proved difficult in the extreme. The strain of a prolonged and exhausting war, the upheaval of emancipation, and the utter collapse of the Confederate government, had thrown the elements of social, economic and civil life in the South into almost hopeless disorder. To restore these to normal relations and working was but part of the task; the other and more important part was to apply those methods of reconstruc- tion which would tend to make one nation out of hitherto discordant sections. In his third annual message, Dec. 8th, 1863, Lincoln brought forward the so-called presidential plan of reconstruction. This was rejected on the ground that recon- struction was a Congressional rather than an executive function; and on the 4th of July 1864 Congress passed a bill making Congress instead of the president the chief agent in the work of reconstruction. President Johnson adopted Lincoln's plan, and put it into operation with such vigour that when Congress met in December 1865 all the states that had seceded were quite or nearly ready to demand the readmission of their represen- tatives to the House and Senate. From the standpoint of party the situation was highly critical. The men whom the newly reconstructed states had sent to Washington represented the old South and would naturally join the opposition. Although the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery, was assured, and a fort- night later was officially proclaimed, nevertheless the recon- structed legislatures were busy enacting police regulations which, in the opinion of most Republicans, threatened to re- enslave the freedmen. With an earnestness like that which the party in earlier days had shown in opposing the extension of slavery, it now resolved to secure full civil rights to the freedmen. Another consideration of great weight in shaping party policy was the need of maintaining the rights of Congress against executive encroachment. Owing to the war and Lincoln's ■masterful personality, the presidency had gained in prestige at the expense of Congress. The tendency thus established would be strengthened to a dangerous degree, it was thought, if the President were to take the leading part in reconstructing as well as in saving the Union. There now took place within the party a change of great importance. Hitherto the conservatives, represented by such leaders as Lincoln and Seward, had always won in struggles with the radical elements; but now the tide changed, and the radicals who were more narrowly national and more strongly partisan gained control, and ruled the party to the end of the period. This revolution within the Republican party between the years 1865 and 1867 was fostered by a marked re- crudescence of sectional feeling in the North, and by the character of the successor of President Lincoln and of the party leaders in Congress. President Johnson while eminently patriotic and courageous, was tactless and imprudent to the last degree. Mr Sumner, the leader of the Senate, was not conciliatory in manner, and while incapable of revengeful feeling seemed more con- siderate of the freedman than of the Southern white. Thaddeus Stevens, whose influence over the House of Representatives was stronger than that of Sumner over the Senate, regarded the South as " a conquered province," and his personal feelings towards the ruling class of the South were harshly vindictive. The policy adopted by the Republican majority in each house of Congress was to refuse admission to the men chosen by the states that had been reconstructed under the presidential plan, until a joint- committee of both houses should investigate conditions in the South. In this rebuff there was distinct intimation of a purpose to set aside altogether .the reconstructive work of the President. Congress proceeded at once to enact measures to continue and extend the earlier temporary provision for helpless freedmen whom emancipation had set adrift, and to give them full civil rights. By passing the Fourteenth Amendment in June 1866 Congress committed itself to the policy of securing the civil rights of the negro by constitutional guarantee. Each of these acts was vetoed by the President, between whom and REPUBLICAN PARTY 179 Congress political disagreement ripened soon into bitter enmity. ' As the quarrel developed Congress ignored the recommendations of the President, repassed by the requisite majority and without due consideration of his objections each measure that he vetoed, took from him the power to remove subordinates which had been exercised by his predecessors, deprived him of his constitutional rights as commander-in-chief of the army, and finally in 1868 undertook to drive him from office by impeach- ment. In 1867 Congress, under the control of the radical wing of the Republican party, set aside nearly all reconstructive work that had been accomplished previously and put into execution a plan of its own, under which the Southern States were reconstructed anew and admitted to representation in Congress between the years 1867 and 1870. Inevitable consequences of the Con- gressional plan of reconstruction were: first, the erection of state governments that were inefficient, corrupt, ruinously wasteful and shamefully oppressive; second, the extreme demoralization of the freedmen suddenly transformed from slaves into rulers of their former masters; third, the demoraliza- tion, in many cases also extreme, of the great body of the Southern whites by the expedients to which they resorted in order to escape from the rule of the freedman, led by the " Carpet Bagger " his Northern, and the " Scalawag " his Southern, white ally; fourth, the alienation of the white and coloured races in the South, — an alienation which was to each a source of immeasurable evils; fifth, the speedy overthrow on the withdrawal of military support of the governments set up under the Congressional plan, and the creation of a South " solid " in resentful opposition to the North and the Republican party. And sixth, as the out- come of all these results, an unfortunate delay in reuniting North and South. The Republican party suffered during this period a moral decline, seen in the frequent efforts to gain party advantage by kindling anew the earlier sectional animosities, a growing arrogance, the increasing weight of the partisan and spoilsman in party management, and the widespread corruption that came to light in the " scandals " of the second administra- tion of General Grant. The mismanaged Liberal Republican movement of 1870-1872 was a reaction against this moral decline and a protest against the Southern policy of the party and its support of the " Spoils " system. The service of the Liberal Republicans consisted mainly in the aid they gave to the reform of the Republican party and in the influence they exerted to induce the Democratic party to accept the results of the war. But despite the warnings it received, the prestige it had gained during the war and the popularity of President Grant, the Republican party lost ground steadily during the second half of the period. In the election of 1874 the Democratic party gained control of the House of Representatives; and in the election of 1876 came within a hair's breadth of winning the presidency. Election of Mr Hayes to that of Mr McKinley, i8y6-i8g6. — ■ During these twenty years the subsidence of old and the rise of new issues led to a reconstruction of the party system, which, although less radical than that of 1840 to i860, brought into existence several new parties and changed in important respects the character and policies of those already in the field. From the standpoint of party history the chief interest of these twenty years lies in the answer to the question, How did the discredited Republican party secure in 1896 a new and prolonged lease of power? The task was not easy. The reconstruction policy of the party had alienated many Northern supporters and had made the South solidly Democratic. The prevalence of the spoils system and the scandals of the second administration of General Grant had hurt the prestige of the party as a guardian of public morals and of the national honour. What gave the Republicans a fighting chance wei*e: its record down to the close of the Civil War; its proven aptitude for the tasks of government; and the growth among the people of a more vital national feeling which turned instinctively to the party that had saved the nation. Despite these substantial advantages over their Democratic rivals the Republicans lost the presidential elections of 1884 and 1892, and the entire Democratic party — some Republicans agreeing — has always held that a just decision of the contested election of 1876 would have seated Samuel J. Tilden, the Democratic candi- date, instead of Mr Hayes. In the Senate the Republicans were in a majority during fourteen years. In the House, whose members are chosen by popular vote, these figures were reversed, the Democrats having control during fourteen years. In each of five successive presidential elections, those of 1876, 1880, 1884, 1888 and 1892, the Democratic popular vote was larger than the Republican. Marked features of the party situation were the apparent similarity for a time of the principles of the two great parties, the influence on their policy exerted by the stronger minor parties, and the rise of the Mugwumps (not strictly a party), who claimed the right to vote for the best candidate independently of party and were in the main of Republican origin. Of the issues of the period one, the reform of the civil service, was served by both of the great parties with imperfect fidelity. Each of the Republican presidents, Hayes, Garfield, Arthur and Harrison gave it efficient and steadfast support; and so did Cleveland, the Democratic president, although under stronger pressure from party hunger. The same was true in the case of the more important questions of foreign policy and, to a degree in its early stage, of the question of silver coinage. It was not so with the treatment of the South. President Hayes withdrew the national troops from S. Carolina and Louisiana and thus brought to an end Federal military interference with state governments. For this course a considerable section of the Republican party gave him thereafter a support which was half-hearted and inconstant; Further disaffection resulted from efforts to reform the civil service of New York which brought the President into conflict with the powerful Republican party machine in that state. 1 The high character of the President and his firm, wise and upright course raised the reputation of the party. His veto of the Silver Bill and the resumption of specie payments tended to the same result. The failure in 1889 of the third term movement for General Grant worked for the health of the party. The struggle of President Garfield with New York spoilsmen and his assassina- tion by a disappointed office-seeker, gave a fresh impetus to the movement for the reform of the civil service. President Arthur maintained the high standard established by Presidents Hayes and Garfield. In the election of 1884 the old parties were competitors for the confidence of the conservative and reforming elements of the country. Mr Blaine, the Republican candidate, who in brilliancy, popularity, patriotism, and disappointing personal fortunes recalled the Whig leader, Henry Clay, lost the election by a narrow margin because, while meeting the requirements of the conservatives, he had lost in a measure the confidence of the reformers. In the election of 1888 Mr Cleveland, by making tariff reform the issue, turned the manufacturing interests to the support of Mr Harrison, the candidate of the Republicans, who thereby won the election. Mr Harrison, while not personally popular, maintained the best traditions of his Republican predecessors. The highly protective McKinley tariff, framed in obedience to the people's mandate in 1888, proved somewhat disappointing, and in the election of 1892, Mr Cleveland, as the champion of lower tariff rates, was successful for the second time. Mr Cleveland, at the beginning of his second term, secured the repeal of the act for the purchase of silver, and thus strengthened himself with the con- servatives of both parties. Democratic defection in the Senate nullified largely the downward revision of the tariff urged by the President and supported by the House. The election of 1896 marked the close of the period of party 1 In the course of this conflict, which continued to disturb the harmony of the Republican party until the death of President Garfield, the term " Stalwarts " was used to designate the supporters of Senator Conkling, who was in control of the Republican machine in New York state, and the term " Half-Breeds " to designate the supporters of the administration. i8o REQUENA— REQUEST* LETTERS OF readjustment. The leading issue was the free coinage of silver under conditions which would have made the monetary standard silver instead of gold, and would have lowered its value. The Democratic convention repudiated Mr Cleveland, accepted free coinage, and nominated W. J. Bryan. The Republicans, at the cost of a formidable party defection, endorsed the gold standard and a highly protective tariff, and nominated William McKinley, whose record and character made him an exceptionally strong candidate. In doing this the Democratic organization became the party of radicalism, the Republican, the party of conservat- ism. The committal of the Republican party to the mainten- ance of the gold standard far more than its continued support of high protection, established its position in the reconstructed party system. In doing this it allied its fortunes with those of all the property-holding classes of the country, while retaining in a high degree the confidence of the wage-earners. Period i8gj-igio. — During this period there was first a rapid recovery from economic depression, and then ten years of almost unexampled prosperity, followed by two years of moderate depression. But the period is chiefly memorable for the war of 1898 with Spain; for the oversea territorial expansion that followed; for the rise of the so-called policy of imperialism; for the assumption of a far more prominent international r61e; for wide-reaching measures of internal reform; and, lastly, for the establishment of the policy of conserving the natural resources of the nation. Throughout this period the Republican party had undis- puted control of the national government. One of the earliest acts in the administration of Mr McKinley was the enactment in 1897 of the highly protective Dingley Tariff. The provision for Reciprocity proved at first of little use. But the need of foreign markets for the rapidly growing output of manufactured products, the rising demand that the interests of the home consumer, as well as those of the producer, should be considered, and the conviction that high protection fostered monopolies, brought about a change of sentiment in the party. Mr McKin- ley, in his last speech, made at the Buffalo Exposition on the 5th of September 1901, gave voice to this change: " The period of exclusiveness is past. The expansion of our trade and com- merce is the pressing problem. Commercial wars are unpro- fitable. A policy of good will and friendly trade relations will prevent reprisals. Reciprocity treaties are in harmony with the spirit of the times. Measures of retaliation are not." These views gained headway against the strenuous opposition of the "stand-patters," 1 until revision of the tariff down- ward was demanded in the platform of 1908, and achieved to a moderate degree in the Tariff Act of 1909. The party has also fulfilled its promise to establish the gold monetary standard on a firm basis. During the. war with Spain and in meeting the new problems of colonial empire, the Republican party has again justified its reputation for efficiency. Not less noteworthy has been the policy of the party initiated and urged by President Theodore Roosevelt and developed by President W. H. Taft for the regulation of railways and all corporations and trusts engaged in interstate business. The latest important event in the history of the Republican party is the rise of the " Insurgents," a group of senators and congressmen whose professed aims are to resist centralization in both party and national government, to lessen the influ- ence of the money power over public policy, to regulate tariff schedules largely in the interest of the consumer, and in brief to emphasize anew the subordination of party and government to the will and service of the people. Bibliography. — See Francis Curtis, History of the Republican Party (2 vols., New York, 1904) ; J. F. Rhodes, Histpry of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 {ibid., 1893-1904); J. W. Burgess, The Middle Period (New York, 1897), The Civil War and the Constitution {ibid., 1899), and Reconstruction and the Constitution {ibid., 1902); T. C. Smith, The Parties and Slavery, 1851-185Q {ibid., 1906) ; Henry Wilson, Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America (3 vols., Boston, 1872-77); J. G. Blaine, Twenty 1 Those members of the Republican party who would maintain as far as possible the high protective duties of the Dingley Tariff. Years of Congress (2 vols., Norwich, Conn., 1884-1886); Horace Greeley, The American Conflict (2 vols., Hartford, 1864-66); J. G. Nicolay and John Hay, Abraham Lincoln, A History (10 vols.. New York, 1890); J. T. Morse, Life of Lincoln (2 vols., Boston, 1893); F. Bancroft, Life of W. H. Seward (New York, 1900); H. E. Von Hoist, Political and Constitutional History of the United States (Chicago, 1899) ; and E. Stanwood, History of the Presidency (Boston, 1898). (A. D. Mo.) REQUENA, a town of E. Spain, in the province of Valencia; on the left bank of the river Magro, and on the railway from Valencia to Utiel. Pop. (1900) 16,236. The town was formerly a Moorish fortress, occupying a strong position in the mountainous region of Las Cabrillas (3400 ft). It is dominated by the ancient citadel of the Moors, and still has traces of the original town walls. There are three ancient parish churches; San Nicolas, the oldest, dates from the 13th century, but was partly restored in 1727. Near the town are the sulphurous springs of Fuentepodrida. The chief industries are the cultiva- tion of grain, fruit and saffron, and the manufacture of wine and silk. REQUESENS, LUIS DE ZUNIGA Y (? -1576), Spanish governor of the Netherlands, had the misfortune to succeed the duke of Alva (q.v.) and to govern amid hopeless difficulties under the direction of Philip II. His early career was that of a government official and diplomatist. In 1563 he gained the king's confidence as his representative at Rome. In 1568 he was appointed lieutenant-general to Don John of Austria during the suppression of the Morisco revolt in Granada, and he also accompanied Don John during the Lepanto campaign, his function being to watch and control his nominal commander- in-chief, whose excitable temperament was distrusted by the king. Philip must have been satisfied with Requesens, for he named him viceroy in Milan, a post usually given to a great noble. Requesens was only " a gentleman of cloak and sword " {caballero de capa y espada), though by the king's favour he was " grand commander " of the military order of Santiago in Castile. He was credited with having shown moderation at Milan, but it is certain that he came into sharp collision with the archbishop, Saint Charles Borromeo, who took up the cause of his flock. His docility rather than his capacity marked him out to succeed Alva. The king wished to pursue a more conciliatory policy, without, however, yielding any one of the points in dispute between himself and the revolted Netherlanders. Requesens came to Brussels on the 17th of November 1573, and till his death on the 5th of March 1576 was plunged into insuperable difficulties. With an empty treasury and unpaid mutinous troops, no faculty could have helped Requesens to succeed; and he was only an honest official who was worn out in trying to do the impossible. Authorities. — Documentos Inkditos para la historia de Espana (Madrid, 1892); and Nueva Coleccion de documentos, vols. iv. and v. (Madrid). REQUEST, LETTERS OF. The legal terms "letters rogatory," or " of request " {commission rogatoire), express a request made by one judge for the assistance of another in serving a citation, taking the deposition of a witness, executing a judgment, or the performance of any other judicial act. The later law of Rome imposed a duty of mutual assistance on the courts of the Empire, and this was extended to the courts of different states when, and so far as, Roman law came to rule the modern world. Consequently, outside ecclesiastical law (see below), the only trace of such a practice to be found in England or the United States, independent of statutory enact- ment, is in the admiralty doctrine that the sentence of a foreign court of admiralty may be executed on letters of request from the foreign judge or on a libel by a party for its execution. See the authorities collected by Sir R. Phillimore in The City of Mecca, 5 P.D. 28. The need of assistance in taking the deposi- tions of witnesses outside their jurisdiction was long in being felt by the British and United States courts, because they issued commissions for that purpose to private persons, some- times to foreign judges in their private capacities. But an increasing sensitiveness as to the rights of sovereignty led to REQUESTS, COURT OF— RESEARCH 181 objection being taken to the execution of such commissions by- persons who in that employment were officers of courts foreign to the countries in which they acted, besides which those com- missions could give no power to compel the attendance of witnesses abroad. Consequently both in the mother country and in the United States acts have been passed empowering the courts to issue commissions for taking evidence to colonial or foreign courts, and to execute such commissions when received by them from the courts of the colonies or of foreign countries. The British statutes are 13 Geo. III. c. 63; 1 Will. IV. c. 22; 3 & 4 Vict. c. 105, 6 & 7 Vict. c. 82, 22 Vict. c. 20 and 48 & 49 Vict. c. 74. But neither in England nor in the United States have commissions of the old kind been entirely disused. In the practice under the Anglo-American statutes, the leading rules are that all the acts of the judge whose services are required, and all things done before him, are governed by the law of the country in which the execution takes place (locus regit actum), while the admissibility of the evidence and all else which concerns the conduct of the action is governed by the law of the country in which it is pending (lex fori) . Details may be seen for England and the United States in the usual books of practice, and in Wharton's Conflict of Laws (2nd ed., 1881), §§ 722-31, and Sir R. Phillimore's International Law (3rd ed., 1889), v. 4, §§ 882-85; for other countries in von Bar's Private International Law, translated by Guthrie (2nd ed., 1892), §§ 3 0I > 39 2 > 4°9) 4 IQ - I n ecclesiastical law, letters of request are issued for the purpose of sending causes from one court to another. .Where a diocesan court within a province has juris- diction over the parties concerned, the plaintiff may apply to the judge of such court for letters of request, in order that the cause may be instituted either in the court of arches or the chancery court of York, as the case may be. When the judge of the diocesan court consents to sign such letters and they have been accepted by the judge of the higher court, a decree issues under his seal, calling upon the defendant to answer to the plaintiff in the suit instituted against him. Letters of request are also issued for other purposes, being sometimes sent from one judge to another to request him to examine witnesses who are out of the jurisdiction of the former, but in that of the latter; to enforce a monition, &c. REQUESTS, COURT OF, a minor court of the king's council in England, under the presidency of the lord keeper of the privy seal. Its possible origin has been assigned to an order in council of 1390 directing the lords of the council to form a committee to examine the petitions of the humble people. Its jurisdiction was chiefly equitable, and owing to the small expenses of procedure it grew in popularity, especially for, cases not of sufficient importance to bring into the court of chancery itself. Under Wolsey the court was fixed permanently at Whitehall. The judges of the court were styled masters of requests. In the reign of Queen Elizabeth there were two masters ordinary and two masters extraordinary. In James I.'s reign there were four masters ordinary. In Henry VIII. 's reign the judges of the court had ceased to be privy councillors, and towards the end of Elizabeth's reign the court incurred the hostility of the common law courts, as having neither a statutory nor prescriptive title to jurisdiction. Notwithstanding a decision in 1598 as to the illegality of its jurisdiction, and subsequent decisions to the same effect in the reigns of James I. and Charles I., it continued to flourish until the suppression of the Star Chamber in 1640 virtually put an end to it. Although it sat until 1642, and masters of requests were appointed even after the Restora- tion, it ceased to exercise judicial functions. There were also courts of requests or, as they were sometimes called, courts of conscience, established in London in the reign of Henry VIII. with jurisdiction in matters of debt under forty shillings. These courts were extended in the reigns of George I. and George II. to various places in England, but they were abolished by an act of 1846 (County Courts Act), which established in their place the tribunal of the county court (q.v.). REQUIEM, the name of a solemn mass for the dead (Missa pro defunctis) in the Roman Church, appointed to be sung on All Souls' Day, in memory of all " faithful departed," at funeral services, and at the anniversaries of the death of particular persons. The name is taken from the first words of the Introit, Requiem aeternam dona eis, Domine. The term is specially applied to the musical setting of the mass. The most celebrated Requiem Masses are those of Palestrina, Mozart and Cherubini The word has been also used of memorial services held in honour of a deceased person in churches other than the Roman. REREDOS (Anglo-Fr. areredos, from arere, behind, and dos, back), an ornamental screen of stone or wood built up, or forming a facing to the wall behind an altar in a church. Reredoses are frequently decorated with representations of the Passion, niches containing statues of saints, and the like. In England these were for the most part destroyed at the Reforma- tion or by the Puritans later; a few medieval examples, however, survive, e.g. at Christchurch, Hants. In some large cathedrals e.g. Winchester, Durham, St Albans, the reredos is a mass of splendid tabernacle work, reaching nearly to the groining. In small churches the reredos is usually replaced by a hanging or parament behind the altar, known as a dossal or dorsal. (See also Altar.) For the legality of images on reredoses in the Church of England, see Image. The use of the word reredos for the iron or brick back of an open fire-place is all but obsolete. RESCHEN SCHEIDECK. This Alpine pass is in some sort the pendant of the Brenner Pass, but leads from the upper valley of the Inn or Engadine to the upper valley of the Adige. It is but 4902 ft. in height. Near the summit is the hamlet of Reschen, while some way below is the former hospice of St Valentin auf der Haid, mentioned as early as 1140. Start- ing from Landeck, the carriage road runs up the Inn valley to Pfunds, whence it mounts above the gorge of Finstermiinz to the village of Nauders (27! m.) where the road from the Swiss Engadine falls in (535 m. from St Moritz). Thence the road mounts gently to the pass, and then descends, with the infant Adige, to Mais (155 m.), whence the pass is sometimes wrongly named Malserheide. The road now descends the upper Adige valley, or Vintschgau, past Meran (37} m.) to Botzen (20 m. from Meran, or 100 m. from Landeck) where the Brenner route is joined. (W. A. B. C.) RESCUE (in Middle Eng. rescous, from O. Fr. recousse, Low Lat. rescussa, from reexcussa, reexcutere, to shake off again, re, again, ex, off, quatere, to shake), the forcible setting at liberty of a person or thing. To constitute the legal offence of rescue, the person rescued must be in the custody of a constable or private individual, but in the latter case the rescuer must know that the prisoner is in lawful custody. The punishment for the offence is fine and imprisonment, with or without hard labour, if the party rescued has not been convicted of the offence for which he was in custody. But if the prisoner has been imprisoned on a charge of, or under sentence for, high treason, felony or misdemeanour, the rescue is high treason, felony or misdemeanour. The punishment for a felonious rescue may be penal servitude for not more than seven or less than three years, or imprisonment for not more than two years, with or without hard labour. The forcible rescue of goods legally distrained or the rescuing of cattle by pound breach are misdemeanours indictable at common law, but the more usual procedure is a civil action under 2 W. & M. c. 5, s. 3 (1690), which makes an offender liable for treble damages. RESEARCH (0. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore), the act of searching into a matter closely and carefully, inquiry directed to the discovery of truth, and in particular the trained scientific investigation of the principles and facts of any subject, based on original and first-hand study of authorities or experiment. Investigations of every kind which have been based on original sources of knowledge may be styled " research," and it may be said that without " research " no authoritative works have been written, no scientific discoveries or inventions made, no theories of any value propounded; but the word also has a somewhat restricted 182 RESENDE, ANDRE DE— RESHT meaning attached to it in current usage. It is applied more particularly to the investigations of those who devote them- selves to the study of pure as opposed to applied science, to the investigation of causes rather than to practical experiment; thus -while every surgeon or physician who treats an individual case of cancer may add to our sum of knowledge of the disease, the body of trained investigators which is endowed by the Cancer Research Fund are working on different lines. Again, the practical engineers who are building aeroplanes, and those who are making practical tests by actual flight in those machines, cannot be called "researchers"; that term should be con- fined to the members, for example, of the scientific committee appointed by the British Government in 1909 to make investiga- tions regarding aerial construction and navigation. Further, the term is particularly used of a course of post-graduate study at a university, for which many universities have provided special Research Studentships or Fellowships. These act as endowments for a specific period, and are conditional on the holder devoting his time to the investigation at first hand of some specified subject. RESENDE, ANDR& DE (1498-1573), the father of archae- ology in Portugal, began life as a Dominican friar, but about 1340 passed over to the ranks of the secular clergy. He spent many years travelling in Spain, France and Belgium, where he corresponded with Erasmus and other learned men. He was also intimate with King John III. and his sons, and acted as tutor to the Infante D. Duarte. Resende enjoyed considerable fame in his lifetime, but modern writers have shown that he is neither accurate nor scrupulous. In Portuguese he wrote: (1) Historia da antiguidade da cidade de Evora (ibid. 1553); (2) Vida do Infante D. Duarte (Lisbon, 1789). His chief Latin work is the De Antiquitatibus Lusitaniae (Evora, 1593). See the " Life " of Resende in Farinha's Colleccao das antiguidades de Evora (1785), and a biographical-critical article by Rivara in the Revista Litteraria (Oporto, 1839), iii. 340-62; also Cleynarts, Latin Letters. (E. Pr.) RESENDE, GARCIA DE (1470-1536), Portuguese poet and editor, was born at Evora, and began to serve John II. as a page at the age of ten, becoming his private secretary in 1491. He was present at his death at Alvor on the 25th of October 1495. He continued to enjoy the same favour with King Manoel, whom he accompanied to Castile in 1498, and from whom he obtained a knighthood of the Order of Christ. In 1514 Resende went to Rome with Tristao da Cunha, as secretary and treasurer of the famous embassy sent by the king to offer the tribute of the East at the feet of Pope Leo X. In 1516 he was given the rank of a nobleman of the royal household, and became escrivao de fazenda to Prince John, afterwards King John III., from whom he received further pensions in 1525. Resende built a chapel in the monastery of Espinheiro near Evora, the pantheon of the Alemtejo nobility, where he was buried. He began to cultivate the making of verses in the palace of John II., and he tells us how one night when the king was in bed he caused him (Resende) to repeat some " trovas " of Jorge Manrique, saying it was as needful for a man to know them as to know the Pater Noster. Under these conditions, Resende grew up no mean poet, and moreover distinguished himself by his skill in drawing and music; while he collected into an album the best court verse of the time. The Cancioneiro Geral, probably begun in 1483 though not printed until 1516, includes the com- positions of some three hundred fidalgos of the reigns of kings Alphonso V., John II. and Manoel. The main subjects of its pieces are love, satire and epigram, and most of them are written in the national redondilha verse, but the metre is irregular and the rhyming careless. The Spanish language is largely employed, because the literary progenitors of the whole collection were Juan de Mena, Jorge Manrique, Boscan and Garcilasso. As a rule the compositions were improvised at palace entertainments, at which the poets present divided into two bands, attacking and defending a given theme throughout successive evenings. At other times these poetical soirees took the form of a mock trial at law, in which the queen of John II. acted as judge. Resende was much twitted by other rhymesters on his' corpulence, but he repaid all their gibes with interest. The artistic value of the Cancioneiro Geral is slight. Con- ventional in tone, the greater part are imitations of Spanish poets and show no trace of inspiration in their authors. The Cancioneiro is redeemed from complete insipidity by Resende himself, and his fine verses on the death of D. Ignez de Castro inspired the great episode in the Lusiads of Camoens (q.v.). Resende is the compiler of a gossiping chronicle of his patron John II., which, though plagiarized from the chronicle by Ruy de Pina (q.v.), has a value of its own. The past lives again in these pages, and though Resende's anecdotes may be unim- portant in themselves, they reveal much of the inner life of the rsth century. Resende's Miscellanea, a rhymed commentary on the most notable events of his time, which is annexed to his Chronicle, is a document full of historical interest, and as a poem not without merit. The editions of his Chronicle are those of 1545. 1554, 1596) 1607, 1622, 1752 and 1798. His Cancioneiro appeared in 1516, and was reprinted by Kausler at Stuttgart in 3 vols., 1846-52. A new edition has recently come from the university press at Coimbra. For a critical study of his work, see Excerptos, seguidos de uma noticia sobre sua vida e obras, um juizo critico, apreciacdo de bellezas e defeitos e estudo da lingua, by Antonio de Castilho (Paris, 1865). Also As sepulturas do Espinheiro, by Anselmo Braamcamp, Freire Lisbon, 1901, passim, especially pp. 67-80, where the salient dates in Resende's life are set out from documents recently discovered ; and Dr Sousa Viterbo, Diccionario dos Architects . . . Portuguezes, ii. 361-74. (E. Pr.) RESERVATION (Lat. reservare, to keep back), the act or action of keeping back or withholding something. There are some technical uses of the term. .In English law " reservation " is used of the retention by the vendor or lessor, in a conveyance or lease, of some right or interest, which without such reservation would have passed to the purchaser or tenant; such " reserva- tions " usually are concerned with rights of way or other ease- ments or sporting rights. In ecclesiastical usage, the term is applied to the practice of preserving unconsumed a portion of the consecrated elements after the celebration of the Eucharist. For the history of this practice and its usage in the Roman, Greek and English churches, see Eucharist, § Reservation of the Eucharist. In the Roman Church, where the pope retains for himself the right to nominate to certain benefices, that action is termed, technically, "reservation." When in making a state- ment, taking an oath, &c, a person qualifies that statement in his mind, or withholds Some fact, word or expression which, if expressed, would materially alter the effect of his statement or oath, such qualification is termed a " mental reservation," or, in the technical language of casuistry, " mental restriction " (see Liguori). The system of providing special tracts of land exclusively for the tribes of American Indians, adopted in the United States of America and in Canada, is known as the Reser- vation system, and such tracts are styled Indian Reservations. (See United States and Canada.) RESHT, the capital of the province of Gilan in Persia, in 37 17' N., and 49° 36' E., on the left bank of the Siah-rud (Black river) , which is a branch of the Sefid-rud (White river) , and flows into the Murdab, lagoon of Enzeli. The distance from Enzeli, the port of disembarcation from Russia, on the S. shore of the Caspian, to Resht is 14 m. in a direct line, and is accomplished in an open boat, or (since 1892), depth of water permitting, in a small steamboat to Pir-i-Bazar and thence 6 m. on a good road by carriage. Resht has a population of 60,000 and is the residence of English, Russian, French and Turkish consuls and the seat of the governor-general of the province of Gilan. The town is situated in low, malarious ground, and was originally buried in jungle, but the Russians during their occupation of the place in T 7 2 3~34 cleared much timber and jungle and made some open spaces. The houses are red-tiled and raised from the ground, with broad verandahs and overhanging eaves. Conflagrations are frequent, particularly in the months of January and De- cember, when hot, dry winds resembling the Fohn of the Alps come down from the snow-capped Elburz. A good carriage RESIDENCE— RESORCIN 183 road constructed and worked by a Russian company and opened to traffic in 1899 connects Resht with Teheran via Kazvin. The value of trade probably exceeds £2,000,000, principal exports being rice, raw silk, dry fruit, fish, sheep and cattle, wool and cotton, and cocoons, the principal imports sugar, cotton goods, silkworm " seed " or eggs (£70,160 worth in 1906-7), petroleum, glass and china. The trade in dried silk- worm cocoons has increased remarkably since 1893, when only 76,150 lb valued at £6475 were exported; during the year 1906-7 ending 20th March, 2,717,5401b valued at £238,000 were exported. There are telegraph and post offices and branches of the Imperial Bank of Persia and Banque d'Escompte. Enzeli, the port of Resht in the S.E. corner of the Caspian, is 14 m. N. of Resht, in 37 29' N., 49 28' E. Pop. 4000. Between it and other ports in the Caspian communication is maintained by the mail-steamers of the Caucasus and Mercury Steam Navigation Company and many vessels of commercial firms with head offices chiefly at Baku. (A. H.-S.) RESIDENCE (Latin, residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside), in general, a place of abode. In law, it usually means continuance in a place. The ordinary meaning of the word has been defined as " the place where an individual eats, drinks and sleeps, or where his family or his servants eat, drink and sleep " (R. v. North Curry, 1825, 4 B. & C. 959). For certain purposes, however, a man may be said to have his residence not only where he sleeps, but also at his place of business. See Abode ; Domicile. In ecclesiastical law residence is the continuance of a spiritual person upon his benefice. As a general rule, it is necessary for every rector or vicar to reside within his parish, even though there may be no house of residence annexed to the benefice. But under certain circumstances the bishop of the diocese may grant a licence of non-residence (Pluralities Act 1838). RESIDENT, a political agent or officer representing the Indian government in certain native states in India. He resides in the state and advises on all matters of government, legislative or executive. Residents are divided into three classes or ranks. In certain other dependencies or protectorates of the British Empire the representative of the government is termed a resident or political agent, notably in Nepaul, Aden, Sarawak, British North Borneo, &c. In general, where the state to which a resident is attached is not an independent one, he exercises consular and magisterial functions. For " Resident " as the title of a diplomatic agent see Diplo- macy. RESIDUE (through the French, from the Lat. residuum, a remainder, from residere, to remain), in law, that which remains of a testator's estate after all debts and legacies are discharged, and funeral, administration and other expenses paid. The person to whom this residue or surplus is left is termed the residuary legatee; should none be mentioned in the will the residue goes to the next of kin (see Executors and Admini- strators; Legacy; Will). RESIN (through O.Fr. resine, modern resine, from Lat. resina, probably Latinized from Greek /Stjtij'j;, resin), a secretion formed in special resin canals or passages of plants, from many of which, such as, for example, coniferous trees, it exudes in soft tears, hardening into solid masses in the air. Otherwise it may be obtained by making incisions in the bark or wood of the secreting plant. It can also be extracted from almost all plants by treatment of the tissue with alcohol. Certain resins are obtained in a fossilized condition, amber being the most notable instance of this class; African copal and the kauri gum of New Zealand are also procured in a semi-fossil con- dition. The resins which are obtained as natural exudations are in general mixtures of different, peculiar acids, named the resin acids, which dissolve in alkalis to form resin soaps, from which the resin acids are regenerated by treatment with acids. They are closely related to the terpenes, with which they occur in plants and of which they are oxidation products. Examples of resin acids are abietic (sylvic) acid, CuHsgOj, occurring in colophony, and pimaric acid, C20H30O2, a constituent of gallipot resin. Abietic acid can be extracted from colophony by means of hot alcohol; it crystallizes in leaflets, and on oxidation yields trimellitic, isophthalic and terebic acid. Pimaric acid closely resembles abietic acid into which it passes when dis- tilled in a vacuum; it has been supposed to consist of three isomers. Resins when soft are known as oleo-resins, and when containing benzoic or cinnamic acid they are called balsams. Other resinous products are in their natural condition mixed with gum or mucilaginous substances and known as gum-resins. The general conception of a resin is a noncrystalline body, insoluble in water, mostly soluble in alcohol, essential oils, ether and hot fatty oils, softening and melting under the influence of heat, not capable of sublimation, and burning with a bright but smoky flame. A typical resin is a transparent or translucent mass, with a vitreous fracture and a faintly yellow or brown colour, inodorous or having only a slight turpentine odour and taste. Many compound resins, however, from their admixture with essential oils, are possessed of distinct and characteristic odours. The hard transparent resins, such as the copals, dammars, mastic and sandarach, are principally used for varnishes and cement, while the softer odoriferous oleo-resins (frankincense, turpentine, copaiba) and gum-resins contain- ing essential oils (ammoniacum, asafoetida, gamboge, myrrh, scammony) are more largely used for therapeutic purposes and incense. Amber (q.v.) is a fossil resin. RESOLUTION, a word used in the two main senses, separa- tion and decision, of the verb " to resolve " (Lat. resolvere, to loose, unfasten), to separate anything into its constituent elements or component parts, hence, through the subsidiary meaning of to clear up doubts or difficulties, to settle, determine. The principal applications of the term in its first sense are to the separation of a body into its component parts by chemical process, or, to the eye, by the lens of a microscope or telescope; similarly, in mathematics, to the analysis of a velocity, force, &c, into components. In the second sense, beyond the general meaning of determination, firmness of character, a " resolution " is specifically a decision of opinion formally submitted to a legislative or other assembly and adopted or rejected by votes. RESORCIN (meta-dioxybenzene), C 6 H4(OH) 2 , one of the dihydric phenols. It is obtained on fusing many resins (galbanum, asafoetida, &c.) with caustic potash, or by the distillation of Brazil-wood extract. It may be prepared synthetically by fusing meta-iodophenol, phenol meta-sulphonic acid, and benzene meta-disulphonic acid with potash; by the action of nitrous acid on meta-aminophenol; or by the action of 10% hydrochloric acid on meta-phenylene diamine (J. Meyer, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 2569). Many ortho and para-compounds of the aromatic series (for example, the brom-phenols, benzene para-disulphonic acid) also yield resorcin on fusion with caustic potash. It crystallizes from benzene in colourless needles which melt at 119 C. and boil at 276-5° C. (L. Calderon), or 280° C. (C. Graebe), and is readily soluble in water, alcohol and ether, but insoluble in chloroform and carbon bisulphide. It reduces Fehling's solution, and ammoniacal silver solutions. It does not form a precipitate with lead acetate solution, as the isomeric pyrocatechin does. Ferric chloride colours its aqueous solution a dark violet, and bromine water precipitates tribromresorcin. Sodium amalgam reduces it to dihydroresorcin, which when heated to 150-160 C. with concentrated baryta solution gives 7-acetylbutyric acid (D. Vorlander) ; when fused with caustic potash, resorcin yields phloroglucin, pyrocatechin and diresorcin. It condenses with acids or acid chlorides, in the presence of dehydrating agents, to oxyketones, e.g. with zinc chloride and glacial acetic acid at 145° C. it yields resacetophenone (HO) 2 C 6 H3-CO-CH 3 (M. Nencki andN. Sieber, Jour. prak. Chem., 1881 [2], 23, p. 147). With the anhydrides of dibasic acids it yields fluoresceins (q.v.). When heated with calcium chloride- ammonia to 200 C. it yields meta-dioxydiphenylamine (A. Seyewitz, Bull. Soc. Chim., 1890 [3], 3, p. 811). With sodium nitrite it forms a water-soluble blue dye, which is turned red by acids, and is used as an indicator, under the name of lacmoid 184 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM [ANATOMY (M. C. Traub and C. Hock, Ber., 1884, 17, p. 2615). It condenses readily with aldehydes, yielding with formaldehyde, on the addition of, a little hydrochloric acid, methylene diresorcin [(HO)2-C6H 3 ] 2 -CH 2 , whilst with chloral hydrate, in the presence of potassium bisulphate, it yields the lactone of tetra-oxydiphenyl methane carboxylic acid (J. T. Hewitt and F. G. Pope, Jour. Chem. Soc, 1897, 71, p. 1084). In alcoholic solution it con- denses with sodium acetoacetate to form /3-methylumbelliferone, CioH 8 C>3 (A. Michael, Jour. prak. Chem., 1888 [2], 37, 470). With concentrated nitric acid, in the presence of cold concen- trated sulphuric acid, it yields trinitro-resorcin (styphnic acid), which forms yellow crystals, exploding violently on rapid heating. In medicine, resorcin, which is official in the United States under the name of resorcinol, was formerly used as an anti- pyretic, but it has been given up. The dose is 2 to 8 grs. Used externally it is an antiseptic and disinfectant, and is used 5 to 10% in ointments in the treatment of chronic skin diseases such as psoriasis and eczema of a sub-acute character. Weak, watery solutions of resorcin (10 or 15 grs. to the ounce) are useful in allaying the itching in erythematous eczema. A 2% solution used as a spray has been used with marked effect in hay fever and in whooping-cough. In the latter disease 10 minims of the 2% solution has been given internally. It has also been employed in the treatment of gastric ulcer in doses of 2 to 4 grs. in pill, and is said to be analgesic and haemostatic in its action. In large doses it is a poison causing giddiness, deafness, salivation, sweating and convulsions. It is also worked up in certain medicated soaps. Mono-acetyl resorcin, CeH^OH^O-COCHs, is used under the name of "euresol." Resaziirin, Ci 2 H 7 N04, obtained by the action of nitrous acid on resorcin (P. Weselsky and R. Benedikt, Monals., 1880, 1, p. 889), forms small dark red crystals possessing a greenish metallic glance. When dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid and warmed to 210 C, the solution on pouring into water yields a precipitate of resorufin, O2H7NO3, an oxyphenoxazone, which is insoluble in water, but is readily soluble in hot concentrated hydro- chloric acid, and in solutions of caustic alkalis. The alkaline solutions are of a rose-red colour and show a cinnabar-red fluor- escence. A tetrabromresorufin is used as a dye-stuff under the name of Fluorescent Resorcin Blue. Thioresorcin is obtained by the action of zinc and hydrochloric acid on the chloride of benzene meta-disulphonic acid. It melts at 27 C. and boils at 243 C. Resorcin disulphonic Acid (HO) 2 C6H 2 (HSOs)2, is a deliquescent mass obtained by the action of sulphuric acid on resorcin (H. Fischer, Monats., 1881, 2, p. 321). It is easily soluble in water and decomposes when heated to ioo* C. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. (1). Anatomy— The respiratory tract consists of the nasal cavities, the pharynx, the larynx, the trachea, the bronchi and the lungs, but of these the two first parts have been treated in separate articles (see Olfactory System and Pharynx). The larynx is the upper part of the air tube which is specially modified for the production of notes of varying pitch, though it is not responsible for the whole of the voice. Its frame- work is made up of several cartilages which are moved on one another by muscles, and it is lined internally by mucous mem- brane which is continuous above with that of the pharynx and below with that of the trachea or windpipe. The larynx is situated in the front of the neck and corresponds to the fourth, fifth and sixth cervical vertebrae. For its superficial anatomy see Anatomy, Superficial and Artistic. The thyroid cartilage (see fig. 1) is the largest, and consists of two plates or alae which are joined in the mid-ventral line. At the upper part of their junction is the thyroid notch and just below that is a forward projection, the pomum Adami, best marked in adult males. From the upper part of the posterior border of each aia the superior cornu rises up to be joined to the tip of the great cornu of the hyoid bone by the lateral thyro-hyoid ligament, while from the lower part of the same border the inferior cornu passes down to be fastened to the cricoid cartilage by the crico-thyroid capsule. From the upper border of each ala the thyro-hyoid membrane runs up to the hyoid bone, while near the back of the outer surface of each the oblique line of the thyroid cartilage /fH — ; — Epiglottis runs downward and forward. The cricoid carti- lage (see figs. 1 and 2) is something like a signet ring with the' seal behind; its lower border, how- ever, is horizontal. To the mid-ventral part of its upper border is attached the mesial part of the crico - thyroid membrane, which attaches it to the lower border of the thyroid cartilage though the lateral parts of this mem- brane pass up in- ternally to the thyroid cartilage and their upper free edges form the true vocal cords. On the summit of the signet part Hyoid bone Cartilago 1 triticea Thyro-hyoid membrane •Superior cornu of thyroid cartilage iiipenor tubercle on the ala of thyroid cartilage Oblique line Inferior tubercle Inferior cornu of thyroid cartilage Crico-thyroid membrane Cricoid cartilage After D. J. Cunningham, from Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. Fig. I. — Profile View of the Cartilages and Ligaments of the Larynx. of the cricoid are placed the two arytenoid cartilages (see fig. 2), each of which Cartilago triticea Thyro-epiglottidean ligament Superior cornu of thyroid cartilage 'Cartilage of Santorini 'Arytenoid cartilage Muscular process of arytenoid cartilage Inferior cornu of thyroid cartilage After D. J. Cunningham, from Cunningham's Text-book of Anatomy. Fig. 2. — Cartilages and Ligaments of Larynx, as seen from behind. forms a pyramid with its apex upward and with an anterior posterior and internal or mesial surface. The base articulates with the cricoid by a concave facet, surrounded by the crico-arytenoid capsule, and the two arytenoids are able to glide toward or away from one another, in addition to which each can rotate round a vertical axis. From the front of the base a delicate process projects which, as it is attached to the true vocal cord, is called the vocal process, while from the outer part of the base another stouter process ANATOMY] RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 185 /Hyoid bone Hyo-epiglottidean ligament Cartilage of epiglottis Fatty pad Thyro-hyoid membrane Thyroid cartilage Elevation produced by cuneiform cartilage False vocal cord Philtrum ventriculi Elevation produced by arytenoid cartilage Laryngeal sinus True vocal cord Arytenoid muscle Processus vocalis Cricoid cartilage Cricoid cartilage attaches the two ^cricoarytenoid muscles and so is known as the muscular process. Above each arytenoid are two smaller - cartilages known as the cornicula laryngis or cartilages of San- torini and the cuneiform cartilages, but they are not of any practical importance. The epiglottis (see fig. 3), on the other hand, is a very important structure, since it forms a lid to the larynx in swallowing: only the box moves up to the lid instead of the lid moving down to the box. It is leaf- shaped, the stalk (thyro-epiglottid e a n ligament) being at- tached to the junc- tion of the thyroid cartilages inside the larynx, while the anterior surface of the leaf is closely attached to the root of the tongue and body of the hyoid bone. The posterior or laryngeal surface is pitted for glands, and near the point where the stalk joins the leaf is a con- vexity which is known as the cus- hion of the epiglottis. All the cartilages of the larynx are of the hyaline variety except the epi- glottis, the corni- cula laryngis and the cuneiform carti- lages, which are yellow elastic. The result is that all except these three tend to ossify as middle age is approached. The muscles of the larynx are: (1) the crico-thyroids, which are attached to the lower border of the thyroid and the .anterior part of the cricoid, by pulling up which they make the upper part of the signet, with the arytenoids attached to it, move back and so tighten the vocal cords. (2) The thyro-arytenoids (see fig. 4), which run back from the junction of the thyroid alae to the front of the arytenoids and side of the epiglottis; they pull the arytenoids toward the thyroid and so relax the cords. (3) The single arytenoideus muscle, which runs from the back of one arytenoid to the other and approximates these cartilages. (4) The lateral crico-arytenoids (see fig. 4) which draw the muscular processes of the arytenoids forward toward the ring of the cricoid and, by so doing, twist the vocal processes, with the cords attached, inward toward one another; and (5) the posterior crico-arytenoids (see fig. 4) which run from the back of the signet part of the cricoid to the back of the muscular processes of the arytenoid and, by pulling these backward, twist the vocal processes outward and so separate the vocal cords. All these muscles are supplied by the recurrent laryngeal nerve, except the crico-thyroid which is innervated by the external branch of the superior laryngeal (see Nerves, Cranial). The mucous membrane of the larynx is continuous with that of the pharynx at the aryteno-epiglottidean folds which run from the sides of the epiglottis to the top of the arytenoid cartilages (see (fig. 3). To the outer side of each fold is the sinus pyriformis (see Pharynx). From the middle of the junction of the alae of the thyroid cartilage to the vocal processes of the arytenoids the mucous membrane is reflected over, and closely bound to, the true vocal cords which contain elastic tissue and, as has After D. J. Cunningham, from Cunningham's Text-Book ;' of Anatomy. Fig. 3. — Mesial Section through Larynx to show the outer wall of the right half. been mentioned, are the upper free edges of the lateral parts of the crico-thyroid membrane. The chink between the two Epiglottis Aryteno-epiglottidean muscle Cuneiform cartilage Thyro-epiglottidean muscle Thyro-hyoid membrane iaccule of larynx Muscular process of arytenoid cartilage -Thyro-arytenoid muscle 'Thyroid cartilage Crico-arytenoideus lateralis -Crico-arytenoideus posticus Crico-thyroid membrane Cricoid cartilage After D. J. Cunningham, from Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. Fig. 4. — Dissection of the Muscles in the Lateral Wall of the Larynx. The right ala of the thyroid cartilage has been removed. true vocal cords is the glottis or rima glottidis. Just above the true vocal cords is the opening into a recess on each side which runs upward and backward and is known as the laryngeal saccule; its opening is the laryngeal sinus. The upper lip of this slit-like opening is called the false weal cord. The mucous membrane is closely bound down to the epiglottis and to the true vocal cords, elsewhere there is plenty of sub- mucous tissue in which the products of inflammation may collect and cause " oedema laryngis," a condition which is mechanically prevented from passing the true vocal cords. In the upper part of the front and sides of the larynx and over the true vocal cords the mucous membrane is lined by squamous epithelium, but elsewhere the epithelium is of the columnar ciliated variety: it is supplied by the superior laryngeal branch of the vagus nerve and above the glottis is peculiarly sensitive. The Trachea or windpipe (see fig. 5) is the tube which carries the air between the larynx and the bronchi; it is from four to four and a half inches long arid lies partly in the neck and partly in the thorax. It begins where the larynx ends at the lower border of the sixth cervical, and divides into its two bronchi opposite the fifth thoracic vertebra. The tube is kept always open by rings of cartilage, which, however, are wanting behind, and, as it passes down, it comes to lie farther and farther from the yentral surface of the body, following the concavity of the thoracic region of the spinal column. In the whole of its downward course it has the oesophagus close behind it, while in front are the isthmus of the thyroid, the left innominate vein, the innominate artery and the arch of the aorta. On each side of it and touching it is the vagus nerve. The cervical part of the tube is not much more than an inch in length, but it can be lengthened by throwing back the head. This, of course, is the region in which tracheotomy is performed, and it should be remembered that in children, and sometimes in adults, the great left innominate vein lies above the level of the top of the sternum. In transverse section the trachea is rather wider from side to side than from before backward. In life the former measure- ment is said to be about 12-5 mm. and the latter 11 mm. It is made up of an external fibro-elastic membrane in which the cartilaginous rings lie, while behind, where these rings are wanting, is a layer of unstriped muscle which, when it contracts, i86 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM [ANATOMY draws the hind ends of the rings together and so diminishes the calibre of the tube. Inside these is plentiful submucous tissue Thyroid cartilage 4-Crico-thyroid membrane T- Cricoid cartilage / Part of trachea covered by isthmus of thyroid body Common carotid artery Subclavian artery Hyparterial bronchi Pulmonary artery After D. J. Cunningham, from Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. Fig. 5. — The Trachea and Bronchi; The thyroid body is indicated by a dotted line. containing mucous glands and quantities of lymphoid tissue, while the whole is lined internally by columnar ciliated epithelium. The Bronchi (see fig. 5) are the two tubes into which the trachea divides, but, since the branches, which these tubes give off later, are also called bronchi, it may be clearer to speak of primary, secondary and tertiary bronchi. Each primary bronchus runs downward and outward, but the right one is more in a line with the direction of the trachea than the left. The right primary bronchus has also a greater calibre than the left because the right lung is the larger, and for these two reasons when a foreign body enters the trachea it usually enters the right bronchus. The first secondary bronchus comes off about an inch from the bifurcation of the trachea on the right side and, as it lies above the level of the pulmonary artery, it is known as the eparterial bronchus. On the left side the first branch is about two inches from the bifurcation and, like all the remaining secondary bronchi, is hyparterial: the left primary bronchus is therefore twice as long as the right. After the eparterial secondary bronchus is given off the direction of the right primary bronchus is carried on by the hyparterial secondary bronchus, and this, just before reaching the hilum of the lung, divides into upper and lower tertiary bronchi, while the left lower secondary hyparterial bronchus does not divide before reaching the hilum of its lung. Into the hilum or root of the right lung, therefore, three bronchial tubes enter, while on the left side there are only two. The firmly rooted habit of associating the term bronchi with those parts of the main tubes which lie between the bifurcation of the trachea and the point where the first branch comes off makes it very difficult to suggest a nomen- clature which calls up any picture of the actual state of things to the mind. Certainly the classification into primary, secondary and tertiary bronchi only goes a very little way toward this, and it should be realized that, call them what we may, there are two long tapering tubes which run from the bifurcation of the trachea to the lower and back part of each lung, and give off a series of large ventral and small dorsal branches. The upper part of each of these long tubes or stem bronchi is outside the lung and in the middle mediastinum of the thorax, the lower part embedded in the substance of the lung. The structure of the bronchi is practically identical with that of the trachea. (See G. S. Huntington's " Eparterial Bronchial System of the Mammalia," Am. Journ. Med. Sci. (Phila. 1898). See also Quain's Anatomy, London, last edition.) The Lungs are two pyramidal, spongy, slate-coloured, very vascular organs in which the blood is oxygenated. Each lies in its own side of the thorax and is surrounded by its own pleural cavity (see Coelom and Serous Membranes), and has an apex which projects into the side of the root of the neck, a base which is hollowed for the convexity of the diaphragm, an outer surface which is convex and lies against the ribs, an inner surface concave for the heart, pericardium and great vessels, a sharp anterior border which overlaps the pericardium and a broad, rounded posterior border which lies at the side of the spinal column. Each lung is nearly divided into two by a primary fissure which runs obliquely downward and forward, while the right lung has a secondary fissure which runs horizontally forward from near the middle of the primary fissure. The left lung has therefore an upper and lower or basal lobe, while the right has upper, middle and lower lobes. On the inner surface of each lung is the root or hilum at which alone its vessels, nerves and ducts (bronchi) can enter and leave it. The structures contained in the root of each lung are the branches and tribu- taries of (1) the pulmonary artery, (2) the pulmonary veins, (3) the bronchi, (4) the bronchial arteries, (5) the bronchial veins, (6) the bronchial lymphatic vessels and glands, (7) the pulmonary plexuses of nerves. Of these the first three are the largest and, in dividing the root from in front, the veins are first cut, then the arteries and last the bronchi. As has been pointed out already, the eparterial bronchus on the right side is above the level of the artery, but all the others (hyparterial) are on a lower level. The bronchial arteries supply the substance of the lung; there are usually two on each side, and they lie behind the bronchi. The blood which they carry is chiefly returned by the pulmonary veins bringing oxidized blood back to the heart, so that here there is a normal and harmless mixture of arterial and venous blood. If there are any bronchial veins (their presence is doubted by some, and the writer has himself carefully but unsuccessfully searched for them several times), they open into the azygos veins of their own side. The bronchial lymphatic vessels lie behind the pulmonary vessels and open into several large glands which are black from straining off the carbon left iii the lungs from the atmosphere. There is an anterior and posterior pulmonary plexus of nerves on each side, the fibres of which are derived from the vagus and the upper thoracic ganglia of the sympathetic. Structure of the Lungs. — As the bronchi become smaller and smaller by repeated division, the cartilage completely surrounds them and tends to form irregular plates instead of rings —they are therefore cylindrical, but when the terminal branches (lobular bronchi) are reached, the cartilage disappears and hemispherical bulgings called alveoli occur (fig. 6 A). At the very end of PHYSIOLOGY] RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 187 Fig. 6. — Diagram of Two Lobules of the Lung. B. Bronchus. A. Alveolus. I. Infundibulum. L.B. Lobular bron- chus. At. Atrium. Lob. Lobule. each lobular bronchus is an irregular chamber, the atrtum (fig. 6 At), and from this a number of thin- walled sacs, about 1 mm. in diameter, open out. These are called the infundibula (fig. 6 I), and their walls are pouched by hemispherical air-cells or alveoli like those in the lobular bronchi. Each lobular bronchus with its atrium and infundibula forms what is known as a lobule of the lung, and these lobules are separated by connective tissue, and their outlines are evident on the surface of the lung. The muscular tissue, which in the larger tubes was confined to the dorsal part, forms a complete layer in the smaller; but when the lobular bronchi are reached, it stops and the mucous membrane is surrounded by the elastic layer. In the lobular bronchi, too, the lining epithelium gradually changes from the ciliated to the stratified or pavement variety, and this is the only kind which is found in the infundibula and alveoli. Sur- rounding each alveolus is a plexus of capillary vessels so rich that the spaces between the capillaries are no wider than the capillaries themselves, and it is here that the exchange of gases takes place between the air and the blood. Embryology. — The respiratory system is developed from the ventral surface of the foregut as a long gutter-like pouch which reaches from just behind the rudiment of the tongue to the stomach. Limiting the anterior or cephalic end of this is a fl-shaped elevation in the ventral wall of the pharynx which separates the ventral ends of the third and fourth visceral bars and is known as the furcula; it is from this that the epiglottis, aryteno-epiglottidean folds and arytenoid cartilages are developed. Later on the respiratory tube is separated from the digestive by two ridges, one on each side, which, uniting, form a transverse partition. In the region of the furcula, however, the partition stops and here the two tubes communicate. The caudal end of the respiratory tube buds out into the two primary bronchi, and the right one of these, later on, bears three buds, while the left has only two; these are the secondary bronchi, which keep on dividing into two, one branch keeping the line of the parent stem to form the stem bronchus, while the other goes off at an angle. By the repeated divisions of these tubes the complex " bronchial tree " is formed and from the terminal shoots the infundibula bud out. The alveoli only develop in the last three months of foetal life. The thyroid cartilage is probably formed from the fourth and fifth branchial bars, while the cricoid seems to be the enlarged first ring of the trachea. Before birth the lungs are solid and much less vascular than after breathing is established. Their slaty colour is gradually gained from the deposit of carbon from the atmosphere. (For further details see Quain's Anatomy, vol. i., Lond. 1908.) Comparative Anatomy. — It has been shown (see Pharynx) that in the lower vertebrates respiration is brought about by the blood vessels surrounding the gill clefts. In the higher fishes (Ganoids and Teleosteans) the " swim bladder " appears as a diverticulum from the dorsal wall of the alimentary canal, and its duct (d. pneumaticus) sometimes remains open and at others becomes a solid cord. In the former case it is probable that the blood is to some extent oxidized in the vascular wall of this bladder. In the Dipnoi (mud-fish) the opening of the swim bladder shifts to the ventral side of the pharynx and the bladder walls become sacculated and very vascular, so that, when the rivers are dried up, the fish can breathe altogether by means of it. In the S. American and African species of mud-fish the bladder or lung, as it may now be called, is divided by a longitudinal septum in its posterior (caudal) part into right and left halves. In this sub-class of Dipnoi, therefore, a general agreement is seen with the embryology or ontogeny of Man's lungs. In the Amphibia the two lungs are quite separate though they are mere sacculated bags without bronchi. A trachea, however, appears in some species (e.g. Siren) and a definite larynx with arytenoid cartilages, vocal cords and complicated muscles is established in the Anura (frogs and toads). In most of the Reptilia the bag-like lungs are elaborated into spongy organs with arborizing bronchi in their interior. From the crocodiles upward a main or stem bronchus passes to the caudal end of the lung, and from this the branches or lateral bronchi come off. The larynx shows little advance on that of the Anura. The respiratory organs of birds are highly specialized. The larynx is rudimentary, and sound is produced by the syrinx, a secondary larynx at the bifurcation of the trachea; this may be tracheal, bronchial or, most often, tracheo-branchial. The lungs are small and closely connected with the ribs, while from them numerous large air sacs extend among the viscera, muscles and into many of the bones, which, by being filled with hot air, help to maintain the high temperature and lessen the specific gravity of the body. This pneumaticity of the bones is to a certain extent reproduced by the air sinuses of the skull in crocodiles and mammals, and it must be pointed out that the amount of air in the bones does not necessarily correspond with the power of flight, for the Ratitae (ostriches and emeus) have very pneumatic bones, while in the sea-gulls they are hardly pneumatic at all. In mammals the thyroid cartilage becomes an important element in the larynx, and in the Echidna the upper and lower parts of it, derived respectively from the fourth and fifth branchial bars, are separate (R. H. Burne, Journ. Anat. and Phys. xxxviii. p. xxvii.). The whole larynx is much nearer the head than in Man, and in young animals the epiglottis is intra-narial, i.e. projects up behind the soft palate. This pre- vents the milk trickling into the larynx during suckling, and is especially well seen in the Marsupials and Cetacea, though evidences of it are present in the human embryo. In the lower mammals an inter-arytenoid cartilage is very frequent (see J. Symington, " The Marsupial Larynx," /. Anat. and Phys. xxxiii. 31, also " The Monotreme Larynx," ib. xxxiv. 90). The lungs show a good deal of variation in their lobulation; among the porcupines as many as forty lobes have been counted in the right lung, while in other mammals no lobulation at all could be made out. The azygous lobe of the right lung is a fairly constant structure and is situated between the post-caval vein and the oesophagus. It is supplied by the terminal branch of the right stem bronchus and, although it is usually absent in Man, the bronchus which should have supplied it is always to be found. (F. G. PO • (2) Physiology So far as is known, the intake'of oxygen, either free or combined, and the output of carbon dioxide, are an essential part of the life of all organisms. The two processes are so closely associated with one another that they are always included together under the designation of respiration, which may thus be defined as the physiological process which is concerned in the intake of oxygen and output of carbon dioxide. According to the evidence at present available, it is only within living cells that the respiratory oxygen is consumed and the carbon dioxide formed. The mere conveying of oxygen from the surrounding air or water to these cells, and of carbon dioxide from them to the air or water, is, however, in itself a complex process in the higher animals; and accordingly an account of animal respiration naturally falls into two divisions, the first of which (I.) is concerned with the manner in which oxygen and carbon dioxide are conveyed to and from the living tissues, and the second (II.) with the consumption of oxygen and formation of carbon dioxide by the living tissues themselves. I. In all the more highly organized animals there are special respiratory organs: the lungs in the higher vertebrates; the gills in fishes; the tracheae in insects; and various rudimentary forms of lungs or gills in other higher invertebrate's. In the i88 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM [PHYSIOLOGY present article attention will be specially confined to the case of the higher vertebrates, and in particular to man. Air is brought into the lungs by the movements of breathing (see above, Movements of Respiration). Oxygen from this air passes through the delicate lining membrane of the air-cells of the lungs into the blood, where it enters into loose chemical combination with the haemoglobin of the red corpuscles (see Blood). In this form it is conveyed onwards to the heart, and thence through the arteries to the capillaries, where it again parts from the haemoglobin, and passes through the capillary walls to the tissues, where it is consumed. Carbon dioxide passes out from the tissues into the blood in a corresponding manner, enters into loose combination as bicarbonate, and possibly in other ways, in the blood, and is conveyed by the veins to the lungs, whence it passes out in the expired air. Pure atmospheric air contains 20-93% of oxygen, -03% of carbon dioxide and 79-04% of nitrogen (with which is mixed about 0.9% of argon). The dried expired air in man contains about 3-5% of carbon dioxide and 17% of oxygen, so that roughly speaking the carbon dioxide is increased by about 3-5% and the oxygen diminished by 4%. Expired air as it leaves the body contains about 6 % of moisture, compared with usually about 1 % in the inspired air. The added moisture and higher temperature of expired air make it decidedly lighter than pure air. Owing to the unpleasant effects often produced in badly ventilated rooms it was for long supposed that some poisonous volatile " organic matter " is also given off in the breath. Careful investigation has shown that this is not the case. The un- pleasant effects are partly due to heat and moisture, and partly to odours which are usually not of respiratory origin. The carbon dioxide present in the air of even very badly ventilated rooms is present in far too small proportions to have any sensible effect. The average volume of air inspired per minute by healthy adult men during rest is about 7 litres or -25 cub. ft. In different individuals the frequency of breathing varies con- siderably — from about 7 to 25 per minute, the depth of each breath varying about inversely as the frequency. During mus- cular work the volume of air breathed may be six or eight times as much as during rest. The volume of carbon dioxide given off varies from about half a cubic foot per hour during complete rest to s cub. ft. during severe exertion, but averages about 0-9 cub. ft. per hour, and will reach or exceed' 1 cub. ft. per hour during even very light exertion. The volume of oxygen consumed is about a seventh greater than that of the carbon dioxide given off. The breathing is regulated, from a nervous centre situated in the medulla oblongata, which is the lowest part of the brain. If this centre is destroyed or injured the breathing stops and death rapidly results. From the respiratory centre rhythmic efferent impulses proceed down the motor nerves supplying the diaphragm, intercostals and other respiratory muscles. Afferent impulses through various nerves may temporarily affect the rhythm of the respiratory centre. Of these afferent impulses by far the most important are those which proceed up the vagus nerve from the lungs themselves. On distention of the lungs with air the inspiratory impulses from the respiratory centre are suddenly arrested or " inhibited "; on the other hand, collapse of the lung strongly excites to inspiratory effort. On section of the vagus nerve these effects disappear, and the breathing becomes less frequent and much more laboured. The vagus nerve is thus the carrier of both inhibitory and exciting stimuli. As the physiological function of breathing is to bring oxygen to and remove carbon dioxide from the blood, it would naturally be expected that breathing would be regulated in accordance with the amount of oxygen required and of carbon dioxide formed; but until quite recently the actual mode of regulation was by no means clear. It was commonly supposed that afferent nervous impulses in some way regulated the otherwise automatic action of the centre, want of oxygen or excess of C0 2 in the blood being only an occasional and relatively unim- portant factor in the regulations. The phenomenon of "apnoea" or complete cessation of natural breathing which occurs after forced breathing, was attributed mainly to the already mentioned distension effect through the vagus nerves. To go further back still, it was even supposed that the rate and depth of breathing, and the percentage of oxygen in the inspired air, determine the consumption of oxygen and formation of carbon dioxide in the body, just, as the air-supply to a fire determines the rate of its combustion. This old belief is still often met with — for instance, in the reasons given for recommending " breathing exercises " as a part of physical training. It is evident that if the breathing did not increase correspond- ingly with the greatly increased consumption of oxygen and formation of C0 2 which occurs, for instance during muscular work, the percentage of oxygen in the air contained in the lung cells or alveoli (alveolar air) would rapidly fall, and the per- centage of carbon dioxide increase. The inevitable result would be a very imperfect aeration of the blood. Investigation of the alevolar air has furnished the key to the actual regulation of breathing. Samples of this air can be obtained by making a sudden and deep expiration through a piece of long tube, and at once collecting some of the air contained in the part of this tube nearest the mouth. By this means it has been found that during normal breathing at ordinary atmospheric pressure the percentage of carbon dioxide (about 5-6% on an average for men) is constant for each individual, though different persons vary slightly as regards their normal percentage. The breathing is thus so regulated as to keep the percentage of carbon dioxide constant; and under normal conditions this regulation is surprisingly exact. The ordinary expired air is a mixture of alveolar air and air from the " dead space " in the air passages. The deeper the breathing happens to be, the more alveolar air there will be in the expired air, and the higher, therefore, the percentage of carbon dioxide in it, so that the expired air is not constant in composition, though the alveolar air is. If air containing 2 or 3 % of carbon dioxide is breathed, the breathing at once becomes deeper, in such a way as to prevent anything but a very slight rise in the alveolar carbon dioxide percentage. The difference is scarcely appreciable subjectively, except during muscular exertion. The effect of 1 % of carbon dioxide in the inspired air is so slight as to be negligible, and there is no founda- tion for the popular belief that even very small percentages of carbon dioxide are injurious. With 4 or 5 % or more of carbon dioxide, however, much panting is produced, and the alveolar carbon dioxide percentage begins to rise appreciably, since compensation is no longer possible. As a consequence, headache and other symptoms are produced. If, on the other hand, the percentage of carbon dioxide in the alveolar air is abnormally reduced by forced breathing, the condition of apnoea is produced and lasts until the percentage again rises to normal, but no longer. Forced breathing with air containing more than about 4% of carbon dioxide causes no apnoea, as the alveolar carbon dioxide does not fall. If oxygen is breathed instead of air there is no appreciable change in the percentage of carbon dioxide in the alveolar air, and no tendency towards apnoea. Want of oxygen is thus not a factor in the regulation of normal breathing. During muscular work the depth and frequency of breathing increase in such a way as to prevent the alveolar carbon dioxide from rising more than very slightly. It is still the carbon dioxide stimulus that regulates the breathing, although with excessive muscular work other accessory factors may come in to some extent. Under increased barometric pressure the percentage of carbon dioxide in the alveolar air no longer remains constant; it diminishes in proportion to the increase of pressure. For instance, at a pressure of 2 atmospheres it is reduced to half, and at 6 atmospheres to a sixth; while at less than normal atmospheric pressure it rises correspondingly unless symptoms of want of oxygen begin to interfere with this rise. These results show that it is not the mere percentage, but the pressure (or "partial pressure") of carbon dioxide in the PHYSIOLOGY] RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 189 alveolar air that regulates breathing. The pressure exercised by the carbon dioxide in the alveolar air is of course propor- tional to its percentage, multiplied by the total atmospheric pressure. It follows from this law that at a pressure of 6 atmospheres 1% of carbon dioxide in the inspired air would have the same violent effect as 6% at the normal pressure of 1 atmosphere. To take a concrete practical application, if a diver whose head was just below water were supplied with sufficient air to keep the carbon dioxide percentage in the air of his helmet down to 3 % at most, he would be quite comfortable. But if, with the same air supply as measured at surface, he went down to a depth of 170 ft., where the pressure is 6 atmospheres, he would at once experience great distress culminating in loss of consciousness, owing, not to the pressure of the water, which has trifling effects, but to the pressure of carbon dioxide in the air he was breathing. The air supply must be increased in proportion to the increase of pressure if these effects are to be avoided, and ignorance of this has led to the common failure of diving work at considerable depths. The foregoing .facts- enable us to understand the regulation of breathing under normal conditions. The pressure of carbon dioxide in the alveolar air evidently determines that of the carbon dioxide in the arterial blood, and the latter in its turn determines the carbon dioxide pressure in the respiratory centre, which is very richly supplied with blood. The centre itself is extremely sensitive to the slightest increase or diminution in carbon dioxide pressure; and thus it is that the alveolar carbon dioxide pressure is so important. That the stimulus of carbon dioxide is from the blood and not through nerves is proved by many experiments. The function of the vagus nerves in regulat- ing the breathing is apparently to, as it were, guide the centre in the expenditure of each separate inspiratory or expiratory effort; for as soon as inspiration or expiration is completed the inspiratory or expiratory effort is cut short by impulse pro- ceeding up the vagus nerve, and much waste of muscular work and risk of injury to the lungs is thereby prevented. Under ordinary conditions the regulation of carbon dioxide pressure in the alveolar air ensures at the same time a normal pressure of oxygen, since absorption of oxygen and giving off of carbon dioxide normally run parallel to one another. If, however, air containing abnormally little oxygen is breathed, the normal relation between oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveolar air is disturbed. A similar state of affairs is brought about by any considerable diminution of atmospheric pressure. Not only does the partial pressure of oxygen in the inspired air fall, but this fall is proportionally much greater in the alveolar air; and the effects of want of oxygen depend on its partial pressure in the alveolar air. It has been known for long that any great deficiency in the proportion of oxygen in the air breathed increases the depth and frequency of the breathing; but this effect is not apparent until the percentage of oxygen or the barometric pressure is reduced by more than a third, which corresponds to a reduction of more than half in the alveolar oxygen pressure. In contrast with this an increase of a fiftieth in the alveolar carbon dioxide pressure has a marked effect on the breathing. Along with the increased breathing caused by deficiency of oxygen there is more or less blueness of the skin and abnormal effects of various kinds, such as partial loss of sensibility, memory and power of thinking. Long exposure often causes headache, nausea, sleeplessness, &c. — a train of symptoms known to mountaineers as "mountain sickness." That the primary cause of " mountain sickness " is lack of oxygen owing to the low atmospheric pressure there is not the slightest doubt. Lack of oxygen is thus not only an important, but also an abnormal form of stimulus to the re- spiratory centre, since it is accompanied by quite abnormal symptoms. A further analysis of the special effect of lack of oxygen on the respiratory centre has shown that this effect still depends on the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the alveolar air. The lack of oxygen appears, in fact, to have simply increased the sensitiveness of the centre to carbon dioxide, so that a lower partial pressure of carbon dioxide excites the centre, and the breathing is correspondingly increased. By prolonged forced breathing so much carbon dioxide is washed out of the body that the subsequent apnoea lasts until the oxygen in the alveolar air is nearly exhausted. The subject of the experiment becomes very blue in the face and is partially stupefied by want of oxygen before he has any desire to breathe. The probable explanation of these facts is that want of oxygen does not itself excite the centre, but that some substance — very probably lactic acid, which is known to be formed abundantly — is produced abnormally in the body during exposure to want of oxygen and aids the carbon dioxide in exciting the centre. It is known that the blood becomes less alkaline at high altitudes, and that acids in general excite the centre. A person on a high mountain thus gets out of breath much more easily than at sea-level. The extra stimulus to the centre during work still comes from the extra carbon dioxide formed, but has a greater effect than usual on the breathing. If the extra stimulus came directly from want of oxygen the person on the mountain would probably turn blue and lose consciousness on the slightest exertion. By analysing the alveolar air it can be shown that after a time even a height of 5000 to 6000 ft., or a diminution of only a sixth in the barometric pressure, distinctly increases the sensitive- ness of the respiratory centre to carbon dioxide, so that there seems to be a slow accumulation of acid in the blood. The effect also passes off very slowly on returning to normal pressure, although the lack of oxygen is at once removed. The blueness of the skin (" cyanosis ") produced by lack of oxygen is due to the fact that the haemoglobin of the red corpuscles is imperfectly saturated with oxygen. Haemo- globin which is fully saturated with oxygen has a bright red colour, contrasting with the blue colour which it assumes when deprived of oxygen. According to the existing evidence the saturation of the haemoglobin is practically complete under normal conditions in the lungs, or when thoroughly shaken at the body temperature and normal atmospheric pressure with air of the same composition as normal alveolar air. As the partial pressure of the oxygen in this air falls, however, the saturation of the haemoglobin becomes less and less complete, and the arterial blood assumes a more and more blue tinge, which imparts a blue or leaden colour to the skin, accompanied by the symptoms, already referred to, of lack of oxygen. Normal arterial blood in man yields about 19 volumes of physiologically available oxygen for each 100 volumes of blood. Of these 19 volumes about 18J are loosely combined with the haemoglobin of the red corpuscles, the small remainder being in simple solution in the blood. Venous blood, on the other hand, yields only about 1 2 volumes. The combination of haemoglobin with oxygen is only stable in the presence of free oxygen at a pressure of about that in normal alveolar air. As this pressure falls the compound is progressively dissociated. From this it can be readily understood why the blood loses its oxygen in passing through the tissues, which are constantly absorbing free oxygen, and regains it in the lungs. The marked effects produced by abnormal deficiency in the pressure of oxygen in the alveolar air are also readily intelligible; for even although the arterial blood still contains sufficient oxygen to cover the normal difference between the oxygen content of arterial and that of venous blood, yet this oxygen is given off to the tissues less readily — i.e. at a lower pressure, and thus fails to supply their demands completely. It is evident also that in pure air at normal pressure increased ventilation of the lu'ngs does not appreciably increase the supply of oxygen to the blood, whereas in air largely deprived of its oxygen, or at low pressure, the increased alveolar oxygen pressure produced by deep breath- ing helps greatly in saturating the blood with oxygen, and may thus relieve the symptoms of want of oxygen. Hence it is that the increased sensitiveness of the respiratory centre to carbon dioxide, and consequent increased depth of breath- ing, at high altitudes compensates to a large extent for de- ficiency in the oxygen pressure. Addition of carbon dioxide to the inspired air produces exactly the same result. Indeed igo RESPIRATORY SYSTEM [PHYSIOLOGY Professor Angelo Mosso was led by observation of the beneficial effects of carbon dioxide at low atmospheric pressure to attri- bute mountain sickness to lack of carbon dioxide, a condition which he designated by the word " acapnia. " When impure air is vitiated, not only by deficiency of oxygen, but also by carbon dioxide, the carbon dioxide causes panting, which not only gives warning of any danger, but prevents the alveolar oxygen percentage from falling in the way it would do if the carbon dioxide were absent. In this way the carbon dioxide greatly lessens the danger. To give instances, air progressively and very highly vitiated by respiration is much less likely to cause danger if the carbon dioxide is not artificially absorbed, and not nearly so dangerous as the great diminution of atmo- spheric pressure (and consequently of oxygen pressure) which occurs in a very high balloon ascent. Indeed the dangers of a very high balloon ascent are notorious, and a number of deaths or very narrow escapes are on record. Just as oxygen forms a dissociable compound with the haemoglobin of the blood, so does carbon dioxide form dis- sociable compounds. One of' these compounds appears to be with haemoglobin itself, and another is sodium bicarbonate, which is far more easily dissociated in the blood than in a simple watery solution, owing to the presence of proteid and possibly other substances which act as weak acids and thus help the dissociation process. The whole of the carbon di- oxide can therefore be removed from the blood by a vacuum pump, just as the whole of the oxygen can. Venous blood contains roughly speaking about 40 volumes of carbon di- oxide per 100 of blood, and arterial blood about 34 volumes. Of this carbon dioxide only about 3 volumes can be in free solu- tion, the rest being loosely combined. The conveyance of carbon dioxide from the blood to the lungs is thus readily intelligible, as well as the fact that any increase or diminution of the pres- sure of carbon dioxide in the alveolar air will naturally lead to a damming back or increased liberation of carbon dioxide from the blood, and that by forced breathing carbon dioxide can be washed out of the blood to such an extent that a pro- longed cessation of natural breathing (apnoea) follows, since even in the venous blood the partial pressure of carbon di- oxide has become too low to excite the respiratory centre. It will be evident from the foregoing that in order to supply efficiently the respiratory requirements of the tissues not only must the breathing, but also the circulation, be suitably regu- lated. In hard muscular work the consumption of oxygen and output of carbon dioxide may be increased eight or ten times beyond those of rest. Unless, therefore, the blood supply to the active tissues were correspondingly increased, deficiency of oxygen would at once arise, since the amount of oxygen carried by a given volume of the arterial blood is very limited, as already explained. It is known that the supply of blood to each organ is always increased during its activity. This, increase can, for instance, readily be seen and measured in the case of contracting muscles or secreting glands; and the volume and frequency of the pulse are greatly increased during muscular work. But while it is evident enough that the flow of blood through the body is determined in accordance with the metabolic activities of each tissue, our knowledge is as yet very scanty as to the means by which this determination is brought about. Probably, however, carbon dioxide may be nearly as important a factor in the regulation of the circulation as in that of breathing. Just as the rate of breathing was formerly supposed to determine, and not to be determined by, the fundamental metabolic processes of the body, so the circulation was supposed to be another independent determining factor; and under the influence of these mechanistic conceptions the direction of investigation into the phenomena of respiration and' circula- tion has been largely diverted to side issues. Since the circulation, no less than the breathing, is con- cerned in the supply of oxygen to and removal of carbon dioxide from the tissues, it can readily be understood that defective circulation, such as occurs, for instance, in uncom- pensated valvular affections of the heart, may affect the breathing and hinder the normal respiratory exchange. Con- versely, also, defects in the aeration or oxygen-carrying power of the blood may be compensated for by increase in the cir- culation. For instance, in the very common condition known as anaemia, where the percentage of haemoglobin, and con- sequently the oxygen-carrying power of the blood, is often reduced to a third or less, the respiratory disturbances may be so slight that the patient is going about his or her ordinary work. A miner suffering from the now well-known " worm- disease," or ankylostomiasis (?.».), may be working under- ground, or a housemaid suffering from chlorosis may be doing her work, with only a third of the normal oxygen-carrying power of the blood. There seems to be no doubt that in such cases an increased rate of blood circulation compensates for the diminished oxygen-carrying power of the blood. It is well known that at high altitudes a gradual process of adaptation to the low pressure occurs, and the shortness of breath and other symptoms experienced for the first few days gradually become less and less. This adaptation is .partly, at least, due to a marked increase in the percentage of haemoglobin in the blood, though probably circulatory and perhaps ©ther com- pensatory changes are also involved. In connexion with respiration the action of certain poisons is of great interest. One of these, carbon monoxide, is of very common occurrence, and causes numerous cases of poisoning. Like oxygen, it has the property of combining with the haemo- globin of the blood, but its affinity for haemoglobin is far more strong than that of oxygen. In presence of air containing as little as -05 % of carbon monoxide, the haemoglobin will become about equally shared between oxygen and carbon monoxide, so that, since air contains 20.9% of oxygen, the affinity of carbon monoxide for haemoglobin may be regarded as about 400 times greater than that of oxygen. The blood of a person breathing even a small percentage of carbon monoxide may thus become gradually saturated to a dangerous extent, since the haemoglobin engaged by the carbon monoxide is for the time useless as an oxygen-carrier. Air containing more than about o.r% of carbon monoxide is thus more or less dangerous if breathed for long; but the blood completely recovers in the course of a few hours if pure air is again breathed. The poisonous action of carbon monoxide can be abolished by placing the animal exposed to it in oxygen at an excess pressure of about an atmosphere. The reason for this is that, in consequence of the increased partial pressure of the oxygen, the amount of this gas in free solution in the blood is greatly increased in accordance with Dalton's law, and becomes sufficient to supply the tissues with oxygen quite independently of the haemoglobin. Even at ordinary atmospheric pressure the extra oxygen dissolved in the blood when pure oxygen is breathed is of con- siderable importance. Carbon-monoxide poisoning is the chief cause of death in colliery explosions and fires, and the sole cause in poisoning by lighting gas and fuel gas of various kinds. Its presence in dangerous proportions may be readily detected with the help of a small bird, mouse or other small warm-blooded animal. In such animals the respiratory exchange is so rapid that symptoms of carbon-monoxide poisoning are shown far more quickly than in man. The small animal can thus be em- ployed in mines, &c, to indicate danger from carbon monoxide. A lamp is useless for this purpose. There are various other poisons, such as nitrites, chlorates, dinitrobenzol, &c, which act by disabling the haemoglobin, and so cutting off the oxygen supply to the tissues. Between the air in the air-cells of the lungs and the blood of the lung capillaries there intervenes nothing but a layer of very thin, flattened cells, and until recently it was very generally believed that it was by diffusion alone that oxygen passes inwards and carbonic acid outwards through this layer. Similar simple physical explanations of processes of secretion and absorption through living cells have, however, turned out to be incorrect in the case of other organs. It is known, moreover, that in the case of the swimming-bladder of fishes oxygsn is secreted into. PHYSIOLOGY] RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 191 the interior against enormous pressure. Thus, in the case of a fish caught at a depth of 4500 ft., the partial pressure of the oxygen present in the swimming bladder at this depth was 127 atmospheres, whereas the partial pressure of oxygen in sea-water is only about 0-2 atmosphere. Diffusion can therefore have nothing to do with the passage of gas inwards, which is known to be under the control of the nervous system. The cells lining the interior of the swimming bladder are developed from the same part of the alimentary tract as those lining the air-cells of the lungs, so that it seems not unlikely that the lungs should possess the power of actively secreting or excreting gases. The question whether such a power exists, and is normally exercised, has been investigated by more than one method; and although it is not possible to go into the details of the experiments, there can be no doubt that the balance of the evidence at present available is in favour of the view that diffusion alone is incapable of explaining either the absorption of oxygen or the excretion of carbon dioxide through the lining cells of the lungs. The partial pressure of oxygen appears to be always higher, and of carbon dioxide often lower, in the blood leaving the lungs than in the air of the air-cells; and this result is inconsistent with the diffusion theory. As to the causes of the passage of oxygen and carbonic acid through the walls of the capillaries of the general circulation, we are at present in the dark. Possibly diffusion may explain this process. II. Although we cannot trace the exact changes which occur when oxygen passes into living cells, yet it is possible to obtain a clear general view of the origin and destiny of the material concerned in the process, and of the physiological conditions which determine it. The oxidizable material within the body consists, practically speaking, of proteids (albumen-like substances, with which the collagen of connective tissue may be included), fats and carbo- hydrates (sugars and glycogen). All of these substances contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in known, though different, proportions, and the former also contains a known amount of nitrogen and a little sulphur. Nitrogen is constantly leaving the body as urea and other substances in the urine and faeces; and a small but easily measurable proportion of carbon passes off in the same manner. The rest of the carbon passes out as carbon dioxide in respiration. Now carbohydrates and fats are oxidized completely in the body to carbon dioxide and water. This follows from the fact that, practically speaking, no other products into which they might have been converted leave the body except carbon dioxide and water. Moreover, a given weight of carbohydrate requires for its oxidation a definite weight of oxygen, and produces a definite weight of carbon dioxide. There is thus a definite relation between the weight of oxygen used up and the weight of carbon dioxide formed in this oxidation. The same is true for the oxidation of fat and of proteid, allowing in the latter case for the fact that the nitrogen, together with part of the carbon and hydrogen, passes out as urea, &c, in an incompletely oxidized form. From all this it follows that if we measure over a given period (1) the discharge of nitrogen from the body, (2) the intake of oxygen and (3) the output of carbonic acid, we can easily calculate exactly what the ultimate destiny of the oxygen has been, and at the ultimate expense of what material the carbonic acid has been formed. What the intermediate stages may have been we cannot say, but this in no way affects the validity of the calcula- tion. If, during the period of measurement, food is taken, the basis of the calculation is still substantially the same, as the oxidizable material in food consists of practically nothing else except proteids, carbohydrates and fats. Liberation of Energy. — From experiments made outside the body, we know that in the oxidation of a given weight of proteid, carbohydrate or fat, a definite amount of energy is liberated. In the article on Dietetics it is shown that precisely the same liberation of energy occurs in the living body, due allowance being made for the fact that the oxidation of proteid is not quite complete. The following table shows the respiratory quotients (the respiratory quotient being the ratio between the volume of carbon dioxide formed and that of oxygen used up) and energy expressed in units of heat (calories) liberated per gramme of carbon dioxide produced and oxygen consumed in the living body during the oxidation of proteid, fat and a typical carbohydrate: — Substance oxidized. Respiratory quotient. Calories per gramme of C0 2 pro- duced. Calories per gramme of oxygen consumed. Proteid Fat Cane-sugar . •78 •71 I -00 2-78 3-35 2-59 3.00 3-27 3-56 In the oxidation of non-living substances the rate varies, within wide limits, according to that at which oxygen is supplied. Thus a fire burns the faster the more air is supplied, and the higher the percentage of oxygen in the air. It was for long believed that in the living body also the rate of oxidation must vary according to the oxygen supply. It has been found, however, that this is not the case. Provided that a certain minimum of oxygen is present in the air breathed, or in the blood supplied to the tissues, it is, practically speaking, indifferent whether the oxygen supply be increased or diminished : only a certain amount is consumed. It might be supposed that the reason for this is that the available oxidizable material in the body is limited, and that if the food supply were increased there would be a corresponding increase in the rate of oxidation. This hypothesis is apparently supported by the fact that, when an increased supply of proteid is given as food, the amount of nitrogen discharged in the urine is almost exactly corre- spondingly increased, so that evidently the oxidation of proteid increases correspondingly with the supply. Similarly, when carbohydrate food is given, the alteration in the respiratory quotient shows that more carbohydrate than before is being oxidized. Closer investigation in recent times has, however, brought out the very striking fact that, if oxidation be measured in terms of energy liberated by it in the body, it makes but little difference, other things being equal, whether the animal is fasting or not. If more proteid or carbohydrate is oxidized at one time, correspondingly less fat is oxidized, but the total energy liberated as heat, &c, in the body is about the same, unless the diet is very excessive, when there is a slight increase of oxidation. Even after many days of starvation, the rate of oxidation per unit of body weight has been found to remain sensibly the same in man. When more food is taken than is required, the excess is stored up, "chiefly in the form of fat, into which carbo- hydrate and possibly also proteid are readily converted in the body. When less food is taken than is needed, the stock of fat is drawn upon, and supplies by far the greater proportion of the energy requirements of the body. During the performance of muscular work oxidation is greatly increased, and may amount to ten times the normal or more. Even the slight exertion of easy walking increases oxidation to three times. When the energy represented by the external work done in muscular exertion is compared with the extra energy liberated by oxidation in the body, it is found, as would be expected, that the latter, value largely exceeds the former. In other words, much of the energy liberated is wasted as heat. Nevertheless the muscles are capable of working with less waste than any steam or gas engine. In the work of climbing, for instance, it has been found in the case of man that 35 % of the energy liberated is represented in the work done in raising the body. Muscular work, if at all excessive, leads to fatigue, and consequent rest. On the other hand, unnatural abstinence from muscular activity leads to restlessness and consequen* muscular work. Hence on an average of the twenty-four hours the expenditure of energy by different individuals, with different modes of life, does not as a rule differ greatly. The rate of oxidation per unit of body weight varies consider- ably according to size and age. If we compare different warm- blooded animals, we find that the rate of oxidation is relatively ig2 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM [MOVEMENTS to their weight far higher in the smaller ones. In a mouse or small bird, for instance, the rate is about twenty times as great as in a man. The difference is in part due to the fact that the smaller an animal is the greater is its surface relatively to its mass, and consequently the more heat does it require to keep up its temperature. The smaller animal must therefore produce more heat. Even in cold-blooded animals, however, oxidation appears to be more rapid the smaller the animal. In the case of man, oxidation is relatively more than twice as rapid in children than in adults, and the difference is greater than would be accounted for by the difference in the ratio of surface to mass. Allowing for differences in size, oxidation is about equally rapid in men and women. It was for long believed that the special function of respiratory oxidation was (i) the production of heat, and (2) the destruction of the supposed " waste products." Further investigation has, however, tended to show more and more clearly that in reality respiratory oxidation is an essential and intimate accompani- ment of all vital activity. To take one example, secretion and absorption, which were formerly explained as simple processes of nitration and diffusion, are now known to be] accompanied, and necessarily so, by respiratory oxidation in the tissues con- cerned. The respiratory oxidation of an animal is thus a very direct index of the activity of its vital processes as a whole. Looking at what is known with regard to respiratory oxidation,, we see that what is most striking and most characteristic in ; .t is its tendency to persist— to remain on the whole at about a normal level for each animal, or each stage of development of an animal. The significance of this cannot be over-estimated. It indicates clearly that just as an organism differentiates itself from any non-living material system by the manner in which it actually asserts and maintains its specific anatomical structure, so does it differentiate itself from any mere mechanism by the manner in which it asserts and maintains its specific physiological activities. Authorities. — For further general information the reader may be referred to the sections by Pembrey and by Gamgee in Schafer's Handbook of Physiology, vol. i., and by Bohr in Nagel' s Handbuch der Physiologie, vol. i. The following additional references are to recent investigations: Regulation of Breathing, Haldane and Priestley, Journal of Physiology, xxxii. 225 (1905). Respiration at High Altitudes and Effects of Want of Oxygen, Zuntz, Loewy, Caspari, and Miiller, Das Hohenklima (1905); Boycott and Haldane, Ward, and Haldane and Poulton, Journal of Physiology, xxxvii. (1968). Respiration at High Pressures, " Report to the Admiralty of the Committee on Deep Diving " (1907). Respiratory Exchange and Secretion, Barcroft, Journal of Physiology, xxvii. 31 (1901); Bar- croft and Brodie, Journal of Physiology, xxvii. 18, and xxxiii. 52 (1905). Excretion of C0 2 by the Lung Epithelium, Bohr, Zentral- blattfur Physiologie, xxi. 337 (1907). " Normal Alveolar C0 2 Pressure in Man," Mabel Fitzgerald and J. Haldane in Physiological Journal (1905). (J- S. H.) (3) Movements oe Respiration Normal Respiration. — If the naked body of a person asleep or in perfect inactivity be carefully watched, it will be found that the anterior and lateral walls of the chest move rhythmi- cally up and down, while air passes into and out of the nostrils (and mouth also if this be open) in correspondence with the movement. If we look more closely we shall find that with every uprising of the chest walls the membranous intercostal portions sink slightly as if sucked in, while at the same time the flexible walls of the abdomen bulge as if protruded by some internal force. If respiration be in the slightest degree hurried, these motions become so marked as to escape the attention of no one. The elevation of the chest walls is called inspiration, their depression expiration. Inspiration is slightly shorter than expiration, and usually there is a slight pause or momentary inaction of the chest between expiration and the following inspiration. Apparatuses for measuring the excursion of a given point of the chest wall during respiration are called thoracometers or stethomelers. Apparatuses for recording the movements of the chest are called stethographs or pneumo- graphs. Frequency of Respiration. — The frequency of respiration during perfect rest of the body is. 1 16 to 24 per minute, the pulse rate being usually four times the rate of respiration; but the respiratory rhythm varies in various conditions of life. The following are the means of many observations made by Lambert Adolphe Quetelet (1796-1874): at the age of one year the number of respirations is 44 per minute; at 5 years, 26; from 15 to 20 years, 20; from 25 to 30, 16; from 30 to 50, 18-1. Muscular exertion always increases the fre- quency of respiration. The higher the temperature of the environment the more frequent is the respiration. Paul Bert ( 1 833-1 886) has shown that with higher atmospheric pressures than the normal the frequency of respiration is diminished while the depth of each inspiration is increased. The frequency of respiration diminishes until dinner-time, reaches its maximum within an hour of feeding, and thereafter falls again; if dinner is omitted, no rise of frequency occurs. The respiratory act can be interrupted at any stage, reversed, quickened, slowed and variously modified at will, so long as respiration is not stopped entirely for more than a short space of time; beyond this limit the will is incapable of suppressing respiration. Depth of Respiration. — The depth of respiration is measured by the quantity of air inspired or expired in the act; but the deepest expiration possible does not suffice to expel all the air the lungs contain. The following measurements have been ascertained, and are here classified according to the con- venient terminology proposed by John Hutchinson (1811-1861). (1) Residual air, the volume of air remaining in the chest after the most complete expiratory effort, ranges from 100 to 130 cub. in. (2) Reserve or supplemental air, the volume of air which can be expelled from the chest after an ordinary quiet expiration, measures about 100 cub. in. (3) Tidal air, the volume of air taken in and given out at each ordinary respiration may be stated at about 20 cub. in. (4) Complemental air, the volume of air that can be forcibly inspired over and above what is taken in at a normal inspiration, ranges from about 100 to 130 cub. in. By vital capacity, which once had an exaggerated importance attached to it, is meant the quantity of air which can be ex- pelled from the lungs by the deepest possible expiration after the deepest possible inspiration; it obviously includes the complemental, tidal and reserve 'airs, and measures about 230 cub. in. in the Englishman of average height, i.e. 5 ft, 8 in. (Hutchinson). It varies according to the height, body weight, age, sex, position of the body and condition as to health of the subject of observation. Vital capacity is estimated by means of a spirometer, a gradu- ated gasometer into which air may be blown from the lungs. The residual air, which for obvious reasons cannot be actually measured, may be estimated in the following way (Emil Harless, 1820-1862; Louis Grehant, b. 1838). At the end of ordinary expiration, apply the mouth to a mouthpiece communicating with a vessel filled with pure hydrogen, and breathe into and out of this vessel half a dozen times — until, in fact, there is reason to suppose that the air in the lungs at the time of the experiment has become evenly mixed with hydrogen. Then ascertain by analysis the proportion of hydrogen to expired air in the vessel and estimate the amount of the air which the lungs contained by the following formula: — v : V-fc = /> : 100 ; v(ioo-p) _ where V= volume of air in the lungs at the time of experiment, v = volume of the vessel containing hydrogen, p = proportion of air to hydrogen in the vessel at the end of the experiment. V, then, is the volume of air in the lungs after an ordinary expira- tion; that is, it includes the residual and the reserve air; if we subtract from this the amount of reserve air ascertained by direct measurement, we obtain the 100-130 cub. in. which Hutchinson arrived at by a study of the dead body. Volume of Respiration. — It is clear that the ventilation of the lungs in ordinary breathing does not merely depend on MOVEMENTS] RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 193 the quantity of air inspired at each breath, but also on the number of inspirations in a given time. If these two values be multiplied together we get what might be called the volume of respiration (Athmungsgrosse, Isidore Rosenthal, b. 1836), in contradistinction to depth of respiration and frequency of respiration. Various instruments have been devised to measure the volume of respiration, all more or less faulty for the reason that they compel respiration under somewhat ab- normal conditions (Rosenthal, Gad, Peter Ludwig, Panum (1820-1885), Ewald Hering (b. 1834). From the data ob- tained we may conclude that the respiratory volume per minute in man is about 366 cub. in. (6000 cub. centim.). In connexion with this subject it may be stated that, after a single ordinary inspiration of hydrogen gas, 6-10 respirations of ordinary air must occur before the expired air ceases to contain some trace of hydrogen. Types of Respiration. — The visible characters of respiration in man vary considerably according to age and sex. In men, while there is a moderate degree of upheaval of the chest, there is a considerable although not preponderating degree of excursion of the abdominal walls. In women the chest movements are decidedly most marked, the excursion of the abdominal walls being comparatively small. Hence we may distinguish two types of respiration, the costal and the ab- dominal, according to the preponderance of movement of one or the other part of the body wall. In forced respiration the type is costal in both sexes, and so it is also in sleep. The cause of this difference between men and women has been variously ascribed (a) to constriction of the chest by corsets in women, (6) to a natural adaptation to the needs of child- bearing in women, and (c) to the greater relative flexibility of the ribs in women permitting a wider displacement under the action of the inspiratory muscles. Certain Concomitants of Normal Respiration. — If the ear be placed against the chest wall during ordinary respiration we can hear with every inspiration a sighing or rustling sound, called " vesicular," which is probably caused by the expansion of the air vesicles; and with every expiration a sound of a much softer sighing character. In children the inspiratory rustle is sharper and more pronounced than in adults. If a stethoscope be placed over the trachea, bronchi or larynx, so that the sounds generated there may be separately com- municated to the ear, there is heard a harsh to-and-fro sound during inspiration and expiration which has received the name of " bronchial." In healthy breathing the mouth should be closed and the ingoing current should all pass through the nose. When this happens the nostrils become slightly expanded with each inspiration, probably by the action of the M. dilatatores naris. In some people this movement is hardly perceptible unless breathing be heavy or laboured. As the air passes at the back of the throat behind the soft palate it causes the velum to wave very gently in the current; this is a purely passive movement. If we look at the glottis or opening into the larynx during respiration, as we may readily do with the help of a small mirror held at the back of the throat, we may notice that the glottis is wide open during inspiration and that it becomes narrower by the approximation of the vocal chords during expiration. This alteration is produced by the action of the laryngeal muscles. Like the movements of the nostril, those of the larynx are almost imperceptible in some people during ordinary breathing, but are very well marked in all during forced respiration. The Mechanics of Respiration. — The thorax is practically a closed box entirely filled by the lungs, heart and other struc- tures contained within it. If we were to freeze a dead body until all its tissues were rigid, and then were to remove a portion of the chest wall, we should observe that every corner of the thorax is accurately filled by some portion or other of its contents. If we were to perform the same operation of removing a part of the chest wall in a body not first frozen we should find, on the other hand, that the contents of the xxm. 7 thorax are not by any means in such circumstances bulky enough to fill up the space provided for them. If we were to measure the organs carefully we should find that those which are hollow and whose cavities communicate with the regions outside the thorax are all larger in the frozen corpse than in that which was not frozen. In other words, the organs in the thorax are distended somewhat in order that they may completely fill the chest cavity; and the nature of this curious and important condition may best be illustrated by the simple diagrams, figs. 7 and 8 (from Hermann's Physiologie des Fig. 7. Fig. 8. Menschen), — where t is the trachea, I the lung, v the auricle of the heart, k the ventricle, i an intercostal space with its flexible membranous covering. When the interior of the vessel is rendered vacuous by exhaustion through the tube 0, the walls of the lungs and heart are expanded until the limits of the containing vessel are accurately filled, while all flexible portions of the walls of the vessel (corresponding to the intercostal membranes and the diaphragm of the thorax) are sucked inwards. From this description it follows that the lungs, even when the thorax is most contracted, are constantly over-distended, and that, when the cause of this over-distension is removed, the lungs, being elastic, collapse. It further follows that if the thorax is dilated, the flexible hollow organs it contains must perforce be still more distended — a distension which in the case of the lungs is followed by an indrawing of air through the trachea in all cases where the trachea is open. Thus, as the act of respiration is primarily a dilatation of the thorax, the part played by the lungs is, as Galen knew, a purely passive one. How is dilatation of the thorax effected? It has been pointed out that the rib-planes decline from the horizontal in two directions, viz. from behind forwards, and from the antero- posterior mesial plane outwards; a glance at fig. 9 will make this double sloping clear to the reader. It has, moreover, been explained that the diaphragm arches upwards into the thorax in such a manner that the lateral parts of the arch are vertical and in contact with the inner face of the thoracic walls. This being the structure of the thorax, the enlarge- ment of its cavity is brought about (1) by raising the rib- planes until they approach the horizontal, and (2) by depressing the diaphragm and. making its rounded dome more cone-like in outline. A moment's consideration will show how these actions enlarge the boundaries of the thorax, (a) When the postero-anterior slope of the rib-planes is diminished by the raising of the anterior ends of the ribs, the whole sternum is thrust upwards and forwards, and the antero-posterior diameter of the thorax is increased. (6) When the lateral slope of the rib-planes is diminished by the ribs being moved 194 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM [MOVEMENTS From Hermann's Handbuch. j Fig. 9. — Showing Slope of Ribs. upwards about an axis passing through their sternal and vertebral extremities, it is evident that the lateral diameter of the thorax must be increased, (c) When the muscular portion of the diaphragm contracts, the curves of its dome-like shape are straightened, the whole diaphragm comes to look more conical on section, and the ap- position of its lateral parts to the inner surface of the thorax is destroyed; the two apposed surfaces are drawn apart much as the leaves of a book might be, and a space is formed between them, into which some portion of the lung slips, (d) When the dia- phragm descends it draws with it the whole con- tents of the thorax; in- asmuch as the contents as a whole are conical in shape with the apex up- ward and are fitted into the conical space of the thoracic cavity, it is clear that the descent of the contents will tend to create a space between them and the thoracic walls; for each stratum of lung, &c, which is adapted to fit a certain level of thorax, will thereby be brought into a lower and (as the thorax is conical) a more spacious level. Hence the descent of the diaphragm causes a much greater enlargement of the thorax than is measured by the mere elongation of the vertical diameter. In this manner the thorax is distended and air is drawn into the lungs. The contraction of the thorax in expiration is brought about by the return of the ribs and diaphragm to their original position of rest. How the Inspiratory Movements are Produced. — The Rib Move- ments. — These are caused by the contraction of muscles which are fixed either to the central axis of the body (including under that term the head and vertebral column) or to some point rendered sufficiently stable for the purpose by the action of other adjuvant muscles. Thus the M. levatores costarum arise from the transverse processes of the 7 th cervical and eleven upper dorsal vertebrae, and are attached to the ribs below in series; the M. scaleni spring from the cervical vertebrae, and are attached to the anterior parts of the first and second ribs; the M. sternocleido-mastoidei arise from the side and back of the skull, and are inserted into the upper part of the sternum and the clavicle; the M. pectoralis minor arises from the coracoid process of the scapula, and is inserted into the anterior ends of some of the ribs; the M. serratus posticus superior arises from certain of the cervical and dorsal vertebrae, and is inserted into the posterior part of certain of the ribs; the M. cervicalis ascendens (part of the M. erector spinae) arises from certain of the cervical vertebrae, and is inserted into the posterior part of certain ribs. The M. serratus magnus and the M. pectoralis major, which are affixed on the one hand to the upper arm and to the scapula respectively, and on the other to the ribs and to the sternum respectively, may in certain elevated positions of the arm and shoulder act as inspiratory muscles. When all these muscles contract, the ribs are raised in the twofold way already described, some pulling up the anterior ends of the ribs, and others causing the arched ribs to rotate about an axis passing through their vertebral and sternal joints. In addition to the muscles just enumerated, the M. inter- costales externi are undoubtedly inspiratory muscles. Every external intercostal muscular fibre between a pair of ribs must, when it contracts, of necessity raise both ribs, as is clearly shown by the accompanying diagram (fig. 10). Here a'b' must be shorter than ab, for if angle BAa = z, then a6 2 = AB 2 +(B6-Aa) 2 +2AB(B6-Aa)cosx; hence ab will be larger the smaller the angle *, for the cosine increases as the angle diminishes. Fig. 11. By a similar geometrical treatment of the question it may be shown that the internal intercostal muscles when they contract must of necessity depress both the ribs to which they are attached. If the angle BAc' = x(fig. 11), then e'd' 2 =AB 2 +(Ac'-Bfi rrjs airoKaXbpKJs tov fiapovx vlov tov Nrjpiav. The title is different from what the New Testa- ment use of the term would have led us to expect, i.e. 'AxoKaXm^ts 'Itjow, which are indeed the opening words of this book. With the latter phrase we might compare Gal. i. 12, where we have awoKak&ptbis 'Ljo-oOXpioroO, " revelation from Jesus Christ." For the book is a revelation made by Gcd to Jesus Christ, who through His angel made it known to John for transmission to the churches. Instead of this the Church substituted the name of the disciple through whom the message was delivered for that of his Master, and designated our Apocalypse " The Apocalypse of John." This title was familiar before the end of the 2nd century. MSS. and Versions. — There are six uncials, «, A, C, P, Q, 1, the last of which has not been edited or collated. Of the rest, P and Q are imperfect. The known cursives amount to 229, according to von Soden (Die Schriften des Neuen Testamentes, I. i. 289). There are six ancient versions of various values. (a) The best is the Latin, which is found in the Old Latin (g hm and the text used by Primasius) and the Vulgate, of which there are eight MSS. written between the 6th and 15th centuries. (6) The Syriac version appears in two forms, the Philoxenian (a.d. 508), recently discovered and edited by Gwynn, and the Harclean (a.d. 616). The true Peshitta did not contain the Apocalypse, (c) The Armenian version. The Apocalypse was admitted to the canon, according to Conybeare, in the 1 2th century through the influence of Nerses, who revised an older version traceable to the opening of the 5th century, (d) The Egyptian version is found in two forms, i.e. the Bohairic and Sahidic. The former has been edited by Horner, who is now also engaged on an edition of the latter. (e,f) The Ethiopic and Arabic versions have not yet been critically edited. External Evidence and Canonicity, 2nd Century. — It is possible that the Apocalypse was known to Ignatius, Eph. xv. 3 (Rev. xxi. 3); Philad. vi. 1 (Rev. hi. 12). Some have thought also that Barnabas (vi. 13, xxi. 3) was acquainted with our text, but this is highly improbable. Andreas of Caesarea mentions Papias as attesting the credibility of Revelation, and cites two of his remarks on Rev. xii. 7. The fact that Eusebius does not mention Revelation among the New Testament books known to Papias (H.E. iii. 39) may be due to the historian's unfriendly attitude to the book. Moreover, Papias may be one of the presbyters to whom, as having actually seen John, Irenaeus (v. 30 = Eusebius, H.E. v. 8) appeals on behalf of the number 666. From these possible and highly probable references we pass on to the clear testimony of Justin Martyr, who is the first to declare that Revelation is by " John, one of the Apostles of Christ " (Dial, lxxxi. 15), and a book of canonical standing (i. 28). In the latter half of this century it meets with very wide recogni- tion. Thus a treatise of some description was written upon it by Melito of Sardis in Asia Minor (Eus. H.E. iv. 26), and quoted by the anti-Montanist Apollonius (H.E. v. 18) and Theophilus of Antioch (H.E. iv. 24). In Carthage its currency is proven by the references of Tertullian, and the phraseology of the Acts of Perpetua and Felicitas (§§ 4, 12); in Alexandria by the citations of Clement (Paed. i. 6. 36; ii. 10. 108, &c); in Rome by its inclusion in the Muratorian canon, and in Gaul by its use in the Epistle of the churches of Vienne and Lyons (Eus. H.E. v. 10. 58), and in Irenaeus, who defends the apostolic authorship of the Revelation of John (Haer. iv. 14. 1, 17. 6, 18. 6, 20. 11, 21. 3; v. 26. 1, &c). But in certain quarters the authority of the book was denied. Thus Marcion rejected it on the ground of its Jewish character (Tertullian, c. Marcion, iv. 5), and the Alogi assigned both Revela- tion and the Gospel to Cerinthus (Epiphanius, Haer. Ii. 3). This attitude is more widely represented in the next century. Third Century. — The attack on Revelation was resumed by abler antagonists in this century. The objections of the Alogi were restated and maintained by the Roman presbyter Caius in his controversy with the Montanist Proclus (Eus. H.E. ii. 25. 6; iii. 28. 2), but met with such overwhelming refutation at the hands of Hippolytus (see Gwynn, Hermathena, vi. 397-418) that no church writer in the West subsequently except Jerome seriously called in question the authorship of our book. Dionysius of Alexandria (a.d. 255) wrote a moderate and effective criticism, in which he rejects the hypothesis of the REVELATION, BOOK OF 213 Cerinthian authorship and urges that it was not written by the apostle, on the ground of its difference in language, style and contents from the other Johannine writings. Its author was some inspired man bearing the same name as the son of Zebedee. The arguments of Dionysius were repeated by Eusebius, who ascribed the work to the presbyter John mentioned by Papias (Eus. H.E. iii. 39) and was in doubt whether he should place Revelation among the spurious (voda) works (H.E. iii. 25.4) or the accepted (duoXoyovfteva). Eastern Church. — In the Eastern Church the views of Diony- sius and Eusebius were generally accepted. With the exception of Methodius and Pamphilus the book was not received by Eastern scholars. Thus it was either not mentioned or dis- owned by Cyril of Jerusalem, Chrysostom, Theodore of Mop- suestia, Theodoret and Amphilochus of Iconium. It is absent from the so-called Synopsis of Athanasius, the Stichometry of Nicephorus, the List of Sixty Books and other authoritative documents. It formed no part of the Peshitta New Testament. It was apparently unknown to Ephraem. Even when later it found a place in the Philoxenian and Harclean versions it never became a familiar book to the Syrian Churches, while it was unhesitatingly rejected by the Nestorian and Jacobite Churches. But though the Syrian Church maintained this unconciliatory attitude to the book, opposition to it began gradually to dis- appear in the rest of the East. Thus it came to be acknow- ledged by Athanasius, Isidore of Pelusium, Gregory of Nyssa, and others. Commentaries on the book were written by Andreas, archbishop of Caesarea, in the 5th century, and Arethas in the 9th. Western Church. — In the Western Church, Revelation was accepted by all writers from Hippolytus onward with the exception of Jerome, who relegated it to the class lying between the canonical and apocryphal. The authenticity of the book was unquestioned thenceforward till the Reformation, when the view of Jerome was revived by Erasmus, Carlstadt, Luther and others under various forms. In the Lutheran Church this opposition lasted into the next century, but in the Reformed it gave way much earlier. That Revelation has retained its place in the canon is due not to its extravagant claims' to in- spiration or its apocalyptical disclosures, but to its splendid faith and unconquerable hope, that have never failed to awake the corresponding graces in every age of the Church's history. The History of Interpretation. — This is a most fruitful subject, and the study of it helps to settle other related questions. We first of all might divide the methods of interpretation into two classes: I. Methods which presuppose the literal unity of the book; II. Methods which presuppose some breach of this unity either in the plan of the book as a whole or in some of its details. I. Methods presupposing the Literal Unity of the £oc%. —Where the book was accepted the problem of its interpretation was differently dealt with according to the age and environment of the interpreter. The book was first taken in a severely literal sense, and particularly in its chiliastic doctrine. i. Chiliastic Interpretation. — Revelation was held to teach chiliasm, or the doctrine of the literal reign of 1000 years. Amongst the chiliasts were Cerinthus, Papias, Justin, Irenaeus, Hippolytus, Tertullian and Victorinus. 1 When the Church obtained the mastery of the world this method came naturally to be abandoned in favour of a spiritualistic interpretation, to which we shall presently refer. But the growing secularism of the Church led to a revival of the former method in the beginning of the 13th century amongst the Franciscans. Thus Joachim of Floris in his Expositio magni abbatis loachimi in Apoc. teaches that Babylon is Rome, the Beast from the Sea Islam, the False Prophet the heretical sects of the day, and that on the close of the present age which was at hand the millennium would ensue. This method of interpretation was pursued to extravagant lengths by other Franciscans and was subsequently 1 The oldest Latin commentary was written by this scholar (ob. 303). He was the first in extant literature to interpret certain passages in Revelation of Nero. adopted by the Protestant reformers, who could justify their identification of the papacy with the Antichrist from books written within the Roman communion. Joachim was the first to apply the " recapitulation " theory to Revelation. ii. Spiritualistic Interpretation.— The founder of this school of interpretation was Ticonius the Montanist {floruit a.d. 380), though he followed therein the precedent set by Origen. His interpretation is on the whole mystical. Historical fulfilments, if not excluded, are not sought for. The millennium is the period between the first and second comings of Christ. The method of Ticonius was dominant in the Church down to the middle ages, amongst his followers being such notable church- men as Augustine, Primasius, Cassiodorus, Bede, Anselm. iii. Universal Historical Method of Interpretation. — A counter- attempt over against Joachim to interpret Revelation in the light of history was made by Nicolas of Lyra (1329; in his Postilla), following (?) therein the lead of Petrus Aureolus (1317). Here for the first time a consistently elaborated world-historical interpretation is carried out from the reign of Domitian to Lyra's own period. Under this method might be classed the expositions of Luther, Osiander, Striegel, Flacius, Gerhard and Calovius; and English writers such as Napier, Mede and Newton. Throughout these later commentaries a strong antipapal interest which identified the pope with the Antichrist holds a qentral place— a doctrine which, as we have seen, goes back historically to the immediate disciples of Joachim and like-minded Franciscans. iv. Contemporary-Historical Method. — Under the stress of the Protestant attack there arose new methods on the papal side, and their authors were the Spanish Jesuits, Ribeira (ob. 1591) and Alcasar (ob. 1614). With these writers we have the be- ginning of a scientific method of interpretation. They approach the book from the standpoint of the author and seek the clue to his writings in the events of his time. It is from these scholars that subsequent writers of Revelation have learnt how to study this book scientifically. 2 This method was adopted and developed by Grotius, 3 Hammond, Clericus, Semler, Corredi and Eichhorn, Liicke, Bleek and Ewald, and the consciousness that Rome and not Jerusalem was the object of attack in Revelation became increasingly clear in the works of these scholars. The work of Ramsay, The Letters to the Seven Churches (1904), is a pure representative of this method. v.-vii. Continuously Historical, Eschatological* and Symbolical Methods. — These methods are now generally regarded as un- scientific, and call for no further notice here save to mention that the first was upheld by Hengstenberg, Ebrard, Maitland, Elliott, &c. ; the second by Kliefoth, Beck, Zahn, and the third by Auberlen, Luthardt, Milligan and Benson. The learned Cambridge Commentary by Swete (The Apoc- alypse of John, 2nd ed., 1907) makes use of several of the methods of interpretation enumerated above. Thus Dr Swete writes (p. ccxviii) of his work: "With the ' preterists ' (con- temporary-historical) it will take its stand on the circumstances of the age and locality to which the book belongs, and will connect the greater part of the prophecy with the destinies of the empire under which the prophet lived; with the ' futurists ' (eschatological) it will look for fulfilments of St John's pregnant words in times yet to come. With the school of Auberlen and Benson it will find in the Apocalypse a Christian philosophy of history; with the 'continuous-historical' school it can see 2 The Jesuit Juan Mariana was the first after Victorinus to explain " the wounded head " as referring to Nero. This interpretation was introduced into Protestant exegesis by Corrodi. 3 The beginnings of the literary-critical method are to be found in Grotius. Starting from the different dates assigned by tradition to the exile to Patmos and the different chronological relations implied in the book itself, he conjectured that the Apocalypse was composed of several works of St John, written in different places and at different times, some before, some after A.D. 70. Herein he was followed by Hammond and Lakemacher, but the idea was before its time and practically died stillborn. * Or futurist. While it is impossible to interpret the Apocalypse scientifically as a whole by the eschatological method, there are un- doubtedly some sections in it which must be so interpreted- 214 REVELATION, BOOK OF in the progress of events ever new illustrations of the working of the great principles which are revealed. And ... it will gladly accept all that research and discovery can yield for the better understanding of the conditions under which the book was written." The chief value of this very scholarly book is to be found in its textual side. The greater number of the methods discussed above have made no permanent contribution to the exegesis of Revelation; the method among them that has done most in this direction is the contemporary-historical. But, though this method has been applied in its fullness, and that by the keenest exegetes, there remains a consciousness that it has failed to solve many of the problems of the book. In many important points, however, its upholders are agreed, i.e. that the book is directed against Rome, that Nero redivivus is to be recognized in the wounded head, that the number 666 denotes Nero Caesar, and that in chap. xi. the preservation of the temple is foretold. Consequently the date of the composition of the book is placed before a.d. 70. Against the date assigned to the opening verses of this chapter modern scholars can make no objection, but, if this be the date of the entire work, then many passages in it are hopelessly inexplicable; for the latter just as certainly demand a date subsequent to a.d. 70 as xi. 1-2, a date prior to it. If, therefore, the possibilities of exegesis were exhausted in the list of methods already enumerated, science would have to put the New Testament Apocalypse aside as a hopeless enigma. But there is no such impasse. For in the New Testament Apocalypse there is not that rigid consistency and unity in detail that the past presupposed. The critical studies of recent years have shown that most of the Old Testament prophetical books are composite. And this holds true in no less a degree of most of the Jewish apocalypses. Such works are to be explained on what might be called the " fragmentary hypothesis." Other books, like the Ethiopic Enoch, exhibit a series of independent sources connected more or less loosely together. Such are to be explained on the " sources hypo- thesis." Others, like the Ascension of Isaiah, betray the handi- work of successive editors, and are accordingly to be explained on the " redaction hypothesis." Now modern scholars have with varying success used in turn these three hypotheses with a v ; ew to the solution of the problems of the New Testament Apocalypse. To these we shall now address ourselves. II. Methods — Literary-Critical — presupposing some Degree of Compositeness in the Book. i. Redaction Hypothesis. — Suggestions, as we have already observed, had been made in this direction, but it was not till Weizsacker (Theol. Litteraiurzeitung, 1882, p. 78 seq.) reopened the question that the problem was seriously undertaken. In the same year his pupil Volter (Die Entstehung der Apok., 1882, 1885) put forward the bold theory that the original Apocalypse consisted of i. 4-6, iv. i-v. 10, vi. i-17, vii. 1-8, viii. 1-13, ix. 1-21, xi. 14-19, xiv. 1-3, 6, 7, xiv. 14-20, xviii. 1-24, xix. 1-4, xix. 5-ioa, which he assigned to the year a.d. 66 (so the second edition). To this the original author added as an appendix x. i-xi. 13, xiv. 8, xvii. 1-18, in a.d. 68-70. The work under- went three later redactions at the hands of successive editors in the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. Instead of the above complex theory this writer now offers another (Die Offenbarung Johannis, 1004), 1 in which he distinguishes an apocalypse of John, a.d. 65, i. 4-6, iv. i-v. 10, vi. i-vii. 8, viii.-ix., xi. 14-19, xiv. 1-3, 6-7, xiv. 14-20, xviii. i-xix. 4, xix. 5-10 (pp. 3-56), an apocalypse of Cerinthus a.d. 70, x. 1-11, xvii. 1-18, xi. 1-13, xii. 1-16, xv. 5-6, 8, xvi. 1-21, xix. n-xxi. 8, xxi. 9-xxii. 6 (pp. 56-129), a redaction of the work in a.d. 1 14-15, i. 7-8, v. 6b, 11-14, vii. 9-17, xii. n, 18-xiii. 18, xiv. 4-5, 9-12, xv. 1-4, 7, xvi. 19b, xvii. 14, 16, 17, xxi. 14, 22-27, xx ii- I-2 > ^~9 (pp. 129-48), and certain additions, i. 1-3, 9-iii. 22, xiv. 13, xvi. 15, xxii. 7, 10-20, made in the time of Hadrian (pp. 148-171). First of all it should be observed that Volter was the first to 1 Besides the works mentioned here Volter wrote two other works on the Apocalypse: Die Offenbarung Johannis, 1886; Das Problem der Apokalypse, 1893. call attention to the radical difference in outlook between vii. 1^8 and vii. 9-17 — a difference now generally recognized. Next it is noteworthy that in the second scheme here given Volter has abandoned his theory of a redaction hypothesis in favour of a sources hypothesis+a redactor. The earlier view of Volter was rejected on every side: the later will not prove more acceptable, though individual suggestions of this scholar will be occasionally helpful. The problem was next dealt with by Vischer (Die Offenbarung Johannis, eine Jildische Apokalypse in Christlicher Bearbeitung, 1886, 2nd ed., 1895), who took iv. i-xxii. 5 to be a Jewish apocalypse revised and edited by a Christian, to whom he assigned i.-iii., v. 9-14, vii. 9-17, xi. 8b, xii. 11, xiii. 9, 10, xiv. 1-5, 12, 13, xvi. 15, xvii. 14, xix. 9, 10, 13b, xx. 4b-5a, 6, xxi. 5b-8, 14b, xxii. 6-21, together with some isolated expressions and all references to the Lamb. This scheme met with a better reception than that of Volter, but it also has failed to solve the problem. In 1891 Erbes (Offenbarung Johannis, 1891) maintained that the book was entirely of Christian origin. The groundwork was written about a.d. 62. In this an editor incorporated a Caligula apocalypse, and a subsequent editor revised the existing work in many passages and made considerable additions, especially in the later chapters. Another attempt, mainly from this standpoint, has recently been made by J. Weiss of Marburg (Offenbarung des Johannis, 1904). This writer seeks to estab- lish the existence of an original Christian apocalypse written before a.d. 60. This included (see p. in) i. 4-6 (7, 8), 9-19, ii.-vii., ix., xii. 7-12, xiii. n-18, xiv. 1-5, 14-20, xx. 1-15, xxi. 1-4, xxii. 3-5, 8 sqq. With this a Jewish apocalypse (x.-xi. 13, xii. 1-6, 14-17. x "i. 1-7, xv.-xix., xxi. 9-27 — see p. 115), written a.d. 70, was incorporated by the redactor. This latter apocalypse consisted of a series of independent prophecies which appeared to have the same crisis in view. This redactor, moreover, was the first who gave to the Apocalypse the character of an attack on the Roman Empire and the imperial cult by means of a series of small additions. In the above work we have a com- bination of the redaction and sources hypotheses. ii. Sources Hypothesis. — The same year Weyland (Theol. Tijdsch., 1886, 454-70; Omwerkings en Compilatie-Hypothesen toegepast op de Apoc. van Johannis, 1888) advanced the theory of two Jewish sources (» and 2), which were subsequently worked over by a Christian redactor. Such a theory as that just mentioned hopelessly fails to account for the linguistic unity of the book. A very elaborate form of this theory was issued in 1884 (Offenbarung Johannis) by Spitta, who found three main sources in the Apocalypse. First, there was the primitive Christian apocalypse embracing the letters and the seals written by John Mark soon after a.d. 60, — i. 4-6, 9-19, ii. i-iii. 22, iv.-vi., viii. 1, vii. 9-17, xix. 9b, 10, xxii. 8, 10-13, 16a, 17, 18a, 2ob-2i. Secondly, the trumpet source of the time of Caligula (circa 40), — vii. 1-8, viii. 2-ix., x. 1-7, xi. 15, 19, xii.-xiii. 18, xiv. i-n, xvi. 13-20, xix. 11-21, xx. 1-3, 8-15, xxi. 1, 5a, 6a. Thirdly, the vials source from the time of Pompey (circa 63), — x. ib, 2a, 8a, 9b, io-ii, xi. 1-13, 15b, 17, 18, xiv. 14-20, xv. 2-6, 8, xvi. 1-12, 17a, 21, xvii. i-6a, xviii. 1-23, xix. 1-8, xxi. 9-xxii. 3a, 15. The rest of the book is from the hands of the redactor. In 1891 Schmidt resolved the book into three independent sources which were put together by a redactor (Anmerkungen iiber d. Komposition der Offenb. Johannis). In 1895 Briggs (Messiah of the Apostles, 1895) developed this theory to a still more extreme degree. iii. Fragment Hypothesis. — The previous theories have brought to light and emphasized the fact that within the Apocalypse there are passages inconsistent with the tone and character of the whole. But, notwithstanding this fact, the Apocalypse gives a strong impression of its unity. Thus apparently the only remaining theory which can account for both these pheno- mena is that at which we have now arrived, i.e. the fragment hypothesis. To Weizsacker we owe the first statement of this f theory. In 1882 (Theol. Litterafurz. pp. 78-9) he suggested REVELATION, BOOK OF 215 that while the book is a unity the author made free use of older materials. Later, in his Apostolic Age (1886, 2nd ed. 1892), he specifies these additions as vii. 1-8 (a.d. 64-66), x.-xi. 1-13 (circa a.d. 67), xii. 1-11, 12-17 (circa 69), xiii. (time of Vespasian), xvii. (time of Domitian). Sabatier (Les Origines litter aires . . . de I' apocalypse, 1888) regards the book as a unity into which its author had intro- duced older Jewish materials not always consistent with their new contexts, such as xi. 1-13, xii.— xiii., xiv. 6-20, xvi. 13, 14, 16, xvii. i-xix. 2, xix. n-xx. 10, xxi. o-xxii. 5. The author wrote x. with a view to adapting xi. 1-13 to its new context. Schoen (L'Origine de I 'apocalypse, 1887) attached himself in the main to the scheme of Sabatier. Both these writers assign the Apocalypse to the reign of Domitian. The labours of these scholars, though to the superficial student they seem to prove that everything is possible and nothing certain, have certainly thrown great light on the literary character of the Apocalypse. Though differing in detail, they tend to show that, while the book is the production of one author, all its parts are not of the same date, nor are they one and all his first-hand creation. For many of the facts, the discovery of which we owe to the literary critics, have made the assumption of an absolute unity in the details pf the Apocalypse a practical impossibility. Incongruities manifest themselves not only between certain sections and the main scheme of the book, but also between these and their immediate contexts. These sections are vii. i-8a, xi. 1-13, xii., xiii., xvii., xviii., xx., xxi. 9-xxii. 5. Some of these sections (xi., xii., xiii., xvii.) contain elements that cannot be explained from any of the above methods. The symbols and myths in these are not the creation of the writer, but borrowed from the past, and in not a few instances the materials are too foreign to his subject to lend themselves to his purpose without the help of artificial and violent expedients. For the elucidation of these foreign elements a new method — the traditional-historical — is necessary, and to the brilliant scholar Gunkel we owe its origination. iv. Traditional-historical Method. — Gunkel (Schopfung und Chaos in Urzeit und Endzeit; eine religions geschichtliche Unter- suchung ilber Gen. 1 und Joh. 12, 1895) opened up new lines of investigation. He criticizes sharply (pp. 173 sqq., 233 sqq.) former methods of interpretation, and with the ardour of a discoverer of a new truth seeks to establish its currency through- out the entire field of apocalyptic. To such an extreme does he carry his theory that he denies obvious references to his- torical personages in the Apocalypse, when these are clothed in apocalyptic language. Thus he refuses to recognize Nero in the beast and its number. But apart from its extravagances, his theory has undoubted elements of truth. It is true that tradition largely fixes the form of figures and symbols in apoca- lyptic. Yet each new apocalypse is to some extent a reinter- pretation of traditional material, which the writer uses not wholly freely but with reverence from the conviction that they contained the key to the mysteries of the present and the past. From this standpoint it may be argued that every apocalypse is in a certain sense pseudonymous; for the materials are not the writer's own, but have come down to him as a sacred deposit — full of meaning for the seeing eye and the understanding heart. On the other hand, since much of the material of an apocalypse is a reinterpretation, it is necessary to distinguish between its original meaning and the new turn given to it in the Apocalypse. At times details in the transmitted material are unintelligible to our author, and these in some cases he omits referring to in his interpretation. The presence of such details is strong evidence of the .writer's use of foreign material. As an illustration of his theory Gunkel seeks at great length to establish the Babylonian origin of chap. xii. of the Apocalypse. His investigation tends to show that in the course of tradition cosmological myths are transformed into eschatological dogmas. The above method was adopted by Bousset in his work Der Antichrist in der Uberlieferung des Judenthums, des Neuen Testaments, und der alien Kirche (1895), in which he sought to show that a fixed tradition of the Antichrist originating in Judaism can be traced from New Testament times down to the middle ages, and that this tradition was in the main unaffected by the Apocalypse, though in chap. xi. the Apocalypse shows dependence on it. Next in 1896 he published his commentary Die Ojfenbarung Johannis (2nd ed. 1906). In this work he availed himself of the results of the past and followed the three approved methods — the contemporary-historical, the fragment- ary and the traditional-historical. Julicher (Einleitung in das Neue Testament, 1901, pp. 204-29) adopts the same three methods of interpretation. Holtzmann (Einleitung in das N.T. 2 , 1892; Hand-Commentar*, 1893; Lehrbuch der NTlichen Theol., i. 463-76) holds mainly to the contemporary-historical method in his earlier works, though recognizing signs of a double historical background; but in his last work the importance of tradition as a source of the writer's materials is fully acknowledged. In 1902 O. Pfleiderer in the second edition of his Urchristenlum (1902, pp. 281-335) abandoned his former view on the Apocalypse and followed essentially the lines adopted by Bousset, though the details are differently treated. In the same year Porter's able article on " Revelation " appeared in Hastings' Bible Dictionary (iv. 239-66), and in 1905 his still fuller treatment of the same theme in The Mes- sages 0} the Apocalyptical Writers, 169-294. To these works the present writer is indebted for many a suggestion. A small commentary (no date) by Anderson Scott follows in some measure the lines laid down in Bousset and Porter. Psychological Method. — It might be supposed that all possible methods had now been considered, and that a combination of the three methods which have established their validity in relation to the interpretation of the Apocalypse would be adequate to the solution of all the problems of the book, but this is not so; for even when each in turn has vindicated the pro- vinces in the book that rightly belong to it, and brought intelligi- bility into these areas, there still remain outlying regions which they fail to illumine. It is not indeed that these methods have not claimed to solve the questions at issue, but that their solutions have failed to satisfy the larger body of reasonable criticism. The main problem, which so far has not been satis- factoiily solved, may be shortly put as follows: Are the visions in the Apocalypse the genuine results of spiritual experiences, or are they artificial productions, mere literary vehicles of the writer's teaching? Weizsacker unhesitatingly advocates the latter view. But the serious students of later times find them- selves unable to follow in his footsteps. The writer's belief in his prophetic office and his obvious conviction of the inviolable sanctity of his message make it impossible to accept Weizsacker's opinion. Nor is it possible to accept Gunkel's theory in Schop- fung und Chaos as an adequate explanation, who explained the author's conviction of the truth of his message as spring- ing always from the fact that he was dealing with traditional material. This theory, which we have already dealt with in other connexions, is undoubtedly helpful, but here we require something more, and Gunkel has in consequence of Weinel's work (Wirkungen des Geisies und der Geister, 1899) subsequently acknowledged that actual spiritual experiences lie behind some of the visions in apocalyptic (Kautzsch, Pseud, des A.T., ii. 341 sqq.). The fact of such visionary experience can hardly be questioned: the only difficulty lies in determining to what extent it underlies the revelations of apocalyptic. For a short discussion of this question we might refer to Bousset's Ojfen- barung Johannis*, pp. 8 sqq., and Porter's article on " Revela- tion " in Hastings' Bible Dictionary, iv. 248 sqq. Methods of Interpretation. — As a result of the preceding in- quiry we conclude that the student of the Apocalypse must make use of the following methods — the contemporary- historical, the literary-critical (fragmentary hypothesis), the traditional-historical and the psychological. Each of these has its legitimate province, and the extent of this province can in most cases be defined with reasonable certainty. Plan and Detailed Criticism of the Book. — Two theories have been advanced to explain the plan and order of the book. The 2l6 REVELATION, BOOK OF first of these is the recapitulation theory which Tyconius originated and Augustine adopted, and which has been revived in later times by Hofmann, Hengstenberg and others. This theory holds that no progress is designed in the successive visions of the seven seals, the seven trumpets and the seven bowls; for that in the vision of the seals we have already an account of the last judg- ment (vi. 12-17) an( i tne blessed consummation (vii. 9-17). Thus the three groups form parallel accounts and contain the same or closely related material. But such a view is in conflict with the fact that the Apocalypse exhibits a steady movement from a detailed account of the condition of actual individual churches on an ever-widening sweep to the catastrophes that will befall every nation and country till at last evil is finally overthrown and the blessedness of the righteous consummated. Accordingly later exegetes l hold that the seventh in each series is unfolded in the series of seven that follows. But to this theory also it has been objected (Holtzmann, Hand-Commentar. p. 294) that the bowls are in the main a repetition — in parts weaker, in others stronger — of what has already been put forward in the trumpets; that before the seventh member of each hebdomad there is a pause occasioned by the insertion of visions of a different nature; that the final judgment has already been depicted in vi. 17, and yet further descriptions recur in x. 6, 7, xi. 15-18, xiv. 7, xix. n: the temple in heaven is opened in xi. 19 and yet again in xv. 5: heaven itself has already been rent in sunder in vi. 12-17, an( i vet m v "'- 7 -12 is supposed to be in its ancient order: all green grass is burnt up in viii. 7, yet in ix. 4 the locusts are not permitted to injure the grass, and other like inconsistencies. The impossibility of logically carrying out either theory has given rise to doubts as to the unity of the book. Holtzmann (Hand-Comment. 295) represents its structure as follows: — i. 1-8 . . Introduction, i. 9-iii. 22 . . Group of seven letters, iv.-v. 14 . . Heavenly scene of the Vision, vi. 1-17 . . Six seals. vii. 1-17 . . The sealed and the blessed, viii. 1-5 . . The emergence of the trumpets from the seventh seal, viii. 6.-ix. 21 . Six trumpets. x. i-xi. 14 . Destiny of Jerusalem, xi. 15-19 . . The seventh trumpet. xii. i-xiv. 5 . The great visions of the three chief enemies and of the Kingdom of the Messiah, xiv. 6-20 . . Return to the earlier connexion. xv. i-xvi. 1 . Transition to the bowls, xvi. 2-21 . . Seven bowls. xvii. i-xix. 10 The great Babylon, xix. n-xx. 15 Final catastrophes. xxi.-xxii. 5 . The New Jerusalem, xxii. 6-21 . . Conclusion. It is noteworthy that the sections on the right hand correspond in the main to the elements which have been those to which 1 Swete divides the Apocalypse first of all into forty-two minor sections. Next he groups these sections into fourteen larger masses of apocalyptic matter, and by a process of synthesis seeks to arrive at the plan on which the author constructed his book. In so doing he points out that we become conscious of a great cleavage which practically divides the book into two parts, i. 9-xi. 14 and xii. I- xxii. 5, independently of the prologue and greeting, i. 1-8, and the epilogue and benediction, xxii. 6-21. A further study of the leading thoughts of the above parts enables him to set forth the scheme of the book as follows : — Prologue and Greeting, i. 1-8. Part I. Vision of Christ in the midst of the churches, i. 9-iii. 22. Vision of Christ in Heaven, iv. i-v. 14. Preparations for the End, vi. i-xi. 19. Part II. Vision of the Mother of Christ {i.e. the Church) and her enemies, xii. l-xiii. 18. Preparations for the End, xiv. i-xx. 15. Vision of the Bride of Christ arrayed for her husband, xxi. i-xxii. 5. Epilogue and benediction, xxii. 6-21. the latest critics have assigned either an earlier date or a different authorship. Chaps, i.-iii. — These chapters open with a prologue, i. 1-3, which defines the source, character and contents of the book, followed by a greeting, i. 4-8, in which the writer salutes the Seven Churches of Asia. Having so introduced his work the author describes a vision of the ascended Christ, i. 9-20, who sends His messages to the angels of the Seven Churches, ii.-iii. With the conclusion of these epistles the Apocalypse proper really begins. But the way has been prepared for it. Its contents are " the things which must quickly happen," i. 1. The visions are not for John's personal benefit, but for transmission to the church at large, i. n, and the writer is bidden to write down what he has seen and " the things which are and the things which shall be hereafter," i. 19. iv.-vi. — The first three chapters show great artistic skill, and the power of the artist is no less conspicuous in what follows. First of all John is bidden to come up into heaven and see the things that should be hereafter, the vision of iv. 1. Then he beholds the Almighty on His throne surrounded by the four and twenty elders and the four living creatures. Before Him they all bow in worship and acknowledge that by Him were created all things and of His own free will were all created. In the next chapter (v.) the seer has a vision of a roll in the hand of Him that sat on the throne which none could open or look upon, till the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the mighty one with seven horns and seven eyes, appeared. Before Him all the elders and the living creatures fell down and acknowledged that He had power to open the seven seals thereof, and their song was re-echoed by every thing alike in heaven and earth. The contrast be- tween these two chapters and those that follow is striking in the extreme. The time of the seer's vision is one of direst need. The life and death struggle between the church and the empire has now entered on its final stage, and fear and trouble and woe are rife in the hearts of the faithful. But when the seer is exalted to heaven he sees no trace of the turmoil on earth. The vision of the Almighty is full of majesty and peace. All things do Him service; for all are the free creation of His will. The next vision serves to connect the Source and Sustainer of all things with the world and its history. The closing of the inter- mediate stage of the history of created things is committed to the Christ who will also be Lord of the age to come. The future of the saints is assured: what can avail against Him that hath " glory and dominion for ever and ever" the wild attacks of Rome and even of Satan and his hosts ? The Lamb that was slain has taken upon Himself the burden of the world's history. In vi. we have the opening of the six seals, and the horrors of the future begin. The choice of three series of seven seals, seven trumpets and seven bowls, to form the framework in which the history of the last woes is to be given, shows the same hand that addressed the churches as seven. But between the sixth and seventh seals and the sixth and seventh trumpets the connexion is more or less disturbed by the insertion of certain interludes containing material foreign in certain aspects to the Apocalypse. These are vii. 1-17 and x. i-xi. 14. vii. 1-17. — These verses, which interrupt the plan of the book, fall into two independent fragments, 1-8 and 9-17, which are inconsistent in their original meaning with each other. For while 1-8 was most probably a Jewish apocalyptical fragment and strongly particularistic, 9-17 is clearly universalist in character and is probably from the hand of our author. The foreign origin of vii. 1-8 may be concluded with Spitta, Bousset and others from the fact that the four winds, which in vii. 1 are said to be held fast lest they should break in elemental fury on land and sea, are not let loose or referred to in the subsequent narrative, and also from the mention of the 144,000 Israelites of the twelve tribes, to whom no further reference is made; for these can no more be identified with the countless multitudes in vii. 9-17 than with those who are "sealed" in ix. 4 sq. nor with the 144,000 in xiv. 1; for in both these cases the sealed are not Jews but elect Christians. The object of both fragments was to encourage the faithful in the face of the coming strife. In the REVELATION, BOOK OF 217 latter, in which the Apocalyptist looks forward prophetically to the issue, the assurance held out is of ultimate victory, but of victory through death or martyrdom. In the former (Jewish or Christian- Jewish fragment) the sealing seemed to have carried with it the assurance of deliverance from physical death, as in Ezek. ix. 4 sqq. But in its new context this meaning can hardly . be retained. Not improbably the sealing means to our author the preservation not from death, but through death from unfaithfulness, and the number 144,000 would signify mystically the entire body of true Christians, which formed the true people of God. Chapter vii., then, interrupts the development of the author's plan, but the interruption is deliberate. He wishes to encourage the persecuted church not only to face without fear, but also to meet with triumphant assurance the onset of those evils which would bring panic and despair on the unbelieving world. viii.-ix. — These chapters, though presenting some minor difficulties, do not call for discussion here. They recount the six partial judgments which followed the opening of the seventh seal and the blasts of the six trumpets. x.-xi. 1-13. — This section bristles with difficulties. Chapter x. forms an introduction to xi. 1-13. In it the prophet receives a new commission, x. 11 : " Thou must prophesy again over many peoples and nations and tongues and kings." This new com- mission explains his departure from the plan pursued in the earlier chapters of developing the seventh in each series into a new series of seven. The seer has a vision of the seven thunders, but these he is bidden to seal and not commit to writing. He is instead to write down the new book of prophecies. The end is at hand. It is noteworthy that in the earlier visions it was Christ who spoke to the seer. Here and in the later visions, especially those drawn from foreign sources, it is an angel. In xi. 1-13 we have a characteristic illustration of our author's dependence on traditional materials and his free adaptation of them to meanings other than originally belonged to them. For it is generally agreed among critics that xi. 1-13 is borrowed from Jewish sources, and that this fragment really consists of two smaller fragments, xi. 1-2 and xi. 3-13. The former oracle referred originally to the actual Temple, and contained a pre- diction of the preservation of the Temple. It must have been written before a.d. 70 and probably by a Zealot. 1 But our author could not have taken it in this literal sense if he wrote after a.d. 70 or even anterior to that date, owing to the explicit declaration of Christ as to the coming destruction of Jerusalem. The passage, then, must have a spiritual meaning, and its purpose is the encouragement of the faithful by the assurance of their deliverance not necessarily from physical death but from the dominion of the evil one. In xi. 3-13 we have another Jewish fragment of a very enigmatic character. Bousset has shown with much probability that it is part of the Antichrist legend. The prophecy of the two witnesses and their martyrdom belongs to this tradition. The fragment was apparently written before a.d. 70, since it speaks of the fall of only a tenth of the city, xi. 13. 2 The significance of this fragment in our author's use of it is similar to that of xi. 1-2. The details defy at present any clear interpretation, but the incorporation of the fragment may be due in general to the emphasis it lays on the faithful witness, martyrdom and resurrection of the saints. xi. 14-IQ. — The seventh trumpet, xi. 15, ushers in the third woe, xi. 14. Its contents are given in xii.-xx. In xi. 15-19 the seer hears great voices in heaven singing a triumphal song in anticipation of the victory that is speedily to be achieved. This song forms a prelude to the chapters that follow. 1 The Zealots occupied the inner court of the Temple during its siege by the Romans. 2 The linguistic evidence, as Bousset has pointed out, confirms the critical conclusion that xi. 1-13 were independent sources. For whereas in ix.-x. the verb almost regularly begins the sentence and the object follows the verb, in xi. 1-13 the object frequently precedes the verb and the subject nearly always. The order of the genitive in xi. 4 is elsewhere unknown jn the Apocalypse, and in xi. 2, 3 the construction of bMvtu. followed by koX instead of infinitive or Xva is unique in this book. *«.— This is the most difficult chapter in the book. Its main intention in its present context is apparently to explain Satan's dominion over the world and the bitterness of his rage against the church and against Christ. Christ, indeed, escapes him and likewise the Jewish Christians (" the woman," xii. 16) but " the rest of her seed," xii. 17 (the Gentile Christians?), are exposed to his fury. But his time is at hand; together with his hosts he has been cast down from heaven, and on the earth he " hath but a short time." The attribution of the seven heads and ten horns to the dragon, xii. 3, points forward to Rome, which is regarded as a temporary incarnation of Satan, xiii. 1, xvii. 3. But, though a few of the leading thoughts of this chapter may be obvious, we are plunged into problems that all but defy solution when we essay to discover its origin or interpret its details. Most scholars are agreed that this chapter is not, except in the case of a few sentences, the work of our author. In other words, it has been taken over from pre-existing material — either Christian or Jewish— and the materials of which it is composed are ultimately derived from non-Jewish sources — either Babylonian, Greek or Egyptian — and bore therein very different meanings from those which belong to them in their present connexion. Furthermore, the materials are fragmentary and the order irregular. (a) First of all, the chapter is not the free creation of a Chris- tian writer. Such an one could never have so represented the life of Christ — a child persecuted by a dragon and carried off to God's throne. No mention of Christ's earthly life and cruci- fixion. Furthermore, the victory over Satan is ascribed to Michael. Again, a Christian could not represent Christ as the son of the wife of the sun-god; for such is the natural inter- pretation of the woman crowned with the twelve stars and with her feet upon the moon. Finally, even if " the woman " who is the mother of Christ be taken to be the ideal Israel in the beginning of the chapter, at its close she is clearly the Christian community founded by Him. We conclude, therefore, that the present chapter is not the work of our author. There are, however, traces of his hand. Thus 7-12, which is really a Jewish fragment recounting the victory of Michael over Satan, has to a certain degree been adapted to a Christian environment by the insertion of the iob-n. (b) The order is not original. The flight of the woman is mentioned in verse 6 to a place of refuge prepared for her by God. Then comes an account of the casting down of Satan from heaven. Then again in 13-16 the flight of the woman is described. This fact has been variously accounted for by different critics. Wellhausen regards 1-6 and 7-14 as doublets, and differentiates two actions in the original account which are here confused. Spitta takes verse 6 to be an addition of the redactor, which describes proleptically what follows, while Gunkel sees in 6 and 7-16 parallel accounts. In any case we should probably agree with the contention of J. Weiss, supported by Bousset in the second edition of his commentary, that 7-12 is a fragment of a Jewish apocalypse, of which iob-11 is an addition of our author. Next that 6 is a doublet of 13 sqq. What then is to be made of 1-5, 13-17? Different explanations have been offered. Gunkel 3 traces it to a Babylonian origin. He urges that an adequate explanation is impossible on the assump- tion of a Jewish or Christian origin. At the base of this account lies the Babylonian myth of the birth of the sun-god Marduk, his escape from the dragon who knows him to be his destined destroyer, and the persecution of Marduk's mother by the dragon. But Gunkel's explanation is an attempt to account for one ignotum per ignotius; for hitherto no trace of the myth of the sun-god's birth and persecution and the flight into the wilderness has been found in Babylonian mythology. More- over, Gunkel no longer lays emphasis on the Babylonian, but merely on the mythical origin of the details. A more satis- factory explanation has been offered by Dieterich {Abraxas, 117 sqq.), who finds in this chapter an adaptation of the birth of Apollo and the attempt of the dragon Pytho to kill his mother 3 Schopfung und Chaos § 3, Religionsgesch. Verstandniss d. N.T., 54 sqq. 218 REVELATION, BOOK OF Leto, because it was foretold that Leto's son would kill the dragon. Leto escapes to Ortygia, which Poseidon covers with the sea in order to protect Leto. Here Apollo is born, who four days later slays the dragon. Yet another explanation from Egyptian mythology is given by Bousset (Ojfenbarung Johannis, 2nd ed., pp. 354, 35s) in the birth of the sun-god Horus. Here the goddess mother is represented with a sun upon her head. Typhon slays Horus. Hathor, his mother, is persecuted by Typhon and escapes to a floating island with the bones of Horus, who revives and slays the dragon. 1 There are obvious points of similarity, possibly of derivation, between the details in our text and the above myths, but the subject cannot be further pursued here, save that we remark that in the sun myth the dragon tries to kill the mother before the child's birth, whereas in our text it is after his birth, and that neither in the Egyptian nor in the Greek myth is there any mention of the flight into the wilderness. The insertion of the alien matter 7-12 between 1-5 and 13-17 may be due to our author's wish to show that the expulsion of Satan from heaven after Christ's birth and ascension to heaven was owing in some measure to Christ, although he has allowed Michael's name to remain in the borrowed passage, 7-1 2 — a fact which shows how dependent the writer was on tradition. xiii. — In this chapter we have the two beasts 2 which symbolize respectively Rome and the Roman provincial priesthood of the imperial cult. Thus the world powers of heathen statesmanship and heathen religion are leagued in a confederacy against the rising Christian Church. Against these the church is not to attempt to use physical force; its only weapon is to be passive endurance and loyalty to God. That this chapter must be interpreted by the contemporary- historical method is now generally admitted. Even Gunkel is obliged to abandon his favourite theory here, though he contests strongly the recognition of any allusion to Nero. Various solutions have been offered as to the seven emperors designed by the seven heads of the beast, xiii. 1. But the details of this passage are not sufficiently definite to determine the question here. It will return in chapter xvii. There are, however, two facts pointing to a late date. The first is the advanced stage of development of this, the Neronic-Antichrist legend. One of the heads " is smitten unto death," but is healed of the death stroke. This points, we may here assume, to the Nero redivivus legend, which could not have arisen for a full generation after Nero's death, and the assumption receives large confirmation from the most probable interpretation of the enigmatical words, xiii. 18, " the number of the beast . . . is six hundred and sixty six." Four continental scholars, Fritzsche, Benary, Hitzig and Reuss, independently recognized that Nero was referred to under the mystical number 666. For by transliterating Kcucrap Nepoiv into Hebrew | 1-u ~* a P and adding together the sums denoted by the Hebrew letters we obtain the number 666. This solution is confirmed by the fact that it is possible to explain by it an ancient (Western?) variant for the number 666, i.e. 616. This latter, which is attested by Irenaeus (v. 30. 1), the commentary of Ticonius, and the uncial C, can be explained from the Latin form of the name Nero, which by its omission of the final » makes the sum total 616 instead of 666. The above solution may be regarded as established, though several scholars, as Oscar Holtzmann (Stade's Geschichte des Volkes Israel, ii. 661), Spitta and Erbes, have contended that 616 was the original reading (r&i'os Kcucrap=6i6) and that 1 On the possibility of other points of contact between the Apocalypse and Egyptian mythology, see Mrs Grenfell's article, " Egyptian Mythology and the Bible," in the Monist (1906), pp. 169-200. 2 In xiii. 2 the description of the beast unites the features of the four beasts in Daniel's vision (vii.). It is clear that our author identified the fourth beast (vii. 23) with Rome, as did also the author of 4 Ezra xii. 10. But this was not the original significance of the fourth beast, for the author of Daniel referred thereby to the Greek empire; but, since the prophecy was not realized, it was subsequently reinterpreted, and applied, as we have observed, to Rome. chapter xiii. was part of a Jewish apocalypse written under Caligula between the years 39 and 41. But this Caligula hypothesis cannot be carried out unless by a vigorous use of the critical knife, in the course of which more than a third of the chapter is excised. Moreover the number 616 is too weakly supported to admit of its being recognized as the original. The figure of the first beast presents many difficulties, owing to the fact that it is not freely invented but largely derived from traditional elements and is by the writer identified with the seventh wounded head. The second beast, signifying the pagan priesthood of the imperial cult, called " the false prophet " in xvi. 13, appears to be an independent development of the Antichrist legend. xiv.-xvi. — These chapters contain a vision of Christ on Mount Zion and the 144,000 of the undefiled that follow Him, xiv. 1-5, the last warnings relating to the harvest and vintage of the world, xiv. 6-20: the vision of the wrath of God in the out- pouring of the seven bowls containing the seven last plagues, xv.-xvi. In the above section most critics are agreed that xiv. 14-20 originally represented the final judgment and was removed frjjm its rightful place at the close of an apocalypse to its present position. In its original setting " the one like unto a Son of Man, having on his head a golden crown " (xiv. 14), undoubtedly designated the Messiah, but the transformation of the final judgment into a preliminary act of judgment by a redactor, necessarily brought with it the degradation of the Son of Man to the level of a mere angel. Some critics hold that this apocalypse was the apocalyptic groundwork, but Bousset is of opinion that it stood originally in connexion with xi. 1-13. As regards xvi. the views of critics take different directions, but that of Bousset followed by Porter seems the most reason- able. This is that this chapter forms an introduction to xvii., which was an independent fragment. The writer throws this introduction into his favourite scheme of seven acts, in this case symbolized by seven bowls. The earlier verses, 2-1 1, do not amount to much beyond a repetition of what is found in viii.-ix., save that as a preparation for xvii. references are inserted to the beast and his worshippers (ver. 2) and to Rome (ver. 10). In xvi. 12-16 is a revised form of an older tradition. xvii. — This chapter presents great difficulties, especially if with the older and some of the recent exegetes we regard it as written at the same time and by the same author. Even so strong an upholder of the unity of the book as Swete is ready to admit that portions of xvii., as well as of xiii., show signs of an earlier date than the rest of the book. He writes: " The unity of the Book . . . cannot be pressed so far as to exclude the possibility that the extant book is a second edition of an earlier work, or that it incorporates earlier materials, and either hypothesis would sufficiently account for the few indica- tions of a Neronic or Vespasianic date that have been found in it " (Apoc. of St John 2 , p. civ.). This chapter cannot be interpreted apart from the Neronic myth. Of this there appear to be two stages attested here. Of the earlier we have traces in xvii. 16-17 and xvi. 12, where there are allusions to Nero's confederacy with the Parthian kings with a view to the destruc- tion of Rome. Of the later stage, when the myth of Nero redivivus was fused with that of the Antichrist, we have at- testation in xvii. 8, 12-14, where Nero is regarded as a demon coming up from the abyss to war not with Rome but with Christ and the elect. This development of the Neronic myth belongs to the last years of the 1st century, and is decidedly against a Vespasianic date. To meet this difficulty a recent interpreter — Anderson Scott — though he assigns the book to the year a.d. 77, is yet willing to admit trjat the book though composed in the reign of Vespasian was " reissued with additions by the same hand after the death of Domitian" (Revelation, p. 56). Our author represents himself as writing under the sixth emperor. Five have already died, the seventh is yet to come, to be followed by yet an eighth, who is one of the seven (i.e. Nero). In order to arrive at the date here implied, we can REVELATION, BOOK OF 219 begin the reckoning from Julius Caesar or Augustus, we can include or exclude Galba, Otho and Vitellius, and, finally, when we have drawn our conclusions from these data, there remains the possibility that the book was after all not written under the sixth emperor, but was really a vaticinium ex eventu. Ac- cording to the different methods pursued, some have concluded that Nero was the sixth emperor, and thus dated the Apocalypse before a.d. 70; others Vespasian, and yet others Domitian. No solution of the difficulties of the chapter is wholly satis- factory, but the best yet offered seems to be that of Bousset (Ojfenbarung 1 , 410-18). He holds that 1-7, 0-11, 15-18, belong to an original source, which was written in the reign of Vespasian and represents the earlier stage of the Neronic myth. To a reviser in Domitian's reign we owe 8,12-14 and 6b, a clause in 9, hrra. 6pij . . . avruv, and another in n, rp> «u ovk torw. If the clause /cot en rod aluaTosrSiv /xaprdpcoi' 'IijcroD in 6 is an addition, then he thinks the source was Jewish and the " blood of the saints " was that shed at the destruction of Jerusalem, and the forecast of the author related to the destruction of Rome. When the reviser recast the passage it dealt not with the destruction of Jerusalem, but with the persecution of the Christians. Nero was now a demonic monster from the abyss, and the ten kings no longer Parthians but ghostly helpers of Nero. The destruction of Rome has now become a secondary event: the reviser's thought is fixed on the final strife between the Lamb and the Antichrist. xviii.-xix. 10. — This section describes in prophetic language borrowed almost wholly from Isaiah and Jeremiah the coming judgment of Rome, and gives the ten lamentations of the kings and the merchants and the seamen over her, and the thanks- givings in heaven for her overthrow. xix. 11-21. — The victory of the warrior Messiah over the two beasts, the Roman Empire and the imperial cultus and the kings of the earth. Many of the ideas set forth in earlier chapters here coalesce and find their consummation. The Messiah, whose birth and escape from the dragon was recounted in xii. 5, and who was to rule the nations with a rod of iron, at last appears in discharge of His office. The beast and the false prophet who are described in xiii. are cast alive into the lake of fire, and the kings of the earth who had assembled for this conflict, xvi. 14, xvii. 14, were slain by the sword of Him that sat on the horse. The conception of the Messiah may be Jewish: at all events it is not distinctively Christian. The title " Word of God " can hardly be said to establish any connexion with the prologue of the Fourth Gospel; for the conceptions of the Messiah in that Gospel and in these chapters belong to different worlds of thought. It is to be observed that our author follows the apocalyptic scheme of two judgments which is first attested about 100 B.C. The first judgment precedes the establishment of the temporary Messianic kingdom, as here in xix. 19-21; and the final judg- ment follows at its close, as here in xx. 7-10. xx. 1-6. — The millennium, or the period between the first and final judgments, when Christ, with His chosen, reigns and Satan is imprisoned. Rome has been overthrown, but, as Rome is only the last secular manifestation of Satan, there is yet the final struggle with Satan and his adherents. But the time for this struggle has not yet arrived. Satan is bound * and cast into the abyss, and the kingdom of Christ and of the martyrs and faithful confessors established for a thousand years. Thus it is shown that evil will be finally overcome; for that the true and ultimate power even in this world belongs to Christ and those that are His. The main features of this section have been borrowed from Judaism. The Messianic kingdom was originally conceived of as of everlasting duration on the present earth, but about 100 B.C. this idea was abandoned and the hopes of the faithful were directed to a temporary earthly kingdom of 400 or 1000 years or of indefinite duration (see R. H. Charles, Critical History of 1 This idea appears as early as the 2nd century B.C. Levi xviii. 12. Cf. Test. the Doctrine of a Future Life, pp. 201-4, 261, 286, 288). More- over, the expectation that the saints would rise to share in the blessedness of this kingdom is also found in Judaism, 4 Ezra vii. 28 (op. cit. p. 285). xx. 7-10. — Release of Satan and final assault on the city of God by the hosts of Gog and Magog at the instance of Satan. Satan and the beasts condemned to eternal torment. xx. 11-14. — The Final Resurrection and Judgment. xxi. 1-8. — The new heavens and the new earth. The language in this and the following section is highly figurative; but as Porter has well remarked: " Figurative language is the only language in which we can express our hope of heaven, and no figures can have greater power to suggest this hope than those taken from the literal longings of exiled Israel for the recovery of its land and city." xxi. Q-xxii. 5. — The vision of the New Jerusalem. There are several grounds for regarding this section as an independent source possibly of Jewish origin and subsequently submitted to a Christian revision. This view is taken by Vischer, Weyland, Spitta, Sabatier, J. Weiss, Bousset and others. Our author has incorporated it as describing the consummation of the prevision contained in xi. 15-18, in which he foresaw the time when the kingdom of the world would become the kingdom of our Lord and of His Christ, and the saints should enter on their reward. Moreover, he has already hinted at its contents in xix. 7 and xxi. 2, where he speaks of the church as a bride and the marriage supper of the Lamb. But the section betrays incon- sistent conceptions. The standpoint of the heavenly Jerusalem is abandoned in xxi. 24-27, xxii. 2, and the context implies an earthly Jerusalem to which the Gentiles go up as pilgrims. Outside the gates of this city are unclean and abominable things. These inconsistencies are best explained by the hypothesis that our author was drawing upon a literary fixed tradition. The doublets in xxi. 23 and xxii. 5b, in xxi. 25 and xxii. 5a, and in xxi. 27 and xxii. 3, point in the same direction. Various additions were introduced, according to Bousset, by the last redactor, such as the frequently recurring reference to the Lamb, xxi. 9, 22, 23, 27, xxii. 1, 3. In xxii. 3 the fact that the words " of the Lamb " are an addition is clear from the context; for, after the clause " the throne of God and of the Lamb shall be therein " the singular follows, " His servants shall do Him service." xxii. 6-21. — The conclusion. The promises are sure, the end is near and the judgment at hand. The words of the book are the message of Christ Himself and are inviolable. Unity. — From the preceding sections it follows that we cannot ascribe a strict literary unity to the book. The book is most probably the work of a single author, but it was not written wholly at one date, nor have all the parts come directly from one brain. We have several good grounds, for regarding vii. 1-8, xi. 1-13, xii., xiii., xvii., as wholly or in part independent sources, which our author has laid under contribution and adapted more or less adequately to his purpose. He appears to have taken over with but slight modification xx. and xxi. 9-xxii. 5. Furthermore, while certain fragments such as xi. 1-2 presuppose a date anterior to a.d. 70, others, as xvi. 12 and xvii. 12, require a date not later than Vespasian's time; other parts of xvii. postulate a Vespasianic date as the earliest admissible, and, finally, the composition of the book in its present form cannot be placed before the closing years of Domitian. But to this question we shall return presently. Nevertheless, the book exhibits a relative unity; for, whatever digressions occur in the development of its theme, the main object of the writer is never lost sight of. This relative unity is manifested also in the uniform character of the language, a uniformity, however, which is occasionally conspicuous by its absence in the case of independent sources, as in xi. 1-13. The author or the final redactor has impressed a certain linguistic character on the book, which differentiates it not only from all secular writings of the time, but also from all the New Testa- ment books, including the Johannine. And yet the Apocalypse shows in many of its phrases an undoubted affinity to the latter — 220 REVELATION, BOOK OF a fact which requires for its explanation the assumption that the book emanated from certain literary circles influenced by John. Date. — There are many indications of the date, which may be summarized as follows: (a) Condition of the Asian churches. (6) Persecution of the church, (c) Attitude of the author to Rome, (d) The Antichrist legend, (e) Primitive tradition and its confirmation through the discovery of references in the text to certain edicts of Domitian. As a result of these con- siderations we may arrive at the date of the work with almost greater certainty than that of any other New Testament book. (a) Condition of the Churches. — Christianity appears to have already had a long history behind it. The fact that St Paul founded the church of Ephesus seems to have been forgotten. The earliest zeal has passed away and heathen ways of thought and life are tolerated and practised at Pergamum and Ephesus, and faith is dying or dead at Laodicea and Sardis. These phenomena belong to a period considerably later than the time of Nero. (b) Persecution of the Church. — Persecution is the order of the day. Each of the seven letters concludes with praise of those who have been victorious therein. There had been isolated instances of persecution at Ephesus, ii. 3, Philadelphia, iii. 8, 10, and at Smyrna, ii. 9, and of an actual martyrdom at Pergamum, ii. 13. But now a storm of persecution was about to break upon the universal church, iii. 10, and in the immediate future. Already the seer beholds the destined number of the martyrs complete, vi. 9-1 1: the great multitude whom no man could number, clothed in white before the throne of God, vii. 9: he exhorts his readers to patient endurance unto death, xiv. 12, and already sees them as victors in heaven, xv. 2. Over the true witnesses and martyrs he pronounces the final beatitude of the faithful: " Blessed are those who die in the Lord," xiv. 13. Such an expectation of persecution is inexplicable from Nero's time. There is not a trace of any declaration of war on the universal church in his period such as the Apocalyptist anticipates and in part experiences. Christian persecution under Nero was an imperial caprice. The Christians were attacked on slanderous charges of superstition and secret abominations, but not as a church. Not till the last years of Domitian is it possible to discover conditions which would explain the apprehensions and experiences of our writer. So far as we can discover, no persecution was directed against Christians as Christians till Domitian's time. In the year a.d. 92 Flavius Clemens was put to death and his wife banished, on the ground that they were adherents of the new faith. Thus the temper of the book on this question demands some date after a.d. 90. It marks the transition, from the earlier tolerant attitude of Rome towards Christianity, to its later hostile attitude. (c) Altitude of the Author towards Rome. — In earlier times the church had strongly impressed the duty of loyalty to Rome, as we see from the Epistle to the Romans and 1 Peter. This was before the pressure of the imperial cult was felt by the Christian church. But in the Apocalypse we have the experi- ences of a later date. The writer manifests the most burning hatred towards Rome and the worship of its head — the beast and the false prophet, who are actual embodiments of Satan. Such an attitude on the part of a Christian is not explicable before the closing years of Domitian; for, apart from Caligula, he was the first Roman emperor who consistently demanded divine honours. id) The Antichrist Legend. — We find at least two stages of the Neronic and Antichrist myth in the Apocalypse. The earliest form is not attested here, that Nero had not really been slain, but would speedily return and destroy his enemies. The first pretender appeared in a.d. 69, and was put to death in Cythnus. The second stage of this legend was that Nero had taken refuge in the Far East, and would return with the help of his Eastern subjects for the overthrow of Rome. Two pretenders arose in conformity with this expectation among the Parthians in a.d. 80 and 88. This widespread expectation has left its memorial in our book in xvi. 12 and in xvii. 16-17, which point to the belief that Rome would be destroyed by Nero and the Parthian kings. Finally, in xiii. and xvii. 8, 12-14, we have a later phase of the myth, in which there is a fusion of the Antichrist myth with that of Nero redivivus. This fusion could hardly have taken place before the first half of Domitian's reign, when the last Neronic pretender appeared. As soon as the hope of the living Nero could no longer be entertained, the way was prepared for this transformation of the myth. The living Nero was no longer expected to return from the East, but Nero was to be restored to life from the abyss by the dragon, i.e. Satan. This expectation is recounted in xiii., but it appears most clearly in the additions to xvii. Thus in xvii. 8 the reference to Nero redivivus as the Antichrist is manifest: " The beast that thou sawest was, and is not, and is about to come up out of the abyss and to go into perdition." 1 Thus again we are obliged to postulate a date not earlier than a.d. 90 for the book in its present form. (e) Primitive Church Tradition and its Confirmation through the Discovery of References in the Text to Certain Edicts of Domitian. — The earliest external evidence is practically unanimous in ascribing the Apocalypse to the last years of Domitian; The oldest testimony is that of Irenaeus v. 30. 3 : St' tKuvov av ippiSt] too Kal rr)v 'AiroKaKinj/iv twpanoTos ovSe yap irpo iroWov xp6i>ou eaip&dr), reXet ttJs Aonenavov apxys. The rest of the patristic evidence from Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Victorinus, Eusebius and Jerome will be found in Swete's Apocalypse of St John 2 , xcix. seq. Though a few later authorities, such as Epiphanius and Theophylact, assign the book to earlier or later periods, the main body of early Christian tradition attests the date of its composition in the closing years of Domitian. Not- withstanding, on various critical grounds, Baur, Hilgenfeld, Lightfoot, Westcott, Hort and Beyschlag assigned the book to the reign of Nero, or to the years immediately following his death, while Weiss, Dusterdieck and Mommsen assign it to the time of Vespasian. When, however, we combine the preceding arguments with that of the early church tradition, the evidence for the Domitian date outweighs that for any other. And this conclusion receives remarkable confirmation from a recent fact brought forward by S. Reinach in an article in the Revue archeologique, ser. III. t. xxxix. (1901), pp. 350-74, and reprinted in Cultes, mythes et religions, ii. 356-80 (1906). This fact explains a passage which has hitherto been a total enigma to every expounder, i.e. vi. 6: "A choenix of wheat for a denarius, and three choenikes of barley for a denarius, and the oil and the wine hurt thou not." Swete writes here: " The voice fixes a maximum price for the main food-stuffs. The denarius . . . was the daily wage . . . and a choenix of wheat •Verse n postulates either a Vespasianic or Domitianic date: " And the beast that was, and is not, is himself also an eighth, and is of the seven; and he goeth into perdition." In verse 10 it is stated that five of the seven had fallen, "the one is and another is not yet come, and when he cometh he must continue a little while." If we reckon from Augustine and omit Galba, Otho and Vitellius, each of whom reigned only a few months, we arrive at Vespasian. The vision, therefore, belongs to his reign, A.b. 69-79. Verse II, with the exception of the words " which was and is not," leads to the identification of the eighth with Nero redivivus. But what then is to be made of the above reckoning when it was taken over by the Apocalyptist who wrote in Domitian's reign? Some scholars are of opinion that this writer identified Domitian with the eighth emperor, the Nero redivivus, the beast from the abyss. But this is unlikely, notwithstanding the fact that even some pagan writers, such as Juvenal, Pliny and Martial (?), traced a resemblance between Domitian and Nero. On the other hand, if we refuse to accept this identification, and hold that the beast from the abyss is yet to come, any attempt at a strict exegesis of the text plunges us in hopeless difficulties. For Domitian in that case would be the sixth, and the preceding five would have to begin with Galba — a most improbable supposition. But futhermore, since this new reckoning would exclude Nero, how could the eighth be said to be one of the seven, i.e. Nero ? Bousset thinks that the Apocalyptist, knowing not what to make of this reckoning, left it standing as it was and attempted a new interpretation of the seven heads by taking them to refer to the seven hills of Rome in the addition he made to verse 9. REVELATION, BOOK OF 221 the average daily consumption of the workman. . . . Barley was largely the food of the poor." According to the words just quoted from the Apocalypse, there was to be a dearth of grain and a superfluity of wine; the price of the wheat was to be seven times the ordinary, according to Reinach's com- putation, and that of the barley four times, This strange statement suggested some historical allusion, and the discovery of the allusion was made by Reinach, who points out that Domitian by an edict in a.d. 92 prohibited the planting of new vineyards in Italy, and ordered the reduction of those in the provinces by one-half. As Asia Minor suffered specially under this edict, an agitation was set on foot which resulted in the revocation of the edict. In this revocation the Apocalyptist saw the menace of a famine of the necessaries of life, while the luxuries would remain unaffected. From his ascetic stand- point the revocation of the edict could only pander to drunken- ness and immorality. Reinach's explanation of this ancient crux inlerpretum, which has been accepted by Harnack, Bousset, Porter, Sanday, Swete and others, fixes the earliest date of the composition of the Apocalypse as a.d. 93. Since Domitian died in 96, the book was therefore written between a.d. 93 and 95. Author. — Before entering on the chief data which help towards the determination of this question, we shall first state the author's standpoint. His book exhibits a Christianity that is — as Harnack (Ency. Brit.*, xx. 498) writes — " free from the law, free from national prejudices, universal and yet a Christianity which is independent of Paul. . . . The author speaks not at air of the law 1 — the word does not occur in his work; he looks for salvation from the power and grace of God and Christ alone . . . nowhere has he made a distinction between Gentile and Jewish Christians. . . . The author of the Apocalypse has cast aside all national religious prejudices." The writer is not dependent, consciously or unconsciously, on the Pauline teaching. He has won his way to universalism, not through the Pauline method, but through one of his own. He has no serious prefer- ence for the people of Israel as such, but only for the martyrs and confessors, who shall belong to every tribe and tongue and people and nation (vii. 9 seq.). The unbelieving Jews are " a synagogue of Satan " (ii. 9). Yet, on the other hand, our author's attitude to the world reflects the temper of Judaism rather than that of Christianity. He looks upon the enemies of the Christian Church with uncon- cealed hatred. No prayer arises within his work on their behalf, and nothing but unalloyed triumph is displayed over their doom. The Christian duty of love to those that wrong us does not seem to have impressed itself on our Apocalyptist. Is the Apocalypse pseudonymous? — All the Jewish apocalypses are pseudonymous, and all the Christian with the exception of the Shepherd of Hermas. Since our book undoubtedly belongs to this category, the question of its pseudonymity must arise. In the articles on Apocalyptic Literature and Apocryphal Literature (qq.v.) we have shown the large lines of differentia- tion between apocalyptic and prophecy. The chief ground for resorting to pseudonymous authorship in Judaism was that the belief in prophecy was lost among the people. Hence any writer who would appeal to them was obliged to do so in the name of some great figure of the past. Furthermore, this belief that prophecy had ceased led the religious personalities of the later time to authenticate their message by means of antedated prophecy. They procured confidence in their actual predictions by appealing to the literal fulfilment of such antedated prophecy. In such literature we find the characteristic words or their equivalents: " Seal up the prophecy: it is not for this genera- tion," which are designed to explain the late appearance of the works in which they are found. But this universal character- istic of apocalyptic is almost wholly lacking in the New Testa- ment Apocalypse. The vaticinium ex eventu plays but a very 1 His freedom from legal bondage is as undeniable as his univer- salism. He lays no further burden on his readers than those re- quired by the Apostolic Decree of Acts xv. 28 seq. small part in it. Moreover, the chief ground for the develop- ment of a pseudonymous literature was absent in the early Christian church. For with the advent of Christianity prophecy had sprung anew into life, and our author distinctly declares that the words of the book are for his own generation (xxii. 10). Hence we conclude that the grounds are lacking which would entitle our assuming a priori that the Apocalypse is pseudony- mous. Was the Author the Son of Zebedee, the Apostle? — The evidence of the book is against this assumption. The writer demands a hearing as a prophet (xxii. 6), and in no single passage makes any claim to having been an apostle. Nay more, the evidence of the text, so far as it goes, is against such a view. He never refers to any previous intercourse with Christ such as we find frequently in the Fourth Gospel, and when he speaks of " the twelve apostles of the Lamb " (xxi. 14) he does so in a tone that would seem to exclude him from that body. Here internal and external evidence are at strife; for from the time of Justin onwards the Apocalypse was received by the church as the work of the Apostle John (see Swete, op. cit?, p. clxxv). If the writer of the Fourth Gospel was the Apostle John, then the difficulties for the assumption of an apostolic authorship of the Apoca- lypse become well-nigh insuperable. Nay more, the difficulties attending on the assumption of a common authorship of the Gospel and Apocalypse, independently of the question of the apostolic authorship of the Gospel, are practically insuperable. Some decades ago these difficulties were not insurmountable, when critics assigned a Neronic date to the Apocalypse and a Domitianic or later date to the Gospel. It was from such a standpoint conceivable that the thoughts and diction of the writer had undergone an entire transformation in the long interval that intervened between the composition of the two books, on the supposition that both were from the same hand. But now that both books are assigned to the last decade of the 1st century a.d. by a growing body of critics, the hypothesis of a common authorship can hardly be sustained. The validity of such an hypothesis was attacked as early as the 4th century by Dionysius of Alexandria in the fragment of his treatise 7rep£ kirayyektiSiv, in Eusebius, H.E. vii. 24 seq. His arguments, as summed up by Swete (op. cit., p. cxiv seq.), are as follows: " John the Evangelist abstains from mentioning his own name, but John the Apocalyptist names himself more than once at the very outset of his book, and again near its end. Doubtless there were many who bore the name of John in the early Christian communities; we read, for instance, of ' John, whose surname was Mark,' and there may have been a second John in Asia, since at Ephesus, we are told, there were two tombs said to be John's. . . . Again, while the Gospel and the Epistle of John show marks of agreement which suggest a common authorship, the Apocalypse differs widely from both in its ideas and in its way of expressing them; we miss in it the frequent references to ' life/ ' light,' ' truth,' ' grace ' and ' love ' which are characteristic of the Apostle and find ourselves in a totally different region of thought. . . . Lastly, the linguistic eccentricities of the Apocalypse bar the way against the acceptance of the book as the work of the Evangelist. The Gospel and the First Epistle are written in correct and flowing Greek, and there is not a barbarism, a solecism, or a provincialism in them; whereas the Greek of the Apocalypse is inaccurate, disfigured by unusual or foreign words and even at times by solecisms." All subsequent criticism has more or less confirmed the con- clusions of Dionysius. On the other hand, it is impossible to ignore the signs of a relationship between the Apocalypse and the Gospel in the minor peculiarities of language. 2 These, Swete holds, " create a strong presumption of affinity " between the two books, while Bousset infers that they " justify the assump- tion that the entire circle of Johannine writings spring from circles which stood under the influence of the John of Asia Minor." We conclude, therefore, that the Gospel and the Apocalypse 2 See Bousset, Offenbarung Johannis 2 , pp. 177-179; Swete 2 , pp. cxxv-cxxix. 222 REVELS, MASTER OF THE— REVENTLOW are derived from different authors who moved in the same circles. 1 As regards the John mentioned in the Apocalypse, he is now identified by a majority of critics with John the Presbyter, and further the trend of criticism is in favour of transferring all the Johannine writings to him, or rather to his school in Asia Minor. 2 For an independent discussion of the authorship of the Fourth Gospel, see John, Gospel of St. (R. H. C.) REVELS, MASTER OF THE. 3 — The history of the Revels office has an interesting place in that of the English stage (see also Drama, and Theatre). Among the expenses of the royal Wardrobe we find provision made for tunicae and viseres in 1347 for the Christmas ludi of Edward III.; during the reign of Henry VII. payments are also recorded for various forms of court revels; and it became regular, apparently, to appoint a special functionary, called Master of the Revels, to superintend the royal festivities, quite distinct from the Lord of Misrule (q.v .). In Henry VII. 's time he seems to have been a minor official of the household. In Henry VIII. 's time, however, the post became more important, and an officer of the Wardrobe was permanently employed to act under the Master of the Revels. With the patent given to John Farlyon in 1 534 as Yeoman of the Revels, what may be considered as an independent office of the Revels (within the general sphere of the lord chamberlain) came into being; and in 1544 Sir Thomas Cawarden received a patent as Master of the Revels, he being the first to become head of an independent office, M agister J ocorum, Revelorum et Mascorum omnium et singularium nostrorum vulgariter nuncupatorum Revells and Masks. Cawarden was Master till 1559. Soon after his appointment, the office and its stores were transferred to a dissolved Dominican monastery at Blackfriars, having previously been housed at Warwick Inn in the city, the Charterhouse, and then at the priory of St John of Jerusalem in Clerkenwell, to which a return was made after Cawarden's death. Sir Thomas Benger succeeded Cawarden, and Edmund Tylney followed him (1579-1610); it was the appointment of the latter's nephew, Sir George Buck, as deputy-master, with the reversion to the mastership, which led to so much repining on the part of the dramatist, John Lyly, who was himself a candidate. Under Tylney, the functions of Master of the Revels gradually became extended to a general censorship of the stage, which in 1624 was put directly in the hands of the lord 1 There are several analogies in Jewish literature. Thus the Testaments of the XII. Patriarchs — a universalist work — and the Book of Jubilees — a particularistic work — are from different authors, though they are written within a few years of each other by Phari- sees and use much common material. Similarly with regard to the Apocalypse of Baruch and 4 Ezra. 2 Several converging lines of testimony tend to prove that John the son of Zebedee was, like his brother James, put to death by the Jews. First, we have the express testimony of Papias to this effect, which is preserved in George Hamartolus and in an epitome of Philip of Side. Attempts have been made to explain away this testimony by Lightfoot, Harnack, Drummond, and Bernard (Irish Church Quarterly, 1908, 52 sqq.). Secondly, Papias's testi- mony receives support from Jesus's own words in Mark x. 39; for, as Wellhausen remarks on this passage, " the prophecy refers not only to James but also to John; and if it had remained only half fulfilled, it would hardly have kept its place in the Gospel." The third strand of evidence is found in the Martyrologies, Cartha- ginian, Armenian and Syrian. Bernard (op. cit.) has tried to prove that the Martyrologies do not imply the martyrdom but only the faithful witness of John. Finally, Clement of Alexandria (Bousset, Die Offenbarung, p. 38; furnishes evidence in the same direction; for in Clem. Alex. Strom, iv. 9, 71, the Gnostic Herac- leon gives a list of the Apostles who had not been martyred, and these were: " Matthew, Philip, Thomas and Levi" (corrupt for Lebbaeus). If we accept this evidence, the martyrdom cannot have been later than a.d. 69, and may have been considerably earlier. In either case such a fact, if it is a fact, is against an Apostolic origin of the Johannine writings. John the Presbyter is in that case " the disciple whom Jesus loved " and the founder of the Johannine school in Asia Minor. But the question is still at issue. 3 The word " revel " meant properly a noisy or riotous tumult or merry-making, and is derived from O- Fr. reveler, to rebel, to riot, make a noise; Lat. rebellare. chamberlain, thus leading to the licensing act of 1737 (see Drama). See E. K. Chambers, The Mediaeval Stage (1904) ; and his Notes on the History of the Revels Office under the Tudor s (1906), with authorities quoted. REVELSTOKE, an incorporated town of British Columbia, on the Columbia river and the Canadian Pacific railway, 381 m. E. of Vancouver. Pop. (1907) 3526. It is the capital of Kootenay county, and the shipping centre for the mining and lumbering district. It contains large railway shops, several breweries, and saw and shingle mills. REVENTLOW, CHRISTIAN DITLEV FREDERICK, Count (1748-1827), Danish statesman and reformer, the son of Privy Councillor Christian Ditlev Reventlow, born on March 11, 1748. After being educated at the academy of Soro and at Leipzig, Reventlow, in company with his younger brother Johan Ludwig and the distinguished Saxon economist Carl Wendt (1731-1815), the best of cicerones on such a tour, travelled through Germany, Switzerland, France and England, to examine the social, eco- nomical and agricultural conditions of civilized Europe. A visit to Sweden and Norway to study mining and metallurgy completed the curriculum, and when Reventlow in the course of 1770 returned to Denmark he was an authority on all the economic questions of the day. In 1774 he held a high position in the Kammerkollegiet, or board of trade, two years later he entered the Department of Mines, and in 1781 he was a member of the Overskattedirectionen, or chief taxing board. He had, in 1774, married Frederica Charlotte von Beulwitz, who bore him thirteen children, and on his father's death in 1775 inherited the family estate in Laaland. Reventlow overflowed with progressive ideas, especially as regards agriculture, and he devoted himself, heart and soul, ; to the improvement of his property and the amelioration of his serfs. Fortunately, the ambition to play a useful part in a wider field of activity than he could find in the country ultimately prevailed. His time came when the ultra-conservative ministry of Hoegh Guldberg was dismissed (April 14th, 1784) and Andreas Bernstorff, the states- man for whom Reventlow had the highest admiration, returned to power. Reventlow was an excellently trained specialist in many departments, and was always firm and confident in those subjects which he had made his own. Moreover, he was a man of strong and warm feelings, and deeply religious. The condition of the peasantry especially interested him. He was convinced that free labour would be far more profitable to the land, and that the peasant himself would be. better if released from his thraldom. His favourite field of labour was thrown open to him when, on the 6th of August 1784, he was placed at the head of the Rente- kammeret, which took cognisance of everything relating to agriculture. His first step was to appoint a small agricultural commission to better the condition of the crown serfs, and amongst other things enable them to turn their leaseholds into freeholds. Observing that the Crown Prince Frederick was also favourably disposed towards the amelioration of the peasantry, Reventlow induced him, in July 1786, to appoint a grand commission to take the condition of all the peasantry in the kingdom into immediate consideration. This celebrated agricultural commission continued its labours for many years, and introduced a whole series of reforms of the highest import- ance. Thus the ordinance of 8th June 1787 modified the existing leaseholds, greatly to the advantage of the peasantry; the ordinance of 20th June 1788 abolished villenage and completely transformed the much-abused hoveri system whereby the feudal tenant was bound to cultivate his lord's land as well as his own; and the ordinance of 6th December 1799, which did away with hoveri altogether. Reventlow was also instrumental in starting the public credit banks, for enabling small cultivators to borrow money on favourable terms. In conjunction with his friend, Heinricn Ernst Schim- melmann (1747-1831), he also procured the passing of the , ordinances permitting free trade between Denmark and Norway, REVENUE— REVERIE 223 the free importation of corn from abroad, and the abolition of the mischievous monopoly of the Iceland trade. But the financial distress of Denmark, the jealousy of the duchies, the ruinous political complications of the Napoleonic period, and, above all, the Crown Prince Frederick's growing jealousy of his official advisers, which led him to rule, or rather misrule, for years without the co-operation of his Council of State— all these calamities were at last too much even for Reventlow. On 7th December 1813 he received his dismissal and retired to his estates, where, after working cheerfully among his peasantry to the last, he died on the nth of October 1827. See Adolph Frederik Bergsoe, Grev. C. D. F. Reventloivs Virksomhed (Copenhagen, 1837) ; Louis Theodor Alfred Bobe, Efterl. Papirer fra den Reventlowske Familiekreds (Copenhagen, 1895-97)- REVENUE (O. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return), income, return, or profit; more particularly the receipts from all sources of a government or state. The revenue of a state is largely made up of taxation, and the general principles of taxes are discussed in Taxation and Finance. In some countries the public or state domain may contribute substantially to the revenue, as do the crown forests in Russia, while in other countries important contributions are made from the state railways, post and telegraph services, &c. For the historical development of the English revenue see English Finance, and for other countries see the sections on finance in the articles dealing with the various countries. In the United Kingdom the term inland revenue is used to denote that part of the revenue which is derived from death duties, stamps and other taxes, such as income tax, land tax, inhabited house duty, &c. The Board of Inland Revenue is a special department of the English civil service, with headquarters at Somerset House. The Board consists of a chairman, deputy chairman, and two commissioners, with joint secretaries, assistant secretaries and a staff of officials. The other important department engaged in the collection of the English revenue is the Board of Customs and Excise. The excise department was formerly a branch of the inland revenue, but was amalgamated with the customs department on the 1st of April 1909. The Board of Customs and Excise is constituted as is the Board of Inland Revenue. In the United States the greater proportion of the national revenue ($547,086,992 out of $663,217,677 in 1909) is derived from customs and internal revenue. The internal revenue consists for the most part of receipts from taxes on spirits, tobaccos and fermented liquors. In 1909 the amount derived from customs revenue was $300,977,438, and internal revenue, $246,109,554. REVERE, PAUL (1735-1818), American engraver and patriot, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 1st of January 1735. He had a meagre schooling, and in his father's shop learned the trade of a gold- and silversmith. In 1756 he was second lieutenant of artillery in the expedition against Crown Point, and for several months was stationed at Fort Edward, in New York. He became a proficient copper engraver, and engraved several anti-British caricatures in the years before the War of Independence. He was one of the Boston grand jurors who refused to serve in 1774 because parliament had made the justices independent of the people for their salaries; was a leader in the Boston Tea Party; was one of the thirty North End mechanics who patrolled the streets to watch the move- ments of the British troops and Tories; and in December 1774 was sent to Portsmouth, New Hampshire, to urge the seizure of military stores there, and induced the colonists to attack and capture Fort William and Mary — one of the first acts of military force in the war. His midnight ride from Charlestown to Lexington on the i8th-i9th of April 1775, to give warning of the approach of British troops from Boston, is Revere's most famous exploit; it is commemorated by Longfellow, who, however, has " paid little attention to exactness of fact " (Justin Winsor). In 1775 Revere was sent by the Massachusetts provincial congress to Philadelphia to study the working of the only powder mill in the colonies, and although he was allowed only to pass through the building, obtained sufficient informa- tion to enable him to set up a powder mill at Canton. He was commissioned a major of infantry in the Massachusetts militia in April 1776; was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-colonel of artillery in November; was stationed at Castle William, defending Boston harbour, and finally received command of this fort. He served in an expedition to Rhode Island in 1778, and in the following year participated in the unsuccessful Penobscot expedition. After his return he was accused of having disobeyed the orders of the commanding officer, was tried by court-martial, and was acquitted. After the war he engaged in the manufacture of gold and silver ware, and became a pioneer in the production in America of copper plating and copper spikes for ships. In 1795, as grandmaster of the Masonic fraternity, he laid the cornerstone of the new State House in Boston, and in this year also founded the Massachusetts Charit- able Mechanic Association, becoming its first president. He died in Boston on the 10th of May 1818. See Charles F. Gettemy, The True Story of Paul Revere (Boston, 1905)- REVERE, a township and a coast resort of Suffolk county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., immediately N.E. of Boston on Massa- chusetts Bay. Pop. (1910, U.S. census), 18,219. Area, 4-56 sq. m. The township is served by the Boston & Maine and the Boston, Revere Beach & Lynn railways, and by several electric " railways connecting [with Boston, Chelsea, Lynn, Maiden, and Medford. Revere Beach, a crescent-shaped beach of white sand extending from the promontory of Winthrop on the S. to the Point of Pines on the N., is a popular bathing resort, and has been called the Coney Island of Boston. The township has a Carnegie library and a handsome town hall. The first settlement here was made about 1626, and, under the name of Rumney Marsh, it was a part of Boston until 1739, when it became a part of the new township of Chelsea. The northern part of Chelsea was organized as the township of North Chelsea in 1846; part of it was separated as Winthrop in 1852; and in 187 1 the name North Chelsea was changed to Revere, in honour of Paul Revere. REVEREND (Lat. reverendus, gerundive of revereri, to revere, pay respect to), a term of respect or courtesy, now especially used as the ordinary prefix of address to the names of ministers of religion of all denominations. The uses of Med. Lat. reverendus do not confine the term to those in orders; Du Cange (Gloss, s.v.) defines it as titulus honorarius, etiam mulieribus potioris dignitatie concessus, and in the 15th century in English it is found as a general term of respectful address. The usual prefix of address of a parson was " sir," representing Lat. dominus (see Sir), or " master." It has been habitually used of the parochial clergy of the Cfrurch of England since the end of the 17th century. It is not, however, a title of honour or dignity, and no denomination has any exclusive right to use it. A faculty was ordered to be issued for the erection of a tombstone, the inscription on which contained the name of a Wesleyan minister prefixed by "reverend"; this the incumbent had refused (Keat v. Smith, 1876, 1 P.D. 73). In the Church of England deans are addressed as " very reverend," bishops as " right reverend," archbishops as " most reverend." The Moderator of the Church of Scotland is also styled " right reverend." REVERIE, a condition of mental abstraction, a fit of musing, a "brown study" ("brown" in the sense of "gloomy," and not to be referred to Germ. Braune, brow). The word appears in the 14th or 15th centuries in its original meaning in Old French, of joy, delight, also wildness, anger. The French rever, later resver, modern river, to dream, meant originally to wander in speech or thought, and is derived from the Lat. rabiare, cf. " rabies," " rage " and " rave." The French riverie (resverie] was adopted again in the 17th and 18th centuries as meaning a state of dreaminess; thus Locke (Essay on the Human Under- standing, 1695, ii. xix.) says: " When ideas float in our minds 224 REVIEW— RE W A without any reflection or regard of the understanding, it is that which the French call resvery; our language has scarce a word for it." REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre), an inspection or critical examination; it is chiefly used as a military or naval term for an inspection on a large or formal scale of a fleet or body of troops by the sovereign or other person holding a high official position, or for a critical account of a recently published literary work in a magazine or periodical. The earliest use of the word for the title of such a periodical was in the paper begun by Defoe in 1704, the full title of which was A Review of the Affairs of France and of all Europe, as influ- enced by that Nation (see Periodicals and Newspapers). In France there is a particular application of the term revue or, more fully, revue de fin d'annie to a form of dramatic performance, acted or sung, in which the chief events of the past year, and the personages who have been prominently before the public, are satirically and critically passed under review. Attempts have been made to trace such performances to an early origin. In their modern form, however, they date from the reign of Louis Philippe. L'Am84ietl'an IQ41, by the brothers Cogniard, was one of the earliest. REVILLAGIGEDO, an isolated, uninhabited group of rocky islands in the N. Pacific, lat. 18 N., long. 112° W., belonging to Mexico, and forming part of the state of Colima. They are about 420 m. from the Mexican coast and comprise the large island of Socorro (San Tomas), 24 m. long by an average of 9 m. wide, and the three widely separated islets of San Betiedicto, Roca Partida and Clarion, with a total area of 320 sq. m. The island of Socorro has an extinct volcano 3660 ft. high. The islands have certain remarkable zoological features, comprising several birds and reptiles allied to those of the Mexican main- land but differing from them in species. The archipelago derives its name from the Spanish viceroy who governed Mexico from 1746 to 1755. REVILLE, ALBERT (1826- ), French Protestant theo- logian, was born at Dieppe on the 4th of November 1826. After studying at Geneva and Strassburg, he became in 1849 pastor at Lunerai near Dieppe, and in 1851 of the Walloon Church at Rotterdam, where he remained until 1872. In 1880 he was made professor of the history of religions in the College de France at Paris. Six years later he was appointed president of the section of religious studies in the Ecole des hautes etudes at the Sorbonne. He is one of the leaders of the French school of advanced critical theology. Works. — Besides contributing to the Revue de theologie (Paris), the Revue de Vhistoire des religions (Paris), the Revue des deux monies, the following works are important: Manuel d'histoire compares de la philosophic et de la religion (1859; Eng. trans., 1864); Histoire du dogme de la divinite de Jesus Christ (1869, 3rd ed., 1904; Eng. trans., 1905); Prolegomenes de Vhistoire des. re- ligions (1881, 4th ed., 1886; Eng. trans., 1884); Theodore Parker, sa vie et ses ceuvres (1865; Eng. trans., 1865, 2nd ed., 1877); Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as illustrated by the native religions of Mexico and Peru (the " Hibbert Lectures " for 1884); J6sus de Nazareth (1897, 12th ed., 1906). His son, Jean Reville, was born on the 6th of November 1854, studied at Geneva, Paris, Berlin and Heidelberg, and became professor of patristic literature and secretary of the section of religious studies in the Ecole des hautes etudes at the Sorbonne. In 1884 he became co-editor of the Revue de Vhistoire des religions (Paris). His books include: La Doctrine du logos (1881); La Religion A Rome sous les Severes (1886) ; Les Origines de Vepiscopat (1895) ; and Le Protestantisme liberal, ses origines, sa nature, sa mission (1903; Eng. trans., 1903). REVOLUTIONARY TRIBUNAL, THE (le tribunal revolu- tionnaire) , a court which was instituted in Paris by the Convention during the French Revolution for the trial of political offenders, and became one of the most powerful engines of the Terror. The news of the failure of the French arms in Belgium gave rise in Paris to popular movements on the 9th and 10th of March 1793, and on the 10th of March, on the proposal of Danton, the Convention decreed that there should be established in Paris an extraordinary criminal tribunal, which received the official name of the Revolutionary Tribunal by a decree of the 29th of October 1793. It was composed of a jury, a public prosecutor, and two substitutes, all nominated by the Convention; and from its judgments there was no appeal. With M. J. A. Hermann as president and Fouquier-Tinville as public prosecutor, the tribunal terrorized the royalists, the refractory priests and all the actors in the counter-revolution. Soon, too, it came to be used for personal ends, particularly by Robespierre, who employed it for the condemnation of his adversaries. The excesses of the Revolutionary Tribunal increased with the growth of Robespierre's ascendancy in the Committee of Public Safety; and on the 10th of June 1794 was promulgated, at his instigation, the infamous Law of 22 Prairial, which forbade prisoners to employ counsel for their defence, suppressed the hearing of witnesses and made death the sole penalty. Before 22 Prairial the Revolutionary Tribunal had pronounced 1220 death-sentences in thirteen months; during the forty-nine days between the passing of the law and the fall of Robespierre 1376 persons were condemned, including many innocent victims. The lists of prisoners to be sent before the tribunal were prepared by a popular commission sitting at the museum, and signed, after revision, by the Committee of General Security and the Committee of Public Safety jointly. Although Robespierre was the principal purveyor of the tribunal, we possess Only one of these lists bearing his signature. The Revolutionary Tribunal was suppressed on the 31st of May 1795. Among its most celebrated victims may be mentioned Marie Antoinette, the Hebertists, the Dantonists and several of the Girondists. Similar tribunals were also in operation in the provinces. See H. A. Wallon, Histoire du tribunal revolutionnaire de Paris (Paris, 6 vols., 1880-82); E. Campardon, Le Tribunal revolution- naire de Paris (Paris, 2nd ed., 2 vols., 1866) ; C. Berriat Saint- Prix, La Justice revolutionnaire a Paris, Bordeaux, Brest, Lyon, Nantes, . . . (Paris, 1861), and La Justice revolutionnaire (aoUt i?02 L -prairial an II.) d'apres des documents originaux (Paris, 1870); also G. Lendtre, Le Tribunal revolutionnaire (1908). For a biblio- graphy of its records see M. Tourneux, Bibliog. de la ville de Paris . . . (1890, vol. i. Nos. 3925-3974). REWA, or Riwa, a native state of Central India in the Bagel- khand agency. It is the only large state in Bagelkhand, and the second largest in Central India, having an area of about 13,000 sq. m. It is bounded N. by the United Provinces, E. by Bengal and S. by the Central Provinces. On the W. it meets other petty states of Bagelkhand. Rewa is divided into two well- defined portions. The northern and smaller division is the plateau lying between the Kaimur range of hills and that portion of the Vindhyas known as Binjh, which overlook the valley of the Ganges. This plateau is for the most part culti- vated and well peopled; rich harvests both of kharif and rabi crops are generally obtained. Water is plentiful, and the country is full of large tanks and reservoirs, which, however, are not used for irrigation purposes; the only system of wet cultivation which has any favour with the villagers is that of bunds, or mounds of earth raised at the lower ends of sloping fields to retain the rain water for some time after the monsoon rains cease. The country to the S. of the Kaimur hills com- prises by far the largest portion of the state; but here cultiva- tion is restricted to the valley between the hills and the Sone river, and to a few isolated patches in scattered parts of the forest wastes. The principal river is the Sone, which flows through the state in a N.E. direction into Mirzapur district. Another important river is the Tons, but neither is navigable. The annual rainfall averages about 41 in. The population in 1901 was 1,327,385, showing a decrease of 12% in the decade. Many of the inhabitants of the hilly tracts are Gonds and Kols. Estimated revenue, £200,000. The staple crops are rice, millets and wheat; but more than one-third of the area is covered with forests, yielding timber and lac. The S. of the state is crossed by the branch of the Bengal-Nagpur railway from Bilaspur to Katni, which taps the Umaria coal-field. The state suffered from famine in 1896-97, and again to a less REWA KANTHA— REYER 225 extent in 1899-1900; but on both occasions adequate measures of relief were provided. The state first came under British influence in 1812. The chief, Venkat Raman Singh, was born in 1876, succeeded in 1880 and was created G.C.S.I. in 1897. During his minority the administra- tion was reformed. He is Rajput of the Baghela branch of the Solanki race, and is descended from the founder of the Anhilwara Patan dynasty in Gujarat. The town of Rewa is 131 m. S. of Allahabad. Pop. (1901) 24, 608. It has a high school, also the Victoria and zenana hospitals and a model gaol. The political agent for Bagelkhand resides at Satna, on the East Indian railway: pop. (1901) 7471. REWA KANTHA, a political agency or collection of native states in India, subordinate to the government of Bombay. It stretches for about 150 m. between the plain of Gujarat and the hills of Malwa, from the river Tapti to the Mahi, crossing the Nerbudda or Rewa, from which it takes its name. The number of separate states is 61, many of which are under British jurisdiction. The only important one is Rajpipla (q.v.). It includes also five second-class states entitled Chota Udaipur, Bariya, Sunth, Lunawada and Balaimor. Total area, 4972 sq. m. In 1901 the population was 479,065, show- ing a decrease of 35 % in the decade, due to the results of famine. Estimated revenue, £140,000; tribute (mostly to the gaekwar of Baroda), £10,000. Many of the inhabitants belong to the wild tribes of Bhils and Kolis. The political agent, who is also collector of the British district of the Panch Mahals, resides at Godhra. REWARD, recompense, a gift or payment in return for services rendered. " Reward " and " regard " are forms of the same word. Old French, from which both words came into English, also had rewarder and regarder (the latter form only surviving in modern French), from re-, back, in return, and warder, garder, to watch, protect — ultimately a Teutonic word, from the base war-, to defend; cf. " ward " and " guard," which are thus also doublets. In early use in English, " re- ward " and " regard " were interchangeable in meaning; thus in Piers Plowman, xi. 129, " Reson rod forth and tok reward of no man," cf. " The towne doth receave ... an annuall regard for the same " (a 16th-century reference quoted by the New English Dictionary from R. Willis and J. W. Clark, Archit. Hist, of Univ. of Cambridge, 1886). In use the words are now distinct, " regard " being restricted to such meanings as atten- tion, respect, esteem, consideration. In English law the offering of rewards presents two distinct aspects: (1) with reference to the nature of the information or act for the giving or doing whereof the reward is offered; (2) with reference to the nature of the relation created between the person offering and the person claiming the reward. 1. Courts of assize and quarter sessions are empowered to order the payment of rewards to persons who have been active in or towards the apprehension of persons charged with certain specified crimes against person and property (Criminal Law, 1826, ss. 28, 29; Criminal Justice Administration Act 1851, ss. 7, 8). The rewards are payable according to a scale fixed by the home secretary. In the case of courts of quarter sessions the maximum is £5. Courts of assize may award a larger sum where extraordinary courage and diligence have been shown towards the apprehension. The sums awarded are paid out of the rate or fund chargeable with the costs of assizes and sessions. It is illegal to advertise for the recovery of stolen property (including dogs) on terms of not asking questions (Larceny Act 1861, s. 102;' Larceny Advertisements Acts 1870, s. 3). The advertiser and the newspaper which publishes it incur a penalty of £50. (See Mirams v. Our Dogs Publishing Co., 1901, 2 K.B. 564.) It is a criminal offence at common law to offer any reward on terms leading to compounding a felony or sheltering the offender (R. v. Burgess, 1886, 16 Q.B.D. 141), and under the Larceny Act 1861 (ss. 20, 101) it is criminal to accept a reward for recovery of stolen property without bringing the thief to justice. 2. Where a reward is lawfully offered for information the person who first supplies the required information, i.e. satisfies the -conditions on which the reward is payable, is entitled to xxih. 8 recover by action the reward offered. Performance of the conditions is an acceptance . of the offer {Carlill v. Carbolic Smoke Ball Co., 1893, 1 Q.B. 256, 270). Thus on an advertise- ment for information leading to the arrest and conviction of shop-breakers, T. gave information which led to the arrest of R,, who while in prison told the police where to find the thieves. T. was held entitled to the reward (Tarnerv. Walker, 1866, L.R. 1 Q.B. 641), This rule applies even where the offer is general to all the world (Williams v. Carwardine, 1833, 4 B. & Ad. 621; Spencer v. Harding, 1870, L. R. 5 C.P. 561). It would seem that on grounds of public policy an offender could not claim the reward on surrendering himself to justice (Bent v. Wakefield &c. Bank, 1878, 4 C.P.D. 1, 4). It is not clear whether officers of justice are by their office and duty debarred from claiming rewards offered for the arrest of offenders (Ibid. p. 5). REWARI, a town of British India, in Gurgaon district of the Punjab, 32 m. S.W. of Gurgaon, on the Rajputana-Malwa railway. Pop. (1901) 27,295. It is an important centre of trade, being the junction for the Rewari-Bhatinda branch of the Rajputana railway. The chief manufacture is that of brass- ware for cooking utensils. REWBELL, JEAN FRANgOIS (1747-1807), French politician, was born at Colmar (then in the department of Haut-Rhin) on the 8th of October 1747. He was president (bdtonnier) of the order of avocats in Colmar, and in 1789 was elected deputy to the States- General by the Third Estate of the bailliage of Colmar-Schlestadt. In the Constituent Assembly his oratorical gifts, legal knowledge and austerity of life gave him much influence. During the session of the Legislative Assembly he exercised the functions of procureur syndic and was subsequently secretary-general of the department of Haut-Rhin. In the Convention he was a zealous promoter of the trial of Louis XVI., but was absent on mission at the time of the king's condemnation. He took part in the reactionary movement which followed the fall of Robespierre, and became a member of the reorganized Committees of Public Safety and General Security. The moderation he displayed caused his election by seventeen departments to the Council of Five Hundred. Appointed a member of the Directory on the 1st of October 1795, he became its president in 1796, and retired by ballot in 1799. He then entered the Council of Ancients. After the coup d'etat of 18 Brumaire he retired from public life, and died at Colmar on the 23rd of November 1807. See L. Sciout, Le Directoire (Paris, 1895-97). REYBAUD, MARIE ROCH LOUIS (1799-1879), French writer, economist and politician, was born at Marseilles on the 15th of August 1799. After travelling in the Levant and in India, he settled in Paris in 1829. Besides writing for the Radical press, he edited the Histoire scientifique et militaire de I 'expedition francaise en Egypte in ten volumes (1830-36) and Dumont d'Urville's Voyage autour du monde (1833). In 1840 he published Etudes sur les reformateurs ou socialistes modernes (see Socialism) which gained him the Montyon prize (1841) and a place in the Academie des sciences morales et politiques (1850). In 1843 he published Jerome Paturot a la recherche d'une position sociale, a clever social satire that had a prodigious success. In 1846 he abandoned his democratic views, and was elected liberal deputy for Marseilles. His Jerome Paturot a la recherche de la meilleure des rSpubliques (1848) was a satire on the new Re- publican ideas. After the coup d'etat of 1849 he ceased to take part in public life, and devoted himself entirely to the study of political economy. To this period belong his La Vie de I'employS (1855); L'Industrie en Europe (1856); and £tudes sur le regime, de nos manufactures (1859). He died in Paris on the 28th of October 1879. REYER, ERNEST (1823- ), French composer, was born at Marseilles on the 1st of December 1823. At the age of sixteen he went to Algeria, and remained there some years. The out- come of his residence there was a symphonic ode entitled Le Selam, the musical orientalism of which had, unluckily for him, already been anticipated by Felicien David in Le Desert. Maitre Wolfram, a one-act opera, was produced at the Opera comique 11 226 REYNARD THE FOX— REYNOLDS, J. F. in 1854; and in 1858 Sacuntala, a ballet, at the Opera. It was the production of La Statue at the Theatre lyrique in 1861 that brought Reyer's name prominently before the public. But Reyer had to wait several years before obtaining a real and permanent success. Erostrate, an opera produced at Baden- Baden in 1862, and given at the Paris Opera some ten years later, was a failure. The composer had in the meanwhile set to work on Sigurd, the subject of which is the same that inspired Wagner in Siegfried and Gotterdammerung. It was at last produced in Brussels in 1884, and subsequently brought out at the Paris Opera. Sigurd is a work of great value, displaying its composer's elevated notions as regards the form of the " lyrical drama." Salammbd, founded upon Flaubert's romance, was successfully produced at Brussels in 1890. Gluck, Weber, Berlioz and Wagner exercised most influence over Reyer. As a musical critic (preceding Berlioz in that capacity for the Journal des debats) Reyer was a well-known writer; and he became librarian of the Paris Opera, and a member of the Institute. His Quarante Ans de musique (with biographical notice by E. Henriot) was published in 1909. REYNARD THE FOX, a beast-epic, current in French, Dutch and German literature. The cycle of animal stories collected round the names of Reynard the Fox and Isengrim the Wolf in the 12th century seems to have arisen on the border- land of France and Flanders. Much of the material may be found in Aesop, in Physiologus, and in the 1 2th-century Disciplina Clericalis of Petrus Alfonsus. But the difference is very great. The intention of the trouveres who recited the exploits of Reynard was, in the earlier stages, in no sense didactic. The tales, like those of " Uncle Remus," were amusing in themselves; they were based on widely diffused folklore, and Reynard and his companions were not originally men disguised as animals. Jacob Grimm (Reinhart Fuchs, 1834) maintained their popular origin; his theories, which have been much contested, have received additional support from the researches of K. Krohn, who discovered many of the stories most characteristic of the cycle in existing Finnish folklore, where they can hardly have arrived through learned channels. There is abundant evidence that Isengrim and Reynard were firmly established in the popular imagination in the 13th century, and even earlier. Guibert de Nogent (De Vita sua, book 3, chap.viii., printed Paris, 1651), in referring to the disturbances at Laon in 1 n 2, says that the bishop Gaudri was accustomed to call one of his enemies Isengrim, and it is obvious from the context that the taunt was perfectly understood by the popular mind. Philip the Fair is said to have annoyed Pope Boniface III., who died in 1303, by the representation of the "Procession Renart"; and in 1 204-1 206 in Flanders two opposing parties were designated Isangrini and Blavotini (blue-footed). The principal names of the Reynard cycle, and the earliest in use, were German. Reynard himself (Raginohardus, strong in counsel), Bruin the Bear, Baldwin the Ass, Tibert the Cat, Hirsent the She-wolf, had German names, most of which were used as person-names in Lorraine. Whatever the sources of the stories, it was in France that the cycle obtained its greatest vogue. The Roman de Renart as printed by Meon (Paris, 4 vols., 1826) runs to over 40,000 lines, and contains a great number of detached episodes or branches, to which the trouveres gave a certain unity by attaching them to the traditionary feud between Reynard and Isengrim. This rapidly became symbolic of the triumph of craft and eloquence over brute strength. Renart was a popular epic parodying feudal institu- tions as represented in the romances of chivalry, and readily adapting itself to satire of the rich, of the forms of justice, and of the clergy. The early French originals are lost, the most ancient existing fragments being in Latin. The fable of the lion's sickness and his cure by the wolf's skin occurs in the Ecbasis cujusdam captivi per Tropologiam (ed. E. Voigt; Strassburg, 1875), written by a monk of St Evre at Toul (Meurthe-et-Moselle) about 940. Ysengrimus (ed. E. Voigt; Halle, 1884), a clerical satire written by Nivard of Ghent about 1148, includes the story of the lion's sickness and the pilgrimage of Bertiliana the Goat. Another Latin poem, Reinardus vulpes (ed. F. J. Mone; Stutt- gart, 1832), contains in addition the theft of the bacon, and how Isengrim is induced to fish with his tail. A simpler version, derived probably from a French original, is Isingrines ndt, written in German about 11 80 by the Alsatian Heinrich der Glichezare. Only fragments of this poem are preserved, but about a quarter of a century later it was re-written with little change in the subject matter as Reinhart Fucks (ed. J. Grimm, Berlin, 1834; and K. Reissenberger, Halle, 1886). Most later versions of Reynard have been derived, however, from the Flemish Reinaert de vos (ed. J. F. Willems, Ghent, 1836; and E. Martin, Paderborn, 1874), written about 1 250 in East Flanders by Willem. Reinaert is a poem of 3474 fines. The corresponding branch of the French Roman de Renart (for which and its satirical sequels, Le Couronnement Renart, Renart le nouveau, and Renart le contrefait, see French Literature) is one of the earliest and best of the great French cycle. The fable was, like other French works, known in England, but did not at once pass into the popular stock. Odo of Cheriton, who died in 1247, used the Reynard stories in his sermons, and many of them occur in his collection of Parabolae (ed. Hervieux, Fabulistes latins, 1884, vol. i.). The English poem of the Vox and the Wolf dates from the 13th century; and the " Nonne Preestes Tale " of Chaucer, in which, however, the fox is Rossel and the ass Brunei, is a genuine Reynard history. Willem's Reinaert de Vos was left incomplete, and the con- tinuation — about 4000 lines in a more didactic vein — was added by an unknown writer of West Flanders about 1370. The first copy printed in any language was the Dutch prose version, Hystorie van Reynaert de Vos, printed at Gouda by Gheraert Leeuw in 1479. On this Caxton based his Historye of reynarl the foxe (reprinted by E. Arber, 1878), which he finished on the 6th of June 148 1. As a satire on the church, especially on monks and nuns, Reynard became popular with reformers, and numerous versions followed in England and Germany. A Low German version, Reineke Fuchs, with a prose commentary by Hinrek Alckmer (Henry of Alkmaar), was issued from the Antwerp press of Gheraert Leeuw in 1487. From this rifaci- mento was derived the Low German Reynke de Vos (ed. Hoffmann von Fallersleben, Breslau, 1834; and Friedrich Prien, Halle, 1887), which was printed at Liibeck in 1498. Michael Beuther is said to have been the translator into High German (Reiniken Fuchs, 1 544) ; and the book was made available to the general European public in the Latin version of Hartmann Schopper, Opus Poeticum de admirabili fallacia et astutia Vulpeculae Reinikes Libros quatuor (Frankfort, 1567). The modern German version (1794) of Goethe has been often reprinted, notably in 1846 with illustrations by Wilhelm von Kaulbach. Reynard is dealt with by Carlyle in an essay " On German Literature of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries " in the Foreign Quarterly Review (1831). An admirable account of the Reynard cycle is given by W. J. Thorns in his edition of Caxton's version for the Percy Society (1844). Prien's edition of Reynke de Vos contains bibliographical particulars of the German, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic and English editions (cp. Brunet, Manuel du libraire, s.v. Renart). The best edition of the Roman de Renart is by Ernest Martin (3 vols., Strassburg and Paris, 1881-1887). See also Leopold Sudre, Les Sources du roman de Renard (Paris, 1890) ; Jacob Grimm, Sendschreiben an C. Lachmann uber Reinhart Fuchs (Leipzig, 1840) ; Gaston Paris, " Le Roman de Renard " in the Journal des savants (Dec. 1894 and Feb. 1895); Kaarle Krohn, Bar und Fuchs (Helsingfors, 1888), 'and the editions mentioned above. The story is told in modern French by Paulin Paris, Les Aventures de Maitre Renart et d'Ysengrin son compere (1861), and in English by Joseph Jacobs, following a modernized text of Caxton made by " Felix Summerley " (Sir H. Cole), in The Most Delectable History of Reynard the Fox (1895), with a valuable introduction. REYNOLDS, JOHN FULTON (1820-1863), American soldier, was born at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, on the 20th of September 1820, and graduated at West Point in 1841. He became first lieutenant of artillery in 1846, and was breveted captain and major for gallantry in the Mexican War. He took part in the Utah expedition under Brigadier-General Albert Sidney Johnston. In 1859 he was made commandant of cadets REYNOLDS, SIR JOSHUA at West Point, where he was stationed at the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861. He was made a lieutenant-colonel of infantry in May and brigadier-general of volunteers in August of that year. In the Peninsular campaign, after taking part in the battles of Beaver Dam Creek and Gaines' Mill, he was taken prisoner in the hard-fought action of Glendale or Frazier's Farm. Exchanged after six weeks' captivity, he commanded a division with conspicuous ability and courage in the second battle of Bull Run. Shortly after this he was placed in command of the militia of his native state when Lee's invasion threatened it. In November 1862 he was commissioned major-general of volunteers, and appointed to command the I. Corps of the Army of the Potomac, and took part in the battle of Fredericksburg. At the time of General Meade's appointment to command the Army of the Potomac many desired to see Reynolds selected for that post, but he gave Meade his whole-hearted support in the three critical days preceding the battle of Gettysburg (g.v.). He was placed by Meade in command of the left wing (I., III. and XI. corps and Buford's cavalry division) and thrown forward to Gettysburg to cover the concentration of the Army of the Potomac. The battle which ensued there, on the 1st of July 1863, took its shape from Reynolds's resolution to support Buford's cavalry with the I. and XL crops. Meade was notified, and hurried forward the right wing under Hancock. Reynolds himself was killed very early in the day by a rifle bullet. A bronze statue was placed on the field of Gettysburg and a portrait in the library at West Point by the men of the I. Corps. The state of Pennsylvania erected a granite shaft on the spot where he fell, and an equestrian bronze statue stands in Philadelphia. His elder brother William (1815-1870), a naval officer, served afloat in the Civil War, effected many useful reforms while acting secretary of the navy in 1873 and 1874, and retired from the United States navy in 1877 as a rear-admiral. REYNOLDS, SIR JOSHUA (17 23-1 792), the most prominent figure in the English school of painting, was born at Plympton Earl, in Devonshire, on the 16th of July 1723. He received a fairly good education from his father, who was a clergyman and the master of the free grammar school of the place. At the age of seventeen, the lad, who had already shown a fondness for drawing, was apprenticed in London to Thomas Hudson, a native of Devonshire, who, though a mediocre artist, was popular as a portrait painter. Reynolds remained with Hudson for only two years, and in 1743 he returned to Devonshire, where, settling at Plymouth Dock, he employed himself in portrait painting. By the end of 1744 he was again in London. He was well received by his old master, from whom he appears previously to have parted with some coldness on both sides. Hudson introduced him to the artists' club that met in Old Slaughter's, St Martin's Lane, and gave him much advice as to his work. Reynolds now painted a portrait of Captain the Hon. John Hamilton, the first that brought him any notice, with those of other people of some repute; but on the death of his father in 1746 he established himself with two of his sisters at Plymouth Dock, where he painted numerous portraits, and it was here that he came under the influence of the works of one of the painters who materially affected his art. This was William Gandy of Exeter, who had died in 1730, and whose painting, derived through his father from VanDyck, was pronounced by Northcote to come nearer to nature in the texture of flesh than that of any artist who ever lived. The influence on him of Gandy may be seen in the early self-portrait of the National Portrait Gallery, so rich in impasto and strong in light and shade, in which he is seen shading his eyes with his hand. Meanwhile the pleasant urbanity of manner which distin- guished Reynolds throughout life had been winning for him friends. He had made the acquaintance of Lord Edgcumbe, and by him was introduced to Captain (afterwards Viscount) Keppel. Keppel was made aware of Reynolds's ardent desire to visit Italy; and, as he had just been appointed to the com- mand of the Mediterranean squadron, he gracefully invited the artist to accompany him in his own ship, the " Centurion." 227 The offer was gladly accepted. While Keppel was conducting his tedious negotiations with the dey of Algiers, relative to the piracy with which that potentate was charged, Reynolds resided at Port Mahon, the guest of the governor of Minorca, painting portraits of the principal inhabitants; and in December 1749 he sailed for Leghorn, and thence, with all eagerness, made his way to Rome. He has confessed that his first sight of the works of Raphael was a grievous disappointment, but he recognized afterwards, as he said, that the fault was in himself, and he brought his mind ultimately into the fitting posture of reverence. The fact is significant of Reynold's attitude towards the older masters. It has been often noticed that in his " Discourses " and else- where he praises just the very masters whose practice his own work implicitly condemns. The truth is that Reynolds war naturally a good critic, but was not strong enough to believe in his own opinions if they ran counter to the prevailing taste of his times. Of the early Italians he praises the " simplicity and truth " and observes that they " deserve the attention of a student much more than many later artists." In Venice he adopted a method of study that only a born painter could have thought of, making memoranda of the gradations of light and shade in the pictures, " and this without any attention to the subject, or to the drawing of the figures." On the other hand, we find him lavishing both attention and eulogy on the later Italian mannerists, such as Guido and the Carracci, and even Salviati and Vasari. After a residence of more than two years in Rome, where he caught a severe cold which resulted in the deafness that clung to him for the rest of his life, Reynolds, in the spring of 1752, spent five months in visiting Parma, Florence, Venice and other important cities of Italy. Returning to England by way of Paris, Reynolds, after a brief stay in Devonshire, established himself as a portrait painter in St Martin's Lane, London, whence he afterwards removed to Great Newport Street, and finally, i» 1 760, to Leicester Square, where he continued to paint till his death. In London, Reynolds stepped at once and without a struggle into a foremost position as the fashionable portrait painter of the day. In this he was greatly helped by his success in society. Throughout his career his social occupations claimed the next place to his painting, and here it may be noticed that, though we read of some little ostentation in the form of a showy chariot and liveried lackeys, his good taste always kept him from any undue " push," or adulation of the great. At the outset Lord Edgcumbe played the part of the generous patron, and exerted himself to obtain commissions for his protege, of whose ability the portraits which he now produced— especially the famous full-length of his old friend Keppel — were sufficient guarantee. The artist's painting room was thronged with the wealth and fashion of London. In 1755 his clients for the year numbered 120, and in 1757 the number of sittings recorded in his pocket- books reached a total of 677. He was not always so busy, but his popularity never really waned, though various other artists competed with him for popular applause. First the Swiss Liotard had his momemt of popularity; and at a later period there was Opie, and the more formidable, and sustained rivalry of Gainsborough and of Romney; but in the midst of all Reynolds maintained his position unimpaired. During the first year of his residence in London he had made the acquaintance of Dr Johnson, which, diverse as the two men were, became a friendship for life. To him Burke and Goldsmith, Garrick, Sterne and Bishop Percy were before long added. At the hospitable dinner-table of Reynolds such distinguished men enjoyed the freest and most unconstrained companionship, and most of them were members of the " Literary Club," established, at the painter's suggestion, in 1764. In 1760 the London world* of art was greatly interested by the novel proposal of the Society of Artists to exhibit their works to the public. The hall of the society was at their disposal for the purpose; and in the month of April an exceedingly successful exhibition was opened, the precursor of many that followed. To this display Reynolds contributed four portraits 228 REYNOLDS, SIR JOSHUA In 1765 the association obtained a royal charter, and became known as " The Incorporated Society of Artists "; but much rivalry and jealousy were occasioned by the management of the various exhibitions, and an influential body of painters withdrew from the society. They had access to the young king, George III., who promised his patronage and help. In December 1768 the Royal Academy was founded, and Reynolds, whose adhesion to the movement was for a time doubtful, was hailed by acclamation its first president, an honour which more than compensated for his failure to obtain the appointment of king's painter, which, the previous year, had been bestowed on Allan Ramsay. In a few months the king signified his approval of the election by knighting the new president, and intimating that the queen and himself would honour him with sittings for portraits .to be presented to the Academy. Reynolds was in every way fitted for his new position, and till the late Lord Leighton the Academy never had so good a figure-head. He did not take any part in the educational work of the new institution, but on the social side he set the Academy on the lines it has followed with the greatest worldly success ever since. It was at his suggestion that the annual banquet was instituted. To the specified duties of his post he added the delivery of a presidential address at the distribution of the prizes, and his speeches on these occasions form the well-known " Discourses " of Sir Joshua. These discourses alone would be sufficient to entitle their author to literary distinction; indeed, when they were first delivered, it was thought impossible that they could be the production of a painter, and Johnson and Burke have been credited with their composition, in spite of the specific denials of both, and of Dr Johnson's indignant exclamation — " Sir Joshua, sir, would as soon get me to paint for him as to write for him! " Sir Joshua was too prosperous and successful an artist altogether to escape the jealousy of his less fortunate or less capable brethren, and it must on the other side be admitted that his attitude towards some of his contemporaries was wanting in generosity. His relations with Gainsborough, who on his part was in fault, would require more space for discussion than can here be afforded, but he was not just either to Hogarth or to Richard Wilson. It may be added that though Reynolds's friends were genuinely fond of him, his was not a nature that could inspire or feel any great warmth of personal feeling. Cosmo Monkhouse in the Dictionary of National Biography speaks of " the beauty of his disposition and the nobility of his character," but adds: "he was a born diplomatist." The latter phrase gives the real key to his character. Without going so far as fully to endorse the sentiment of Mrs Thrale's famous line about a " heart too frigid " and a " pencil too warm," we must agree with a recent writer that the attitude of Reynolds towards his fellow men and women was one of detachment. Hence we regard Reynolds as a man with tempered admiration, and reserve our enthusiasm for his art. In 1784, on the death of Ramsay, Reynolds was appointed painter to the king. Two years previously he had suffered from a paralytic attack; but, after a month of rest, he was able to resume his painting with unabated energy and power. In the summer of 1789 his sight began to fail; he was affected by the gutta serena, but the progress of the malady was gradual, and he continued occasionally to practise his art till about the end of 1790, delivering his final discourse at the Academy on the 10th of December. He was still able to enjoy the companion- ship of his friends, and he exerted himself in an effort to raise funds for the erection of a monument in St Paul's to Dr Johnson, who had died in 1784. Towards the end of 1791 it was evident to the friends of Reynolds that he was gradually sinking. For a few months he suffered from extreme depres- sion of spirits, the result of a severe form of liver complaint, and on the 23rd of February 1792 this great artist and blameless gentleman passed peacefully away. As a painter Reynolds stands, with Gainsborough, just behind the very first rank. There can be no question of placing him by the side of the. greatest Venetians or of the triumvirate of the 17th century, Rubens, Rembrandt, Velasquez ; but, if he fail also to equal either Hals or Van Dyck, this is due, not to any defect in his natural capacity, but to deficiencies in his education combined with the absence in his case of that splendid artistic tradition on which the others leaned. He could not draw the figure properly; nor could he as a rule compose successfully on anything like a monumental scale. English painters in his early days possessed a sound technique, and most of Hogarth's best pictures are perfectly well preserved as well as beautifully painted but Reynolds was not content with the tried methods Hudson could have taught him. In the' desire to compass that creaminess, that juicy opulence in colour and texture, of which he conceived, the idea before the Italian journey, and which he found realized in the works of the Venetians and Correggio, he embarked on all sorts of fantastic experiments in pigments and media, so that Haydon exclaimed, " The wonder is that the picture did not crack beneath the brush! " The result was the speedy ruin of many of his own productions, and he inaugurated an era of uncertainty in method which seriously compromised the efforts of his successors in the English school. The motive for this procedure may explain if it do not justify it. He was all his life intensely in earnest about his art, devoured by what he himself calls " a perpetual desire to advance " ; and he accounts for his own uncertainty partly from his want of training, and partly from his " inordinate desire to possess every kind of excellence " he saw in the works of others. Now if this mental energy led him into hazardous attempts to find a royal road to the painter's ideal, it acted well upon his design in lending to it a certain intellectual solidity, which gives it an advantage over the slighter, though at times more exquisite, productions of the pencils of Gainsborough or Romney. The weight and power of the art of Reynolds are best seen in those noble male portraits, " Lord Heath- field," " Johnson," " Sterne," " Goldsmith," " Gibbon," " Burke," " Fox," " Garrick," that are historical monuments as well as sympathetic works of art. In this category must be included his immortal " Mrs Siddons as the Tragic Muse." In portraits of this order Reynolds holds the field, but he is probably more generally admired for his studies of women and of children, of which the Althorp portraits of the Spencer family are classic examples. Nature had singled out Sir Joshua to endow him with certain gifts in which he has hardly an equal. No portrait painter has been more happy in his poses for single figures, or has known better how to control by good taste the piquant, the acci- dental, the daring, in mien and gesture. " Viscountess Crosbie " is a striking instance. When dealing with more than one figure he was not always so happy, but the " Duchess of Devonshire and her Baby," the " Three Ladies decking a Figure of Hymen," and the " Three Ladies Waldegrave " are brilliant successes. He was felicitous too in his arrangement of drapery, often following his own fashion of investing his graceful dames in robes of ideal cut and texture, quite apart from the actual clothes worn at the time. Few painters, again, have equalled the president in dainty and at the same time firm manipulation of the brush. The richness of his deeper colouring is at times quite Venetian. For pure delight in the quality of paint and colour we cannot do better than go to the " Angels' Heads " of the National Gallery, or the " Nelly O'Brien " in the Wallace Collection. It corresponds with what has been noted as Reynolds's habit of mind in regard to older art to find him throughout his life hankering after success in what he was fond of calling the " grand style " in " historical painting." His failure here is as notorious as his brilliant success in the field of art for which nature had equipped him. His " Ugolino," his " Macbeth," his " Cardinal Beaufort," have no real impressiveness, while his greatest effort in the " his- toric " style, the " Infant Hercules " at St Petersburg, resulted in his most conspicuous disaster. It is in the " Discourses " that Reynolds unfolds these artistic theories that contrast so markedly with his own practice. The first discourse deals with the establishment of an academy for the fine arts, and of its value as being a repository of the traditions of the best of bygone practice, of " the principles which many artists have spent their lives in ascertaining." In the second lecture the study of the painter is divided into three stages,— in the first of which he is busied with processes and technicalities, with the grammar of art, while in the second he examines what has been done by other artists, and in the last compares these results with Nature herself. In the third discourse Reynolds treats of " the great and leading principles of the grand style"; and succeeding addresses are devoted to such subjects as " Moderation," " Taste," " Genius," and " Sculpture." The fourteenth has an especial interest as containing a notice of Gainsborough, who had died shortly before its delivery ; while the concluding discourse is mainly occupied with a panegyric on Michelangelo. The other literary works of the president comprise his three essays in The Idler for 1759-1760 (" On the Grand Style in Painting," and " On the True Idea of Beauty "), his notes to Du Fresnoy^s Art of Painting, his Remarks on. the Art of the Low Countries, his brief notes in Johnson's Shakespeare, and two singularly witty and brilliant fragments, imaginary conversations with Johnson, which REYNOLDS, W.— REZANOV 229 were never intended by their author for publication, but, found among his papers after his death, were given to the world by his niece, the marchioness of Thomond. The president left to his niece, Mary Palmer, the bulk of his property, about £100,000, with works of art that sold for £30,000 more. There were, besides, legacies amounting to about £15,000. His body rests in St Paul's. See Northcote, Memoirs of Sir Joshua Reynolds, Knight, &c. (1813), and Supplement thereto (1815); Farrington, Memoirs of the Life of Sir Joshua Reynolds (1819); Cotton, Sir Joshua Reynolds and his Works (edited by Burnet, 1856); Leslie and Taylor, Life and Times of Sir Joshua Reynolds (2 vols., 1865); Redgrave, A Century of English Painters (1866), vol. i.; Graves and Cronin, A History of the Works of Sir Joshua Reynolds, P.R.A. (4 vols., 1899-1901) ; Sir Walter Armstrong, Sir Joshua Reynolds, First President of the Royal Academy (1900; also a shorter work, 1905); Lord Ronald Gower, Sir Joshua Reynolds (1902). For Reynolds's literary works, see Malone, The Works of Sir Joshua Reynolds, Knight (3 vols., 1798); Beechy, Literary Works of Sir Joshua Reynolds (1835); Leisching, Sir J. Reynolds zur Aesthetik u. Technik der bildenden Kiinste (Leipzig, 1893) ; Discourses delivered to the Students of the Royal Academy by Sir Joshua Reynolds, Kt., with introductions and notes by Roger Fry (1905). REYNOLDS, WALTER (d. 1327), archbishop of Canterbury, was the son of a Windsor baker, and became a clerk, or chaplain, in the service of Edward I. He held several livings and, owing perhaps to his histrionic skill, he became a prime favourite with the prince of Wales, afterwards Edward II. Just after the prince became king 'in 1307 Reynolds was appointed treasurer of England; in 1308 he became bishop of Worcester and in 13 10 chancellor. When Robert Winchelsea, archbishop of Canterbury, died in May 1313 Edward II. prevailed upon Pope Clement V. to appoint his favourite to the vacant archbishop- ric, and Walter was enthroned at Canterbury in February 1314. Although the private life of the new archbishop appears to have been the reverse of exemplary he attempted to carry out some very necessary reforms in his new official capacity; he also continued the struggle for precedence, which had been carried on for many years between the archbishops of Canterbury arid of York. In this connexion in 13 17 he laid London under an interdict after William de Melton (d. 1340), archbishop of York, had passed through its streets with his cross borne erect before him. Reynolds remained in general loyal to Edward II. until 1324, when with all his suffragans he opposed the king in defence of the bishop of Hereford, Adam of Orlton. In the events which concluded Edward's life and reign the archbishop played a contemptible part. Having fled for safety into Kent he returned to London and declared for Edward III., whom he crowned in February 1327. He died at Mortlake on the 16th of November following. REZANOV, NICOLAI PETROVICH DE (1764-1807), Russian nobleman and administrator under Catherine II., Paul I. and Alexander I., was one of the ten barons of Russia, and, for his services to the empire, was rewarded with the court title of chamberlain. In 1803 he was made a privy councillor and invested with the order of St Ann. He was also the author of a lexicon of the Japanese language and of several other works, which are preserved in the library of the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences, of which he was a member. He was the first Russian ambassador to Japan (1804), and instigated the first attempt of Russia to circumnavigate the globe (1803), commanding the expedition himself as far as Kamchatka. But Rezanov's monument for many years after his death was the great Russian American Fur Company; and his interest to students of history centres round the policy involved in that enterprise, which, thwarted by his untimely death, would have changed the destinies of Russia and the United States. Meeting (in 1788) Shelikov, chief of the Shelikov-Golikov Fur Company, Rezanov became interested in the merchant's project to obtain a monopoly of the fur trade in those distant dependencies. Conscious of latent energies, and already tired of the pleasures of a dissolute court, he became a partner in the company, and rapidly developed into a keen and tireless man of business. At the death of Shelikov in 1795 he became the leading spirit of the wealthy and amalgamated but harassed companies, and resolved to obtain for himself and his partners privileges analogous to those granted by Great Britain to the East India Company. He had just succeeded in persuading Catherine to sign his charter when she died, arid he was obliged to begin again with the ill-balanced and intractable Paul. For a time the outlook was hopeless; but Rezanov's skill, subtlety and address prevailed, and shortly before the assassination of the emperor Paul he obtained his signature to the momentous instrument which granted to the Russian-American Company, for a term of twenty years, dominion over the coast of N.W. America, from latitude 55 degrees northward; and over the chain of islands extending from Kamchatka northward and southward to Japan. This famous " Trust," which crowded out all the small companies and independent traders, was a source of large revenue to Rezanov and the other shareholders, includ- ing members of the Imperial family, until the first years of the 19th century, when mismanagement and scarcity of nourishing food threatened it with serious losses if not ultimate ruiri. Rezanov, his humiliating embassy to Japan concluded, reached Kamchatka in 1805, and found commands awaiting him to remain in the Russian colonies as Imperial inspector and plenipotentiary of the company, and to correct the abuses that were ruining the great enterprise. He travelled slowly to Sitka by way of the Islands, establishing measures to protect the fur-bearing animals from reckless slaughter, punishing or banishing the worst offenders against the company's laws, and introducing the civilizing influence of schools and libraries, most of the books being his personal gifts. He even established cooking schools, which flourished briefly. At the end of a winter in Sitka, the headquarters of the company, during which he half-starved with the others, he bought a ship from a Yankee skipper and sailed for the Spanish settlements in California, purposing to trade his tempting cargo of American and Russian wares for food-stuffs, and to arrange a treaty by whose terms his colonies should be provisioned twice a year with the bountiful products of New Spain. He cast anchor in the harbour of San Francisco early in April 1806, after a stormy voyage which had defeated his intention to take possession of the Columbia river in the name of Russia. Although he was received with great courtesy and entertained night and day by the gay Californians, no time was lost in informing him that the laws of Spain forbade her colonies to trade with foreign powers, and that the governor of all the Californias was in- corruptible. Rezanov, had it not been for a love affair with the daughter of the comandante of San Francisco, Don Jose Arguello, and for his personal address and diplomatic skill, with which he won over the clergy to his cause, would have failed again. As it was, when he sailed for Sitka, six weeks after his arrival, the " Juno's " hold was. full of bread-stuffs and dried meats, he had the promise of the perplexed governor to forward a copy of the treaty to Spain at once, and he was affianced to the most beautiful girl in California. Shortly after his arrival in Sitka he proceeded by water to Kamchatka, where he despatched his ships to wrest the island Sakhalen of the lower Kurile group from Japan, then started overland for St Petersburg to obtain the signature of the tsar to the treaty, and also personal letters to the pope and king of Spain that he might ask for the dispensation and the royal consent necessary to his marriage. He died of fever and exhaustion in Krasnoiarsk, Siberia, on the 8th of March 1807. The treaty with California, the bare suggestion of which made such a commotion in New Spain, was the least of Rezanov's projects. It was sincerely conceived, for he was deeply and humanely Concerned for his employees and the wretched natives who were little more than the slaves of the company; but its very obviousness raised the necessary amount of dust. His correspondence with the company, and with Zapinsky, betrays a clearly defined purpose to annex to Russia the entire western coast of North America, and to encourage immediate emigra- tion from the parent country on a large scale. Had he lived, there is, all things considered, hardly a doubt that he would have accomplished his object. The treaty was never signed, the reforms of Rezanov died of discouragement, the fortunes of 230 RHACIS^RHAETIC the colonies gradually collapsed, the Spanish girl who had loved Rezanov became a nun; and one of the ablest and most ambitious men of his time lies forgotten in the cemetery of a poor Siberian town. See Bancroft's History of California, and Alaska; Tikmenev's Historical Review of the Origin of the Russian American Company; Rezdnov-Zapisky Correspondence ; Travels of Krusenstern and Langs- ford, &c. (G. A.*) RHACIS, or Rachis (Gr. p&xts, a backbone), in botany the axis of an inflorescence or of a branched leaf; in zoology, the stem of a feather, as opposed to the vesillum, or web. RHADAMANTHUS (Gr. Rhadamanthys), in Greek mytho- logy, son of Zeus and Europa and brother of Minos, king of Crete. Driven out of Crete by his brother, who was jealous of his popularity, he fled to Boeotia, where he wedded Alcmene. Homer represents him as dwelling in the Elysian fields (Odyssey, iv. 564). According to later legends, on account of his in- flexible integrity he was made one of the judges of the dead in the lower world, together with Aeacus and Minos. He was supposed to judge the souls of Asiatics, Aeacus those of Euro- peans, while Minos had the casting vote (Plato, Gorgias, 424A). RHAETIC (Fr. RhUien or Rhcetien; Ger. Rhat or Rhatisch; It. Retico), in geology, the assemblage of rocks classed by most English and German authorities in the Triassic system, and by most French geologists placed at the base of the Lias, in the Jurassic system. It has been called the Infra-Lias. This diversity of opinion is due to the fact that the Rhaetic formation presents the characters of a group of passage-beds, uniting certain features of the Trias with others of the Jurassic system; none the less, it has sufficient individuality to be recognized with tolerable certainty over a wide area*in Europe and beyond. The name Rhaetic was first applied by C. W. Giimbel to the strata of this horizon in the Rhaetic Alps, where they are thickly developed and in parts fossiliferous. The labours of E. V. Mojsisovic and E. Suess have demonstrated that in the Alpine Rhaetic several distinct facies may be recognized, viz. a Swabian facies: shore and lagoon deposits with a pelecypod fauna, poor in species but rich in individuals; a Carpathian facies with corals, algae, Terebratula gregaria and Plicatula intusstriata, exemplified in the upper part of the Dachstein limestone; a Kossener facies: black limestones and marls, with a brachiopod fauna in which Spirigera oxycolpos is very noticeable; and a Salzburg facies, characterized by pelagic pelecypods and some ammonites (see table in Triassic System). The whole of the Rhaetic falls within Mojsisovic's zone of Avicula contorta. This epoch is marked off from the earlier Triassic period by a very general marine transgression which proceeded with minor irregularities and retrogressions over the whole area, until at its close it was followed by the more decided trans- gression which indicates the commencement of the Lias. Among the marine fossils of the Rhaetic, Avicula contorta, the principal zone form, is very characteristic and has a wide range; Myophoria inflata, Modiola minuta, Protocardium rhaeticum and Terebratula gregaria are common species. True belemonites make their first appearance. Corals, Thecosmilia, &c, are common in some districts. Plant remains are abundant in certain areas, and in places give rise to beds of lignite and coal. The flora is more nearly akin to that of the Trias than to that of the Jurassic rocks. Vertebrate remains are fairly abundant in the form of teeth, isolated bones, scales and coprolites in what are known as "Bone Beds" (q.v.). These beds are a very characteristic feature; they occur on several horizons in many tracts of the European Rhaetic, and recur in beds of this age in America. In England there is usually a bone bed about the base of the formation; in Germany one occupies a similar position; a second occurs less constantly about the middle, and in the Wurttemberg district a third bed separates the Rhaetic and Lias, and constitutes the well-known manure bed of Bebenhausen. In these beds are found the bones of Ichthyosaurus and Pliosaurus, anticipating their great development in the Lias, while the remains of Belodon and Mystriosuchus serve to link this epoch with Triassic stego- cephalian reptiles. Several coleopterous insects have been found in the same beds, but the most interesting feature of the bone-bed fauna is the first appearance in the northern hemisphere of true mammals: Microlestes in England and Wurttemberg, Triglyphus in Wurttemberg, Dromatherium and Microconodon in America. In England the Rhaetic formation occurs as a thin but constant series of beds at the base of the Lias and above the Keuper marls. The upper part, often called the " White Lias," is a series of thin- bedded shales, limestone and marls, t to 2$ ft. thick; the lower portion consists mainly of dark shales, sometimes with very perfect lamination— 'paper shales." Below there are beds of grey and " tea-green " marls which are now usually regarded as the topmost Keuper beds, but they have often been included in the Rhaetic formation (see Keuper) . The best exposures in Britain are those between Penarth Head and Cavernock Point, Aust Cliff and Garden Cliff near Westbury-on-Severn, and Wainlode Cliff between Tewkes- bury and Gloucester. From their excellent development near Penarth the Rhaetic beds have long been known in England as the Penarth Beds (H. W. Bristow, 1864). The more prominent beds in the White Lias of the west of England and Glamorganshire are the Eslheria beds and the insect limestone or Pseudomonotis-bed, and on both of these horizons the limestone may assume the peculiar characters of landscape marble, sometimes called Cotham marble, from Cotham House near Bristol. A hard fine-grained limestone, known locally as the Sun-bed, occurs at the top of the series near Bath and Radstock; at Street, Wedmore and south of the Mendips generally it is called Jew stone. Wedmore stone is a tough, shelly and sandy limestone in the black shales at Wedmore, near Wells ; it is employed in the neighbourhood as a building stone. North of Somersetshire the White Lias is poorly represented ; in Glamorgan- shire it appears between Cardiff and Pyle, west of Bridgend and at Sutton and Southerndown. Rhaetic beds have been traced at Market Drayton, Salop; near Audlem, Cheshire; Rugby and Stratford-on-Avon in Warwickshire; Wigston in Leicestershire; Needham Forest in Staffordshire, and in Nottinghamshire and Yorkshire as far as the coast. They have not yet been proved beneath the Lias of Cumberland. Rhaetic fossils have been found in great numbers in fissures in the Carboniferous limestone of the Mendips. On the western side of Scotland Rhaetic rocks occur at Applecross, Ardnamurchan, Morven, Mull, Raasay and Skye. In Sutherlandshire sandstone and conglomerate and large transported masses occur; one of them, at Linksfield, carries a bone bed. Here the black shales of the English type fail; sandstones with coaly layers and yellowish-grey crystalline and oolitic limestones take their place. In Antrim a small outcrop of black shales with Avicula contorta occurs near Port Rush. On the European continent the Rhaetic rocks are most thickly developed in the Alpine regions; and, as in the case of the older Triassic formations, calcareous and dolomitic strata predominate here and in the Mediterranean province. In the Alpine district the main divisions are the Rhaetic Dachstein limestone and the Kossener beds; shales, marls and limestones. In the northern tract the following subdivisions have been recognized in descending order: beds with Choristeceros Marschi; Starhem passage beds; Rhynchonella fissicostata beds; Lithodendron limestone; beds with Terebratula gregaria; beds with Avicula contorta; " Platten Kalk " with Rhynchonella alpina. In the southern tract the subdivisions are: Conchodus dolomite (Conchodus infraliassicus = Lycodius cor.); Lithodendron limestone, Azzarola beds, Contorta marls, " Plattenkalk." Much limestone is of the " reef " type. In Germany the rocks are mainly fine, clean yellow sands, suggesting littoral or dune conditions, with bituminous clays and marls. The formation is often missing in south-west Germany. Similar beds occur in Lorraine and Luxembourg (gres de Vic, gres de Kedange, gres de Mortinsart). In Cotentin are dolomitic sandstones and marl; round the central plateau of France the rocks are coarse sands, arkoses, and conglomerates; while in the south of France the sandy and calcareous facies occur intermixed. In Spain limestones and dolomites occur up to 100 metres in thickness; in Portugal sandy beds recur. The Rhaetic of Scania, south Sweden, consists mainly of sandstone and shales with beds of coal up to one metre thick. Only the upper beds contain marine fossils; the bulk of the formation is of lacustrine or estuarine origin, with plant remains and insects. In Italy the formation is well developed in the north and at Rotzo, Spezzia and Carrara; and yields the famous statuary marble and the black variety known as portor. Rhaetic beds have been re- cognized in Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, in the Balkan Peninsula and Greece; in Asia Minor, Afghanistan, Turkistan, Persia, Siberia and India (limestones and dolomites of Niti and the Mahaveda beds, sandstones and conglomerates, nearly 10,000 feet thick in Satpura); in China, Japan and Tongking (with coal beds). In Australasia the Wianamatta beds of New South Wales, the Bellarine beds of Victoria, the Ipswich and Tivoli beds of Queensland, and the Jerusalem beds of Tasmania, and beds on a similar horizon in New Zealand, have been regarded as equivalents of the Rhaetic. In Africa the Stormberg beds of the Karpo series and the JVIolteno beds RHAMNUS PURSHIANA— RHEA 231 of the Cape have been assigned to this epoch. In America Rhaetic rocks are recognized in N. Carolina, Connecticut, California, Mexico, Bolivia and Chile ; the formation is also recorded from Spitzbergen, Franz Joseph Land and elsewhere in the Arctic regions. For the English Rhaetic see L. Richardson, " The Rhaetic Rocks of North-west Gloucestershire," Proc. Cotteswold Club, xiv. p. 127 (Glos. 1901-1903). (J. A. H.) RHAMNUS PURSHIANA, or Californian buckthorn, a plant the bark of which is used in medicine under the name of cascara sagrada. An active principle anthra-gluco-sagradin has been isolated by Tschirch. The preparations of it contained in the British pharmacopoeia are: (1) Extractum cascarae sagradae (extractum rhamni purshianae, United States pharmacopoeia), dose 2 to 8 grs.; (2) Extractum cascarae sagradae Uquidum, dose i to 1 fl. dr. From the latter is prepared syrupus cascarae aromalicus, dose 5 to 2 fl. dr. In -this preparation the bitter taste of the cascara sagrada is disguised by the addition of tincture of orange, cinnamon water and syrup. In the United States pharmacopoeial preparation Fluid extractum rhamni purshianae aromaticum, does 10 to 30 minims, the taste is similarly obscured. Cascara sagrada. is one of the most useful of all laxatives, since not only does it empty the bowel of faecal matter, but it acts as a tonic to the intestine and tends to pre- vent future constipation. It is largely used in the treatment of chronic constipation. A single full dose of the liquid extract may be taken at bedtime, or divided doses, 10 to 15 minims, three times a day before meals. When a strong purgative is required some drug other than cascara sagrada should be employed, but its use in gradually decreasing doses is indicated after evacuation has been effected by podophyllin or rhubarb. Cascara sagrada is the principal constituent of most of the proprietary laxatives on the market. RHAMPSINlTUS, a Greek corruption of Ra-messu-pa-neter, the popular name of Rameses III., king of Egypt of the XXth Dynasty. He is well known in connexion with the story of his treasure house told by Herodotus (ii. 121), which greatly resembles that of Agamedes and Trophonius. (See Egypt, History.) RHANKAVES (commonly also Rhangabe), ALEXANDROS RHIZOS(i8io-i8o2), Greek savant, poet and statesman, was born at Constantinople of a Phanariot family on the 25th of December 1810. He was educated at Odessa and the military school at Munich. Having served as an officer of artillery in the Bavarian army, he returned to Greece, where he held several high educa- tional and administrative appointments. He subsequently became ambassador at Washington (1867), Paris (1868), and Berlin (1874-1886), and was one of the Greek plenipotentiaries at the congress of 1878. After his recall he lived at Athens, where he died on the 29th of June 1892. He was the chief representative of a school of literary men whose object was to restore as far as possible the ancient classical language. Of his various works, Hellenic Antiquities (1842-1855, of great value for epigraphical purposes), Archaeologia (1865-1866), an illustrated Archaeological Lexicon (1 888-1 891), and a History of Modern Greek Literature (1877) are of the most interest to scholars. He wrote also the following dramatic pieces: The Marriage of Kutrules (comedy), Dukas (tragedy), the Thirty Tyrants, The Eve (of the Greek revolution); the romances, The Prince of Morea, Leila, and The Notary of Argostoli; and translated portions of Dante, Schiller, Lessing, Goethe and Shakespeare. A complete edition of his philological works in nineteen volumes was published at Athens (i874-l89o),and his 'A7rojiu")M°»'si | naTa(Memoirs) appeared posthumously in 1894-1895. RHAPSODIST (Gk. Rhapsodos), originally an epic poet who recited his own poetry; then, one who recited the poems of others (see Homer). RHATANY or KRAMERIA ROOT, in medicine, the dried root either of Para rhatany or of Peruvian rhatany. The action of rhatany is due to the rhatania-tannic acid, and re- sembles that of tannic acid, being a powerful astringent. An infusion is used as a gargle for. relaxed throats; and lozenges, particularly those containing rhatany and cocaine, are useful in similar cases. Like tannic acid, the powdered extract may be applied as a local haemostatic. All preparations of rhatany taken internally are powerful astringents in diarrhoea and intestinal haemorrhage. RHAYADER (Rhaiadr-Gwy) , a market town of Radnorshire, Wales, situated amid wild and beautiful scenery on the left bank of the Wye, about i£ m. above its confluence with the Elan. Pop. (1901) 1 215. Rhayader is a station on the Cambrian railway. A stone bridge over the Wye connects the town with the village and parish church of Cwmdauddwr. Rhayader has for some centuries been an important centre for Welsh mutton and wool, and its sheep fairs are largely attended by drovers and buyers from all parts. Near Rhayader are the large reservoirs constructed (1895) by the corporation of Birmingham in the Elan and Claerwen valleys. Rhayader, built close to the Falls of the Wye (whence its name), owes its early importance to the castle erected here by Prince Rhys ap Griffith of South Wales, c. 1 178, in order to check the English advance up the Wye Valley. Seized by the invaders, castle and town were later retaken in 1231 by Prince Llewelyn ap Iorwerth, who burned the fortress and slew its garrison. Scarcely a trace of the castle exists, although its site near St Clement's church is locally known as Tower Hill. With the erection of Maesyfed into the shire of Radnor in 1536 Rhayader was named as assize-town for the newly formed county in conjunction with New Radnor; but in 1542, on account of a local riot, the town was deprived of this privilege in favour of Presteign. Rhayader constituted one ol the group of boroughs comprising the Radnor parliamentary district until the Redistribution Act of 1885. RHEA, a goddess of the Greeks known in mythology as the daughter of Uranus and Gaia, the sister and consort of Kronos, and the mother of Zeus. In Homer she is the mother of the gods, though not a universal mother like Cybele, the Phrygian Great Mother, with whom she was later identified. The original seat of her worship was in Crete. There, according to legend, she saved the new-born Zeus, her sixth child, from being devoured by Kronos by substituting a stone for him and entrusting the infant god to the care of her attendants the Curetes (q.v.). These attendants afterwards became the bodyguard of Zeus and the priests of Rhea, and performed ceremonies in her honour. In historic times the resemblances between Rhea and the Asiatic Great Mother, Phrygian Cybele, were so notice- able that the Greeks accounted for them by regarding the latter as only their own Rhea, who had deserted her original home in Crete and fled to the mountain wilds of Asia Minor to escape the persecution of Kronos (Strabo 469, 12). The reverse view was also held (Virgil, Aen. iii. in), and it is probably true that a stock of Asiatic origin formed part of the primitive population of Crete and brought with them the worship of the Asiatic Great Mother, who became the Cretan Rhea. (See Great Mother of the Gods.) (G. Sn.) RHEA, the name given in 1752 by P. H. G. Mohring 1 to a South American bird which, though long before known and described by the earlier writers — Nieremberg, Marcgrav and Piso (the last of whom has a recognizable but rude figure of it) — had been without any distinctive scientific appellation. Adopted a few years later by M. J. Brisson, the name has since passed into general use, especially among English authors, for what their predecessors had called the American ostrich; but on the European continent the bird is commonly called Nandu? a word corrupted from a name it is said to have borne among the aboriginal inhabitants of Brazil, where the Portuguese settlers called it ema (see Emeu). The resemblance of the rhea to the ostrich (q.v.) was at once perceived, but the differences between them are also very evident. The former, for instance, has three instead of two toes on each foot, it has no apparent tail, its wings are far better developed, and when folded cover the body, and its head and neck are clothed with feathers, while internal distinctions of still deeper significance have since been 1 What prompted his bestowal of this name, so well known in classical mythology, is not apparent. 2 The name Touyou, also of South American origin, was applied to it by Brisson and others, but erroneously, as Cuvier shows, since by that name, or something like it, the jabiru (g.v.) is properly meant. "232 RHEINBERGER dwelt upon by T. H, Huxley (Proc. Zool. Society, 1867, pp. 420- 422) and W. A. Forbes (op. cit., 1881, pp. 784-87). There can be little doubt that they should be regarded as types of as many orders — Struthiones and Rheae — of the subclass Ratitae. Struc- tural characters no less important separate the rheas from the emeus; the former can be readily recognized by the rounded form of their contour-feathers, which want the hyporrhachis or -after-shaft that in the emeus and cassowaries is so long as to equal the main shaft, and contributes to give these latter groups the appearance of being covered with shaggy hair. The feathers of the rhea have a considerable market value, and for the purpose of trade in them it is annually killed by thousands, so that 1 its total extinction as a wild animal is probably only a question of time. It is polygamous, and the male performs the duty of incubation, brooding more than a score of eggs, the produce of several females — facts known to Nieremberg Rhea. more than two hundred and fifty years since, but hardly accepted by naturalists until recently. No examples of this bird seem to have been brought to Europe before the beginning of the present century, and accordingly the descriptions previously given of it by systematic writers were taken at second hand and were mostly defective if not misleading. In 1803 J. Latham issued a wretched figure of the species from a half-grown speci- men in the Leverian Museum, and twenty years later said he had seen only one other, and that still younger, in Bullock's collection (Gen. Hist. Birds, viii. p. 37a). 2 A bird living in con- finement at Strassburg in 1806 was, however, described and figured by Hammer in 1808 (Ann. du Museum, xii. pp. 427- 1 J. E. Harting, in "his and De Mosenthal's Ostriches and Ostrich Farming, from which the woodcut here introduced is by permission copied, gives (pp. 67-72) some portentous statistics of the destruc- tion of rheas for the sake of their feathers, which, he says, are known in the trade as " Vautour " to distinguish them from those of the African bird. 2 The ninth edition of the Companion to this collection (18 10, p. 121) states that the specimen " was brought alive " [?to England]. 433) pl- 39)- In England the Report of the Zoological Society for 1833 announced the rhea as having been exhibited for the first time in its gardens during the preceding twelvemonth. Since then many other living examples have been introduced, and it has bred both there and in many private parks in Britain. Though considerably smaller than the ostrich, and wanting its fine plumes, the rhea in general aspect far more resembles that bird than the other Ratitae. The feathers of the head and neck, except on the crown and nape, where they are dark brown, are dingy white, and those of the body ash-coloured tinged with brown, while on the breast they are brownish-black, and on the belly and thighs white. In the course of the memorable voyage of the " Beagle," C. Darwin came to hear of another kind of rhea, called by his informants Avestruz petise, and at Port Desire on the east coast of Patagonia he obtained an example of it, the imperfect skin of which enabled J. Gould to describe it (Proc. Zool. Society, 1837, p. 35) as a second species of the genus, naming it after its , discoverer. Rhea darwini differs in several well-marked characters from the earlier known R. americana. Its bill is shorter than its head; its tarsi are reticulated instead of scutellated in front, with the upper part feathered instead of being bare; and the plumage of its body and wings is very different, each feather being tipped with a distinct whitish band, while that of the head and neck is greyish- brown. A further distinction is also asserted to be shown by the eggs — those of R. americana being of a yellowish-white, while those of R. darwini have a bluish tinge. Some years afterwards P. L. Sclater described (op. cit., i860, p. 207) a third and smaller species, closely resembling the R. americana, but having apparently a longer bill, whence he named it R. macro- rhyncha, more slender tarsi, and shorter toes, while its general colour is very much darker, the body and wings being of a brownish-grey mixed with black. The precise geographical range of these three species is still undetermined. While R. americana is known to extend from Paraguay and southern Brazil through the La Plata region to an uncertain distance in Patagonia, R. darwini seems to be the proper inhabitant of the country last named, though M. Claraz asserts (op. cit., 1885, p. 324) that it is occasionally found to the northward of the Rio Negro, which had formerly been regarded as its limit, and, moreover, that flocks of the two species commingled may be very frequently seen in the district between that river and the Rio Colorado. On the " pampas " R. americana is said to associate with herds of deer (Cariacus campestris), and R. darwini to be the constant companion of guanacos (Lama huanaco) — just as in Africa the ostrich seeks the society of zebras and antelopes. As for R. macrorhyncha, it was found by W. A. Forbes (Ibis, 1881, pp. 360, 361) to inhabit the dry and open " sertoes " of north-eastern Brazil, a discovery the more interesting since it was in that part of the country that Marcgrav and Piso became acquainted with a bird of this kind, though the existence of any species of rhea in the district had been long overlooked by or unknown to succeeding travellers. Besides the works above named and those of other recognized authorities on the ornithology of South America such as Azara, Prince Max of Wied, Professor Burmeister and others, more cr less valuable information on the subject is to be found in Darwin's Voyage, Dr Bocking's " Monographie des Nandu " in (Wieg- mann's) Archiv fur Naturgeschichte (1863, i. pp. 213-41); R. O. Cunningham's Natural History of the Strait of Magellan and paper in the Zoological Society's Proceedings for 1871 (pp. 105-110), as well as H. F. Gadow's still more important anatomical contributions in the same journal for 1885 (pp. 308 seq.). (A. N.) RHEINBERGER, JOSEPH GABRIEL (1830-1001), German composer, was born at Vaduz, Liechtenstein, on the 17th of March 1839. His musical abilities were manifested so early that he was appointed organist of the parish church when he was but seven years old. A three-part Mass composed by him was. performed in the following year. He was taught at first by Philipp Schmutzer, choir director at Feldkirch; he entered the Munich Conservatorium in 1851, and remained there till 1854 RHEINE— RHETORIC 233 as a pupil of Professor E. Leonhard for piano, Professor Herzog for organ and J. J. Maier for counterpoint. After leaving the school he had private lessons from Franz Lachner, and was appointed a professor in the conservatorium in succession to Leonhard in 1859. In i860 he became professor of composition, and was appointed organist of the Michelskirche, a post he held till 1866. In 1877 he succeeded Wiillner as Hof kapellmeister, and from that time his attention was largely devoted to sacred music. His compositions include works of importance in every form, from the operas Die sieben Raben (Munich, 1869) and Turmers Tochterlein (Munich, 1873) and the oratorio Christo- forus, op. 120, to the well-known quartet for piano and strings in E flat, op. 38, the nonet for wind and strings, op. 139, and the seventeen organ sonatas, which form notable additions to the literature of the instrument. He died in November 1901. RHEINE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, situated on the Ems, at the point where it becomes navigable, 29 m. W. by rail of Osnabriick, and at the junction of main lines to Miinster, Rotterdam and Emden. Pop. (1905) 12,801. It is an old-fashioned town with a pronounced Dutch aspect, and has pretty gardens and promenades. Rheine is the seat of cotton industries, has manufactures of jute, machinery, tobacco and flour, and a considerable river trade in agricultural produce. It received municipal rights in 1327. About a mile north of Rheine is the castle of Bentlage, the family seat of the princes of Rheina-Wolbeck. RHENANUS, BEATUS (1485-1547), German humanist, was born in 1485 at Schlettstadt in Alsace, where his father, named Bild, a native of Rheinau (hence the surname Rhenanus), was a prosperous butcher. He received his early education at the famous Latin school of Schlettstadt, and afterwards (1503) went to Paris, where he came under the influence of Jacobus Faber Stapulensis, an eminent Aristotelian. In 1511 he removed to Basel, where he became intimate with Desiderius Erasmus, and took an active share in the publishing enterprises of Joannes Froben (q.v.). In 1526 he returned to Schlettstadt, and devoted himself to a life of learned leisure, enlivened with epistolary and personal intercourse with Erasmus (the printing of whose more important works he personally superintended) and many other scholars of his time. He died at Strassburg on the 20th of July 1547. His earliest publication was a biography of Geiler of Kaisers- berg (1510). Of his subsequent works the principal are Rerum Germanicarum Libri III. (1531), and editions of Velleius Paler- culus (ed. princeps, from a MS. discovered by himself, 1522); Tacitus (1519, exclusive of the Histories); Livius (1535); and Erasmus (with a life, 9 vols, fol., 1540-41). See A. Horawitz, Beatus Rhenanus (1872), and by the same, Des Beatus Rhenanus literarische Tatigkeit (2 vols., 1872); also the notice by R. Hartfelder in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic. RHETICUS, or Rhaetictjs (1514-1576), a surname given to George Joachim, German astronomer and mathematician, from his birth at Feldkirch in that part of Tirol which was anciently the territory of the Rhaeti. Born on the 15th of February 1514, he studied at Tiguri with Oswald Mycone, and afterwards went tu Wittenberg where he was appointed pro- fessor of mathematics in 1537. Being greatly attracted by the new Copernican theory, he resigned the professorship in 1539, and went to Frauenberg to associate himself with Copernicus {q.v.), and superintended the printing of the De Orbium Revolu- tione which he had persuaded Copernicus to complete. Rheticus now began his great treatise, Opus Paiatinum de Triangulis, and continued to work at it while he occupied his old chair at Wittenberg, and indeed up to his death at Cassovia in Hungary, on the 4th of December 1576. The Opus Paiatinum of Rheticus was published by Valentine Otho, mathematician to the electoral prince palatine, in 1596. It gives tables of sines and cosines, tangents, &c, for every 10 seconds, calculated to ten places. He had projected a table of the same kind to fifteen places, but did not live to complete it. The sine table, however, was afterwards published on this scale under the name of Thesaurus Mathematicus (Frankfort, 1613) by B. Pitiscus (1561-1613), who himself carried the calculation of a few of the earlier sines to twenty-two places. He also published Narratio de Libris Revolutionum Copernici (Gedenum, 1540), which was subse- quently added to editions of Copernicus's works; and Ephemer- ides until 1551, which were founded on the Copernican doctrines. He projected numerous other works, as is shown by a letter to Peter Ramus in 1568, which Adrian Romanus inserted in the preface to his Idea of Mathematics. RHETORIC (Gr. prrropiicii rexvv, the art of the orator), the art of using language in such a way as to produce a desired impression upon the hearer or reader. The object is strictly persuasion rather than intellectual approval or conviction; hence the term, with its adjective " rhetorical," is commonly used for a speech or writing in which matter is subservient to form or display. So in grammar, a " rhetorical question " is one which is asked not for the purpose of obtaining an answer, but simply for dramatic effect. The power of eloquent speech is recognized in the earliest extant writings. Homer describes Achilles as a " speaker of words, as well as a doer of deeds ": Nestor, Menelaus arid Odysseus are all orators as well as states- men and soldiers. Again the brilliant eloquence of Pericles is the theme of Aristophanes and Eupolis. Naturally the influ- ence wielded by the great orators led to an investigation of the characteristics of successful rhetoric, and especially from the time of Aristotle the technique of the art ranked among the recognized branches of learning. A lost work of Aristotle is quoted by Diogenes Laertius (viii. 57) as saying that Empedocles "invented" (evpeiv) rhetoric; Zeno, dialectic (i.e. logic, the art of making a logical argument, apart from the style). This is certainly not to be understood as meaning that Empedocles composed the first "art " of rhetoric. It is rather to be explained by Aristotle's own remark, cited by Laertius from another lost treatise, that Empedocles was " a master of expression and skilled in the use of metaphor " — qualities which may have found scope in his political oratory, when, after the fall of Thrasydaeus in 472 B.C.; he opposed the restoration of a tyranny at Agrigentum. The founder of rhetoric as an art was Corax of Syracuse Barly (c. 466 B.C.). In 466 a democracy was established Greek in Syracuse. One of the immediate consequences rhetoric was a mass of litigation on claims to property, urged ~~ Corax. by democratic exiles who had been dispossessed by Thrasybulus, Hiero or Gelo. Such claims, going many years back, would often require that a complicated series of details should be stated and arranged. It would also, in many instances/ lack documentary support, and rely chiefly on inferential reasoning. Hence the need of professional advice. The facts known as to the " art " of Corax perfectly agree with these conditions. He gave rules for arrangement, dividing the speech into five parts, — proem, narrative, arguments (ayoives), subsidiary remarks (irapk(3ao-ts) and peroration. Next he illustrated the topic of general probability (eiKos), The showing its two-edged use: e.g., if a puny man is topic accused of assaulting a stronger, he can say, " Is it o/««s«. likely that I should have attacked him?" If vice versa, the strong man can argue, " Is it likely that I should have committed an assault where the presumption was sure to be against me ? " This topic of duos, in its manifold forms, was in fact the great weapon of the earliest Greek rhetoric. It was further developed by Tisias, the pupil of Corax, as we see from Plato's Phaedrus, in an " art " of rhetoric which antiquity possessed, but of which we know little else. Aristotle gives the ekos a place among the topics of the fallacious enthymeme which he enumerates in Rhet. ii. 24, remarking that it was the very essence of the treatise of Corax; he points out the fallacy of omitting to distinguish between abstract and particular probability, quoting the verses of Agatho, — " Perhaps one might call this very thing a probability, that many im- probable things will happen to men." Gorgias (q.v.) of Leontini captivated the Athenians in 427 B.C. by ' his oratory (Diod. xii. 53), which, so far as we can judge, was 234 RHETORIC characterized by florid antithesis, expressed in short jerky sentences. But he has no definite place in the development of rhetoric as a system. It is doubtful whether he left a written "art"; and his mode of teaching was based on learning prepared passages by heart, — diction (Xe£«), not invention or arrangement, being his great object. The first extant Greek author who combined the theory with the practice of rhetoric is the Athenian Ailtiphon (q.v.), the first of the Attic orators, and the earliest representative '*""" at Athens of a new profession created by the new p ""' art of rhetoric — that of the X07 oypaos, the writer of forensic speeches for other men to speak in court. His speeches show the art of rhetoric in its transition from the technical to the practical stage, from the school to the law court and the assembly. The organic lines of the rhetorical pleader's thought stand out in bold relief, and we are enabled to form a clear notion of the logographer's method. We find a striking illustra- tion of the fact that the topic of " probability " is the staple of this early forensic rhetoric. Viewed generally, the works of Antiphon are of great interest for the history of Attic prose, as marking how far it had then been influenced by a theory of style. The movement of Antiphon's prose has a certain grave dignity, " impressing by its weight and grandeur," as a Greek critic in the Augustan age says, " not charming by its life and flow." Verbal antithesis is used, not in a diffuse or florid way, but with a certain sledge-hammer force, as sometimes in the speeches of Thucydides. The imagery, too, though bold, is not florid. The structure of the periods is still crude; and the general effect of the whole, though often powerful and impressive, is somewhat rigid. Antiphon represents what was afterwards named the " austere " or " rugged " style (avarripa apfiovla), Lysias was the model of an artistic and versatile simplicity. But while Antiphon has a place in the history of rhetoric as an art, Lysias, with his more attractive gifts, belongs only to the history of oratory. Ancient writers quote an " art " of rhetoric by Isocrates, but its authenticity was questioned. It is certain, however, that Isocrates taught the art as such. He is said to have /soerates. de g ned ketone " as the science of persuasion " (Sext. Empir. Adv. Mathem.ii. § 62, p. 301 seq.). Many of his particular precepts, both on arrangement and on diction, are cjted, but they do not give a complete view of his method. The <£iXoSpov, formerly ascribed to Anaximenes of °^ _ ° Lampsacus, was written at latest by 340 B.C. The *" „ introductory letter prefixed to it is probably a late forgery. an er ' Its relation towards Aristotle's Rhetoric is discussed in the article on Aristotle. During the three centuries from the age of Alexander to that of Augustus the fortunes of rhetoric were governed by the new conditions of Hellenism. Aristotle's scientific The method lived on in the Peripatetic school. Meanwhile P erfo< * from Alex- the fashion of florid declamation or strained conceits prevailed in the rhetorical schools of Asia, where, amid under to mixed populations, the pure traditions of the best Augus- Greek taste had been dissociated from the use of the tus - Greek language. The " Asianism " of style which thus came to be constrasted with " Atticism " found imitators at Rome, among whom must be reckoned the orator Hortensius (c. 95 B.C.). Hermagoras of Temnos in Aeolis (c. no r B.C.) claims mention as having done much to revive g0 ras. a higher conception. Using both the practical rhetoric of the time before Aristotle and Aristotle's philosophical rhetoric, he worked up the results of both in a new system, — following the philosophers so far as to give the chief prominence to " inven- tion." He thus became the founder of a rhetoric which may be distinguished as the scholastic. Through the influence of his school, Hermagoras did for Roman eloquence very much what Isocrates had done for Athens. Above all, he counter- acted the view of " Asianism," that oratory is a mere knack founded on practice, and recalled attention to the study of it as an art. 1 Cicero's rhetorical works are to some extent based on the technical system to which he had been introduced by Molon at Rhodes. But Cicero further made an independent cicero. use of the best among the earlier Greek writers, Isocrates, Aristotle and Theophrastus. Lastly, he could draw, at least in the later of his treatises, on a vast fund of reflection and experience. Indeed, the distinctive interest of his con- tributions to the theory of rhetoric consists in the fact that his theory can be compared with his practice. The result of such a comparison is certainly to suggest how much less he owed to his art than to his genius. Some consciousness of this is perhaps implied in the idea which pervades much of his writing on oratory, that the perfect orator is the perfect man. The same thought is present to Quintilian, in whose great work, _ De Institutione Oratorio, the scholastic rhetoric re- man. ceives its most complete expression (c. a.d. 90). Quintilian treats oratory as the end to which the entire mental and moral development of the student is to be directed. Thus he devotes his first book to an early discipline which should precede the orator's first studies, and his last book to a discipline of the whole man which lies beyond them. Some notion of his comprehensive method may be derived from the circumstance that he introduces a succinct estimate of the chief Greek and Roman authors, of every kind, from Homer to Seneca (bk. x. §§ 46-131). After Quintilian, the next important name is that of Hermogenes of Tarsus, who under Marcus Aurelius made a complete digest of the scholastic rhetoric from genes'!* the time of Hermagoras of Temnos (no B.C.). It is contained in five extant treatises, which are remarkable for clearness and acuteness, and still more remarkable as having been completed before the age of twenty-five. Hermogenes continued for nearly a century and a half to be one of the chief authorities in the schools. Longinus (c. a.d. 260) published an Art of Rhetoric which is still extant; and the more celebrated treatise On Sublimity (xept ityous), if not ^rUers his work, is at least of the same period. In the later half of the 4th century Aphthonius (q.v.) composed the " exercises " (rpoyvuvao-nara) which superseded the work of 1 See Jebb's Attic Orators, ii. 445. 236 RHETORIC Hermogenes. At the revival of letters the treatise of Aphthonius once more became a standard text-book. Much popularity was enjoyed also by the exercises of Aelius Theoh (of uncertain date ; see Theon). (See further the editions of the Rhetor es Graeci by L. Spengel and by Ch. Walz.) During the first four centuries of the empire the practice of the art was in greater vogue than ever before or since. First, Practice there was a general dearth of the higher intellectual ofRhet- interests: politics gave no scope to energy: philosophy oric was stagnant, and literature, as a rule, either arid or H Eml tbe frivolous - Then the Greek schools had poured their *" pre " rhetoricians into Rome, where the same tastes which revelled in coarse luxury welcomed tawdry declamation. The law-courts of the Roman provinces further created a continual demand for forensic speaking. The public teacher „. „ of rhetoric was called "sophist," which was now an The So m phists." academic title, similar to "professor" or "doctor." In the 4th century B.C. Isocrates had taken pride in the name of cro<£i afterwards secretary of state, embodied rules chiefly from Aristotle, with help from Cicero and Quintilian. About the same time treatises on rhetoric were published in France by Tonquelin (1555) and Courcelles (1557). The general aim at this period was to revive and popularize the best teaching of the ancients on rhetoric. The subject was regularly Rhetoric taught at the universities, and was indeed important. at the At Cambridge in 1570 the study of rhetoric was Univer- based on Quintilian, Hermogenes and the speeches of ^ s " Cicero viewed as works of art. An Oxford statute of 1588 shows that the same books were used there. In 1620 George Herbert was delivering lectures on rhetoric at Cambridge, where he held the office of public orator. The decay of rhetoric as a formal study at the universities set in during the 18th century. The function of the rhetoric lecturer passed over into that of correcting, written themes; but his title remained long after his office had lost its primary meaning. If the theory of rhetoric fell into neglect, the practice, however, was encouraged by the public exercises (" acts " and " opponencies ") in the schools. The college prizes for " declamations " served the same purpose. The fortunes of rhetoric in the modern world, as briefly sketched above, may suffice to suggest why few modern writers of ability have given their attention to the subject. Modem Perhaps one of the most notable modern contributions Writers on to' the art is the collection of commonplaces framed (in Hhetorlc. Latin) by Bacon, " to be so many spools from which the threads can be drawn out as occasion serves," a truly curious work of that acute and fertile mind. He called them " Antitheta." A specimen is subjoined: — Uxor et Liberi Against. " He who marries, and has children, has given hostages to fortune." " The immortality of brutes is in their progeny; of men, in their fame, services', and insti- tutions." " Regard for the family too often overrides regard for the state." For. " Attachment to the state begins from the family." " Wife and children are a dis- cipline in humanity. Bachelors are morose and austere." " The only advantage of celi- bacy and childlessness is in case of exile." This is quite in the spirit of Aristotle's treatise. The popu- larity enjoyed by Blair's Rhetoric in the latter part of the 18th and the earlier part of the 19th century was merited rather by the form than by the matter. Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric, which found less wide acceptance than its predecessor, was superior to it in depth, though often marred by an imperfect comprehension of logic. But undoubtedly the best modern book on the subject is Whately's Elements of Rhetoric. whatel Starting from Aristotle's view, that rhetoric is " an *' offshoot from logic," Whately treats it as the art of "argu- mentative composition." He considers it under four heads: (1) the address to the understanding ( = Aristotle's Xoyikj) irtoris); (2) the address to the will, or persuasion ( = Aristotle's i?0iW7 and RHEUMATISM 237 iraBriTiKri xi9°5. $44,477,596), which were first in value in the state's manufac- tures; and third in dyeing and finishing textiles (1900, $8,484,878; 1905, $9,981,457), which ranked fifth among the state's manu- factures; in the value of cotton goods (second in rank in the state) it fell from the fourth rank in 1900 ($24,056,175) to fifth rank in 1905 ($30,628,843), when the value of Rhode Island's product was less than that of Georgia. Other important manufactures were: combined textiles (not including flax, hemp and jute products) in 1900, $77,998,396; in 1905, $103,096,311; foundry and machine shop products in 1900, $13,269,086; in 1905, $16,338,512; woollen goods in 1900, $5,330,550; in 1905, $8,163,167; rubber boots and shoes in 1900, $8,034,417; electrical machinery, apparatus and supplies in 1900, $5,113,292; in 1905, $5435.4741 silversmithing and silverware in 1900, $4,249,190; in 1905, $5,323,264; gold and silver, reducing and refining (not from ore) in 1900, $3,484,454; in 1905, $4,260,698; cotton small wares in 1900, $2,379,500; in 1905, $3,944,607; hosiery and knit goods in 1900, $2,713,850; in 1905, $3,344,655; silk and silk goods in 1900, $1,311,333; in 1905, $2,555,986. In V905, 1 146 establishments reported power, as against 1360 in 1900 — a decrease of 15-7 %, but the total horsepower increased from 155,545 to 190,777, or 22-7%. Transportation. — Steam railway mileage in Rhode Island in- creased from 68 m. in 1850 to 209 m. in 1900, and to 211 m. on the 1st of January 1909 (the New York, New Haven & Hartford being the only railway system of any importance in the state). In 1910 a charter was granted to the Grand Trunk system. In 1902 the mileage of street and electric railways (most of them interurban) operated in the state was 336-33 m. The state has a natural water outlet in the Providence river and Narragansett Bay, but there is lack of adequate dockage in Providence harbour, and insufficient depth of water for ocean traffic. _ The ports of entry are Providence (by far the largest, with imports valued at $1,893,551, and exports valued at $12,517 in 1909), Newport and Bristol. Population. — The total population of Rhode Island in 1880 was 276,531; in 1890, 345,5°6; in 1900, 428,556; and in 1910, 542, 610. 2 The increase from 1880 to 1890 was 24-9%, from 1890 to 1900 24%, and from 1900 to 1910, 26-6%. Of the total population in 1900, 285,278 were native whites, 134,519 were foreign-born, 9092 were negroes, 366 were Chinese, 35 were Indians and 13 were Japanese. Of the foreign-born, 35,501 were Irish, 31,533 were French-Canadians and 22,832 were English. Of the total population, 275,143 were of foreign parentage, i.e. either one or both parents were foreign-born — and 81,232 were of Irish parentage, both on the father's and mother's side, and, in the same sense, 49,427 were of French- Canadian and 32,007 of English parentage. Rhode Island in 1900 had the highest percentage of urban population of any state in the Union, 91-6% of the total population living in cities of 4000 or more inhabitants. From 1890 to 1900 the urban population increased from 310,335 to 392,509 or 26-5%; while the rural population {i.e. population outside of incor- porated places), increased from 35,171 to 36,047 — i-i% of the total increase in population. The cities of the state, with population in 1900, 3 are Providence, 175,597; Pawtucket, 39,231; Woonsocket, 28,204; Newport, 22,034; an d Central Falls, 18,167. I n I 9°6 there were in the state 264,712 com- municants of various religious denominations, and of these 199,951 were Roman Catholics. Second in strength were the ( . Baptists, who founded the colony; in 1906 they numbered 19,878, of whom 14,304 were of the Northern Convention. There were 15,443 Protestant Episcopalians, 9858 Congrega- tionalists, 7892 Methodists. The Friends, whose influence was so strong in the early history of Providence, numbered in 1906 only 648 in the whole state. Administration. — The state is governed under the con- stitution of 1842, with amendments adopted in 1854, 1864, 1886, 1888, 1889, 1892, 1893, 1900, 1903, 1909. All native or naturalized citizens of the United States residing in Rhode 2 The populations in other census years were: (1790) 68,825; (1800) 69,122; (1810) 76,931; (1820) 83,059; (1830) 97,199; (1840) 108,830; (1850) 147,545; (i860) 174,620; (1870) 217,353. 3 In 1910 the populations of the cities were: Providence, 224,326; Pawtucket, 51,622; Woonsocket, 38,125; Newport, 27,149; and Central Falls, 22,754. RHODE ISLAND 25' Island are citizens of the state. Under an act of 1724 the suffrage was restricted to adult males who possessed a freehold of the value of $134 (see History). So far as state and national elections are concerned, the privilege was extended to native non-freeholders by the constitution of 1842, to naturalized foreigners who had served in the Civil War by an amendment of the 7th of April 1886, and to all adult male citizens by the amendment of the 4th of April 1888. A curious survival of the old system exists in the provision that only those who pay taxes on $134 worth of property may vote for members of city councils or on propositions to levy taxes or to expend public money. The working men are thus almost entirely excluded from participating in the government of the large factory towns. Amendments to the constitution must be passed by both houses of the General Assembly at two consecutive sessions, and must then be ratified by three-fifths of the electors of the state present and voting thereon in town and ward meetings. Fifteen amendments have thus been added to the constitution of 1842. An amendment of the 7th of April 1886 forbade the manufacture and sale of intoxicating beverages, but it was badly enforced and was repealed by a subsequent amendment of the 20th of June 1889. The powers of the governor are unusually small. Until 1909, when a constitutional amendment was adopted, he had no power of veto, and his very limited nominal powers of appointment and removal are controlled by a rotten-borough Senate. The other administrative officers are a secretary of state, an attorney-general, an auditor, a treasurer, a commissioner of public schools, a railroad commissioner, and a factory inspector, and various boards and commissions, such as the board of education, the board of agri- culture, the board of health, and the commissioners of inland fisheries, commissioners of harbours and commissioners of pilots. The legislative" power is vested in the General Assembly, 1 which consists of a Senate made up of the lieutenant-governor and of one senator from each of the thirty-eight cities and townships in the state, and a House of Representatives of one hundred members, apportioned according to population, but with the proviso that each town or city shall have at least one member and none shall have more than one-fourth of the total (see History), Members of the legislature and all state officials are elected annually in November. A majority vote was formerly required, but since the adoption of the tenth amendment (Nov. 28, 1893) a plurality vote has elected. At the head of the judicial system is the supreme court (1747), with final revisory and appellate jurisdiction. Below this are the superior court (1905), the twelve district courts, the town coun- cils, probate courts in the larger towns, and justices of the peace. The five judges of the supreme court, the six judges of the superior court and the district judges are elected by the General Assembly;_the supreme and the superior court justices hold office until dismissed by the General Assembly or found guilty of official misdemeanour, and the district judges have three-year terms. The town (or township) is the unit of local government, the county being recognized only for judicial purposes and to a certain extent in the appointment by central administrative boards. There are five counties and thirty-eight towns. The municipal govern- ments of Newport and Providence present interesting features, for which see the separate articles on these cities. Education. — The public school system of Rhode Island was established in 1800, abolished in 1803, and re-established in 1828. At the head of it is a commissioner of education, appointed by the governor and the Senate, and a board of education, composed of the governor and the lieutenant-governor ex officio and six other members elected by the General Assembly. Under an act of the 12th of April 1883, as amended on the 4th of April 1902, education is compulsory for children between the ages of seven and fifteen, but the maximum limit is reduced to thirteen for children who are employed at lawful labour. The total enrolment in the public schools in 1905 was 71,425 and the total expenditure for public school purposes was $1,987,751. A considerable proportion of the Irish and the French Canadians send their children to the Roman Catholic parochial schools. The chief institutions for higher educa- 1 Under the constitution of 1 842 it was provided that there should be two sessions of the General Assembly annually: one at Newport in May, and the other in October to be held at South Kingstown once in two years, and the intermediate years alternately at Bristol and East Greenwich, an adjournment from the October session being held annually at Providence. In 1854 this was amended: one session was provided for to be held in Newport in May, an adjournment being held annually at Providence. And in 1900 by another amendment Providence became the only meeting-place of the General Assembly. tion are Brown University (1764), the State School of Design (1877), the State Normal School (reorganized 1898), and the Moses Brown School (1819), all at Providence (q.v.), and the State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts (1888) at Kingston, a land grant college under the Morrill Acts of 1862 and 1890, the Hatch Act of 1887 and the Adams Act of 1906. This institution was founded as an agricultural school in 1888 and became a college in 1892. It has departments of agriculture, engineering and science, a library of 15,000 volumes and an experiment station. There are state training-schools for teachers at Providence, Cranston, Bristol, Barrington, Central Falls, Warwick and Pawtucket. Charitable and Penal Institutions. — A board of state charities and corrections, established in 1869, supervises and controls all of the penal, charitable and correctional institutions of the state at large and also the local almshouses. There were in 1910 nine members of the board, three from Providence county, one from each of the other counties, and one from the state at large; five were appointed by the governor with the consent of the Senate, and four were elected by the Senate. A group of institutions (under the control of the board) at Howard, in Cranston town- ship, about 7 m. from Providence, including the Workhouse and House of Correction, the Hospital for the Insane (1869), the Alms- house, the State Prison and Providence County Jail, the Sock- anosset School for Boys, and the Oaklawn School for Girls, are supported entirely or in part by the state. In addition to the institutions under the board of charities and corrections there are two under the board of education, and supported wholly or in part by the state, the School for the Deaf (1877) and the Home and School for Dependent and Neglected Children (1885) at Providence. The Soldiers' Home (1891) at Bristol, the Butler Hospital for the Insane (1847) at Providence, and a Sanitarium (1905) at Wallum Lake, in the township of Burrillville, also receive state aid. Finance.— -The chief sources of revenue in the order named are the general property tax, the tax on savings banks, the tax on insurance companies, and liquor licences. There is no corporation tax. The total receipts from all sources for the year 1909 were $2,317, 5I2,_ the expenditures $2,345,359. The public debt, which originated in 1752, amounted to £70,000 sterling in 1764, to £4000 in 1775 and to $698,000 in 1783. Part of the Revolutionary debt was paid in depreciated paper, part was assumed by the United States government, part was paid at various rates of depreciation between 1803 and 1820, and the remainder, $43,971, was repudiated in 1847. Other obligations had accumulated in the meantime, however, so that the debt in 1848 amounted to $187,000. This was gradually reduced until the Civil War, when it was increased to $3,889,000 by 1865. A sinking fund commission was established in 1875, and the entire sum was extinguished by the 1st of August 1894. The issue of bonds fpr the construction of the new capitol building and other purposes has led, however, to a new debt, which at the beginning of 1910 amounted to $4,800,000. There was at the same time a sinking fund of $654,999. Before the adoption of the Federal constitution Rhode Island was badly afflicted with the paper money heresy. £5000 were printed in 1710, and from that time until 1751 there were nine separate issues. These were gradually retired, however, through the efforts of the mercantile classes, aided by the parliamentary statutes of 1 75 1 and 1763, and by about 1763 the finances were again placed on a sound money basis. The influx of Continental currency gave some trouble during the War of Independence, but there were no further local issues until 1786, when £100,000 were issued. The first banks organized in the state were the Providence Bank in 1791, the Bank of Rhode Island at Newport in 1795, and the Washington Bank at Westerly in 1800. Forty-four charters had been issued in 1826 and sixty in 1837. Partly through restrictive local legislation and partly as a result of the operation of the Suffolk system of redemption in Boston, these institutions were always conservative. During practically the entire period before the Civil War their note issues constituted a smaller proportion of the capital^ stock than those of any other state. By an act of 1858 which is still in force, annual reports must be presented to the state auditor. Qn the establishment of the national banking • system, 1863-65, nearly all of the banks took out national charters. Since 1865 the most notable features have been the rise and de- cadence of the national banks and the rise of the trust companies. During the decade from 1890 to 1900 the deposits in the national banks increased only 5%, from $16,700,000 to $17,500,000; those of the trust companies increased 330%, from $12,000,000 to more than $40,000,000. During the period from 1890 to 1901 twenty national banks retired from business, and the total capital stock was re- duced from about twenty millions to about thirteen millions of dollars. History. — Rhode Island was founded by refugees from Massachusetts, who went there in search of religious and political freedom. The first settlements were made at Pro- vidence by Roger Williams (q.v.) in June 1636, and at Portsmouth on the island of Aquidneck by the Antinomians, William Coddington (1601-1678), John Clarke (1600-1676), and Anne Hutchinson (1 591-1643), in March-April 1638. 252 RHODE ISLAND Becoming dissatisfied with conditions at Portsmouth, Codd- ington and Clarke removed a few miles farther south on the 29th of April 1639, and established a settlement at New- port. In a similar manner Warwick was founded in January 1643 by seceders from Providence under the lead of Samuel Gorton. The union of Portsmouth and Newport, March 12, 1640, was followed by the consolidation of all four settlements, May 19, 1647, under a patent of March 14, 1644, issued by the parliamentary board of commissioners for plantations. The particularistic sentiment was still very strong, however, and in 1651 the union split into two confederations, one in- cluding the mainland towns, Providence and Warwick; the other, the island towns, Portsmouth and Newport. A re- union was effected in 1654 through the influence of Roger Williams, and a charter was secured from Charles II. on the 8th of July 1663. In the patent of 1644 the entire colony was called Providence Plantations. On the 13th of March 1644 the Portsmouth-Newport General Court changed the name of the island from Aquidneck to the Isle of Rhodes or Rhode Island. The official designation for the province as a whole in the charter of 1663, therefore, was Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. The charter was suspended at the beginning of the Andros regime in 1686, but was re- stored again after the Revolution of 1689. The closing yea^s of the 17th century were characterized by a gradual transition from the agricultural to the commercial stage of civilization. Newport became the centre of an extensive business in piracy, privateering, smuggling, and legitimate trade. Cargoes of rum, manufactured from West Indian sugar and molasses, were exported to Africa and exchanged for slaves to be sold in the southern colonies and the West Indies. The passage of the Sugar Act of April 5, 1 764, and the steps taken by the British government to enforce the Navigation Acts seriously affected this trade. The people of Rhode Island played a prominent part in the struggle for independence. On the 9th of June 1772 the " Gaspee," a British vessel which had been sent over to enforce the acts of trade and navigation, ran aground in Narragansett Bay and was burned to the water's edge by a party of men from Providence. Nathanael Greene, a native of Rhode Island, was made commander of the Rhode Island militia in May 177s, and a major-general in the Continental army in August 1776, and in the latter capacity he served with ability until the close of the war. In the year 1776, General Howe sent a detachment of his army under General Henry Clinton to seize Newport as a base of operations for reducing New England, and the city was occupied by the British on the 8th of December 1776. To capture this British garrison, later increased to 6000 men, the co-operation of about 10,000 men (mostly New England militia) under Major-General John Sullivan, and a French fleet carrying 4000 French regulars under Count D'Estaing, was planned in the summer of 1778. On the gth of August Sullivan crossed to the north end of the island of Rhode Island, but as the Frenchmen were disembarking on Conanicut Island, Lord Howe arrived with the British fleet. Count D'Estaing hastily re-embarked his troops and sailed out to meet Howe. For two days the hostile fleets manoeuvred for. positions, and then they were dispersed by a severe storm. On the 20th, D'Estaing returned to the port with his fleet badly crippled, and only to announce that he should sail to Boston to refit. The American officers protested but in vain, and on the 28th they decided to retreat to the north end of the island. The British pursued, and the next day there was a severe engagement in which the Americans were driven from Turkey and Quaker Hills. On the 30th the Americans, learning of the approach of Lord Howe's fleet with 5000 troops under Clinton, decided to abandon the island. The British evacuated Newport the 25th of October 1779, and the French fleet was stationed here from July 1780 to 1781. The influence of Roger Williams's ideas and the peculiar conditions under which the first settlements were . established have tended to differentiate the history of Rhode Island from that of the other New England states. In 1640 the General Court of Massachusetts declared that the representatives of Aquidneck were " not to be capitulated withal either for them- selves or the people of the isle where they inhabit," and in 1644 and again in 1648 the application of the Narragansett settlers for admission to the New England Confederacy was refused except on condition that they should pass under the jurisdiction of either Massachusetts or Plymouth. Rhode Island was one of the first communities in the world to advo- cate religious freedom and political individualism. The individualistic principle was shown in the jealousy of the towns toward the central government, and in the establish- ment of legislative supremacy over the executive and the judiciary. The legislature migrated from county to county up to 1854, 'and there continued to be two centres of govern- ment until 1900. The dependence of the judiciary upon the legislature was maintained until i860, and the governor is still shorn of certain powers which are customary in other states (see Administration). In the main the rural towns have adhered most strongly to the old individualistic sentiment, whereas the cities have kept more in touch with the modern nationalistic .trend of thought. This was shown, for example, in the struggle for the ratification of the Federal constitution. Under. the Articles of Confederation it was principally Rhode Island that defeated the proposal to authorize Congress to levy an impost duty of 5% mainly as a means of meeting the debts of the Central government. When the constitu- tional convention met in Philadelphia in 1787 to frame a con- stitution for a stronger Federal government, the agriculturists of Rhode Island were afraid that the movement would result in an interference with their local privileges, and especially with their favourite device of issuing paper money, and the state refused to send delegates, and not until the Seriate had passed a bill for severing commercial relations between the United States and Rhode Island, did the latter, in May 1790, ratify the Federal constitution, and then only by a majority of two votes. Rhode Island, like the rest of New England, was opposed to the War of 181 2 and the Mexican War. During the Civil War it sent 23,457 men into the service of the Union. The economic transition of the later 17th century from the agricultural to the commercial regime was followed by a further transition to the manufacturing regime during the closing years of the 18th and the early years of the 19th centuries. Com- mercial interests have been almost entirely destroyed, partly because of the abolition of the slave trade and partly because of the embargo and the war of 181 2, but mainly because the cities of the state are unfavourably situated to be the termini of interstate railway systems. Providence, owing to its superior water-power facilities, has therefore become one of the leading manufacturing centres of New England, whereas Newport is now known only as a fashionable summer resort. The move- ment as a whole Was of exactly the same character as the industrial revolution in England, and it led to the same result, a struggle for electoral reform. The system of apportionment and the franchise qualifications were worked out to meet the needs of a group of agricultural communities. The charter of 1663 and the franchise law of 1724 established substantial equality of representation among the towns, and restricted the suffrage to freeholders. In the course of time, therefore, the small towns came to be better represented proportionally than the large cities, and the growing class of artisans was entirely disfranchised. The city of Providence issued a call for a constitutional convention in 1796, and similar efforts were made in 1799, 1817, 1821, 1822 and 1824, but nothing was accom- plished. About 1840 Thomas W. Dorr (1805-1854), a young lawyer of Providence, began a systematic campaign for an extension of the suffrage, a reapportionment of representation and the establishment of an independent judiciary. The struggle, which lasted for several years, and in fact is not yet entirely over, was one between the cities and the country, between the manufacturers and the agriculturists. It was RHODE ISDAND 253 also complicated by racial and religious prejudioes, a large proportion of the factory operatives being foreigners and Roman Catholics, and most of the country people native Protestants. The former were in general associated with the Democratic party, the latter with the Whigs. A convention summoned without any authority from the legislature, and elected on the principle of universal manhood suffrage, met at Providence, October 4-NoVember 18, 1841, and drafted a frame of govern- ment which came to be known as the People's Constitution. A second convention met on the call of the legislature in February 1842 and adopted the so-called Freeman's Constitution. On being submitted to popular vote the former was ratified by a large majority (December 27, 28, 29, 1841), while the latter was rejected by a majority of 676 (March 21, 22, 23, 1842). At an election held on the 18th of April 1842 Dorr was chosen governor. The supreme court of the state and the president of the United States (Tyler) both refused to recognize the validity of the People's Constitution, whereupon Dorr and a few of his more zealous adherents decided to organize a rebellion. They Were easily repulsed in an attack upon the Providence town arsenal, arid Dorr, after a brief period of exile in Connecti- cut, was convicted of high treason on the 26th of April 1844, and was sentenced to imprisonment for life. He was released by act of the Assembly in June 1845, and was restored to the full rights of citizenship in May 1851. The Freeman's Constitution, modified by another convention, which held its session at New- port and East Greenwich, September 12-November 5, 1842, was finally adopted by popular vote on November 21-23, 1842. Only a partial concession was made to the demand for reform. The suffrage was extended to non-freeholders, but only to those of American birth. Representation in the lower house of the legislature was apportioned according to population, but only on condition that no city or town should ever elect more than one-sixth of the total number of members. Each city and town without regard to papulation was to elect one senator. In order to perpetuate this system the method of amending the constitution was made extremely difficult (see Administration). Since the adoption of the constitution the conditions have become worse owing to the extensive immigration of foreigners into the large cities and the gradual decay of the rural towns. From about 1845 to 1880 most of the immigrants were Irish, but since 1880 the French-Canadians have constituted the chief element. In 1900 over 30% of the population of the state was foreign-born. A constitutional amendment of 1888 extended to them the right of suffrage in state and national elections, and an amendment of 1909 partially remedied the evils in the system of apportionment. When the last Federal census was taken in 1910, Providence, Pawtucket, Woonsocket and Newport, with a combined population of 341,222, had four senators, whereas the remainder of the state, with a population of 201,452, had thirty-four. Providence, with a population of 224,326 out of a total of 542,674, had one member in a Senate of thirty-eight and twenty-five members in a House of Representatives of one hundred. The Republican machine finds it easy with the support of the millionaire summer colony at Newport and the street railway corporations to corrupt the French-Canadians and a portion of the native element in the rural towns and maintain absolute control of the state government. The majority has occasionally protested by electing a Democratic governor, but he has not been able to accomplish a great deal, because until 1909 he did not have veto power nor effectual means to induce the Senate to ratify his appointments. Bonds were issued on the 8th Of November 1892 for the construction of a new state house at Providence, the corner stone was laid in October 1896, and the building was thrown open to use on the 1st of January 1901. A constitutional amendment of 1900 dispensed with the session of the legislature at Newport. In presidential campaigns the state has been Federalist, 1792-1800; Democratic Republican, 1804; Federalist, 1808- 1812; Democratic Republican, i8r6-i82o; Adams (Republican), 1824-1828; National Republican, 1832; Democratic, r836; Whig, 1840-1848; Democratic, 1852; and Republican since 1856. GOVERNORS OF RHODE ISLAND Portsmouth William Coddington William Hutchinson Judge, 1638-1639 1 639-1 640 Newport William Coddington . . Judge, 1 639-1640 Portsmouth and Newport William Coddington . . Governor, 1640-1647 'Presidents under the Patent of 1644 John Coggeshall . . . . . 1647^-1648 Jeremy Clarke 1 648-1649 John Smith ...... 1649-1650 Nicholas Easton ..... 1650-1651 Providence and Warwick 1 Samuel Gorton . President, 1651-1652 John Smith . . . ,, 1652-1653 Gregory Dexter ... „ 1653-1654 Portsmouth and Newport John Safiford . . . President, 1653-1654 ■ Presidents under the Patent of 1644 Nicholas Easton : 1654 Roger Williams . . Benedict Arnold Wi'lia-m Brenton Benedict Arnold Governors under the Charter of 1663 1654- 1657 1 65 7- 1 660 1 660-1 662 1 662-1 663 Benedict Arnold William Brenton Benedict Arnold Nicholas Easton William Coddington Walter Clarke Benedict Arnold William Coddington John Cranston Peleg Sanford William Coddington, 2nd Henry Bull Walter Clarke John Coggeshall (acting) Henry Bull John Easton Caleb Carr Walter Clarke Samuel Cranston Joseph Jencks William Wanton John Wanton Richard Ward William Greene Gideon Wanton William Greene Gideon Wanton William Greene Stephen Hopkins William Greene Stephen Hopkins Samuel Ward Stephen Hopkins Samuel Ward Stephen Hopkins Josias Lyndon Joseph Wanton Nicholas Cooke William Greene, 2nd John Collins Arthur Fenner, 3 Federalist and Democratic Re- publican Paul Mumford (acting), Democratic Republican 1805 1 663-1 666 1 666- I 669 I 669-1 672 1672-1674 1 674- 1 676 1676-167;/ 1 67 7- 1 678 1678 1678-1680 1680-1683 1683-1685 1685-1686 1686 2 1 689-1690 1690 1690-1695 1695 I 696-1 698 1698-1727 1727-1732 I73 2 -I73? I 734-1 740 I 740-1 743 1 743-1 745 1 745-1 746 1746-1747 1 747-1 748 1 748-1 755 1 755-1 757 1757-1758 1 758-1 762 1 762-1 763 1 763-1 765 1 765-1 767 1 767-1 768 1 768-1 769 1 769-1 775 1 775-1 778 1 778-1 786 1 786-1 790 1 790-1 805 Henry Smith, „ „ „ 1 805-1 806 Isaac Wilbour, ,, ,, „ 1806-1807 James Fenner, Democratic Republican . . . 1 807-1 81 1 William Jones, Federalist . .....' '. 1811-1817 Nehemiah R. Knight, Democratic Republican 181 7-1 821 William C. Gibbs, ,, ,, . 1 821-1824 James Fenner 4 (Democratic Republican and National Republican) . . . . 1 824-1831 1 A separation occurred in 165 1 between the towns of Providence arid Warwick on one side and Portsmouth and Newport on the other. They were reunited in 1654. 2 The charter was suspended from 1686 to 1689, during which time the province was under the supervision of Sir Edmund Andros. 3 Arthur Fenner became a Democratic Republican about 1 800. 4 James Fenner was a Democratic Republican to 1826, a National Republican (Adams) to 1829 and a Democrat (Jackson) to 1831. 254 RHODES, C. J. Lemuel H. Arnold, National Republican . 1831-1833 John B. Francis, Democrat and Anti-Masonic 1833-1838 William Sprague, Whig .... 1838-1839 Samuel W. King, Whig .... 1839-1 843 Under the Constitution of 1842 James Fenner, Whig ..... 1843-1845 Charles Jackson, 1 Democrat . . . 1845-1846 Byron Diman, Whig 1 846-1 847 Elisha Harris, Whig 1 847-1 849 Henry B. Anthony, Whig . . . . 1849-1851 Philip Allen, Democrat .... 1 851-1853 Francis M. Dimond (acting), Democrat . 1 853-1 854 William W. Hoppin, Whig and American . 1854-1857 Elisha Dyer, Republican .... 1857-1859 Thomas G. Turner, Republican . . . 1859-1860 William Sprague, 2 Unionist .... 1 860-1 863 William C. Cozzens (acting), Unionist . . 1863 James Y. Smith, Republican . . . 1 863-1 866 Ambrose E. Burnside, „ . . . . 1866-1869 Seth Padelford, 1 869-1 873 Henry Howard, „ . . . . J873-1875 Henry Lippitt, „ 1875-1877 Charles C. Van Zandt 1877-1880 Alfred H. Littlefield 1880-1883 Augustus O. Bourn, , 1883-1885 George P. Wetmore, , 1885-1887 John W. Davis, Democrat 1887-1888 Royal C. Taft, Republican 1 888-1 889 Herbert W. Ladd, „ . . . . 1889-1890 John W. Davis, Democrat .... 1 890-1 891 Herbert W. Ladd, Republican . . . 1891-1892 D. Russell Brown, „ . . . . 1 892-1 895 Charles W. Lippitt 1895-1897 Elisha Dyer, 1897-1900 William Gregory, 1900-1901 Charles Dean Kimball, Republican . . 1901-1903 L. F. C. Garvin, Democrat .... 1903-1905 George H. Utter, Republican . . . 1905-1907 James H. Higgins, Democrat . . 1907-1909 Aram J. Pothier, Republican . . . 1909- Bibliography. — For general physical description see C. T. Jackson, Report on the Geological and Agricultural Survey of Rhode Island (Providence, 1840) ; N. S. Shaler, J. B. Woodworth, and A. F. Foerste, Geology of the Narragansett Basin (Washington, 1899) ; and T. Nelson Dale, The Chief Commercial Granites of Massachusetts, New Hampshire and Rhode Island (Ibid., 1908), being Bulletin 354 of the U.S. Geological Survey. Administration: — The charters of 1644 and 1663 and the constitution of 1842 are all given in F. N. Thorpe, Constitutions, Charters, and Organic Laws (Washington, 1909), vol. vi. See also the annual reports of the treasurer, the auditor, the commissioner of public schools, the board of education, and the board of state charities and corrections; W. H. Tolman, History of Higher Education in Rhode Island (Washington, 1894); Henry Phillips, Jr., Historical Sketches of the Paper Currency of the American Colonies (2 vols., Roxbury, Mass., 1865-1866); Thomas Durfee, Gleanings from the Judicial History of Rhode Island (Provi- dence, 1883); and the works of Field, Richman and Mowry (see History, Bibliography). History. — For many years the standard authority on the period before the ratification of the constitution was S.'G. Arnold, History of Rhode Island, 1636-1790 (2 vols., New York, 1859-60 4th ed., Providence, 1894). His work has, however, been partially super- seded by I. B. Richman, Rhode Island: Its Making and Meaning, 1636— 1083 (2 vols., 1902), and Rhode Island: A Study in Separatism (Boston and New York, 1905). Edward Field (Editor), State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantation at the end of the Century: A History (3 vols., Boston, 1902), is valuable for the more recent history of the state. See also Adelos Gorton, The Life and Times of Samuel Gorton (Philadelphia, 1908); W. B. Weeden, Early Rhode Island: A Social History of the People (New York, 1910); F. G. Bates, Rhode Island and the Formation of the Union (New York, 1898); A. M. Mowry, The Dorr War; or the Constitutional Struggle in Rhode Island (Providence, 1901) ; Records of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantation, 1636-1792 (10 vols., Providence, 1856-65); Rhode Island Historical Society, Collec- tions (10 vols., to be continued, Providence, 1827-1902); Proceed- ings and Publications, 23 numbers (Providence, 1872-1902, to be continued). The Quarterly (8 vols., 1892-1901, discontinued); Rhode Island Historica 1 Tracts, Series I., 20 vols. (Providence, 1877-1884), Series II., 5 vols. (Providence, 1889-96). For feneral bibliographies see J. R. Bartlett, Bibliography of Rhode stand (Providence, 1864); C. R. Brigham, in Field, III., pp. 651- 81 ; and Richman, in A Study in Separatism, pp. 353-85. 1 Jackson was a Liberation Whig — favouring the liberation . of Dorf from prison — but hte was elected on the Democratic ticket. 2 Sprague was elected over the radical Republican candidate through a coalition of Democrats and conservative Republicans. RHODES, CECIL JOHN (1853-1902), British colonial and Imperial statesman, was born on the 5th of July 1853, at Bishop Stortford, in Hertfordshire. His father was a clergyman, but he claimed descent from yeoman stock. Cecil John Rhodes was the fifth son in a large family of sons and daughters. At the time of his birth his father held the living of Bishop Stort- ford. The boy was educated at Bishop Stortford grammar school with the intention of preparing for the Church; but at the age of sixteen his health broke down, and in the latter part of 1870 he was sent to join an elder brother, then engaged in farming in Natal. In that year diamonds were discovered in the Kimberley fields. By the end of 1871 Mr Rhodes and his brother were among the successful diggers. The dry air of the interior restored Mr Rhodes's health, and before he was nineteen he found himself financially independent, physically strong and free to devote his life to any object which commended itself to his choice. Rhodes has left behind him an interesting record of the manner in which he was affected by the situation. He deter- mined to return to England, and to complete his education by reading for a degree at Oxford; but before doing so, he spent eight months in a solitary journey through the then little known parts of the country lying to the north of the Orange and Vaal rivers. He went through Bechuanaland to Mafeking, thence to Pretoria, Murchison, Middelburg and back through the Transvaal to Kimberley. The journey, made in an ,ox- wagon at a rate of progression of some 15 to 20 miles a day, represented a walking tour of eight months through the vast spaces of rolling veld which at that time filled those regions of Southern Africa. He saw one of the healthiest countries in the world barely occupied. He knew the agricultural possibilities of Natal. He knew its mineral wealth. The effect of the combined influences on his mind, in the circumstances in which he found himself, was profound. The idea took passionate possession of him that the fine country through which he moved ought to be secured for occupation by the British race, and that no power but Great Britain should be allowed to dominate in the administration of South Africa. When he brought his self-imposed pilgrimage to an end, he had found an object to which he proposed to devote his fife. It was nothing less than the governance of the world by the British race. A will exists written in Mr Rhodes's own handwriting a couple of years later, when he was still only twenty-two, in which he states his reasons for accepting the aggrandizement and service of the British empire as his highest ideal of practical achievement. It ends with a single bequest of everything of which he might die possessed, for the furtherance of this great purpose. Five- and-twenty years later his final will carried out, with some difference of detail, the same intention. The share which he allotted to himself in the general scheme was the extension of the area of British settlement in Africa, but he did not attempt to address himself immediately to public work. He returned, in accordance with his first resolve, to Oxford, where he matriculated at Oriel. In 1873 his health again failed, and he was sent back to South Africa under what was practically a death sentence. Years afterwards he saw the entry of his own case in the diary of the eminent physician whom he consulted, with a note, " Not six months to live/' South Africa again restored him to health. Three years later he was back at Oxford, and from 1876 to 1878 he kept his terms. During this period he spent the -Long Vacation each year in South Africa, where his large financial interests were daily increasing in importance. He was a member of the Cape ministry when, after a further lapse of years, he kept his last term and took his degree. He did not read hard at Oxford, and was more than once remonstrated with in the earlier terms for non-attendance at lectures. But he passed his examina- tions; and though he was never a student in the university sense of the term, he was to the end of his life a keen devourer of books. He kept always a special liking for certain classic authors. Aristotle was the guide whom as a lad he followed in seeking the " highest object " on which to exercise the RHODES, C. J. " highest activity of the soul." Marcus Aurelius was his constant companion. There exists at Grote Schuur a copy of the Meditations deeply scored with Mr Rhodes's marks. During this Oxford time, and on to 1881, Mr Rhodes was occupied with the amalgamation of the larger number of the diamond mines of Kimberley with the De Beers Company, an operation which established his position as a practical financier and gave him an important connexion and following in the business world. To many admirers who shared his ideas on public questions his connexion with the financial world and his practical success were a stumbling-block. It was often wished for him that he had " kept himself clear of all that." But this was not his own view. His ideals were political and practical. To him the making of money was a necessary preliminary to their realization, and he was proud of his practical ability in this direction. He was personally a man of most simple tastes. His immense fortune was spent in the execution of his ideals, and it has been justly said of him that he taught the world a new chapter of the romance of wealth. In 1881 Mr Rhodes entered public life as a member of the Cape assembly. It was the year of the Majuba settlement. South Africa was convulsed with questions which had arisen between the British and the Dutch, and leaders of Dutch opinion at the Cape ventured to speak openly of the formation of a United States of South Africa under its own flag. The British party needed a rallying-ground, and Mr Rhodes took his stand on a policy of local union combined with the consolida- tion and expansion of Imperial interests. He offered to Dutch and British alike the ideal of a South African Federation governing itself within the empire, and extending, by its gradual absorption of native territories, the range of Imperial administra- tion. Local self-government was, in his opinion, the only endur- ing basis on which the unity of the empire could be built, and throughout his life he was as keen a defender of local rights as he was of Imperial unity. There was a period somewhat later in his career when this attitude on his part gave rise to a good deal of misapprehension, and his advocacy of the elimination of direct Imperial interference in local affairs caused him to be viewed in .certain quarters with suspicion as a Separatist and Independent. Those who were inclined to take this view were greatly strengthened in their suspicions by the fact that at a critical moment in the struggle for Home Rule in Ireland Mr Rhodes contributed £10,000 to the funds of the Separatist party. The subsequent publication of his correspondence on the subject with Mr Parnell, who was at that time leading the Home Rule party, demonstrated, however, the essential fact that, whatever might have been the secret intentions of the extreme Irish Home Rulers, Mr Rhodes's contribution was made strictly subject to the retention of the Irish members at West- minster. He remained of the opinion that the Home Rule movement, wisely treated, would have had a consolidating and not a disruptive effect upon the organization of the empire. In South Africa the influence which he acquired over the local independents and over the Dutch vote was subsequently an important factor in enabling him to carry out the scheme of northern expansion which he had at heart, and which he had fully developed in his own mind at Oxford in 1878. In 1881 the Bechuana territory was a sort of no man's land through which ran the trade routes to the north. It was evident that any power which commanded the trade routes would command the unknown northern territory beyond. The Pretoria Con- vention of 1881 limited the westward extension of the Transvaal to a line east of the trade routes. Nevertheless, the reconstituted republic showed itself anxious to encroach by irregular overflow into native territories, and Mr Rhodes feared to see the extension of the British colonies permanently blocked by Dutch occupation. One of his first acts as a member of the Cape assembly was to urge the appointment of a delimitation commission. He served m person on the commission, and obtained from the chief Mankoroane, who claimed about half of Bechuanaland, a formal cession of his territories to the British government of the Cape. The Cape government refused to accept the offer. In February 2 55 1884 a second convention signed in London again defined the western frontier of the Transvaal, Bechuanaland being left outside the republic. With the consent of Great Britain, Germany had occupied, almost at the same time, the territory on the Atlantic coast now known as German South- West Africa. In August 1884 Mr Rhodes was appointed resident deputy commissioner in Bechuanaland, where, notwithstanding the conventions to the contrary, Boers had ousted the natives from considerable areas and set up the so-called republics of Goshen and Stellaland. An old Dutchman who knew the value of the position said privately to Mr Rhodes, " This is the key of South Africa." The question at issue was whether Great Britain or the Transvaal was to hold the key. It was a question about which at that time the British public knew nothing and cared nothing. Mr Rhodes made it his business to enlighten them. President Kruger, speaking for the government of the Transvaal, professed to regard the Dutch commandoes as freebooters, and to be unable to control them. It devolved upon Great Britain to oblige them to evacuate the territory. Largely as the result of Mr Rhodes's exertions the necessary step was taken. The Warren expedition of 1-884-85 was sent out. In the presence of British troops upon the frontier President Kruger recovered his controlling power over the Transvaal burghers, and without any fighting the commandoes were withdrawn. Thereupon southern Bechuanaland was declared to be British territory, while a British protectorate was declared over the northern regions up to the 22nd parallel (September 1885). It was the first round in the long duel fought on the field of South Africa between Mr Rhodes, as the representative of British interests, and President Kruger, as the head of the militant Dutch party. The score on this occasion was to Mr Rhodes, and the entrance to the interior was secured. But the 22nd parallel was far short of the limits to which Mr Rhodes hoped to see British influence extend, and he feared lest Germany and the Transvaal might yet join hands in the native territory beyond, and bar his farther progress towards the north. The discovery of gold on the Witwatersrand in 1886, by adding to the wealth and importance of the Transvaal, gave substance to this fear. The territory to the north of the 22nd parallel was at that time under the domination of Lobengula, chief of the Matabele, a native potentate celebrated alike for his ability and for the despotic character of his rule. There were rumours of Dutch and German emissaries at the kraal of Lobengula, engaged in persuading that chief to cede certain portions of his territory. Portugal also was putting forward shadowy claims to the country. It was in these circumstances that Mr Rhodes conceived the idea of forming a British Chartered Company, which should occupy the territory for trading and mining purposes as far as the Zambezi, and bring the whole under the protection of Great Britain. The idea took shape in 1887, in which year Mr Rhodes's first emissaries were sent to Lobengula. The charter of the British South Africa Company was granted in October 1889. Between the two dates his conception of the possibilities to be achieved by the Company had expanded. Mr Rhodes no longer limited the sphere of his operations to the Zambezi, but, crossing the river at the back of the Portuguese settlements at its mouth, he obtained per- mission to extend the territories of the Chartered Company to the southern end of Lake Tanganyika, including within the sphere of its operations the British settlements already made in Nyasaland. He hoped to go farther still, and to create a connected chain of British possessions through the continent which might eventually justify the description," Africa British from the Cape to Cairo." The treaty negotiated between Great Britain and Germany in 1800 extended the German sphere of influence from the East Coast to the frontier of the Congo Free State, and defeated this hope. But Mr Rhodes did not wholly renounce the idea. In 1892, when the question of the retention or abandonment of Uganda hung in the balance at home, he threw all the weight of his influence into the scale of retention, and undertook at his own personal expense to connect 25 6 RHODES, (2. ; ]l. that territory by telegraph with British possessions in the south. In the following year, 1893, it was found inevitable to fight the Matabele, and a war, prosecuted with a success that is perhaps unique of its kind, placed the country entirely in British hands. The territory thus added to the British empire covered an extent of 450,000 square miles, of which large portions consist of healthy uplands suitable for white colonization. The pioneer party who constructed the first road and founded the first British stations in the country received their orders to cross the frontier in the end of 1889. By the end of 1899, before the outbreak of the South African War, though the country had passed through the trial of a war, two native rebellions, and the scourge of rinderpest, it had become, under the name of Rhodesia, a well-settled province of the British empire, with a white popula- tion of some 12,000 to 13,000 persons. The six years which followed the granting of the charter may be regarded as the most successful of a singularly successful life. In 1890, not many months after the granting of the charter, Mr Rhodes accepted the position of prime minister of the Cape. He was maintained in power very largely by the Dutch vote, which he spared no pains to conciliate; and having the confidence of both political sections of the colony, he found himself practically 1 in a position to play the part of benevolent despot in South Africa. He used the position well so far as the public was concerned. While his scheme of northern expansion was making the rapid progress which has been indicated, he did much to elevate and to enlarge the field of local politics. He frankly declared and worked for the policy of uniting British and Dutch interests in South Africa; he took a keen interest in local educa- tion. He also during this period carried through some important reforms in native policy. He had the courage to restrict the franchise, introducing an educational test and limiting the exercise of voting power to men enjoying an income equal to a labourer's wage — thus abolishing; without making any distinction of colour, the abuses of what was known as the " blanket " vote. But his native policy was far from being one of simple re- striction. He liked the natives; he employed them by thousands in the mining industry, he kept native servants habitually about his person he seemed to understand their peculiarities and was singularly successful in dealing with them. The first canon of his native policy Was that liquor should be kept from them; the second, that they should be encouraged to labour, and guaranteed the full possession of their earnings; the third, that they should be educated in the practical arts of peace. He appreciated the full importance of raising their territorial con- dition from one of tribal to individual tenure; and while he protested against the absurdity of permitting the 'uncivilized Kaffir to vote on questions of highly civilized white policy, he believed in applying to the native for his own native affairs the principle of self-government. Of these views some received practical embodiment in the much-disputed act known as the Glen Grey Act of 1894. In this connexion it may also be noted that he was one of the warmest and most convinced supporters of Lovedale, the very successful missionary institution for the education of natives in South Africa. The position of benevolent despot has obvious drawbacks. In Mr Rhodes's case the dependence which the populations of Cape Colony were led to place on him had its reaction on the public in a demoralizing loss of self-reliance, and for himself it must be admitted that the effect on the character of a man already much disposed to habits of absolutism in thought and action was the reverse of beneficial. Mr Rhodes felt himself to be hit stronger than any marl in his own surroundings; he knew himself to be actuated by disinterested motives in the aims which he most earnestly desired to reach. He was pro- foundly impressed by a sense of the shortness of life, and he so far abused his power as to become intolerant of any sort of control or opposition. The inevitable result followed, that though Mr Rhodes did much of great and good work during the six years of his supreme power, he entirely failed during that period to surround himself, as he might have done, by a *drde of able men fit to comprehend and to carry on the work to which his own best efforts were directed. To work with him was practically impossible for those who were not willing to accept without demur the yoke of dogmatic authority He had a few devoted personal friends, who appreciated his aims and were inspired by his example; but he was lacking in regard for individuals, and a great part of his daily life was spent in the company of satellites and instruments, whom he used with cynical unconcern for the furtherance of his ends. In 1896 the brilliant period of his premiership was brought to an end by the incident which became famous under the name of the Jameson Raid. The circumstances which led to the Raid belong properly to the history Of the Transvaal. It is enough to say briefly here that the large alien population which had been attracted to the Transvaal by the phenomenal wealth of the Johannesburg goldfields, conceiving themselves to have reason to revolt against the authority of the Transvaal government, resolved towards the end of 1895 to have recourse to arms in order to obtain certain reforms. Mr Rhodes, as a large mine-owner, was theoretically a member of the mining population. In this capacity he was asked to give his counten- ance to the movement. But as prime minister of a British colony he was evidently placed in a false position from the ' moment in which he became cognizant of a secret attempt to overturn a neighbouring government by force of arms. He did more than become cognizant. The subsequent finding of a Cape committee, which he accepted as accurate, was to the effect that " in his capacity as controller of the three great joint-stock companies, the British South Africa Company, the De Beers Consolidated Mines, and the Gold Fields of South Africa, he directed and controlled the combination which rendered such a proceeding as the Jameson Raid possible." He gave money, arms and influence to the movement; and as the time fixed for the outbreak of the revolution approached, he allowed Dr Jameson, who was then administrator of the British South Africa Company in Rhodesia, to move an armed force of some 500 men upon the frontier. Here Mr Rhodes's participation in the movement came to an end. It became abundantly, clear from subsequent inquiry that he was not personally responsible for what followed. A cipher corre- spondence, seized and published by the Boers, left the civilized world in no doubt as to Mr Rhodes's share in the previous preparation, and he was for a time believed to be responsible for the Raid itself. Subsequent inquiries held by committees of the Cape parliament and of the British House of Commons acquitted him entirely of responsibility for Dr Jameson's final movement, but both committees found that he had acted in a manner which was inconsistent with his duty as prime minister of the Cape and managing director of the British South Africa Company. ' He displayed, in the circumstances, characteristic qualities of pluck and candour. He made no concealment of his own share in the catastrophe; he took full responsibility for what had been done in his name by subordinates, and he accepted all the consequences which ensued. He resigned his premier- ship of the Cape (January 1896); and, recognizing that his presence was no longer useful in the colony, he turned his attention to Rhodesia. His design was to live in that country, arid to give all the stimulus of his own presence and encourage- ment to the development of its resources. The Matabele rebellion of March 1896 intervened to prevent the immediate realization of his plans. In June Imperial troops were sent up, and by the end of July the result of the military operations had driven the natives to the Matoppo Hills, where they held a practically impregnable position. The prospect was of con- tinued war, with a renewal of a costly campaign in the following year. Mr Rhodes conceived the idea that he might effect single-handed the pacification which military skill had failed to compel. To succeed, it was essential that he should trust and be trusted. He accordingly moved his tent away from the troops to the base of the Matoppo Hills. He lay there quietly for six weeks, in the power of the enemy if they had chosen to attack. Word was circulated among the natives RHODES, J. F. 257 that he had come alone and undefended to hear their side of the case. A council was held by them in the very depths of the hills, where no armed force could touch them. He was invited to attend it. It was a case of staking his life on trust. He displayed no hesitation, but mounted and rode unarmed with the messenger. Three friends rode with him. The confidence was justified. They met the assembled chiefs at the place appointed. The native grievances were laid before Mr Rhodes. At the end of a long discussion Mr Rhodes, having made and exacted such concessions as he thought fit, asked the question, " Now, for the future is it peace or is it war?" And the chiefs, laying down their sticks as a symbol of surrendered arms, declared, " We give you one word: it is peace." The scene, as described by one of the eye-witnesses, was very striking. Mr Rhodes, riding away, characterized it simply as " one of the scenes which make life worth living." His life was drawing towards its end. He had still a few years, which he devoted with success to the development of the country which bore his name. The railway was brought to Bulawayo, and arrangements were made for carrying the line on in sections as far as the south end of Lake Tanganyika, a construction which was part of his pet scheme for connecting the Cape by a British line of communication with Cairo. He also concluded arrangements for carrying a telegraphic land line through to Egypt, and had the satisfaction of seeing the mineral development of the country fairly started. But the federal union of South Africa, to which he had always worked as the secure basis of the extension of British rule in the southern half of the continent, was not for him to see. The South African War broke out in 1890. Mr Rhodes took his part at Kimberley in sustaining the hardships of a siege; but his health was broken, and though he lived to see victory practically assured to British arms, peace had not been concluded when, on the 26th of March 1902, he died at Muizenberg, near Cape Town. His life's work did not end actually with his death. He left behind him a will in which he dedicated his fortunes, as he had dedicated himself, exclusively to the public service. He left the bulk of his vast wealth for the purpose of founding scholarships at Oxford of the value each of £300 a year, to be held by students from every important British colony, and from every state and Territory of the United States of America. The sum so bequeathed was very large; but it was not for the munificence of the legacy that the will was received with acclamation throughout the civilized world: it was for the striking manifestation of faith which it embodied in the principles that make for the enlightenment and peace and union of man- kind, and for the fine constancy of Mr Rhodes's conviction that the unity of the British Empire, which he had been proud to serve, was among the greatest of organized forces uniting for universal good. The will was drawn up some years before his death. A codicil, signed during the last days of his life, gave evidence of some enlargement of his views as to the association of races necessary in order to secure the peace of the world, and added to the original scheme a certain number of scholar- ships to be held at the disposal of German students. The publication of the will silenced Mr Rhodes's detractors and converted many of his critics. It set a seal which could not be mistaken upon his completed life. The revulsion of sentiment towards him was complete, and his name passed at once in the public estimation to the place which it is probably destined to take in history, as one which his countrymen are proud to count among the great makers of the British Empire. See the Life by Sir Lewis Michell (2 vols., London, 1910) ; consult also Sir T. E Fuller, Cecil John Rhodes: A Monograph and a Reminiscence (London, 1910), and " Vindex," Cecil Rhodes: His Political Life and Speeches (London, 1900). (F L.L.) The Rhodes Scholarships. — The scholarship system founded by the will of Cecil Rhodes provides in perpetuity for the support at Oxford, for a term of three years each, of about 175 selected scholars, Each scholai from the colonies and the United States has an allowance of £300 per annum during xxni. 9 the continuance of his scholarship; those from Germany, as being nearer to Oxford, an allowance of £250 each. In each province of Canada, in each state of Australia, in the four collegiate schools of Cape Colony (Rondebosch, Stellenbosch, South African College, and St Andrew's College, Grahamstown), in the dominion of New Zealand, and in the colonies of Natal, Jamaica, Bermuda and Newfoundland, a scholar is elected each year. Three scholarships annually are assigned to Rhodesia. Each state and Territory of the American Union is entitled to have two scholars in residence, so that an election takes place in two years out of three. Five scholarships are provided annually for scholars from Germany. In his will Rhodes mentions the objects he had in view in founding the different scholarships: — I. Colonial. — " I consider that the education of young colonists at one of the universities in the United Kingdom is of great advantage to them for giving breadth to their views, for their instruction in life and manners, and for instilling into their minds the, advantage to the colonies as well as to the United Kingdom of the retention of the unity of the empire." _ 2. American.—" I also desire to encourage and foster an apprecia- tion of the advantages which I implicitly believe will result from the union of the English-speaking people throughout the world, and to encourage in the students from the United States of North America who will benefit from the American scholarships to be established for the reason above given at the university of Oxford under this my will an attachment to the country from which they have sprung, but without, I hope, withdrawing them or their sym- pathies from the land of their adoption or birth." 3. German. — " I note the German emperor has made instruction in English compulsory in German schools. I leave five yearly scholarships at Oxford of £250 per annum to students of German birth, the scholars to be nominated by the German emperor for the time being. Each scholarship to continue for three years, so that each year after the first three there will be fifteen scholars. The object is that an understanding between the three Great Powers will render war impossible and educational relations make the strongest tie." He defines as follows the principles on which he wished his scholars to be selected : — " My desire being that the students who shall be elected to the scholarships shall not be merely bookworms, I direct that in the election of a. student to a scholarship regard shall be had to (1) his literary and scholastic attainments; (2) his fondness for and success in. manly outdoor sports such as cricket, football and the like; (3) his qualities of manhood, truth, courage, devotion to duty, sympathy for and protection of the weak, kindliness, unselfishness and fellowship; and (4) his exhibition during school days of moral force of character and of instincts to lead and to take an interest in his schoolmates, for those latter attributes will be likely in after life to guide him to esteem the performance of public duties as his highest aim." The trustees named in the will for the management of the trust were Lord Rosebery, Lord Grey, Lord Milner, Sir Lewis Michell, Dr L. S. Jameson, Mr Alfred Beit and Mr Bourchier F. Hawksley. After consultation with the educational authorities of all the communities to which scholarships are assigned, the trustees arranged a system for the selection of scholars. This system, which is subject to such changes as experience suggests, may be summarized as follows. Every candidate, in order to become eligible, is required to pass the Responsions examination of the university of Oxford, or some examination accepted by the university as an equivalent. In the case of communities possessing universities or colleges in affiliation with Oxford, a certain standing at those universities is accepted in lieu of Responsions. Examinations are held in two years out of three in each state of the American Union, and annually in colonies which do not have the affiliated universities or colleges referred to. German scholars are nominated by his majesty the emperor of Germany. Candidates must be unmarried — must be between the ages of 19 and 25 (in Jamaica and Queensland, 18-25; in Newfoundland, 18-21; in Western Australia, 17-25), and they must be, in the colonies, British subjects — in the United States and Germany, subjects of those countries. In each British colony electing scholars and in each state of the Union there is a committee of selection, composed commonly of leading educational authorities or high public officials. To these committees all candidates who have passed the qualifying tests submit their claims. The com- mittees are entrusted with the power of selection, but are expected to exercise this power, as closely as circumstances permit, in accord- ance with the suggestions made by Rhodes. The trust arranges for the distribution of elected scholars among the colleges of Oxford, each of which has agreed to receive a limited number of approved candidates. (G. R. P.) RHODES, JAMES FORD (1848- ), American historian, was born in Cleveland, Ohio, on the 1st of May 1848. He 11 258 RHODES entered the university of New York as a special student in 1865, studied at the university of Chicago in 1866-67, an d at the College de France in 1867-68, and in 1868 served as occasional Paris correspondent to the Chicago Times. He then took a course in metallurgy in the School of Mines, at Berlin; subsequently inspected iron and steel works in western Germany and in Great Britain; and in 1870 joined his father in the iron, steel and coal business in Cleveland, becoming a member of the firm in 1874. He retired from business with an ample fortune in 1885, and after two years devoted to general reading and travel he began his History of the United States from the Compromise of 18 50, which, closing the narrative with the year 1877, was published in seven volumes in 1893- 1906. In recognition of the merit of his work he received honorary degrees from various American universities, was elected president of the American Historical Association in 1899, and received the Loubat prize of the Berlin Academy of Sciences in 1901. In 1909 he published a volume of Historical Essays. RHODES, the most easterly of the islands of the Aegean Sea, about 10 m. S. of Cape Alypo in Asia Minor. It forms, with the islands of Syme, Casos, Carpathos, Castelorizo, Telos and Charki, one of the four sanjaks into which the Archipelago vilayet of Turkey is divided. The governor-general of the vilayet resides at the town of Rhodes. The length of the island is about 45 m. from N.E. to S.W., its greatest breadth 22 m., and its area nearly 424 sq. m. The population of the island comprises 7000 Moslems, 21,000 Christians, and 2000 Jews. The island is diversified in its surface, and is traversed from north to south by an elevated mountain range, the highest point of which is called Atairo (anc. Atabyris or Atabyrium) (4560 ft.). It commands a view of the elevated coast of Asia Minor towards the north, and of the Archipelago, studded with its numerous islands, on the north-west; while on the south-west is seen Mount Ida in Crete, often veiled in clouds, and on the south and south-east the vast expanse of waters which wash the African shore. The rest of the island is occupied in great part by ranges of moderately elevated hills, on which are found extensive woods of ancient pines, planted by the hand of nature. These forests were formerly very thick, but they are now greatly thinned by the Turks, who cut them down and take no care to plant others in their place. Beneath these hills the surface of the island falls lower, and several hills in the form of amphitheatres extend their bases as far as the sea. Rhodes was famed in ancient times for its delightful climate, and it still maintains its former reputation. The winds are liable to little variation; they blow from the west, often with great violence, for nine months in the year, and at other times from the north; and they moderate the summer heats, which are chiefly felt during the months of July and August, when the hot winds blow from the coast of Anatolia. Rhodes, in addition to its- fine climate, is blessed with a fertile soil, and produces a variety of the finest fruits and vegetables. Around the villages are extensive cultivated fields and orchards, containing fig, pomegranate and orange trees. On the sloping hills carob trees, and others both useful and agreeable, still grow abundantly; the vine also holds its place, and: produces a species of wine which (was highly valued by the ancients, though it seems to have degenerated greatly in modern times. The valleys afford rich pastures, and the plains produce every species of grain. The commerce of the island has been of late years increasing at a rapid rate. Many British manufactures are imported by indirect routes, through Smyrna, Constantinople, Beyrout and other places. Cotton stuffs, calicoes and grey linen are among the goods most in demand; they are exported to the neighbouring coast of Anatolia, between Budrum and Adalia, and thence conveyed into the interior. The expansion of the trade has been very much owing to the establishment of steam navigation direct to the island, which is now visited regularly by French and Austrian steamers, as well as by some from England to Symrna. The only town of any importance in the island is the capital, Rhodes, which stands at the north-east extremity. It rises in an imposing manner from the sea, on a gentle slope in the form of an amphitheatre. It is surrounded with walls and towers, and defended by a large moated castle of great strength. These fortifications are all the work of the Knights of St John. The interior of the city does not correspond to its outward appear- ance. No trace exists of the splendour of the ancient city, with its regular streets, well-ordered plan and numerous public buildings. The modern city of Rhodes is in general the work of the Knights of St John, and has altogether a medieval aspect. The picturesque fortifications also by which the city is surrounded remain almost unaltered as they were in the 15th century. The principal buildings which remain are the church of St John, which is become the principal mosque; the hospital, which has been transformed into public granaries; the palace of the grand master, now the residence of the pasha; and the senate-house, which still contains some marbles and ancient columns. Of the streets, the best and widest is a long street which is still called the Street of the Knights. It is perfectly straight, and formed of old houses, on which remain the armorial bearings of the members of the order. On some of these buildings are still seen the arms of the popes and of some of the royal and noble houses of Europe. The only relics of classical antiquity are the numerous inscribed altars and bases of statues, as well as architectural fragments, which are found scattered in the courtyards and gardens of the houses in the extensive suburbs which now surround the town, the whole of which were comprised within the limits of the ancient city. The foundations also of the moles that separate the harbours are of Hellenic work, though the existing moles were erected by the Knights of St John. Rhodes has two harbours. The lesser of these lies towards the east, and its entrance is obstructed by a barrier of rocks, so as to admit the entrance of but one ship at a time. It is sufficiently sheltered, but by the negligence of the Turks the sand has been suffered to accumulate until it has been gradually almost choked up. The other harbour is larger, and also in a bad condition; here small ships may anchor, and are sheltered from the west winds, though they are exposed to the north and north-east winds. The two harbours are separated by a mole which runs obliquely into the sea. At the eastern entrance is the fort of St Elmo, with a lighthouse. History. — It is as yet difficult to determine the part which Rhodes played in prehistoric days during the naval predominance of the neighbouring island of Crete; but archaeological remains dating from the later Minoan age prove that the early Aegean culture maintained itself there comparatively unimpaired until the historic pefiod. A similar conclusion may be drawn from the legend which peopled primitive Rhodes with a population of skilful workers in metal, the " Telchines." Whatever the racial affinities of the early inhabitants may have been, it is certain that in historic times Rhodes was occupied by a Dorian population, reputed to have emigrated mainly from Argos subsequently to the " Dorian invasion " of Greece. The three cities founded by these settlers — Lindus, Ialysus and Camirus — belonged to the " League of Six Cities," by which the Dorian colonists in Asia Minor sought to protect themselves against the barbarians of the neighbouring mainland. The early history of these towns is a record of brisk commercial expansion and active colonization. The position of Rhodes as a distributing centre of Levantine and especially of Phoenician goods is well attested by archaeological finds. Its colonies extended not only eastward along the southern coast of Asia Minor, but also linked up the island with the westernmost parts of the Greek world. Among such settlements may be mentioned Phaselis in Lycia, perhaps also Soli in Cilicia, Salapia on the east Italian coast, Gela in Sicily, the Lipari islands, and Rhoda in north-east Spain. In home waters the Rhodians exercised political control over Carpathos and other islands. RHODESIA 259 The history of Rhodes during the Persian wars is quite obscure. In the 5th century the three cities were enrolled in the Delian League, and democracies became prevalent. In 412 the island revolted from Athens and became the head- quarters of the Peloponnesian fleet. Four years later the in- habitants for the most part abandoned their former residences and concentrated in the newly founded city of Rhodes. This town, which was laid out on an exceptionally fine site according to a scientific plan by the architect Hippodamus of Miletus, soon rose to considerable importance, and attracted much of the Aegean and Levantine commerce which had hitherto been in Athenian hands. In the 4th century its political develop- ment was arrested by constant struggles between oligarchs and democrats, who in turn brought the city under the control of Sparta (412-395, 391-378), of Athens (395-391, 378-357), and of the Carian dynasty of Maussollus (3 5 7-340) • It seems that about 340 the island was conquered for the Persian king by his Rhodian admiral Mentor; in 332 it submitted to Alexander the Great. Upon Alexander's death the people expelled their Macedonian garrison, and henceforth not only maintained their independence but acquired great political influence. The expansion of Levantine trade which ensued in the Hellenistic age brought especial profit to Rhodes, whose standard of coinage and maritime law became widely accepted in the Mediterranean. Under a modified type of democracy, in which the chief power would seem to have rested normally with the six Trpuraras, or heads of the executive, the city enjoyed a long period of remark- ably good administration. The chief success of the government lay in the field of foraign politics, where it prudently avoided entanglement in the ambitious schemes of Hellenistic monarchs, but gained great prestige by energetic interference against aggressors who threatened the existing balance of power or the security of the seas. The chief incidents of Rhodian history during this period are a memorable siege by Demetrius Polior- cetes in 304, who sought in vain to force the city into active alliance with King Antigonus by means of his formidable fleet and artillery; a severe earthquake in 227, the damages of which all the other Hellenistic states contributed to repair, because they could not afford to see the island ruined; some vigorous cam- paigns against Byzantium, the Pergamene and the Pontic kings, who had threatened the Black Sea trade-route (220 sqq.), and against the pirates of Crete. In accordance with their settled policy the Rhodians eagerly supported the Romans when these made war upon Philip V. of Macedon and Antiochus III. of Syria on behalf of the minor Greek states. In return for their more equivocal attitude during the Third Macedonian War they were deprived by Rome of some possessions in Lycia, and damaged by the partial diversion of their trade to Delos (167). Nevertheless during the two Mithradatic wars they remained loyal to the republic, and in 88 successfully stood a siege by the Pontic king. The Rhodian navy, which had dis- tinguished itself in most of these wars, did further good service on behalf of Pompey in his campaigns against the pirates and against Julius Caesar. A severe blow was struck against the city in 43 by C. Cassius, who besieged and ruthlessly plundered the people for refusing to submit to his exactions. Though Rhodes continued a free town for another century, its commercial prosperity was crippled and a series of extensive earthquakes after a.d. 15s completed the ruin of the city. In the days of its greatest power Rhodes became famous as a centre of pictorial and plastic art ; it gave rise to a school of eclectic oratory whose chief representative was Apollonius Molon, the teacher of Cicero; it was the birthplace of the Stoic philosopher Panaetius; the home of the poet Apollonius Rhodius and the historian Posidonius. Protogenes embellished the city with his paintings, and Chares of Lindus with the celebrated colossal statue of the sun-god, which was 105 ft. high. The colossus stood for fifty-six years, till an earthquake prostrated it in 224 B.C. Its enormous fragments continued to excite wonder in the time of Pliny, and were not removed till A.D. 656, when Rhodes was con- quered by the Saracens, who sold the remains for old metal to a dealer, who employed nine hundred camels to carry them away. The notion that the colossus once stood astride over the entrance to the harbour is a medieval fiction. During the later Roman empire Rhodes was the capital of the province of the islands. Its history under the Byzantine rule is uneventful.but for some temporary occupations by the Saracens (653-658, 717-718), and the gradual encroachment of Venetian traders since 1082. In the 13th century the island stood as a rule under the control of Italian adventurers, who were, however, at times compelled to acknowledge the over- lordship of the emperors of Nicaea, and failed to protect it against the depredations of Turkish corsairs. In 1309 it was conquered by the Knights Hospitallers of St John of Jerusalem at the instiga- tion of the pope and the Genoese, and converted into a great fortress for the protection of the southern seas against the Turks. Under their mild and just rule both the native Greeks and the Italian residents were able to carry on a brisk trade. But the piratical acts of these traders, in which the knights themselves sometimes joined, and the strategic position of the island between Constanti- nople and the Levant, necessitated its reduction by the Ottoman sultans. A siege in 1480 by Mahomet II. led to the repulse of the Turks with severe losses; after a second investment, during which Sultan Suleiman I. is said to have lost 90,000 men out of a force of 200,000, the knights evacuated Rhodes under an honourable capitulation (1522). The population henceforth dwindled in con- sequence of pestilence and emigration, and although the island recovered somewhat in the 1 8th century under a comparatively lenient rule it was brought to a very low ebb owing to the severity of its governor during the Greek revolution. The sites of Lindus, Ialysus, and Camirus, which in the most ancient times were the principal towns of the island, are clearly marked, and the first of the three is still occupied by a small town with a medieval castle, both of them dating from the time of the knights, though the castle occupies the site of the ancient acropolis, of the walls of which considerable remains are still visible. There are no ruins of any importance on the site of either Ialysus or Camirus, but excavations at the latter place have produced valuable and interest- ing results in the way of ancient vases and other antiquities, which are now in the British Museum. Rhodes was again famous for its pottery in medieval times; this was a lustre ware at first imitated from Persian, though it afterwards developed into an independent style of fine colouring and rich variety of design. See Pindar, yth Olympian Ode; Diodorus v. 55-59, xiii.-xx. passim; Polybius iv. 46-52, v. 88-90, xvi. 2-9, xxvii.-xxix. passim; C. Torr, Rhodes in Ancient Times (Cambridge, 1885), Rhodes in Modern Times (Cambridge, 1887); C. Schumacher, De republica Rhodiorum commentatio (Heidelberg, 1886); H. van Gelder, Geschichte der alten Rhodier (Hague, 1900); B. V. Head, Historia Numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 539-542; and Baron de Balabre, Rhodes of the Knights (1909). (E. H. B.; E. Gr.; M. O. B. C.) RHODESIA (so named after Cecil Rhodes), an inland country and British possession in South Central Africa, bounded S. and S.W. by the Transvaal, the Bechuanaland Protectorate and German South-West Africa; W. by Portuguese West Africa. N.W. by Belgian Congo; N.E. by German East Africa; E. by the British Nyasaland Protectorate and Portuguese East Africa. It covers an area of about 450,000 sq. m., being larger than France, Germany and the Low Countries combined. It is divided into two parts of unequal size by the middle course of the Zambezi. Southern Rhodesia, with an area of 148,575 sq. m., consists of Matabeleland and Mashonaland, the western and eastern provinces, while the trans-Zambezi regions are divided into North-Western Rhodesia (or Barotseland) and North-Eastem Rhodesia. Physical Features. — Rhodesia forms part of the high tableland which constitutes the interior of Africa . south of the Congo basin. Hydrographically the greater part of the country belongs to the basin of the Zambezi (q.v.), but in the N.E. it includes the eastern headstreams of the Congo, and in the S. and S.E. it is drained by the tributaries of the Limpopo, the Sabi and the Pungwe. The Limpopo forms the boundary between Southern Rhodesia and the Transvaal. The north- western regions, drained by the upper Zambezi and its affluents, are described under Barotseland, and North-Eastem Rhodesia, together with the adjacent Nyasaland Protectorate, under British Central Africa. The highest portion of the tableland of Southern Rhodesia runs from the S.W. to the N.E. and forms a broad watershed between the tributaries of the Zambezi flowing north and the rivers flowing south and east. It is along this high plateau that the railway runs from Bulawayo to Salisbury and onwards to Portuguese East Africa. The eleva- tion of the railway varies from 4500 ft. to 5500 ft. There is a gradual sloping away of the plateau to the N.W. and S.E., so 26o RHODESIA that only a small portion of Southern Rhodesia is under 3000 ft. The eastern boundary, along Portuguese. East Africa, forms the edge of the. tableland; the height of the edge is accentuated by a series of ridges, so that the country here assumes a mountainous appearance, the grass-clad heights being reminiscent of the Cheviot Hills of Scotland or the lower Alps of Switzerland. Geology. — The geology of this region is very imperfectly known. Metamorphic rocks extend over immense areas, but these and the other formations are to a great extent hidden beneath superficial deposits. Conglomerates and banded ironstone rocks are found in the metamorphic areas around Bulawayo and the borders of Katanga; but to what extent these represent the different forma- tions older than the Karroo and newer than the Swaziland schists (see Transvaal) has not been satisfactorily determined. Certain gold-bearing conglomerates are regarded as the equivalents of the Witwatersrand series, but the main sources of gold are the veins of quartz and igneous rocks developed in the metamorphic series. The Karroo formation is well represented, and covers extensive areas in the Zambezi basin. The Dwyka conglomerate RHODESIA .fe English Miles .,_.prote ;torat'e- *'>{ appears to be developed in the Tuli district. The coal-bearing strata of Tuli and Wankies are certainly of Karroo age. They have yielded the fossil remains of fishes Acrolepis molyneuxi, the fresh- water mollusc Palaeomutela, a few reptilian bones, and species of Glossopteris among plants. The age of a widely distributed series of red-white sandstones, named by Molyneux the Forest Sandstone, remains uncertain. Molyneux considers them Tertiary, but it is not improbable that sandstones of various ages from Karroo to those of Recent date are represented. They contain numerous interbedded sheets of basalt, but it is doubtful if any of these are of so recent a date as Tertiary. Rocks of Karroo age occur round Lake Bangweulu, and contain numerous fossil plants and a few small shells. . The age of the wide, thick sheet of basalt, through which the Zambezi has cut the Batoka gorge between the Victoria Falls and Wankies, remains uncertain. 1 1 For geology see F. H. Hatch, " Notes on the Geology of Masho- naland and Matabeleland," Geol. Mag., 1895; A. 1. C. Molyneux, " The Sedimentary Deposits of Rhodesia," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. 'Hx. (1903); F. P. Mennel, "Geology of Rhodesia," British Association Handbook (Cape Town, 1905) ; G. W. Lamplugh, British Assoc. Rep., South African Meeting, 1905. Climate.— As Southern Rhodesia extends between 16° S. and 22 ° S., and is thus within the tropics, it might be expected that the climate would be trying for Europeans, but owing to the elevation of the country the temperature is rarely too high for comfort. Another factor that renders the climate equable. is that the rainy season coincides with the summer months, and the winter months are dry. The nights are always cool, so that the climate approxi- mates to the ideal. On the high tableland which forms the great proportion of the country the temperature in the shade rarely reaches 100 and there is just sufficient frost in the winter to be useful to farmers. The winter months are June, July and August, and the hottest months are the spring months of September, October and November, just before the rains begin. A temperature of 1 10° is sometimes reached in the low-lying district of Tuli (elevation 1890 ft.) and in the Zambezi valley. There is a striking difference between the minimum temperatures on the ground and those registered 4 ft. from the ground. The latter rarely reach freezing-point, but the ground temperature is sometimes as low as 24 . Hoar frost is most noticeable in the vleis and low-lying areas. The period known as the rainy season extends from Sep- tember to March, but the greatest amount falls in the last three months of that period. The mean annual rainfall for various stations in the eastern half of Rhodesia ranges from 24 to 44 in., the greatest rainfall being along the eastern border. For the western half the mean ranges from 19 to 27 in., but in the south-west corner it is much drier, the rainfall so far recorded never reaching 18 in. There is a sufficiency of rain for all summer crops, but winter crops, such as wheat, must be assisted by irrigation. Malaria is prevalent in certain districts during the wet season, but this is now preventable and the country is very healthy, children, especially in towns and on the high veld, growing sturdily. The death-rate amongst Europeans is only about 15 per 1000. « Fauna. — Rhodesia is rich in the larger grami- nivorous animals, especially in antelope, which number about twenty-five varieties, including kudu, eland, hartebeeste, roan, sable, wilde- beeste and impala. The most common are the duiker, the stembok and the rietbok. Other herbivorous animals found in the country are the buffalo, giraffe, zebra, elephant, hippopotamus, rhinoceros (black and white), warthog, and various baboons and monkeys. The buffalo is now rare, having been almost exterminated by the rinder- pest in 1896. The carnivora include the lion, leopard, cheetah, and various wild cats, foxes, wolves, jackals and dogs. There are at least five varieties of the mongoose. Amongst the rodents are squirrels, dormice, rats (eleven kinds), the porcupine, the Cape hare and the rock hare. Of insectivora the ant-eater, the ant-bear, the hedgehog and various shrews may be mentioned. Bats number eleven varieties. Snakes are numer- ous, the most important being the python, the puff-adder and the cobra. Crocodiles and iguanas are found in most of the rivers, and chameleons and lizards are very common. Rhodesia abounds in beetles, butterflies and moths, and new varieties are frequently discovered in the wet season. Men- tion ought to be made of white ants (termites) and locusts. The ants are a serious pest, attack- ing all cut timber resting in or on the ground. E« 7 w, to *. Th gradually envelop the dead wood in a mound of earth and consume it wholly, so that all poles and house-timber have to be carefully protected either by chemical preparations or by raising them clear from contact with the earth. The mounds which the white ants erect often reach a height of many feet. There are several kinds, the black-headed nipper ant, chiefly found in the west, being the most destructive. Locusts are particularly dreaded in their v/ingless state, when they clean off every green leaf, every bit of vegetation, as they march on in their hundreds of thousands. The rivers are not very plentiful in fish, but occasional sport is afforded by barbel, bream and tiger-fish. Birds to the number of about 400 varieties have been found in Rhodesia. The largest of these are the ostrich, the secretary-bird, the paauw, the koorhaan, cranes (three varieties), storks (four), vultures (six) and eagles (eight). The chief birds that attract sportsmen, besides the paauw and the koorhaan already men- tioned, are the guinea-fowl (three kinds), partridge and francolin (seven kinds), wild goose, duck and teal. Some of the most in- teresting birds are the weaver-birds (eighteen), the ox- peckers, which find their food on the backs of cattle, the kingfishers (eight), the hornbills (five), the parrots, lovebirds, the polygamous widow birds— whose females are of insignificant appearance, but whose males develop a brilliant plumage and lengthy tails during the RHODESIA 261 breeding season, when they are on guard over their harems of from ten to fifteen wives^-the sunbirds, with their long curved beaks that search out the nectar of flowers, and the honey-guides, which, with their agitated " chuck, chuck," lead the wayfarer to bees' nests with expectation of joining in the plunder. The small birds of Rhodesia are usually very brilliantly coloured, the most dis- tinguished being what is known as the blue jay, with its bright, iridescent, light blue plumage. Flora. — The vegetation of the territory is luxurious and mainly subtropical, but in the lower valleys the flora assumes a tropical aspect. The country is well wooded and in this respect differs from the high tablelands farther south. The trees as a rule attain no greater height than about 20 ft., but in some districts, such as South Melsetter and Wankies, there are remains of forests of large timber. The small growth of the trees is said to be due to the annual veld fires, and it is noticeable that native trees that are protected attain a much greater height. As a rule the wood is either very hard or very soft, so that timber for building has still to be imported, although the existing timber is useful for mining purposes. One of the hardest woods is the so-called Rhodesian teak (native Ikusi), which is about 50% harder than real teak (Tectona grandis). The trees most commonly met with are mapane, used for poles; umkamba, resembling mahogany; m'lanji cedar, chiefly found along the eastern border; umsasa, used for firewood; impachla, the native wisteria. Among other trees are the baobab with enormous very soft trunk, the fruit being a large nut containing citrate of magnesia, which natives use to make a cooling drink; the umvagaz-^-or blood-wood — which issues a blood-coloured juice when cut, and the umkuna, or hissing tree, which hisses when an incision is made. The barks of the umsasa, the umhondo, and the umgosa are much used by natives for binding fibres in making huts and are also used for tanning. The bark of. the baobab yields a fine fibre which natives use in making excellent game nets and fishing nets. The native fruit-bearing trees are the fig (many varieties), the mahobohobo or umjanje, resembling the loquat, the Kaffir plum, very sour and totally different from the Kaffir plum of Cape Colony, and the Kaffir orange. Among the shrubs the proteas, or sugar bushes, with their nectar-stored flowers, are the most frequent. The mimosa thorn, although more of the nature of a tree, grows in dense masses, chiefly in the western province. The period of the year when flowers begin to bloom is rather remarkable. After the long spell of dry weather, lasting from five to seven months, and before any rain has fallen, blooms appear all over the veld. Most of such flowers are those of bulbous plants or plants with large roots that have been stored with nourishment during the previous growing wet season. The flowers are sustained by this stock of food until the rains appear again to replenish the roots. Even grass sprouts green over the earth before the rains appear, and the hard-baked veld is pierced by the shoots of the gladiolus, the orchid, the asparagus, the solanum, the convolvulus and many other flowers. When the rains are far advanced, the annuals shoot rapidly and make a second show of bloom. A peculiarity of the early spring shoots on trees and shrubs is that they have not the green tints of the colder regions, but are all shades of brown and orange and red and yellow. One of the chief features of Rhodesia is the vast stretches of grass-covered veld, the grasses varying from a few inches to 15 ft. in height and numbering about 100 different varieties. Along the rivers are to be found palms, tree ferns, bananas, dracaenas and other hot climate plants. Rubber, indigo and cotton are indigenous and there are groves of lemon trees, but these were most probably introduced by early settlers. Tobacco, which grows luxuriantly, may also have been introduced. Inhabitants. — In Southern Rhodesia about half the European population, which in 1909 was approximately 16,500, is British born or born of British parents, and about one-third is South African born. There are about 11,500 males and 5000 females, and the population is equally divided between the urban and rural areas. In rural areas the chief occupations are mining and agriculture. Industrial pursuits, including mining, engage about 25% of the population, 8% are employed in agriculture, and 15% in commerce. Mashonaland has 7500 white inhabi- tants;, and Matabeleland 9000. There are about 2000 Asiatics in Southern Rhodesia. The Natives of Rhodesia belong to the Bantu-Negro stock and are roughly divisible into two groups; those long settled in the country, and the Amazulu, who during the 19th century left Zululand and, passing through the more southern regions, overran Rhodesia and settled in Matabeleland. The Barotse (q.v.) are mainly settled in North-West Rhodesia. In Southern Rhodesia, in spite of incursions from Portuguese territory and from the north, the natives can be still clearly divided into Mashona and Matabele, living in the eastern and western pro- vinces respectively. The name Mashona is not used by the natives but is useful as distinguishing the allied tribes of the eastern division from the Matabele in the west. The languages of the Mashona tribes are allied and are distinct from that of the Matabele (or Zulu), but it is uncertain whether these Mashona tongues should be regarded merely as different dialects, or languages as different as . those of the various nations of Europe (but see Bantu Languages). The tribes round Salisbury and extending as far as Marondella in the east and about 100 m. north are clearly branches of the Vasezuru people, that is, the people from " higher up," the " higher up " being a region in the south-east. Their history can be traced from about the beginning of the 18th century; but there is a great lack of tradition amongst this class of native, which, is distinctly inferior in type to the Matabele in the west. Farther north there are the Makorikori and the Mabudja or Mabushla. It would appear that the country in which- these people now dwell, was formerly in the possession of the Barotse, and some of the present chiefs obtained their positions by per- mission of the Barotse. Previously, according to Portuguese documents of the 16th and 17th centuries, the Makaranga or Makalanga now located in the south round about Victoria had possession of the country as far north as the Zambezi. Their language is allied to that of the present inhabitants, but in many respects is widely different and of la|e has become more so owing to intercourse with the Matabele. Along the eastern border two more tribes can be differentiated, namely, Umtasa's people in the north and those speaking the Chindawo language in the south. Their languages are merely variants of the language spoken in the Salisbury and Mazoe districts. All the tribes in the eastern province have very similar habits and customs. Their huts are circular with a wall a foot or two high, made of poles and daga (mud) surmounted by a conical thatched roof. They thus differ from the beehive huts of the Zulus. They are built indiscriminately together and are not surrounded by stockades. The whole family dwells in the same hut along with dogs, goats and fowls, and sometimes even with cattle, though there are usually separate kraals for their cattle. The kraals are as a rule filthy, but the inside of the hut is kept clean. There is a special place for a fire, and a raised portion of the mud floor on which to sleep, but no furniture. Their mealie fields are usually some distance from the place of abode, but their tobacco gardens are near their huts. Their main object in life seems to be to grow sufficient grain for food and beer. The grain they store in granaries, resembling small huts, placed on rocks or on Stakes, out of the reach of white ants and secure from the depredations of animals. They amuse themselves occasionally by making earthenware pots which are very soft and easily broken, or by engaging in iron- work or brass-wire work for ornamentation. In the south they are quite clever in making water-tight baskets from rushes grown by the Sabi river. In their religious beliefs spirits play a great part. Above all there is a vague idea of a Supreme Being whom they call Mwari. They have a fixed belief in the spirits of their ancestors, the spirits of the witch-doctors, Ihe spirits of the Matabele, the spirits of old women, the spirits of the foolish, the spirits of baboons, &c. Every occurrence is attributed to the influence of a spirit, and if the occurrence is an evil one a feast and dance of propitiation are held. Feasts of thanks- giving are also held on such occasions as the gathering of the first-fruits, the harvest festival, or on the return from a long and dangerous journey. Of the tribes already mentioned the most advanced are Umtasa's people and the Makaranga. The pro- bable connexion of the tribes now inhabiting Mashonaland with , the architects of the ancient stone buildings which are scattered over the country is discussed in the section Archaeology. Of these ruins the most extensive are situated near Victoria and are known as Zimbabwe (q.v.) . In the western province the Matabele, or rather Amandabele, are the descendants of the Zulus who trekked under the 262 RHODESIA leadership of the famous Mosilikatze up through the Trans- vaal, whence they were driven by the Boers. Mosilikatze died in 1868, and his son Lobengula, after a fight with a brother, assumed sway in 1870. His people were divided into three main sections: the Abezansi (who were the aristo- crats), the Abenhla and the Amaholi. The Amaholi or Holi were the inhabitants of the land at the time of the invasion and thereafter were practically in the position of bondsmen and rarely allowed to possess cattle. The great spirit of the Holis was the Mlimo, who was practically the spirit of the nation. Among the Holi tribes are the Aba- shangwe, the Abanyai, the Batonke (near the Zambezi), the Abananzwa of the Wankie district, the Ababiro of the Tuli district, and the Abasili, a nomadic tribe chiefly subsisting on game. There is a small tribe in the Belingwe district called the Abalemba, which would appear to have been in touch with the Arabs in early times. Their customs include circumcision and the rejection of pork as food. The natives in Southern Rhodesia number about 700,000, and of these 10,000 work on the mines and 20,000 are engaged in farm, railway and household work under Europeans. Chief Towns. — Salisbury, which lies 4880 ft. above the sea, is the capital of Southern Rhodesia, being the seat of government, and is situated in the eastern province (Mashonaland). There are about 1700 white inhabitants and 3000 natives. It is the commercial centre for an extensive mining and farming district. The principal buildings include churches, public library, hospital, schools, banks, post office and numerous hotels. There are a con- siderable number of government offices, and the administrator and resident commissioner live here. The only industries are a brewery and a tobacco factory for grading and packing the tobaccos of the local growers. Bulawayo (q.v.), situated 4469 ft. above the sea, is the largest town and is in the western province, Matabeleland. It is 301 m. by rail S.W. of Salisbury, and 1362 m. N.E. of Cape Town. The popula- tion is some 4000 Europeans and about the same number of natives. The town has the advantage of a good pipe water supply and a service of electric light. It was the ancient capital of the Matabele king, Lobengula. There is a Government house which is occa- sionally occupied, and was the residence of Cecil Rhodes. It is from Bulawayo that the World's View, the burial-place of Rhodes in the Matoppo Hills, is usually visited. The other towns are Umtali, on the eastern border, pop. 800 whites, railway works, centre for numerous large and small gold mines; Gwelo, the central town, about midway between Salisbury and Bulawayo, 370 whites; Victoria and Melsetter in the south, centres of farming districts. Victoria, near which are the famous Zimbabwe ruins, is reached by mail cart (80 m.) from Selukwe, and Melsetter by mail cart (95 m.) from Umtali. There are also small townships at Hartley, Selukwe, Enkeldoorn and Gwanda. Bulawayo and Salisbury are managed by town councils, the other towns have sanitary boards. Communications. — The Rhodesian railway system connects the chief towns and mining centres with one another and all the other South African countries. The main line is a continuation of the railway from Cape Town through Kimberley and Mafeking. It runs from Mafeking in a general N.E. direction to Bulawayo, whence it goes N.W. to the Zambezi, which is crossed a little below the Victoria Falls. The bridging of the river was completed in April 1905. Thence the railway is continued N.E. (92 m.) to Kalomo, Barotseland, and onward to the Katanga district of Belgian Congo. The section from Kalomo to Broken Hill (261 m.) was completed in 1907, and the extension to the frontier of Belgian Congo (126 m.) in 1909. This main line forms the southern link in the Cape to Cairo railway and steamboat service. From Bulawayo a line goes N.E. by Gwelo to Salisbury and thence S.E. to the Portuguese port of Beira. From Bulawayo another line (120 m. long) runs S.E. to the West Nicholson Mine. From Gwelo a railway (40 m.) goes S.E. to Yankee Doodle, and from this there branches a line (50 m. long) in an easterly direction to Blinkwater. From Salisbury a line runs N.W. to Lomagundi (84 m.). The last-named has a 2 ft. gauge. The other railways are of the standard gauge of South Africa — 3 ft. 6 in. The distances from Bulawayo to the following places are: — Gwelo, 113 m. ; Salisbury, 301 m. ; Umtali, 471 m. ; Beira, 675 m. ; Mafeking, 490 m. ; Kimberley, 713 m.; Cape Town, 1362 m. ; Port Elizabeth, 1 199 m. ; East London, 1260 m. ; Bloemfontein, 800 m. ; Johannesburg, 931 m. ; Pretoria, 977 m.; Lourengo Marques, 1307 m. ; Durban, 1238 m. (the last four places all via Fourteen Streams, a junction 48 m. N. of Kimberley), and Victoria Falls, 282 m. . About 4000 m. of roads have been built and are maintained by government. The telegraph and telephone system is very com- plete, there being for the whole of Rhodesia about 8000 m. of wires. This total includes the police telephone wires and part of the African Transcontinental system, and is served by about ninety telegraph offices. In Southern Rhodesia there are about eighty post offices. A post office savings bank was brought into operation on the 1st of January 1905. Over 2,500,000 letters, post-cards and parcels are despatched annually. Agriculture. — The country is well adapted for agriculture. Chief attention has been paid by farmers to the growing of maize, the annual produce being about half a million bushels. It is a very easily grown cereal, especially in such a fertile country as Rhodesia, and is extensively grown by natives, but the improved methods of the whites easily secure a yield of from twice to eight times that of the native. The average yield by European farmers is about eight bags of 200 ft) per acre, but ten to fifteen bags is quite a common crop. Wheat, barley and oats are grown with success under irrigation in the winter time, but the moisture with attendant rust is too excessive for these crops in summer. Tobacco promises to be a great source of wealth to the territory. Both the Turkish and Virginian tobaccos have been raised and cured and put on the market, where they were easily disposed of. They are of better quality than those grown elsewhere in South Africa. In 1908 only about 500 acres were under cultivation, but there are large tracts of land suitable for this industry. Fruits of very extensive variety thrive in Rhodesia ; they include plums, bananas, grapes, guavas, paupaus, figs, loquats, pine-apples, Cape gooseberries, mulberries, tree tomatoes, rosellas, granadillas, all kinds of citrus fruits. The most flourishing are the citrus fruits and the Japanese plums, but in the higher altitudes pears and apples are also very successful. Vegetables of nearly all kinds can be grown, especially potatoes, tomatoes, asparagus, sweet potatoes, yams, &c. Coffee produces as much as 4 lb of beans to the shrub in certain parts. Cattle thrive well in Rhodesia, and stock-raising promises to be the chief agricultural industry of the future. During the early period of European occupation rinderpest and at a later date East Coast fever decimated the country, but the prevention of these diseases is now thoroughly understood and, since the rinderpest of 1896 swept away large herds, cattle have been increasing rapidly in number. There is hardly any portion of the territory which is not suitable for cattle, and the rapid natural increase indicates a speedy prosperity in cattle ranching. Goats and woolless sheep number about 800,000 in the territory. Donkeys and mules thrive, but horses are very liable to horse-sickness towards the end of the rainy season. Mining. — When Rhodesia was first opened up to European occupation, attention was immediately called to the large number of gold workings made by unknown former inhabitants of the country. These workings were only carried on to a limited extent, being stopped probably by the presence of water and the lack of suitable machinery. European enterprise has resulted in the discovery of a large number of mines situated in widely scattered areas. The chief mines are the Globe and Phoenix, the Selukwe and the Wanderer in the Gwelo district; the Giant in the Hartley district; the Jumbo in the Mazoe district; the Ayrshire in the Lomagundi district; the Penhalonga and the Rezende in the Umtali district, while there are numerous smaller mines in the Gwanda, Insiza, Gwelo, Hartley and Umtali districts. The output of gold increased in value from £308,000 in 1900 to £2,623,000 in 1909, about one-third of this being produced by small workers whose individual output is not over 1500 oz. a month. As efforts have been restricted mainly to extracting the ore indicated by ancient workings, it is probable that many gold reefs still await discovery. The mineral wealth of Rhodesia is very varied and includes silver, of which 262,000 oz. were produced in 1909; coal, 170,000 tons (1909), and lead, 965 tons. Extensive discoveries of chrome iron have been made in the Selukwe district. There is a steady export of this metal, of which the output in 1909 was oyer 25,000 tons. Besides these, small quantities of copper, wolframite and diamonds have been exported, while scheelite and asbestos have been discovered in payable quantities. Commerce. — Taking the average for a series of years ending 1908, the total imports amounted to about £1,500,000 per annum, 55% of which were manufactured articles, including £250,000 textile goods and wearing apparel, and £120,000 machinery. Im- ports of food and drink amounted to £330,000. In 1909 the imports amounted to £2,214,000, the chief items being food and drink (£422,000), machinery, animals and cotton goods. Exports consist almost entirely of minerals. In 1909 they were valued at £3,178,000. Included in the total is £342,000 goods imported and re-exported. Administration. — The administration of Rhodesia is carried on by the British South Africa Company under an order in council of 1898, amended by orders in council of 1903 and 1905. The company is called upon to appoint for Southern Rhodesia an administrator or administrators. The company also ap- points an executive council of not fewer than four members to advise the administrator upon all matters of importance in administration. An order in council of 1903 provided for a RHODESIA 263 legislative council consisting of the administrator, who presides, seven nominees of the company approved by the secretary of state, and seven members elected by registered voters (the number of registered voters in 1908 was 5291). In 1907 it was agreed to reduce the company's nominees by one, so. that the elected members should form the majority of the council. The secretary of state appoints a resident commissioner, who sits on both executive and legislative councils without vote. The duty of the resident commissioner is to report to the high commissioner upon all matters of importance. Ordinances passed by the legislative council are submitted to the high commissioner for consent or otherwise, but may be disallowed by the secretary of state. For the administration of justice there is a High Court with two judges having civil and criminal jurisdiction. There are seven magistrates' courts throughout the territory. For the administration of native affairs there are appointed a secretary for native affairs, two chief native commissioners, twenty-eight native commissioners and six assistant native commissioners. Natives suffer no disabilities or restrictions which do not equally apply to Europeans except in respect of the supply of arms, ammunition and liquor. Native com- missioners may exercise jurisdiction in native affairs not ex- ceeding that exercisable by magistrates. The company has to provide land, usually termed Native Reserves, sufficient and suitable for occupation by natives and for their agricul- tural and industrial requirements. Revenue. — The administrative revenue of Southern Rhodesia was at first much less than the cost of administration. The figures for 1899-1900 were: revenue, £325,000; expenditure, £702,000. Since that date revenue has increased and expenditure decreased, and from 1905-6 (in which year the revenue exceeded £500,000) the cost of administration has been met out of revenue. For 1909-10 the revenue was approximately £600,000, the two main items being customs duty, £190,000, and native tax, £200,000. The native tax is £1 per head for every adult male and 10s. for every wife after the first. Education. — Besides a few private schools, there were in 1909 34 schools for Europeans, 26 of which were wholly financed by government, the remainder being aided. The aided schools are as a rule connected with some religious body, and aid is given to the extent of half the salaries of the teachers and half the cost of school requisites. Loans are also given to assist in school building. A system of boarding grants has been instituted to enable children in the outlying districts to attend school. Education is not free except for poor children, but the fees in government schools do not exceed £6 a year. In 1910 several schools had reached the stage of preparing pupils for matriculation at the Cape University and similar examinations. The number of pupils in 1909 in European schools was 12 12, being more than double what it had been four years previously. The education of natives is in the hands of various religious bodies, but financial aid is given by government to native schools which comply with certain easy conditions. In 1909, 80 native schools with an enrolment of 7622 pupils earned grants. Military Forces. — The military force in Southern Rhodesia is styled the British South African Police, and numbers about 40 officers, 400 non-commissioned officers and men, and 550 native police. The force is under a commandant-general, who, with the sub- ordinate officers, is appointed by the secretary of state, and is under the direct control and authority of the high commissioner. The commandant-general is paid by the British parliament. The offices of commandant-general and resident commissioner were com- bined in 1905. The Southern Rhodesia Volunteers, in two divisions, eastern and western, under command of colonels, number altogether 86 officers and 1700 non-commissioned officers and men. Medical. — There are, including cottage hospitals, ten hospitals in towns and townships, and thirteen district surgeries have been established. (G. Du.) Archaeology. — Between the Zambezi and the Limpopo, and extending from the coast to at least 27° E., may be found the traces of a large population which inhabited Southern Rhodesia and Portuguese East Africa in bygone times. Apart from numerous mines, some of which are being successfully re- worked at the present day, ruins of stone buildings have bejsn found in several hundred distinct places. Few of these have been explored systematically, but investigations in 1905, though confined to a small number of sites, determined at least the main questions of date and origin. The fanciful theories of popular writers, who had ascribed these buildings to a remote antiquity, and had even been so audacious as to identify their founders with the subjects of King Solomon or of his contemporary the queen of Sheba, are now seen to be untenable. J. T. Bent's Ruined Cities of Mashonaland (1892) is now interesting only for its illustrations, and his theories are obsolete. Positive archaeological evidence demonstrates that the " Great Zimbabwe " itself, the most famous and the most imposing of the misnamed " Ruined Cities," was not built before medieval times, and that the earliest date which can be assigned to any of the sites explored is subse- quent to the nth century a.d. Moreover, the complete identity of custom, revealed no less by the details of the dwell- ings than by the type of the articles found within them, proves that the tribe that built these structures was one closely akin to if not actually identical with the present Bantu inhabitants of the country. These ruins, even when stripped of their false romance, are of extreme interest; but their nature and appearance have been much misunderstood, and the skill and intelligence re- quired for their erection have been grossly overestimated. It should be clearly stated, therefore, that the methods of the old Rhodesians evince their complete ignorance of all the devices employed in the architecture of civilized peoples. They have not attempted to solve the problems' of supporting weight and pressure by the use of pillar, arch or beam; the ingenuity of the builders goes no further than the dexterous heaping up of stones. Indeed, their most finished and ela- borate work must be compared with nothing more ambitious than the dry-built walls which serve to enclose the fields in certain parts of England. The material is the local granite or diorite obtainable in the immediate neighbourhood. Stone- hewing has not been practised; and was unnecessary, since the natural flaking of the boulders provides an abundance of ready-made slabs which need only be detached from the parent rock and broken to the required size. At most the blocks thus obtained have been very roughly trimmed with one or two blows, and any apparent regularity in the fitting has been obtained merely by judicious selection. Mortar has seldom been used; the courses are never laid with any approach to exactness; walls merely abut on one another without being bonded, and the same line often varies greatly in thickness at different parts. The main principle of the ground plan is invariably circular or elliptical, though it is carried out with a conspicuous lack of symmetry or exactness. Straight lines are unknown, and even accidental approximations to an angle are rare. This is eminently characteristic of the Bantu, whose huts are commonly built in circular form. Indeed, it is the round Bantu hut which has been the original model for even the finest of these stone constructions. The connexion between the two, however, goes beyond mere resemblance. The stone walls are always accompanied by huts; they are mere parti- tions or ring-fences enclosing and structurally inseparable from platforms of clay or cement on which stand the remains of precisely the same dwellings that the Makalanga make at the present day. Buildings such as those at Dhlo Dhlo, Nana- tali and Khami in Matabeleland, or at Zimbabwe in southern Mashonaland, are merely fortified kraals; remarkable indeed as the work of an African people, but essentially native African in every detail, not excepting the ornamentation. The best-known and the most attractive of the Rhodesian ruins are those situated in the more central and southern region. In the north-east, however, the remains are even more numerous, though the single units are less remarkable. Over the whole of Inyanga and the Mazoe region are distri- buted hill-forts, pit-dwellings and intrenchments which are more primitive in character though of the same generic type as those found farther south. The inhabitants of these northern districts were occupied more in agriculture than in gold-mining, and one of the most striking features of their settlements is the 264 RHODESIA irrigation system. There are no aqueducts such as Europeans or Arabs might have built, but water furrows have been carried on admirably calculated gradients for miles along the hill-sides. The amount of labour which has been expended on the great villages between Inyanga and the Zambezi is astounding. On one site, the Niekerk Ruins, an area of fully 50 sq. m. is covered with uninterrupted lines of walls. It is an interesting question which may be solved by future explorations whether these ' settlements do not extend north of the Zambezi. In- trenchments like those of the Niekerk Ruins have been reported from the south-east of Victoria Nyanza, and Major Powell Cotton has published a photograph from the Nandi country which exhibits a Structure precisely similar to the hill forts of Inyanga. (See also Zimbabwe; Monomotapa.)' •'■■ See D. Randall-Maclver, Mediaeval Rhodesia (London, 1906); R. N. Hall and W. G.'Neal, The Ancient Ruins of Rhodesia (London, 1902); Zeitschrift filr Ethnologie, 1875 and 1876; Journal of the R.G.S., 1890, 1893, 1899, 1906; Journal of Anthropl. Inst., vols. xxxi., xxxv. (D. R.-M.) History. — There is evidence that from the 10th or nth centuries onward the lands now forming Rhodesia were in- habited by Bantu-negroes who had made some progress in civilization and who traded with the Arab settlements at Sofala and elsewhere on the east coast (see Archaeology above). From the 1 5th century, if not earlier, until about the close of the 1 8th century, "a considerable part of this area was ruled by a hereditary monarch known as the Monomotapa, whose Zim- babwe (capital) was, in the earlier part of the period indicated, in what is now Mashonaland. Some of the Monomotapas during the r6th and 17th centuries entered into political and commercial relations with the Portuguese (see Monomotapa and Zimbabwe). The Monomotapa " empire " included many vassal states, and probably fell to pieces through intertribal fighting, which greatly reduced the number of inhabitants. In the early years of the 19th century the tribes appear to have lost all cohesion. The people were mainly agriculturists, but the working of the gold-mines, whence the Monomotapas had ob- tained much of their wealth, was not wholly abandoned. The modern history of the country begins with its invasion by the Matabele, an; offshoot of the Zulus. Mosilikatze, their first chief, was a warrior and leader who served- under the Zulu despot Chaka. Being condemned to death by Chaka, Mosilikatze fled, with a large division of the Zulu army. About 181 7 he settled in territories north of the Vaal, not far from the site of Pretoria; and in 1836 a treaty of friendship was entered into with him by the governor of Cape Colony. In the same year a number of the " trek Boers " had crossed the Vaal river, and came in contact with the Matabele, who attacked and defeated them, capturing a large number of Boer cattle and sheep. In November 1837 the Boers felt themselves strong enough to assail Mosilikatze, and they drove him and his tribe north of the Limpopo, where they settled and occupied the country subsequently known as Matabeleland. In 1868 Mosilikatze died. Kuruman, son and recognized heir of the old chieftain, had disappeared years before, and though a Matabele who claimed to be the missing heir was brought from Natal he was not acknowledged by the leading indunas, who in January 1870 invested Lobengula, the next heir, with the chieftainship. Those Matabele who favoured the supposed Kuruman were defeated in one decisive battle, and thereafter Lobengula, whose kraal was at Bulawayo, reigned unchallenged. At this time the Matabele power extended north to the Zambezi, and eastward over the land occupied by the Mashona and other Makalanga tribes. North of the Zambezi the western districts were ruled by the Barqtse (q.v.) , while the eastern portion had been overrun by other tribes of Zulu-Xosa origin, among whom the Agoni were the most powerful. The explorations of David Livings stone, Thomas Baines (1822-1875), Karl Mauch, and other travellers, had made known to Europe the general character of the country and the existence of great mineral wealth. Loben- gula was approached by' several " prospectors " for the grant of concessions; among them two Englishmen, Baines in 1871 and Sir John Swinburne in 1872, obtained cessions of mineral rights, but little effort was made to put them in force. In 1882 President Kruger, who was then bent on extending the bound- aries of the Transvaal in every direction, endeavoured to make a treaty, with Lobengula, but without success. The Warren expedition of 1884 to Bechuanaland (q.v.), while it checked for a time the encroachments of the Transvaal Boers, and preserved to Great Britain the highway to the north through Bechuana- land, also served to encourage colonists to speculate as to the future of the interior. At this time, too, the struggle between the nations of western Europe for the unappropriated portions of Africa had begun, and while tha, Boers, foiled in Matabeleland, endeavoured to get a footing in Mashonaland, both Portuguese and Germans were anxious to secure for their countries as much of this region as they could. In 1887 a map was laid before the Portuguese cortes showing the territories in Africa claimed by Portugal. They stretched across the continent from sea to sea, and included almost the whole of what is now Rhodesia, as well as the British settlements on Lake Nyasa. To the claim of a transcontinental domain Portugal had succeeded in gaining the assent of Germany and France, though Germany, which had secured a footing in south-west Africa, still dreamed of extending her sway over Matabeleland. By the instructions of Lord Salisbury, then foreign secretary, the British representative at Lisbon informed the Portuguese government that except on the seacoast and on portions of the Zambezi river there was not a sign of Portuguese authority or jurisdiction in the districts claimed by them, and that the British government could not recognize Portuguese sovereignty in territory not effectively occupied by her. This protest, so far as southern Rhodesia is concerned, might have been ineffective save for the foresight, energy and deter- mination of Cecil Rhodes, who had been instrumental in saving Bechuanaland from the Boers, and who as early as 1878 had conceived the idea of extending British influence over central Africa. 1 At this time gold prospecting was being feverishly undertaken all over South Africa as a result of the discoveries at Barberton and on the Rand, and Lobengula was besieged for all sorts of concessions by both Portuguese and Boers, as well as by other adventurers from all parts of the world. ~ h If the country was to be secured for Britain immediate country action was necessary. Sir Sidney Shippard, who had secured succeeded Rhodes as commissioner in Bechuanaland for Great and who shared his views, kept up a friendly corre- BrU ain. spondence with Lobengula, while at Bulawayo Mr J. S. Moffat was British resident. At the end of 1887 Sir Sidney urged the high commissioner, Lord Rosmead (then Sir Hercules Robinson), to allow him to conclude a treaty with Lobengula, but unavailingly, until Rhodes, by taking upon himself all pecuniary responsibility, succeeded in obtaining the required sanction. On the nth of February 1888, Moffat and Lobengula signed an agreement, whereby the Matabele ruler agreed that he would refrain from entering into any correspondence or treaty with any foreign state or power without the previous knowledge and sanction of the British high commissioner for South Africa. Shortly after the conclusion of this treaty, representatives of influential syndicates directed by Rhodes, in which Alfred Beit and C. D. Rudd were large holders, were sent, with the know- ledge of the British government and the high commissioner, to negotiate with Lobengula, and on the 30th of October of the same year he concluded an arrangement with Messrs Rudd, Rochfort Maguire and F.R. Thomson, by which, in return for the payment of £100 a month, together with 1000 Martini-Henry rifles and 100,000 rounds of ammunition, he gave the syndicate complete control over all the metals and minerals in his kingdom, with power to exclude from his dominions " all persons seeking land, metals, minerals or mining rights therein," in which action, if necessary, he promised to render them assistance. The position of the envoys was one of considerable danger, as Lobengula had around him many white advisers strongly antagonistic to 1 See article " Bechuanaland " by Sir Henry Shippard in British Africa (London, 1899). RHODESIA 365 Rhodes'sscheme. The arrival at Bulawayo of Dr L. S. Jameson, who had previously attended Lobengula professionally, and who strongly supported Rudd and his companions, appears to have been the factor which decided Lobengula to sign the concession. This concession once obtained, Rhodes proceeded with rapidity to prosecute his great enterprise. He extinguished the claims of earlier concessionaires by purchase (giving, for instance, £10,046 for the Baines and Swinburne grants), and united all interests in the British South Africa Company, with a share capital of £1,000,000. Following the example of Sir George Goldie in West Africa and of Sir William Mackinnon in East Africa, Rhodes determined to apply to the British government for a charter for the newly formed company, whose original directors were, in addition to Rhodes and Beit, the duke of Abercorn, the duke of Fife, Lord Gifford, Albert (afterwards 4th earl) Grey and George Cawston. In applying for a charter (in April 1889) the founders of the company stated their objects to^ be the following: (1) To extend northwards the railway and telegraph systems in the direction of the Zambezi; (2) to encourage emigration and colonization; (3) to promote trade -and commerce; (4) to develop and work minerals and other concessions under the management of one powerful organization, thereby obviating conflicts and complications between the various interests that had been acquired within these regions, and securing to the native chiefs and their subjects the rights reserved to them under the several concessions. In making this application the boundaries in which they proposed to work were purposely left somewhat vague. They were described to be the region Tht of South Africa lying immediately north of British b.S.a. Bechuanaland, north and west of the South African Co.'s Republic, and west of the Portuguese dominions on charter. ^ eag( . coast The government, having ascertained the substantial nature of the company's resources and the composition of the proposed directorate, and also that they were prepared to begin • immediately the development of the country, granted the charter, dated the 20th of October 1889.. From this date onward the company was commonly known as " the Chartered Company.'' A few points in the charter itself deserve to be noted. In the first place, it gave considerable extension to the terms of the original concessions by Lobengula. In short, it transformed the rights of working minerals and metals, and preventing others from doing so, into rights practically sovereign over the regions in which the company's activity was to be employed. These rights the crown granted directly itself, not merely con- firming a previous grant from another source. By Article X. the company was empowered to make ordinances (to be approved by the secretary of state), and to establish and maintain a force of police. A strict supervision was provided for, to be exercised by the secretary of state over the relations between the company and the natives. The British government reserved to itself entire power to repeal the charter at any time that it did not consider the company was fulfilling its obligations or endeavouring duly to carry out the objects for which the charter was granted. The sphere of operations of the company was not stated with any greater precision than had been indicated in the applica- tion for the charter; but by agreements concluded with Germany in 1900, with Portugal in 1 891 and with the Congo State in 1894, the international boundaries were at length defined (see Africa, § 5). The agreements, while, they took the British sphere north to Lake Tanganyika, disappointed Rhodes in that they prevented the realization of the scheme he had formed by the time the charter was granted, namely, for. securing a, continuous strip of British territory from the Cape to Egypt — a scheme which was but an enlargement of his original conception as formulated in 1878. Much, however, had happened before the boundaries of the British sphere were fixed. While the railway from Cape Town was being continued northward as rapidly as possible, the determination was taken to occupy immediately part of the sphere assigned to the company, and Mashonaland was selected as not being in actual occupation by the Matabele but the home of more peaceful tribes. A pioneer force was sent up in June 1890 under Colonel Pennefather, consisting of five hundred mounted police and a few hundred pioneers. Accompanying this force as guide was the well-known traveller, F. C. Selous. The work of transport was attended with considerable difficulty, and roads had to be cut as the expedition advanced. Neverr theless, in a few months the expedition, without firing a shot, had reached the site of what is now the town of Salisbury, and had also established on the line of march small forts, at Tuli, Victoria and Charter. Archibald Ross Colquhoun was chosen as the first administrator. He had not long been in office when, in May 1 89 1 , difficulties arose with the Portuguese m as ^ ona . on their north-west frontier, both parties claiming a land tract of territory in which a Portuguese trading station occupied had been established. The result was a skirmish, in — A Boe ' , which a small company of British South Africa police ^ ea ^" were victorious. In 189 iDr Jameson, who had joined the pioneer force, was appointed administrator in succession to Colquhoun. The Boers for several years had been planning a settlement north of the Limpopo, and they now determined, in spite of the Moffat treaty and the British occupation, to carry out their object. An expedition known as the Banyailand Trek: was organized under the leadership of Colonel Ferreira, and two large parties of Boers proceeded to the banks of the Limpopo. Information of the intended trek had been conveyed to Cape Town, and Sir Henry (afterwards Lord) Loch (the high com- missioner) at once sent a strong protest to President Kruger, informing him that any ; attempt . to invade the Chartered Company's territories would be an act of hostility against the British Crown; and Kruger issued a proclamation forbidding the trekkers to prpceed. Meanwhile, however, a party, had already reached the Limpopo, where they were met by Jameson in command of the British South Africa Company's forces. He told them that they would not be allowed to proceed except as private individuals, who might obtain farms on applica- tion to the Chartered Company. Colonel Ferreira was arrested and detained for a few days, and the expedition then broke up and dispersed. The pioneers, who were granted farms and mining claims, having been settled in Mashonaland, Rhodes recognized the extreme importance of, giving the country a port nearer than that provided by Cape Town, On .his initiative proposals were made to Portugal, and the treaty concluded in 1891 between Great Britain and Portugal provided that a railway might be built from Beira in Portuguese territory to Salisbury, on con- dition that Portugal received a duty not exceeding 3 % on the value of the goods imported. The treaty further stipulated for the free navigation of the Zambezi and the construction of telegraphs. Prospecting operations were at once started, and various gold mines were discovered containing traces of old workings. Fresh gold reefs were also opened up., The prospects of the country seemed promising, and although a good deal of fever occurred in the low-lying valleys under the conditions of camp life, the health of the community soon improved as more suitable habitations were erected. In two years a white population of 3000 people had settled in the newly opened country. . . , Though the company was now free from international rivalry it was soon faced by serious native trouble. The first pioneers had deliberately chosen Mashonaland as their place of settlement. Ever since the advent, of Mosilikatze north of the Limpopo the unfortunate Ma,shonas had been the prey of the Matabele; they therefore readily accepted the British occupation. The Matabele,,however, were loth to abandon their predatory excursions among the Mashonas, and in July 1893 a large impi (native force) was sent into Mashonaland, and entered not only native kraals, but also the streets of the new township of Victoria. An attempt was made to preserve the peace, but it was evident from the attitude taken by the Matabele that nothing short of the authority which only superior force could command would settle the question. The Matabele were 266 RHODESIA a proud and fearless race of warriors; the men of that genera- tion had never come in conflict with Europeans, and had never been defeated in their conflicts with native foes. Jameson's forces were slender, and Rhodes, on being consulted, urged him by telegram to " Read Luke fourteen, thirty-one." On obtaining a Bible, Jameson read the words: " Or what king, going to make war against another king, sitteth not down first, and consul teth whether he be able with ten thousand to meet him that cometh against him with twenty thousand?" He tele- graphed in reply: " All right. I have read Luke fourteen, thirty-one." The position, though dangerous, admitted of no delay, and Jameson determined to risk an expedition with the forces at his command. His success on this occasion doubtless weighed with him on another and less fortunate one. The force available consisted of about 700 volunteers and 225 British Bechuanaland police, with some 700 natives. Jameson deter- mined to march to Bulawayo, the headquarters of Lobengula and the capital of Matabeleland. The force was divided into two columns, and was to be met by a further column of Bechuanas marching from the south under Khama, the most influential of the Bechuan chiefs and a loyal friend of the British. The first engagement took place on the Shangani river, where the two columns which had started from Fort Charter and Fort Victoria were both engaged. Majors Forbes and Allan Wilson commanded in these engagements; and after a hot contest With between 4000 and 5000 Matabele, the latter were repulsed, machine guns being used with terrible effect upon the enemy. On the 1st of November a second fight occurred on the high ground, in which it was estimated that 7000 of the Matabele attacked the laager of the two columns. The oldest and most tried regiments of Lobengula dashed right up to the muzzles of the guns, but were swept down before the modern rifles and machine guns with which the invaders were armed. Meanwhile the column of Khama 's men from the south had reached the Tati, and won a victory on the Singuesi river on the 2nd of November. On the 3rd of November Bulawayo was reached, and the columns from Mashonaland, accompanied by Jameson and Sir John Willoughby, entered the town, Lobengula, and Matabele- his followers being in full flight towards the Zambezi. land coo- An endeavour was made to induce Lobengula to quered. surrender; but as no replies were received to the messages, Major Forbes, on the 13th of November, organized a column and started in pursuit. 1 The pursuing party were delayed by difficult roads and heavy rains, and did not come up with Lobengula until the 3rd of December. Major Allan Wilson, in command of thirty-four troopers, crossed the Shangani river in advance, and bivouacked close to Loben- gula's quarters. In the night the river rose, and reinforce- ments were unable to join him. During the early morning the Matabele surrounded the little band, and after fighting most gallantly to the last, Major Allan Wilson and all his followers, with the exception of three messengers, who had been sent back, were killed. In January 1894 Lobengula died — from fever, or as the result of a wound, accounts differ — at a spot about forty miles south of the Zambezi. After his death his indunas submitted to the Chartered Company's forces, and the war, which cost the company over one hundred lives and £110,000, was thus ended. An order in council of the 18th of July following defined the administrative power of the company over Matabeleland. Charges were made against the company of having provoked the Matabele in order to bring on the war and thus secure their territory, but after inquiry the company was expressly exonerated from the charge by Lord Ripon, then colonial secretary. With the close of the war the Matabele appeared to be crushed, and for over two years there was no serious trouble with the natives. The country was at once thrown 1 Lobengula had in fact sent to the Forbes patrol gold dust worth about £1000, and intimated his desire to surrender; but two troopers to whom the gold and message were entrusted kept the gold and suppressed the message. Their crime was afterwards discovered and the troopers sentenced to fourteen years' penal servitude. open to white settlers. Close to the site of Lobengula's kraal the new town of Bulawayo was founded, and rapidly grew in "importance. Among the new settlers were many Dutch farmers. The Roman-Dutch law was chosen as that of the new colony, a land commission was established and com- missioners appointed to look after the interests of the natives. Considerable development in the part of the company's territory north of the Zambezi had meantime taken place. Between 1889 and 1891 a large number of tribes in the region between lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika and the Zambezi had entered into treaty relations with the company, and a settle- ment named Abercorn had been founded at the south end of Tanganyika. This work was undertaken in part to forestall German action, as before the signature of the agreement of July 1890 German agents entertained the design of penetrating west of Lake Nyasa to the Congo State frontier. The company further acquired the property of the African Lakes Company — which had done much to secure British predominance in the Nyasa region — and on the organization of Nyasaland as an imperial protectorate the South Africa Company contributed £10,000 a year for three years (1891-92-93) towards the cost of the administration, the imperial commissioner during this period acting as administrator for the adjacent territories belonging to the company (see British Central Africa). Farther west, Lewanika, the king of the Barotse, signed, on the 27th of June 1890, a treaty placing his country under the protection of the Chartered Company, which, while obtaining all mineral rights, undertook not to interfere in the internal administration of Barotseland. In securing a position thus early in Barotseland, Rhodes's aim was to prevent the farther extension eastward of the Portuguese province of Angola. The subsequent development of Barotseland had little direct connexion with the events in other parts of Rhodesia (see Barotse and Lewanika). The growth of territory and the outlay on Matabeleland led to a great ■ increase of expenditure, and the capital of the company was raised to £2,000,000 in November 1893, and to £2,500,000 in July 1895. In every step taken by the company the guiding hand was that of Cecil Rhodes, a fact which received recognition when, by a proclamation of the 3rd of May 1895, the company's territory received officially the name of " Rhodesia." During this year there was great activity in exploiting Matabeleland. " Stands " or plots were sold at extraordinary prices in Bula- wayo; 539 fetched a total of £153,312, about £285 a stand. In within nine months Bulawayo had a population of 1900 whites, and in the various goldfields there were over 2000 prospectors. The construction of telegraphs proceeded with rapidity and by the end of 1895, 500 m. of new lines had been constructed, making about 1500 in all. A new company, the African Transcontinental Company, had been founded under the auspices of Rhodes, with the ultimate purpose of connecting the Cape with Cairo. By the end of 1895, 133 m. of these lines had been laid. At this time too, the railway from Cape Town had passed Mafeking and was approaching the Rhodesian frontier, while on the east coast the line to connect Salisbury with Beira was under construction. In November 1895 the crown colony of British Bechuanaland was annexed to Cape Colony, and the Chartered Company desired to take over the administration of the Bechuanaland protectorate, which stretched between the newly annexed portion of Cape Colony and Matabeleland, and through which the railway to Bulawayo had to pass. The British government consented, and arrangements were made for the transfer. The company's police were moved down to a camp in the protector- ate at Pitsani Potlogo. It was from this place that on the 29th of December Jameson crossed the Transvaal border and marched on Johannesburg, in his disastrous attempt to upset President Kruger's administration. The " Jameson Raid " put an end to the proposed transfer of the protectorate to the Chartered Company, and caused a serious crisis in its affairs. Rhodes resigned his position as managing director, and Alfred Beit RHODESIA 267 retired from the directorate in London. Jameson was, on the 9th of January 1896, officially removed from his office of administrator of the company's territories, and was succeeded by Earl Grey. Just at this time rinderpest made its appearance in southern Rhodesia, carrying off large herds of cattle, and this was followed in March 1896 by a revolt of the Matabele, while in June the Mashona also rebelled. The occasion, but not the cause, of the Matabele rising was the withdrawal of the greater part of the company's force to take part in the Jameson Raid. The Matabele had various grievances, chiefly that after the war of 1893 they were treated as a conquered people. All able-bodied young men were required to work for the white farmers and miners a certain number of months per annum at a fixed rate of pay — a most irksome regulation, enforced, on occasions, by the native police in a tyrannical fashion. Another grievance was the seizure by the company, after the death of Lobengula, of the cattle of the Matabele — their chief source of wealth. Not only was there a first con- fiscation after the war, but subsequently there was a periodical taking away of cattle in small numbers — the company acting under the belief that nearly all the cattle in Matabeleland belonged to the king and were therefore lawfully theirs. How- ever, before the end of 1895 the company had settled the ques- tion in agreement with the indunas, two-fifths of the cattle to go to the company and the remainder to become the absolute property of the natives. But it was neither the action of the company in the confiscation of cattle, nor the labour regulations, that induced the mass of the people to rebel; they were induced to act by chiefs who chafed under their loss of power and The position and imagined themselves strong enough to rebellions throw off the yoke of the conquerors. In the manner of 1896. customary among savages the Matabele began hostil- ities by the murder of defenceless white settlers — men, women and children. Bulawayo was threatened, and soon all the country south of the Zambezi was in a state of rebellion. Imperial troops under Sir Frederick Carrington were hurried up to the assistance of such police as the British South Africa Company still had at its command. Volunteers were enrolled, and much fierce fighting followed. Rhodes hastened to Bula- wayo, and after conferences with the military and other author- ities he determined to go, with Dr Hans Sauer and Mr J. Colen- brander, a well-known hunter and pioneer intimately acquainted with the natives, and interview the chiefs. They went (September 1896) unarmed into the heart of the Matoppo Hills, and there arranged terms of peace with the indunas. The interview involved grave danger to the emissaries, and depended for its success entirely upon Rhodes's personality and influence over the native races, but it terminated what promised to be a long and disastrous native war. The Matabele, whose legitimate grievances were acknowledged and met, ceased the war after the indaba with Rhodes; the Mashona revolt con- tinued, and was not finally crushed until October 1897, though all danger to settlers was over six months previously. At this time the rinderpest had carried off nearly all the cattle in the country — a disaster which, together with the destruction of grain during the war, had brought the natives almost to starva- tion — and steps had to be taken to supply their needs. Many of the white settlers too were reduced to sore straits and re- quired assistance. The rebellions had cost the company fully £2,500,000, and to meet the debt incurred an additional capital of £1,500,000 was raised in 1898. At the meeting of the com- pany in April 1898, at which this step was taken, Rhodes was re-elected a director. The events of 1896 — the Jameson Raid and the rebellions — caused the imperial government to remodel the constitution of Rhodesia. The armed forces of the company had already been placed under the direct control of the crown, and on the 20th of October 1898 an order in council was passed providing for the future regulation of the country. An imperial resident commissioner was appointed, who was also to be ex officio a member of the executive and legislative councils; and there was to be a legislative council, consisting of five nominated and four elected members. The first meeting of the newly appointed council took place at Salisbury on the 15th of May 1899. Other changes, in the direction of giving more power to the non-official element, were made subsequently (see above, Administration). •. While these political changes were being made the company and the settlers set to work to repair the losses by war and plague. In particular the policy of railway development was pushed forward, and in November 1897 the line from Cape Town reached Bulawayo. The Mashonaland railway connecting Salisbury with Beira was completed in May 1899. In the same year gold-mining on a considerable scale began, the output for the year being over 65,000 oz. In the early part of 1899 Rhodes visited London and Berlin in furtherance of his schemes for the transcontinental telegraph extension from Cape Town to Cairo, and the transcontinental railway j He endeavoured to obtain from the British Government the guarantee of a loan for extending the railway, to be raised at 3 %, but was unsuccessful. He received, however, the support of various companies in Rhodesia, who amongst them subscribed £252,800 at 3% for the immediate extension of the railway for 150 miles; and in May he stated, at a meeting of the Chartered Company, that the Rhodesia Railways Limited would raise another £3,000,000 at 4%, to be guaranteed by the Chartered Company. In this way he. hoped that the remaining 1050 miles of railway from Bulawayo to the frontier of German East Africa might be constructed. In Berlin, Rhodes had an interview with the German Emperor, when arrangements were arrived at for the passage of telegraph lines over German territory, and also in certain contingencies for the continuation of the transcontinental railway through German East Africa. In many respects the country recovered rapidly from the disasters of 1896, one of the most important measures taken being the compulsory inoculation for rinderpest, which finally stamped out the disease in 1898-99. By the last balance- sheet issued by the company previous to the outbreak of the Boer War it would appear that the revenue of Rhodesia for the year ending the 31st of March 1898 amounted to £260,516 net, of which amount the sale of land plots accounts for £63,628; stamps and licences, £69,658; and posts and telegraphs, £46,745; so that the machinery of civilized life was already in full activity where eight years previously the only white inhabitants had been a few missionaries, hunters and traders. The government buildings were estimated in March 1898 to be worth £165,672, and the assessed value of the town property at Bulawayo was £2,045,000 and that at Salisbury £750,000. (Both those towns had been granted municipal government in 1897.) Education was arranged under the supervision of government inspectors, and various religious communities were also engaged in educational work. The country appeared indeed in 1899 to be starting on the road to industrial and agricultural prosperity, but an almost complete stop to progress resulted from the outbreak of the Boer War in October of that year. The company could point with satisfaction to the fact that Rhodesia contributed nearly 1500 men to the forces serving in the war, 123% of the European population. Rhodesia itself was not subjected to invasion, but the withdrawal of so large a number of able- bodied men seriously interfered with the development of the country, the war not ending until June 1902. Throughout this period the natives, with few exceptions, remained peaceful and gave the administration no serious trouble. Before the war ended, Cecil Rhodes, whose chief work during the period since the Raid had been the building up of the country which bore his name, was dead (26th of Agitation March 1902). Alfred Beit, who had in 1898 refused for self- to rejoin the directorate, now consented (June 1902) govern- to return to the board of the Chartered Company, meat ' on which he remained until his death in July 1906. The loss of Rhodes's guiding mind and inspiring personality was, however, manifest, and among the Rhodesians there arose 268 RHODIUM a feeling of discontent at the company's conduct of affairs. The company was willing on proper terms to hand over the administration to the colonists, and they secured the services of Sir George Goldie to examine the situation and report on what terms the transfer could be made. Sir George visited Rhodesia in 1003-4, an d drew up a scheme which included the taking over by Rhodesia of the adminis- trative liabilities incurred by the company, which would thus become a public debt. After consultation between leading Rhodesians and the directors of the company the scheme was abandoned, the Rhodesians considering the financial burden proposed too great for an infant colony. The company therefore continued the administration, devoting attention to the develop- ment of agriculture and mining. The two railway systems were linked together by a line from Bulawayo to Salisbury, and several short lines to mining properties were built. From Bulawayo the main line was continued to the Wankie coal- fields, thence to the Zambezi, bridged in 1905 just below the Victoria Falls. From the Zambezi the line went north-east, so as to render accessible the mineral wealth of Barotse- land and that of Katanga on the Rhodesian-Congo frontier. Although Rhodesia was affected by the commercial depression which prevailed in South Africa for some years after the close of -the war, its industries showed considerable vitality. In 1906 the gold output exceeded 500,000 oz., and in the financial year 1905-6 the revenue of Southern Rhodesia slightly ex- ceeded the expenditure. Only once (1895-96) in the first fifteen years following the settlement of the country had the company's annual revenue exceeded the amount expended in the same period. As a commercial undertaking, the company therefore was during this period of no pecuniary advantage to the shareholders. This was due in part to unforeseen and unavoidable causes, but it is also true that the founders of the company had other than commercial aims. Rhodes's chief ambition was to secure the country for Britain and to open it up to the energies of her peoples, and he succeeded in this aim. He acted more quickly, and in many ways more effectively, than the imperial government would have been able to act had it at the outset taken over the country. To the sturdy colonists Rhodes made available a land rich not only in gold, but in coal and other minerals, and with very great agricultural and pastoral resources^ and all this was done without the cost of a penny to the imperial exchequer. Despite all drawbacks, an area (reckoning Southern Rhodesia only) considerably larger than that of the United Kingdom had in less than twenty years been endowed with all the adjuncts of civilization and made the home of thousands of settlers. The progress made by the country in the five years 1906-10 demonstrated that the faith Rhodes and his colleagues had placed in it was not ill-founded. Although the white popu^ lation increased but slowly, in all other respects healthy development took place, the element of speculation which had characterized many of the first attempts to exploit the land being largely eliminated. In 1906 Lord Selborne (the high commissioner) visited Rhodesia. He inquired into the various grievances of the settlers against the Chartered Com- pany; held an indaba with Matabele indunas in the Matoppo Hills, and at Bulawayo had a conference with Lewanika, the paramount chief of the Barotse. In 1907 Dr Jameson and other directors of the Chartered Company travelled through Rhodesia, and the result was to clear up ; some of the matters in dispute between the settlers and the company. Southern Rhodesia had become self-supporting, and the essentially temporary nature of the existing system of government was recognized. But the company held that the time was not yet ripe for Southern Rhodesia to become a self-governing colony. The directors, however, adopted a more liberal land policy, the increased attention given to agriculture being a marked and satisfactory feature of the situation. Mining and railway development were also pushed on vigorously. The movement for the closer union of the British South African colonies excited lively interest in Southern Rhodesia. The territory, not possessing self-government, could not take part in the national convention which met at Durban in October 1908 on equal terms with the delegates of the Cape, &c. It was, however, represented by three delegates on the understanding that Rhodesia would not, for the time being at least, be included in any agreement which might be reached. The convention resulted in the union (on the 3rst of May 1910) under one government of the Cape, Transvaal, Natal and Orange River colonies. The position of Rhodesia with respect to the Union was set forth in the South Africa Act 1909. It provides that " the king, with the advice of the Privy Council, may on addresses from the Houses of Parliament of the Union admit into the Union the territories administered by the British South Africa Company on such terms and conditions as to representation and otherwise in each case as are ex- pressed in the addresses and approved by the king." In Rhodesia itself at this time there was a widespread feeling that there was no urgency as to the territory joining the Union, and the opinion was held by many that a separate existence as a self-governing community would be preferable. A section of the settlers were Content for the present to remain under the government of the Chartered Company. Bibliography.— 1. Works dealing with the country before the establishment of British authority: David Livingstone, Missionary Travels (1857) 1 ; T. Baines, The Gold Regions of S.E. Africa (1877) '< R- Gordon Cumming, Five Years of a Hunter's Life in . . .S.A. (1850); K. Mauch, Reisen im Inneren von Sud- Afrika, 1865-72 (Gotha, 1874); E. Holub, Seven Years in South Africa (1881); E. Mohr, To the Victoria Falls of the Zambesi (1876); F. C. Selous, A Hunter's Wanderings in Africa (1881), and Travel and Adventure in S.E. Africa (1893) ;T. M. Thomas, Eleven Years in Central South Africa (n.d. [1872]); L. P. Bowler, Facts about the Matabele, Mashona, &c. (Pretoria, 1889); Rev. D. Carnegie, Among the Matabele (1894). 2. Since the British occupation: Bishop Knight-Bruce, Memories of Mashonaland (1895); J. C. Chadwick, Three Years with Lobengula (1894); D. C. de Waal, With Rhodes in Mashonaland (trans, from Dutch, 1896); W, A. Wells and L. T. Collingridge, The Downfall of Lobengula (1894); A. R. Colquhoun, Matabeleland (n.d. [1894]); C. H. Donovan, With Wilson in Matabeleland (1894); A. G. Lenard, How we made Rhodesia (1896) ; Lord R. Churchill, Men, Mines and Minerals in S.A. (1895); E. Foa, La Traversee de I'Afrique , (Paris, 1900) ; F. C. Selous, Sunshine and Storm in Rhodesia (the Matabele rising) (1896); R. S. S. Baden-Powell, The Matabele Campaign, i8q6 (1897); E. A. H. Alderson, With the Mounted Infantry (in Mashonaland) (1898) ; S. J. du Toit, Rhodesia Past and Present (1897); H. Hensman, History of Rhodesia (1900); H. P. N. Muller, De Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek en Rhodesia (The Hague, 1896) ;W. H. Brown, On the South African Frontier (1899). 3. Economics, &c. : P. F. Hone, Southern Rhodesia (1909); the Annual Reports of the British S.A. Co.; C. T. Roberts, The Future of Gold Mining in Mashonaland (Salisbury, Rhodesia, 1898); Southern Rhodesia; Information for Settlers (1907); D. E. Hutchins, Report . . . on Trees in Rhodesia (Cape Town, 1903) ; Handbook for Tourists and Sportsmen (1907) ; A. H. Keane, The Gold of Ophir (1901); C. Peters, The Eldorado of the Ancients (1902); E. de Renty, La Rhodesia (Paris, 1907); Proceedings of the Rhodesian Scientific Association (1899- ) (1st vol., Bulawayo, 1903); The Rhodesian Agricultural Journal (1st vol., Salisbury, Rhodesia, 1903). All treaties, &c, respecting Rhodesia will be found in Herts- lett's Map of Africa by Treaty (1909 ed.). For Blue Books Concern- ing Rhodesia consult the Colonial Office List (annually). The best general map of S. Rhodesia is that published by the administration in 1909-10 (7 sheets on the 1-500000 scale). For general works including Rhodesia see South Africa, § Bibliography. See also authorities cited under British Central Africa, Barotse, &c. (A. P. H.; F. R. C.) RHODIUM [symbol Rh; atomic weight 102-9 (0=i6)], in chemistry, a metallic chemical element found, associated with the other elements of the platinum group, in crude platinum ore, wherein it was discovered in 1803 by W. H. Wollaston {Phil. Trans., 1804, p. 419). It may be obtained from the residues of platinum ore after treatment with aqua regia and removal of the platinum as chlorplatinate. The mother liquors are decomposed by treatment with metallic iron, the precipitate obtained being warmed with concentrated nitric acid and heated in an iron crucible with concentrated caustic potash. The residue thus obtained is mixed with salt and 1 Unless otherwise stated, the place of publication is London. RHODOCHROSITE— RHODODENDRON 269 heated in a current of chlorine, any iridium present being converted into its chloride by treatment with nitric acid and precipitated by ammonium chloride, whilst rhodium ammonium chloride goes into solution with its characteristic rose-red colour (C. E. Claus,. Jour, prakt. Chem., 1843^1845). For other methods of extraction see Gibbs, ib., 1861, 84, p. 65; 1865, 94, p. 10; T. Wilm, Bull. soc. chim., 1880 (2), 34, p. 679; E. Fremy, Comptes rendus, 1854, 38, p. 1008, &c). The metal itself is best obtained by the reduction of chlorpurpureo rhodium chloride, (Cl 2 Rh 2 -10NH 3 )-Cl4, in a current of hydrogen, the metal after reduction being cooled in a stream of carbon dioxide (S. M. Jorgensen, Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1903, 34, p. 82). It somewhat resembles aluminium in colour ; its specific gravity varies from n to 12-1; and its specific heat is 0-05527 (V. H. Regnault, Ann. chim. phys., 1861, 63, p. 15). It is less fusible than platinum. It oxidizes superficially when heated, and may be distilled in the electric furnace. It is insoluble in acids, but forms a soluble sulphate when fused with potassium bisulphate (a reaction which distinguishes it from the other metals of the platinum group). It oxidizes when fused with potassium hydroxide and potassium nitrate, to the dioxide, Rh0 2 . It absorbs hydrogen readily. Rhodium black is obtained by reducing rhodium salts with formic acid; by alcohol in the presence of alkali; or by precipitation with zinc and iron. A colloidal rhodium may be prepared by reducing the sesquichloride with hydrazine hydrate. Rhodium salts may be recognized by their characteristic reaction with freshly prepared sodium hypochlorite solution. A yellow precipitate is obtained, which on shaking for some time with acetic acid gradually dissolves to an orange-coloured solution. This solution after a short time deposits a grey precipitate, and the supernatant liquid becomes azure blue in colour (E. Demarcay, Comptes rendus, 1885, 101, p. 951). Several oxides of rhodium are known. The monoxide, RhO, formed when the hydrated sesquioxide is heated (Claus) or when finely divided rhodium is heated in a current of air (Wilm), is a grey powder which is insoluble in acids. The sesquioxide, Rh 2 3 , is a black insoluble powder, formed when the corresponding hydrate is heated. This hydrate, Rh 2 (OH)e, is obtained as a yellow powder, by decomposing rhodium salts(not the sulphate)with dilute solutions of the caustic alkalis. It is soluble in acids, and in the moist condition is also soluble in concentrated alkalis. A hydrated rhodium dioxide, Rh0 2 -2H 2 0, is formed when chlorine is passed into a solution of the sesquioxide in concentrated caustic potash, or by adding an alkaline hypochlorite to a concentrated alkaline solution of rhodium and sodium chlorides. It is a greenish-black powder which is soluble in hydrochloric acid. Rhodium chloride, Rh 2 Oe, is obtained impure by heating the metal to dull redness in a current of chlorine, or, purer, by heating an alloy of rhodium and tin in chlorine or by heating the double ammonium rhodium chloride in chlorine at 440 C. (E. Leidi6, Ann. chim. phys., 1889, (6), 17, p. 265; Comptes rendus, 1899, 129, p. 1249). It is a red powder, which decomposes at a red heat, leaving a residue of the metal. It is insoluble in water and acids, but dissolves in concentrated solu- tions of potassium cyanide. The hydrated form Rh 2 Cl 6 -8H 2 is obtained impure by dissolving the hydrated sesquioxide in hydro- chloric acid, by the action of hydrofluosilicic acid on potassium rhodium chloride, and by the action of chlorine on rhodium in the presence of sodium chloride. In the last method the product is dissolved in a dilute hydrochloric acid (1:1), and the solution saturated with hydrochloric acid gas at o° C, allowed to stand for some time, decanted, and finally evaporated in vacuo (Leidi6, loc. cit.). It forms a very deliquescent, red, amorphous mass, which decom- poses on exposure. It is very soluble in water, forming a yellow solution. It forms double salts with the alkaline chlorides. Rhodium monosulphide, RhS, is formed when rhodium or rhodium ammonium chloride are heated with sulphur, and also by precipi- tating rhodium salts with sulphuretted hydrogen, the precipitate being dissolved in ammonium sulphide and thrown down again by dilute sulphuric acid (Lecoq de Boisbaudran, Ber., 1883, 16, p. 579). It is a dark-coloured powder which is insoluble in acids and other solvents. It loses all its sulphur when heated in air. The sesquisulphide, Rh 2 S 3 , is prepared by heating anhydrous rhodium chloride, Rh 2 Cl$, in a current of sulphuretted hydrogen at 36o°C.,or by passing the gas into a boiling solution of the chloride. It is a black powder which is insoluble in acids and in alkaline sulphides. It decomposes when strongly heated. Rhodium sulphate, Rh 2 (S04) 3 , is prepared by oxidizing the sulphide, by fusing the metal with acid potassium sulphate, or by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid on an alloy of rhodium and lead, or on the hydrated sesquioxide. It is a red powder which decomposes when heated or when boiled with much water. It forms alums (Leidi6, Comptes rendus, 1888,107, p. 234). Rhodium potassium alum, Rh 2 (S0 4 )3-K 2 S04-24H 2 0, is obtained by dissolving the sesquioxide in sulphuric acid and adding two-thirds of the calculated amount of potassium sulphate to the solution (A. Piccini and L. Marino, Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1901, 27, p. 62). It crystallizes in cubes. Rhodium cyanide, Rh 2 (CN)6, is a carmine-red powder formed when rhodium potassium cyanide is boiled with acetic acid. Rhodium potassium cyanide, K6Rh 2 (CN)i 2 , is formed when the sesquioxide is dissolved in caustic potash and an excess of hydrocyanic acid added gradually, the solution being then evaporated in vacuo. It is a colourless crystalline solid soluble in water, and isomorphous with the corresponding iron, cobalt, chromium and manganese compounds. The rhodium ammonia salts correspond almost with the similar cobalt compounds and may be divided into three series — namely, hexammine salts (luteo-salts), [Rh(NH 3 ) 6 ]X 3 ; aquopentammine salts (roseo-salts), [Rh(NH 3 ) 6 -H 2 0]X3; and pentammine salts (purpureo- salts), [Rh(NH 3 ) 6 X]X 2 . (See S. F. Jorgensen, C. W. Biomstrand, Jour. prak. Chem., 1882, et seq.) The atomic weight of rhodium has been determined by S. F. Jorgensen (Jour, prakt. Chem., 1883, 27, p. 486), by the analysis of chlorpurpureo rhodium chloride, the mean value obtained being 103; whilst K. Seubert and K. Kobbe {Ann., 1890, 260, p. 314), by analysis of the double chloride and sulphate, obtained as a mean value 102-86. RHODOCHROSITE, a mineral species consisting of man- ganese carbonate, MnC0 3 , crystallizing in the rhombohedral system and isomorphous with calcite. It usually occurs as cleavable, compact or botryoidal masses, distinct crystals being somewhat rare; these often have the form of the primitive rhombohedron, parallel to the faces of which there are perfect cleavages. When pure, the mineral contains 47"7% of manganese, but this is usually partly replaced by varying amounts of iron, and sometimes by calcium, mag- nesium, zinc, or rarely cobalt (cobalt-manganese-spar). With these variations in chemical composition the specific gravity varies from 3-45 to 3-60; the hardness is 4. The colour is usually rose-red, but may sometimes be grey to brown. The name rhodochrosite, from the Greek ^63o-xpojs (rose- coloured), has reference to the characteristic colour of the mineral: manganese-spar and dialogite are synonyms. It is found in mineral veins with ores of silver, lead, copper, &c, or in deposits of manganese ore. Crystals have been met with in the mines at Kapnik-Banya and Nagyag near Deva in Transylvania and at Diez in Nassau, but by far the best specimens are from Colorado. The mineral is used to a limited extent in the manufacture of spiegeleisen and ferromanganese. RHODODENDRON. Classical writers, such as Dioscorides and Pliny, seem, from what can be ascertained, to have called the oleander (Nerium Oleander) by this name, but in modern usage it is applied to a large genus of shrubs and trees be- longing to the order of heaths (Ericaceae). 1 No adequate distinction can be drawn between this genus and Azalea (q.v.) — the proposed marks of distinction, however applicable in particular cases, breaking down when tested more generally. The rhododendrons are trees or shrubs, never herbs, with simple, evergreen or deciduous leaves, and flowers in terminal clusters surrounded in the bud by bud-scales but not as a rule by true leaves. The flowers are remarkable for the frequent absence or reduced condition of the calyx. The funnel- or bell-shaped corolla, on the other hand, with its five or more lobes, is usually conspicuous, and in some species so much so as to render these plants greatly prized in gardens. The free stamens are usually ten, with slender filaments and anthers opening by pores at the top. The ovary is five- or many- celled, ripening into a long woody pod which splits from top to bottom by a number of valves, which break away from the central placenta and liberate a large number of small bran- like seeds provided with a membranous wing-like appendage at each end. The species are for the most part natives of the mountainous regions of the northern hemisphere, extend- ing as far south as the Malay Archipelago and New Guinea, but not hitherto found in South America or Australia. None are natives of Britain. They vary greatly in stature, some of the alpine species being mere pygmies with minute leaves and tiny blossoms, while some of the Himalayan species are moderate-sized trees with superb flowers. Some are 270 RHODONITE— RHONDDA epiphytal, growing on the branches of other trees, but not deriving their sustenance from them. The varieties grown in gardens are mostly grafted on the Pontic species {R. ponti- cum) and the Virginian R. catawbiense. The common Pontic variety is excellent for game-covert, from its hardiness, the shelter it affords, and the fact that hares and rabbits rarely eat it. Variety of colour has been infused by crossing or hybridizing the species first named, or their derivatives, with some of the more gorgeously coloured Himalayan-American varieties. In many instances this has been done without sacrifice of hardihood. §ome of the finest hybrids for the open air, especially in favoured spots, are altaclerense (scarlet) ; Harrisi (rosy crimson) ; Kewense (rose) ; Luscombei (rose-pink) ; Manglesi (white) ; nobleanum (crimson), one of the first to flower after Christmas; praecox (rose- purple); and Shilsoni (crimson). There are almost countless colour variations of these, but one of the most exquisite of late years is that known as Pink Pearl, with large clear rosy-pink blossoms of great purity. What are termed greenhouse rhododendrons are derivatives from certain Malayan and Javanese species, and are consequently much more tender. They are characterized by the possession of a cylindrical (not funnel-shaped) flower-tube and other marks of distinction. The foliage of rhododendrons contains much tannin, and has been used medicinally. Whether the honey mentioned by Xenophon as poisonous was really derived from plants of this genus as alleged is still an open question. Cultivation. — The hardy evergreen kinds are readily propagated by seed, by layers, and by grafting. Grafting is resorted to only for the propagation of the rarer and more tender kinds. Loamy soil containing a large quantity of peat or vegetable humus is essential, the roots of all the species investigated being associated with a fungus partner (mycorhiza). An excess of lime or chalk in the soil proves fatal to rhododendrons and their allies sooner or later — a fact overlooked by many amateurs. The hardy deciduous kinds are valuable for forcing, and withstand cold-storage treatment well. The tender Malayan and Javanese species thrive in warm green- house temperature, but are difficult to cultivate where the water is very alkaline. RHODONITE, a member of the pyroxene group of minerals, consisting of manganese metasilicate, MnSiC>3, and crystallizing in the anorthic system. It commonly occurs as cleavable to compact masses with a rose-red colour; hence the name, from the Greek pbbov (a rose). Crystals often have a thick tabular habit; there are perfect cleavages parallel to the prism faces with an angle of 87° 31!'. The hardness is 5§-6|, and the specific gravity 3-4~3-68. The manganese is often partly replaced by iron and calcium, which may sometimes be present in considerable amounts; a greyish-brown variety containing as much as 20% of calcium oxide is called "bustamite"; " fowlerite " is a zinciferous variety containing 7% of zinc oxide. Rhodonite is a mineral liable to alteration, with the formation of manganese carbonate, hydrous silicate or oxides. The compact material, which is cut and polished for ornamental purposes, is often marked in a striking manner by veins and patches of these black alteration products. At Syedelnikova, near Ekaterinburg in the Urals, compact material of a good colour occurs in a clay-slate and is extensively quarried: boulders of similar material found at Cummington in Massachusetts (" cummingtonite ") have also been worked as an ornamental stone. In the iron and manganese mines at Pajsberg near Filipstadt and Langban in Vermland, Sweden, small brilliant and translucent crystals (" pajsbergite ") and cleavage masses occur. Fowlerite occurs as large, rough crystals, somewhat resembling pink felspar, with franklinite and zinc ores in granular limestone at Franklin Furnace in New Jersey. RHOECUS, a Samian sculptor of the 6th century B.C. He and his son Theodoras were especially noted fpr their work in bronze. Herodotus says that Rhoecus built the temple of Hera at Samos. In the temple of Artemis at Ephesus was a marble figure of night by Rhoecus. His name has been found on a fragment of a vase which he dedicated to Aphrodite at Naucratis. His sons Theodorus and Telecles made a statue of the Pythian Apollo for the Samians. RHONDDA (formerly Ystradyfodwg), an urban district and parliamentary division of Glamorganshire, South Wales. It is 12 m. long by about 4I m. across at its widest part, and comprises two main valleys, named after their respective rivers, Rhondda Fawr (oj m.) and Rhondda Fach, or the lesser (6| m.), running S.E. and S.W. respectively till their junction at Porth, and thence the single valley for upwards of a mile farther down the boundary of the Pontypridd urban district at Trehafod. The valleys are narrow and tortuous, and their lateral boundaries are formed by steep hills varying in height from about 560 ft. on either side of Trehafod to 1340 ft. on the N.E. of Maerdy in the lesser Rhondda and 1742 ft. on the S.W. of Treherbert in the main valley, while the mountains at the upper end of the latter valley culminate in Cam Moesen(ig5o ft.). The two valleys are separated by the steep ridge of Cefn-rhondda, which ranges from 600 ft. high above Porth to 1690 ft. near the upper end of the district. There are a few tributary valleys of which Cwmparc, Clydach Vale and Cymmer are the chief. Though the urban district measures 23,884 acres, the area built upon is generally a narrow strip on either side of each river except at Treorky and Ton, where the valley of the Rhondda Fawr opens out a little. In 1877 the ancient parish of Ystradyfodwg (with the omission of the township of Rhigos, which lies beyond the mountains to the north) was formed into an urban district bearing the parish name, the area having previously been part of a rural district under the Pontypridd rural sanitary authority. In October 1870, portions of the parishes of Llanwonno and Llantrisant, comprising over 5000 acres, were added to the urban area, the whole being consolidated in 1894 into one civil parish. In 1897, the name of the urban district was changed into Rhondda. The Taff Vale railway runs up each of the two valleys from a junction at Porth (16 m. N.W. of Cardiff), and has five stations in the main valley and four in the lesser one. From Porth it runs to Pontypridd, whence there is communication with Cardiff, Barry and Newport. The Rhondda and Swansea Bay railway (authorized in 1882, opened in 1890, and now worked by the Great Western) connects the upper end of the main valley, where it has a station, Blaen-rhondda, with Port Talbot, Neath and Swansea (31 m. distant) by means of a line which has a tunnel 3443 yds. long. The district occupies almost the centre of the eastern division of the South Wales coal-field, and its coal, upon which the inhabitants are almost entirely dependent, is unsurpassed for its steam-raising properties. In common with other East Glamorgan coal it became commercially known as Cardiff coal from the fact that Cardiff was at first its only port of shipment. The development of the Rhondda coal-field was later in date than those of Aberdare and Merthyr, and it received its chief impetus from the American Civil War. Thus the population of the parish (excluding Rhigos), which was 576 in 1811, 951 in 1851 and 3035 in 1861, increased to 16,914 in 1871. When the bound- aries of the district were extended in 1879 the population of the enlarged area was calculated by the registrar-general to be 23,950 in 1871, but it reached 55,632 in 1881, and 113,735 in 1 901, showing an increase of 104% in the previous twenty years. In 1901, 35-4% of the population of three years of age and upwards spoke English only, 114% spoke Welsh only, the remainder being bilingual. Ecclesiastically the parish of Ystradyfodwg was an ancient chapelry dependent on Llantrisant. The old parish church at Ton Pentre (in substitution for which a new church was built in 1893-94) served the whole parish till past the middle of the 19th century. Between 1879 and 1900 the ancient parish (excluding Rhigos) was divided into seven ecclesiastical parishes, the six new ones being Llwyn-y-pia (1879), Tylorstown (1887), Ynyshir (1887), Treherbert (1893), Cwmparc (1898) and Ferndale (1900). The additional area brought into the urban district in 1879 comprises two other ecclesiastical parishes, Cymmer and Porth (1894), and Dinas and Penygraig (1901). These nine parishes, comprised in the urban district, have twenty churches and eighteen mission-rooms, with accommodation for about 12,000 persons. This area, together with Pontypridd, Glyntaff and Llanwonno, form the rural deanery ol Rhondda in the archdeaconry and diocese of Llandaff. There wen at the end of 1905 over one hundred and fifty nonconformis, chapels and mission rooms, with accommodation for over 85,000 persons, of which provision nearly two-thirds was in chapels with Welsh services. There is a Roman Catholic church at Tonypandy. The public buildings include the council house and offices of the district Council, erected in 1883-84 for the local board at Pentre, libraries and workmen's institutes at Ystrad (1895), and Cymmer RHONE 271 (1893), Maerdy (1905), Dinas (1893), and Ferndale public halls, the property of a private company at Treherbert (1872), and Tonypandy (1891) and a county intermediate school at Porth. By means of a tunnel about 2100 yds. long water is obtained for the greater part of the main valley from the lake of Llyn Fawr on the Neath side of the mountain range which shuts in the valley on the north. This lake has been converted into a storage reservoir of about 167 million gallons capacity. The rest of the district is supplied from the Pontypridd Water Company's works above Maerdy in the lesser valley. The ancient parish (excluding Rhigos) was formed into a parliamentary constituency with one member in 1885. The present urban district substantially corresponds to the ancient territorial division of Glyn-rhondda, one of the four commotes of the cantf ed of Penychen, and subsequently, in Norman times, one of the twelve " members " of the lordship of Glamorgan. Its Welsh lords enjoyed a large measure of independence and had their own courts, in which Welsh law was administered down to I S3S> when the lordship was fully incorporated in the county of Glamorgan. On the ridge of Cefn-rhondda between the two valleys was the Franciscan monastery of Penrhys, famous for its image of the Virgin and for its holy well which attracted large pilgrimages. It was dissolved about 1415, probably owing to its having supported Glyndwr in his rebellion. Edward II. came here from Neath Abbey and was captured on the 16th of November 1326, either at Penrhys, or between it and Llantrisant. (D. Ll. T.) RHONE (Fr. Rhdne, Lat. Rhodanus) , one of the most important rivers in Europe, and the chief of those which flow directly into the Mediterranean. It rises at the upper or eastern extremity of the Swiss canton of the Valais, flows between the Bernese Alps (N.) and the Lepontine and Pennine Alps (S.) till it expands into the Lake of Geneva, winds round the southernmost spurs of the Jura range, receives at Lyons its principal tributary, the Sa&ne, and then turns southward through France till, by many mouths, it enters that part of the Mediterranean which is rightly called the Golfe du Lion (sometimes wrongly the Gulf of Lyons). Its total length' from source to sea is 5045 m. (of which the Lake of Geneva claims 45 m.), while its total drainage area in 37,798 sq. m., of which 2772 sq. m. are in Switzerland -(405 sq. m. of the Swiss portion being composed of glaciers), and its total fall 5898 ft. Its course (excluding the Lake of Geneva, q.v.) naturally falls into three divisions: (1) from its source to the Lake of Geneva, (2) from Geneva to Lyons, and (3) from Lyons to the Mediterranean. 1. From its source to the lake the Rhone is a purely Alpine river, flowing through the great trench which it has cut for itself between two of the loftiest Alpine ranges, and which (save a bit at its north-west end) forms the Canton of the Valais. Its length is 1055 m., while its fall is 4679 ft. It issues as a torrent, at the height of 5909 ft., from the great Rhone glacier at the head of the Valais, the recent retreat of this glacier having proved that the river really flows from beneath it, and does not take its rise from the warm springs that are now at some distance from its shrunken snout. It is almost immediately joined on the left by the Mutt torrent, coming from a small glacier to the S.E., and then flows S.W. for a short distance past the well-known Gletsch Hotel (where the roads from the Grimsel and the Furka Passes unite). But about half a mile from the glacier the river turns S.E. and descends through a wild gorge to the more level valley, bending again S.W. before reaching the first village, Oberwald. It preserves this south-westerly direction till Martigny. The uppermost valley of the Rhone is named Goms (Fr. Conches), its chief village being Miinster, while Fiesch, lower down, is well known to most Swiss travellers. As the river rolls on, it is swollen by mountain torrents, descend- ing from the glaciers on either side of its bed — so by the Geren (left), near Oberwald, by the Eginen (left), near Ulrichen, by the Fiesch (right), at Fiesch, by the Binna (left), near Grengiols, by the Massa (right), flowing from the great Aletsch glaciers, above Brieg. At Brieg the Rhone has descended 3678 ft. from its source, has flowed 28 m. in the open, and is already a consider- able stream when joined (left)by the Saltine, descending from the Simplon Pass. Its course below Brieg is less rapid than before and lies through the alluvial deposits which it has brought down in the course of ages. The valley is wide and marshy, the river frequently overflowing its banks. Further mountain torrents (of greater volume than those higher up) fall into the Rhone as it rolls along in a south-westerly direction towards Martigny: the Visp (left), coming from the Zermatt valley, falls in at Visp, at Gampel the Lonza (right), from the Lotschen valley, at Leuk the Dala (right), from the Gemmi Pass, av Sierre the Navizen (left), from the Einfisch or Anniviers valley, at Sion, the capital of the Valais, the Borgne (left) from the Val d'Herens; soon the Rhone is joined by the Morgc (right), flowing from the Sanetsch Pass, and the boundary in the middle ages between Episcopal Valais to the east and Savo- yard Valais to the west, and at Martigny by the Dranse (left) its chief Alpine tributary, from the Great St Bernard and the Val de Bagnes. At Martigny, about 50 m. from Brieg, the river bends sharply to the N.W., and runs in that direction to the Lake of Geneva. It receives the Salanfe (left), which forms the celebrated waterfall of Pissevache, before reaching the ancient town and abbey of St Maurice (9§m.). Henceforward the right bank is in the canton of Vaud (conquered from Savoy in 1475) ar >d the left bank in that of the Valais (conquered similarly in 1536), for St Maurice marks the end of the historical Valais. Immediately below that town the Rhone rushes through a great natural gateway, a narrow and striking defile (now strongly fortified), which commands the entrance of the Valais. Beyond, the river enters the wide alluvial plain, formerly occupied by the south-eastern arm of the Lake of Geneva, but now marshy and requiring frequent " correction." It receives at Bex the Avancon (right), flowing from the glaciers of the Diablerets range, at Monthey the Vieze (left), from Champery and the Val d'llliez, and at Aigle the Grande Eau (right), from the valley of Ormonts-dessus. It passes by the hamlet of Port Valais, once on the shore of the lake, before expanding into the Lake of Geneva, between Villeneuve (right) and St Gingolph (left). During all this portion of its course the Rhone is not navigable, but a railway fine runs along it from Brieg in about 72 m. to either Villeneuve or Le Bouveret. 2. On issuing at Geneva from the lake the waters of the Rhone are very limpid and blue, as it has left all its impurities in the great settling vat of the lake, so that Byron might well speak of the " blue rushing of the arrowy Rhone " {Childe Harold, canto iii. stanza 71). But about half a mile below Geneva this limpidity is disturbed by the pouring in of the turbid torrent of the Arve (left), descending from the glaciers of the Mont Blanc range, the two currents for some distance refusing to mix. The distance from Geneva to Lyons by the tortuous course of the Rhone is about 124 m., the fall being only about 689 ft. The characteristic feature of this portion of the course of the Rhone is the number of narrow gorges or cluses through which it rushes, while it is forced by the southern spur of the Jura to run in a southerly direction, till, after rounding the base of that spur, it can flow freely westwards to Lyons. About 12 m. S. of Geneva the Rhone enters French territory, and henceforth till near Lyons forms first the eastern, then the southern boundary of the French department of the Ain, dividing it from those of Haute Savoie and Savoie (E.) and that of the Isere (S.). Soon after it becomes French the river rushes furiously through a deep gorge, being imprisoned on the north by the Credo and on the south by the Vuache, while the great fortress of l'Ecluse guards this entrance into France. The railway pierces the Credo by a tunnel. In the narrowest portion of this gorge, not far from Bellegarde at its lower end, there formerly existed the famous Perte du Rhone (described by Saussure in his Voyages dans les Alpes, chapter xvii.), where for a certain distance the river disappeared in a subterranean channel; but this natural phenomenon has been destroyed, partly by blasting, and partly by the diversion of the water for the use of the factories of Bellegarde. At Bellegarde the Valserine flows in (right), and then the river resumes its southerly direction, from which the great gorge had deflected it for a while. Some way below Bellegarde, between Le Pare and Pyrimont, the 272 RHONE— RHONGEBIRGE Rhone becomes officially " navigable," though as far as Lyons the navigation now consists all but wholly of the floating of flat-bottomed boats, named rigues, laden chiefly with stone quarried from the banks of the river. Above Seyssel (u m. from Bellegarde) the Usses (left) joins the Rhone, while just below that village the Fier (left) flows in from the Lake of Annecy. Below the junction of the Fier the hills sink on either side, the channel of the river widens, and one may say that it leaves the mountains for the plains. At Culoz (415 m. by rail from Geneva) the railway from Geneva to Lyons (105 m.) quits the Rhone in order to run west by a direct route past Amberieu. The Rhone continues to roll on southwards, but no longer (as no doubt it did in ancient days) enters the Lac du Bourget, of which it receives the waters through a canal, and then leaves it on the east in order to run along the foot of the last spur of the Jura. It flows past Yenne (left) and beneath the picturesque fortress (formerly a Carthusian monastery) of Pierre Chatel (right) before it attains the foot of the extreme southern spur of the Jura, at a height of 606 ft., not far from the village of Cordon, and just where the Guiers flows in (left) from the mountains of the Grande Chartreuse. This is nearly the last of the cluses through which the river has to make its way. The very last is at the Pont du Saut or Sault, a little S. of Lagnieu. The river now widens, but the neighbouring country is much exposed to inundations. It receives (right) its most important tributary in this part of its course, the Ain, which descends from the French slope of the Jura and is navigable for about 60 m. above its junction with the Rhone. Farther down the Rhone meanders for a time with shifting channels in a bed about 2 m. broad, but it gathers into a single stream before its junction with the Sadne, just below Lyons. The Saone (q.v.), which has received (left) the Doubs, is the real continuation of the Rhone, both from a geographical and a commercial point of view, and it is by means of canals branching off from the course of the Saone that the Rhone communicates with the basins of the Loire, the Seine, the Rhine and the Moselle. In fact, up to Lyons, the Rhone (save when it expands into the Lake of Geneva) is a huge and very unruly mountain torrent rather than a great European river. 3. Below Lyons, however, the Rhone becomes one of the great historical rivers of France. It was up its valley that first Greek, then Latin civilization penetrated from the Medi- terranean to Lyons, as well as in the 10th century the Saracen bandits from their settlement at La Garde Freinet, near the coast of Provence. Then, too, from Lyons downwards, the Rhone serves as a great medium of commerce by which central France sends its products to the sea. Its length from Lyons to the sea is some 230 m., though its fall is but 530 ft. But during this half of its course it can boast of having on its left bank (the right bank is very poor in this respect) such historical cities as Vienne, Valence, Avignon, Tarascon and Aries, while it receives (left) the Isere, the Drome and the Durance rivers, all formed by the union of many streams, and bringing down the waters that flow from the lofty snowy Dauphine Alps. The Ardeche is the only considerable affluent from the right. Near Aries, about 25 m. from the sea, and by rail 1751 m. from Lyons, the river breaks up into its two main branches, the Grand Rhone running S.E. and the Petit Rhone S.W.; they enclose between them the huge delta of the Camargue, which is cultivated on the banks of the river only, but elsewhere is simply a great alluvial plain, deposited in the course of ages by the river, and now composed of scanty pasturages and of great salt marshes. Between Lyons and the sea, the Rhone divides four departments on its right bank (Rhone, Loire, Ardeche and Gard) from as many on its left bank (Isere, Dr6me, Vaucluse and Bouches du Rhone). Consult in general Ch. Lentheric, Le Rhdne — histoire d'un fleuve, 2 vols. (Paris, 1892). (W. A. B. C.) RH6KE, a department of south-eastern France, formed in 1793 from the eastern portion of the department of Rh6ne-et- Loire, and comprising the old districts of Beaujolais, Lyonnais, Franc-Lyonnais, Forez and a small portion of Dauphine. Pop. (1906) &s8,9Q7. Area, 1104 sq m. Rh6ne is bounded N. by the department of Sa6ne-et -Loire, E. by Ain and Isere and S. and W. by Loire. The Saone and the Rhone form its natural boundary on the east. The department belongs almost entirely to the basin of the Rhone, to which it sends its waters by the Saone and its tributary the Azergues, and by the Gier. The mountains which cover the surface of the department con- stitute the watershed between the Rhone and the Loire, and from north to south form four successive groups — the Beaujolais Mountains, the highest peak of which is 3320 ft.; the Tarare group; the Lyonnais Mountains (nearly 3000 ft.); and Mont Pilat, the highest peak of which belongs to the department of Loire. The lowest point of the department (460 ft. above sea- level) is at the egress of the Rhone. The meteorological con- ditions vary greatly with the elevation and exposure. Snow sometimes lies in the mountains from November to April, while at Lyons and in the valleys the mean temperature in winter is 36 F. and in summer 70 , the annual mean being 53°. The average rainfall is somewhat higher than is general over France owing to the amount of the precipitation on the hilly region. Good agricultural land is found in the valleys of the Saone and Rhone, but for the most part the soil is stony and only moderately fertile. Wheat, oats, rye and potatoes are ex- tensively cultivated, but their importance is less than that of the vine, the hills of the Beaujolais on the right bank of the Sa6ne producing excellent wines. Fruit trees, such as peaches, apricots, walnuts and chestnuts, grow well, but the wood in general is little more than copse and brushwood. Good pasture is found in the valleys of the Azergues and its affluents. Mines of iron-pyrites and coal and quarries of freestone are worked.. The production of silk fabrics, the chief branch of manufacture, that of chemicals and machinery, together with most of the other industries of the department, are concentrated in Lyons (q.v.) and its vicinity. Tarare is a centre for the manufacture of muslin and embroidery. Oullins has large railway workshops belonging to the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee railway, and there are important glass works at Givors. Cotton- spinning and weaving are carried on in several localities. The products of its manufactures, together with wine and brandy, form the bulk of the exports of the department; its imports comprise chiefly the raw material for its industries. It is served by the Paris-Lyon railway. The Rhone and the Saone and in the extreme south the canal of Givors are its navigable waterways. Lyons the capital is the seat of an archbishop and of a court of appeal and centre of an educational division (academic). The department is divided amongst the districts of the VII., VIII., XII., XIII. and XIV. army corps. There are two arrondissements (Lyons and Villefranche) subdivided into 29 cantons and 269 communes. The principal places besides Lyons are Givors, Tarare and Villefranche, which receive separate treatment. RHONGEBIRGE, or Die Rhon, a mountain-chain of central Germany, running in a north-westerly direction from the Bavarian province of Lower Franconia to the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau and the grand duchy of Saxe-Weimar, and divided by the Werra from the Thuringian Forest on the N. The other sides are bounded by the Fulda on the W. and the Sinn and Frankish Saab on the E. and S. Its length is 50 m., breadth 5-7 m., and its mean elevation 1900 ft. This district is divided into three groups— the southern, the high (Hohe) and the nearer (Vordere) Rhon. Of these the southern, a con- tinuation of the Spessart, largely consists of flat conical masses and reaches its highest point in the Heiliger Kreuzberg (2900 ft.). The Hohe Rhon, beginning immediately to the north-west of the latter mountain, is a high plateau of red sandstone, covered with fens and basalt peaks. It is a wild, dreary, inclement tract of country, covered with snow for six months in the year and visited by frequent fogs and storms. It is said of it that whoever desires to experience a northern winter can spare himself a journey to the North Cape or Siberia, and find it in his native Rhon. There is little vegetation, and the inhabitants eke out a scanty sustenance from the cultivation of potatoes RHOXOLANI— RHUBARB ?73 and flax. The highest inhabited place is Frankenhausen, lying at a height of 2350 ft. with 6383 inhabitants (1900). The nearer (Vordere) Rhon, forming the northern side of the range, is more attractive, with forests and deep and fertile valleys. See Lenk, Zur geologischen Kenntnis der sudlichen Rhon (Wiirzburg, 1887); Scheidtweiler, Die Rhon und ihre wirthschaftlichen Verhdlt- nisse (Frankfort, 1887); and Daniel, Deutschland (5th ed., Leipzig, 1878). RHOXOLANI, a Sarmatian tribe defeated in the Crimea by Diophantus, general of Mithradates, c. 100 B.C., and by the Romans on the lower Danube c. a.d. 60, and also under M. Aurelius. They seem* to have finally succumbed to the Goths. RHUBARB. This name is applied both to a drug and to a vegetable. 1. The drug has been used in medicine from very early times, being described in the Chinese herbal Pen-king, which is believed to date from 2700 B.C. The name seems to be a corruption of Rheum barbarum or Reu barbarum, a designa- tion applied to the drug as early as the middle of the 6th century, and apparently identical with the pr\ov or pa, of Dioscorides, described by him as a root brought from beyond the Bosporus. In the 14th century rhubarb appears to have found its way to Europe by way of the Indus and Persian Gulf to the Red Sea and Alexandria, and was therefore described as " East Indian " rhubarb. Some also came by way of Persia and the Caspian to Syria and Asia Minor, and reached Europe from the ports of Aleppo and Smyrna, and became known as " Turkey " rhubarb. Subsequently to the year 1653, wheii China first permitted Russia to trade on her frontiers, Chinese rhubarb reached Europe chiefly by way of Moscow; and in 1704 the rhubarb trade became a monopoly of the Russian government, in consequence of which the term " Russian " or " crown " rhubarb came to be applied to it. Urga was the great depot for the rhubarb trade in 1719, but in 1728 the depot was transferred to Kiachta. All rhubarb brought to the depot passed through the hands of the govern- ment inspector; hence Russian rhubarb was invariably good and obtained a remarkably high price. This severe super- vision naturally led, as soon as the northern Chinese ports were thrown open to European trade, to a new outlet being sought; and the increased demand for the drug at these ports resulted in less care being exercised by the Chinese in the collection and curing of the root, so that the rhubarb of good quality offered at Kiachta rapidly dwindled in quantity, and after i860 Russian rhubarb ceased to appear in European commerce. Owing to the expense of carrying the drug across the whole breadth of Asia, and the difficulty of preserving it from the attacks of insects, rhubarb was formerly one of the most costly of drugs. In 1542 it was sold in France for ten times the price of cinnamon and four times that of saffron, and in an English price list bearing date of 1657 it is quoted at 16s. per lb, opium being at that time only 6s. and scammony 12s. per lb. The dose of rhubarb is anything from \ up to 30 grains, according to the action which is desired. The British Pharmacopeia contains seven preparations, only one of which is of any special value. This is the Pulvis Rhei Compositus, or Gregory's powder, which is composed of 2 parts of rhubarb, 6 of heavy or light . magnesia and I of ginger. The dose is 20 to 60 gr. Rhubarb is used in small doses — J to 2 gr. — as an astringent tonic, since it stimulates all the functions of the upper part of the alimentary canal. In many cases of torpid dyspepsia it is very efficient when combined with the subnitrate of bismuth and the bicarbonate of sodium. The more characteristic action of rhubarb, however, is purgation, which it causes in doses of 15 gr. and upwards. The action occurs within seven or eight hours, a soft, pulpy motion of a yellow colour being produced. The colour is due to the chrysa- robin, which is also the purgative constituent of the drug. _ Rhubarb is also a secretory cholagogue, increasing the amount of bile formed by the liver. The drug is apt to cause colic, and should therefore never be given alone. The ginger in Gregory's powder averts this unpleasant consequence of the aperient properties of rhubarb. The drug is peculiar in that the purgation is succeeded by definite constipation, said to be due to the rheotannic acid. This explana- tion is hardly satisfactory, however, since it is difficult to see how the rheotannic acid can be retained in the bowel during the process of purgation. Rhubarb has, therefore, definite indications and contra-indications. It is obviously worse than useless in the treatment of chronic constipation, which it only aggravates. On the other hand, it is very valuable in children and others, when diarrhoea has been caused by an unsuitable dietary. The drug removes the indigestible residue of the food and then gives the bowel rest. Rhubarb is also useful in the weaning of infants, since it, is partly excreted in the maternal milk, and gives it a bitter taste which the baby dislikes. Some chrysarobin is absorbed and is excreted in the urine, which it slightly increases and colours a reddish brown. The colour is discharged by the addition of a little dilute hydrochloric acid to the urine. The botanical source of Chinese rhubarb cannot be said to have been as yet definitely cleared up by actual identification of plants observed to be used for the purpose. Rheum palmatum, R. officinale, R. palmatum, var. tanguiicum, R. colinianum and R. Franzenbachii have been variously stated to be the source of it, but the roots produced by these species under cultivation in Europe do not present the characteristic network of white veins exhibited by the best specimens of the Chinese drug. Chemistry. — The most important constituent of this drug, giving it its purgative properties and its yellow colour, is chrysarobin, C 3 oH 36 07, formerly known as rhein or chrysophan. The rhubarb of commerce also contains chrysophanic acid, a dioxymethyl anthra- quinone, Ci4H 6 (CH 3 )02(OH)2, of which chrysarobin is a reduction product. Nearly 40% of the drug consists of calcium oxalate, which gives it the characteristic grittiness. There is also present rheotannic acid, which is of some practical importance. There are numerous other constituents, such as emodin, CisHioOs, mucilage, resins, rheumic acid, C2oHi 6 9 , aporrhetin, &c. Production and Commerce. — Rhubarb is produced in the four northern provinces of China proper (Chih-li, Shan-se, Shen-se and Ho-nan), in the north-west provinces of Kan-suh, formerly included in Shen-se, but now extending across the desert of Gobi to the frontier of Tibet, in the Mongolian province of Tsing-hai, including the salt lake Koko-nor, and the districts of Tangut, Sifan and Turfan, and in the mountains of the western provinces of Sze-chuen. 1 Two of the most important centres of the trade are Sining-f u in the province of Kan-suh, and Kwanhien in Sze-chuen. From Shen-se, Kan-suh and Sze-chuen the rhubarb is forwarded to Hankow, and thence carried to Shanghai, whence it is shipped to Europe. Lesser quantities are shipped from Tien-tsin, and occasionally the drug is exported from Canton, Amoy, Fuh-chow and Ning-po. Very little is known concerning the mode of preparing the drug for the market. According to Mr Bell, who on a journey from St Petersburg to Peking had the opportunity of observing the plant in a growing state, the root is not considered to be mature -until it is six years old. It is then dug up, usually in the autumn, and deprived of its cortical portion and smaller branches, and the larger pieces are divided in half longitudinally; these pieces are bored with holes and strung up on cords to dry, in some cases being previously subjected to a preliminary drying on stone slabs heated by fire underneath. In Bhutan the root is said to be hung up in a kind of drying room, in which a moderate heat is regularly maintained. The effect produced by the two drying processes is very different: when dried by artificial heat, the exterior of the pieces becomes hardened before the interior has entirely lost its moisture, and consequently the pieces decay in the centre, although the surface may show no change. These two varieties are technically known as kiln-dried and sun-dried; and it was on account of this differ- ence in quality that the Russian officer at Kiachta had every piece examined by boring a hole to its centre. European Rhubarb. — As early as 1608 Prosper Alpinus of Padua cultivated as the true rhubarb a plant which is now known as Rheum rhaponticum, a native of southern Siberia and the basin of the Volga. This plant was introduced into England through Sir Matthew Lister, physician to Charles I., who gave seed obtained by him in Italy to the botanist Parkinson. The culture of this rhubarb for the sake of the root was commenced in 1777 at Banbury, in Oxfordshire, by an apothecary named Hayward, the' plants being raised from seed sent from Russia in 1762, and with such success that the Society of Arts awarded him a silver medal in 1789 and a gold one in 1794. The cultivation subsequently extended to Somersetshire, Yorkshire, and Middlesex, but is now chiefly carried on at Banbury. English rhubarb root is sold at a cheaper rate than the Chinese rhubarb, and forms a considerable article of export to America, and is said to be used in Britain in the form of powder, which is of a finer yellow colour than that of Chinese rhubarb. The Banbury rhubarb appears to be a hybrid between R. rhaponticum and R. undulatum — the root, according to E. Colin, not presenting the typical microscopic structure of the former. More recently very ^According to Mr F. Newcombe, Med. Press and Circ, August 2, 1882, the Chinese esteem the Shen-se rhubarb as the best, that coming from Kanchow being the most prized of all; Sze-chuen rhubarb has a rougher surface and little flavour, and brings only about half the price; Chung-chi rhubarb also is greatly valued, while the Chi-chuang, Tai-huang and Shan-huang varieties are considered worthless. 274 RHYL— RHYME good rhubarb has been grown at Banbury from Rheum officinale, but these two varieties are not equal in medicinal strength to the Chinese article, yielding less extract — Chinese rhubarb afford- ing, according to H. Seier, 58%, English rhubarb 21 % and R. officinale 17%. In France the cultivation of rhubarb was commenced in the latter half of the 1 8th century — R. com- paction, R. palmatum, R. rhaponticum and R. undidatum being the species grown. The cultivation has, however, now nearly ceased, small quantities only being prepared at Avignon and a few other localities. The culture of Rheum compactum was begun in Moravia in the beginning of the present century by Prikyl, an apothecary in Austerlitz, and until about fifty years ago the root was largely exported to Lyons and Milan, where it was used for dyeing silk. As a medicine 5 parts are stated to be equal to 4 of Chinese rhubarb. Rhubarb root is also grown at Auspitz in Moravia and at Ilmitz, Kremnitz and Frauenkirchen in Hungary; R. emodi is said to be cultivated for the same purpose in Silesia. Rhubarb is also prepared for use in medicine from wild species in the Himalayas and Java. 2. The rhubarb used as a vegetable consists of the leaf stalks of R. rhaponticum and its varieties, and R. undulatum. It is known in America as pie-plant. Plants are readily raised from seed, but strong plants can be obtained in a much shorter time by dividing the roots. Divisions or seedlings are planted about 3 ft. apart in ground which has been deeply trenched and manured, the crowns being kept slightly above the sur- face. Rhubarb grows freely under fruit-trees, but succeeds best in an open situation in rich, rather light soil. The stalks should not be pulled during the first season. If a top-dress- ing of manure be given each winter a plantation will last good for several years. Forced rhubarb is much esteemed in winter and early spring, and forms a remunerative crop. Forcing under glass or in a mushroom house is most satisfactory, but open-ground forcing may be effected by placing pots or boxes over the roots and burying in a good depth of stable litter and leaves. Several other species, such as R. palmatum, R. officinale, R. nobile and others, are cultivated for their fine foliage and handsome inflorescence, especially in wild gardens, margins of shrubberies and similar places. They succeed in most soils, but prefer a rich soil of good depth. They are propagated by seeds or by division. RHYL, a watering-place and urban district of Flint, N. Wales, practically equidistant by rail from Bangor (295 m.) and Chester (30 m.), and 209 m. from London on the London & North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 8473. It is situated near the mouth of the Clwyd. Formerly, like Llandudno, a small fishing village, the town has now all the appointments of a popular resort. In winter the gales often fill the streets to the depth of several feet, with drifts of sand from the sur- rounding dunes, which, however, are noted in summer for the dry and bracing air. The neighbouring country is inter- esting from its scenery and antiquities. Among the institu- tions of the town may be mentioned the Queen Alexandra Hospital (1902), and several hydropathic establishments and convalescent homes. The estuary harbours coasting vessels, and some shipbuilding is carried on. On the beach towards Prestatyn can be seen the remains of a submerged forest. RHYME, more correctly spelt Rime, from a Provencal word rim (its customary English spelling is due to a confusion with rhythm), a literary ornament or device consisting of an identity of sound in the terminal syllables of two or more words. In the art of versification it signifies the repetition of a sound at the end of two or more lines in a single composition. This artifice was practically unknown to the ancients, and, when it occurs, or seems to occur, in the works of classic Greek and Latin poets, it must be considered to be accidental. The natural tendency of the writer of verse unconsciously to repeat a sound, however, is shown by the fact that there have been discovered nearly one thousand lines in the writings of Virgil where the final syllable rhymes with a central one, thus — Bella per Emathios plus quam civilia campos. It is more than doubtful, however, whether the difference of stress would not prevent this from sounding as a rhyme in »o antique ear, and the phenomenon N results more from the contingencies of grammar than from intention on the part of the poet. Conscious rhyme belongs to the early medieval periods of monkish literature, and the name given to lines with an intentional rhyme in the middle is Leonine verse, the invention being attributed to a probably apocryphal monk Leoninus or Leonius, who is supposed to be the author of a history of the Old Testament preserved in the Bibliotheque Nationale of Paris. This " history " is composed in Latin verses, all of which rhyme in the centre. Another very famous poem in Leonine rhyme is the " De Contemptu Mundi " of Bernard of Cluny, which was printed. at Bremen in 1595. Rhyme exists to satisfy the ear by the richness of repeated sound. In the beginnings of modern verse, alliteration, a repetition of a consonant, satisfied the listener. A further ornament was discovered when assonance, a repetition of the vowel-sounds, was invented. Finally, both of these were com- bined to procure a full identity of sound in the entire syllable, and rhyme took its place in prosody. When this identity of sound occurs in the last syllable of a verse it is the typical end- rhyme of modern European poetry. Recent criticism has been inclined to look upon the African church-Latin of the age of Tertullian as the starting-point of modern rhyme, and it is probable that the ingenuities of priests, invented to aid wor- shippers in hearing and singing long pieces of Latin verse in the ritual of the Catholic church produced the earliest conscious poems in rhyme. Moreover, not to give too great importance to the Leonine hexameters which have been mentioned above, it is certain that by the 4th century a school of rhymed sacred poetry had come into existence, classical examples of which we still possess in the " Stabat Mater " and the " Dies Irae." In the course of the middle ages, alliteration, assonance and end-rhyme held the field without a rival in vernacular poetry. There is no such thing, it may broadly be said, as medieval verse in which one or other of these distinguishing ornaments is not employed. After the 14th century, in the north of Europe, and indeed everywhere except in Spain, where asson- ance held a powerful position, end-rhyme became universal and formed a distinctive indication of metrical construction. It was not until the invention of Blank Verse (q.v.) that rhyme found a modern rival, and in spite of the successes of this instrument rhyme has held its own, at all events for non- dramatic verse, in the principal literature of Europe. Certain forms of poetry are almost inconceivable without rhyme. For instance, efforts have been made to compose rhymeless sonnets, but the result has been, either that the piece of blank verse produced is not in any sense a sonnet, or else that by some artifice the appearance of rhyme has been retained. In the heyday of Elizabethan literature a serious attempt was made in England to reject rhyme altogether, and to return to the quantitative measures of the ancients. The prime mover in this heresy was not a poet at all, but a pedantic grammarian of Cambridge, Gabriel Harvey (1545 ?-i63o). He considered himself a great innovator, and for a short time he actually seduced no less melodious a poet than Edmund Spenser to abandon rhyme and adopt a system of accented hexameters and trimeters. Spenser even wrote largely in those measures, but the greater portion of his experiments in this kind, of which The Dying Pelican is supposed to have been one, have' disappeared. From 1576 to 1579 the genius of Spenser seems to have been obscured by this error of taste, but he shook it off completely when he composed The Shepherd's Calendar. Harvey considered Richard Stonyhurst (1547-1618) the most loyal of his disciples, and this author published in 1582 four books of the Aeneid translated into rhymeless hexameters on Harvey's plan. The result remains, a portent of ugliness and cacophony. A far greater poet, Thomas Campion (1575— 1620), returned to the attack, and in a tract published in 1602 advocated the remission of rhyme from lyrical poetry. He, by dint of a prodigious effort, produced some unrhymed odes which were not without charm, but the best critics of the time, such as Daniel, repudiated the innovation, and rhyme continued to have no serious rival except blank verse. RHYMNEY— RHYOLITE 275 There have, from time to time, been made experiments of a similar nature, notably by Tennyson, but rhyme has retained its sway as an essential ornament of all English poetry which is not in blank verse. There have been not a few poems composed, principally in the nineteenth century, in rhymeless hexameters, and even the elegiac couplet has been attempted. The experiments of Long- fellow, Clough, Kingsley and others demand respectful notice, but it is more than doubtful whether any one of these, even the melli- fluous Andromeda of the last-named writer, is really in harmony with the national prosody. In Germany a very determined attack on rhyme was made early in the seventeenth century, particularly by a group of aesthetic critics in the Swiss universities. They attacked rhyme as an artless species of sing-song, which deadened and destroyed the true movement of melody in the rhythm. The argument of this group of critics had a deep influence in German practice, and led to the composition of a vast number of works in unrhymed measures, in few of which, however, is now found a music which justifies the experiment. Lessing recalled the German poets to a sense of the beauty and value of rhyme, but the popularity of Klopstock and his imitators continued to exercise a great influence. Goethe and Schiller, without abandoning rhyme altogether, permitted themselves a great liberty in the employment of unrhymed measures and in imita- tion of classic metres. This was carried to still greater lengths by Platen and Heine, the rhymeless rhythm of the last of whom was imitated in English verse by Matthew Arnold and others, not without an occasional measure of success. In France, on the other hand, the empire of rhyme has always been triumphant, and in French literature the idea of rhymeless verse can scarcely be said to exist. There the rime pleine or riche, in which not merely the sound but the emphasis is perfectly identical, is insisted upon, and a poet who rhymed as Mrs Browning did, or made " flying " an equivalent in sound to " Zion," would be deemed illiterate. In French, two species of rhyme are accepted, the feminine and the masculine. Feminine rhymes are those which end in a mute e, masculine those which do not so end. The Alexandrine, which is the classical metre in French, is built up on what are known as rimes croisees, that is to say a couplet of masculine rhymes followed by a couplet of feminine, and that again by masculine. This rule is unknown to the medieval poetry of France. In Italian literature the excessive abundance and facility of rhyme has led to a rebellion against its use, which is much more reasonable than that of the Germans, whose strenuous language seems to call for an emphatic uniformity of sound. But it was the influence of German aesthetics which forced upon the notice of Leopardi the possibility of introducing rhymeless lyrical measures into Italian verse, an innovation which he carried out with remarkable hardihood and success. The rhymeless odes of Carducci are also worthy of admiration, and may be com- pared by the student with those of Heine and of Matthew Arnold respectively. Nevertheless, in Italian also, the ear demands the pleasure of the full reiterated sound, and the experiments of the eminent poets who have rejected it have claimed respect rather than sympathy or imitation. At the close of the 19th century, particularly in France, where the rules of rhyme had been most rigid, an effort to modify and minimise these restraints was widely made. There is no doubt that the laws of rhyme, like other artificial regulations, may be too severe, but there is no evidence that the natural beauty which pure rhyme introduces into poetry is losing its hold on the human ear or is in any real danger of being superseded by accent or rhythm. See Joseph B. Mayer, A Handbook of Modern English Metre (Cambridge, 1903) ; J. Minor, Neuhochdeutsche Metrik (Strassburg, 1893); J. B. Schutze, Versuch einer Theorie des Reimes nach Inhalt und Form (Magdeburg, 1802). (E. G.) RHYMNEY, an urban district in the western parliamentary division of Monmouthshire, England, on the borders of Glamor- ganshire, 22 m. N. by W. of Cardiff, on the Rhymney, the London & North-Western, and the Brecon & Merthyr railways. Pop. (1901), 7915. The Rhymney river, in the upper valley of which this town lies, forms almost throughout its course, to the estuary of the Severn near Cardiff, the boundary between England and Wales (Monmouthshire and Glamorganshire). In its upper part the valley, like others adjacent and parallel to it, is populous with mining townships, and the town of Rhymney owes its importance to the neighbouring coal-mines and to its iron and steel works, which employ nearly the whole population. The works of the Rhymney Iron Company, including blast furnaces and rolling mills, are among the largest of the kind in England. RHYOLITE (Gr. peTp, to flow, because of the frequency with which they exhibit fluxion structures), the group name of a type of volcanic rock, occurring mostly as lava no we, and characterized by a highly acid composition. They are the most siliceous of all lavas, and, with the exception of the dacites, are the only lavas which contain free primary quartz. In chemical composition they very closely resemble the granites which are the corresponding rocks of plu tonic or deep-seated origin; their minerals also present many points of similarity to those of granite though they are by no means entirely the same. Quartz, orthoclase and plagioclase felspars, and biotite are the com- monest ingredients of both rocks, but the quartz of rhyolites is full of glass enclosures and the potash felspar is pellucid sanidine, while the quartz of granite contains dust-like fluid cavities of very minute size and its potash felspar is of the turbid variety which is properly called orthoclase. The granites also are holocrystalline, while in the rhyolites there are usually porphyritic crystals floating in a fine ground-mass. Rhyolites have also been called liparites because many of the lavas of the Lipari Islands are excellent examples of this group. Above all rocks they have a disposition to assume vitreous forms, as when fused they crystallize with great difficulty. Hence it has long baffled experimenters to produce rhyolite synthetically by fusion; it is stated that these difficulties have now been over- come, but geologists believe that the presence of steam and other gases in the natural state expedites crystallization. In crucibles these cannot be retained at the temperatures employed; when the rocks are melted the gases escape and on cooling a pure glass is formed. The vitreous forms of rhyolite are known as obsidian, perlite and pumice (qq.v.). The minerals of the first generation, or phenocrysts, of rhyolite are generally orthoclase, oligoclase, quartz, biotite, augite or horn- blende. The felspars are usually glassy clear, small but of well- developed crystalline form: the potash felspar is sanidine, usually Carlsbad twinned ; the soda-lime felspar is almost always oligoclase, with characteristic polysynthetic structure. Both of these may be corroded and irregular in their outlines; their cleavage and twinning then distinguish them readily from quartz. Glass en- closures, sometimes rectangular with small immobile bubbles, are frequent. The quartz occurs as blebs or sub-rounded grains, which are corroded double hexagonal pyramids. Its glass enclosures are many and nearly always rounded or elliptical in section. No proper cleavage is seen in the quartz, though arcuate (conchoidal) fractures may often be noticed; they may have been produced by strain on cooling. Phenocrysts of micropegmatite are known in some rhyo- lites; they may have the shape of felspar or of quartz crystals; in the former case Carlsbad twinning is by no means uncommon, but in other cases hour-glass structure is very conspicuous. Biotite is always deep brown or greenish brown, in small hexagonal tablets, generally blackened at their edges by magmatic corrosion. Mus- covite is not known in rhyolites. Hornblende may be green or brown; in the quartz-pantellarites it sometimes takes the form of strongly pleochroic brown cossyrite. Like biotite it is eumorphic but often corroded in a marked degree. Augite, which is equally common or more common than the other ferro-magnesian minerals, is always green; its crystals are small and perfectly shaped, and corrosion phenomena are very rarely seen in it. Zircon, apatite and magnetite are always present in rhyolites, their crystals being often beautifully perfect though never large. Olivine is never a normal ingredient, but occurs in the hollow spherulites or litho- physae of some rhyolites with garnet, tridymite, topaz and other minerals which indicate pneumatolytic action. Among the less common accessory minerals of the rhyolites are cordierite in crystals which resemble hexagonal prisms but break up under polarized light into six radiating sectors owing to complicated twinning: they weather to green aggregates of chlorite and muscovite (pinite) ; garnet, sphene and orthite may also be met with in rhyolites. The ground-mass of rhyolitic rocks is of three distinct types which are stages in crystalline development, viz. the vitreous, the felsitic or cryptocrystalline, and the microcrystalline. Hence some authorities have proposed to subdivide the group 276 RHYOLITE into the vitrophyres, the felsophyres and the granophyres, but this is not now in use, and the last of these terms has obtained a signification quite different from that originally assigned to it. Mixturesof the different kinds occur; thus a vitreous rhyolite has often felsitic areas in its ground-mass, and in the same lava flow some parts may be vitreous while others are felsitic. The vitreous rhyolites are identical in most respects with the obsidians, from which they can only be separated in an artificial classification; and in their glassy base the banded or eutaxitic, spherulitic and perlitic structures of pure obsidians are very frequently present (see Obsidian; Perlite). The felso- liparites or liparites with stony ground-mass are especially common among the pre-Tertiary igneous rocks (see Quartz- porphyry), as liparite glass is unstable and experiences devitrification in course of time. Many of these felsites have fluxion banding, spherulites and even perlitic cracks, which are strong evidence that they were originally glassy. In other cases a hyaloliparite, obsidian, or pitchstone becomes felsitic along its borders and joint planes, or even along perlitic cracks, and we may assume that the once fibrous rock has changed into felsite under the action of percolating moisture or even by atmospheric decomposition. In many rhyolites the felsite is original and represents an incipient crystallization of the vitreous material which took place before the rock was yet cold. The felsite in turn is liable to change ; it becomes a fine mosaic of quartz and alkali felspar; and in this way a matrix of the third type, the microcrystalline, may develop. This is proved by the occurrence of the remains of spherulitic and perlitic structures in rocks which are no longer felsitic or glassy. Many micro- crystalline rhyolites have a ground-mass in which much felsitic matter occurs; but as this tends to recrystallize in course of time, the older rocks of this group show least of it. Whilst no quartz-bearing rhyolites are known to have been erupted in recent years, Lacroix proved that portions of the " dome " which rose as a great tower or column out of the crater of Mont Pelee after the eruption in 1906 contained small crystals of quartz in the ground-mass. The rock was an acid andesite, and it was ascribed by Lacroix to the action of steam retained in the rock under considerable pressure. The microcrystalline ground- mass of rhyolites is never micrographic as in the porphyries (granophyres); on the other hand it is often micropoikilitic, consisting of small felspars, often sub-rectangular, embedded in little rounded or irregular plates of quartz. The ground-mass of rhyolites is liable to other changes, of which the most important are silicification, kaolinization and sericitization. Among the older rocks of this group it is the exception to find that secondary quartz has not been de- posited in some parts of them. Often indeed the matrix is completely replaced by silica in the form of finely crystalline quartz or chalcedony; and these rocks on analysis prove to contain over 90% of silica. In the recent rhyolites of Hungary, New Zealand, &c, the deposit of coarse opal in portions of the rock is a very common phenomenon. Kaolinization may be due to weathering, and the stony dull appearance of the matrix of many microcrystalline rhyolites is a consequence of the decomposed state of the felspar grains in them; it is even more typically developed by fumarole action, which replaces the felspars with soft, cloudy white products which belong to a mineral of the kaolin group. Seri- citization, or the development of fine white mica after felspar, is usually associated with shearing, and is commonest in the older rhyolites. Vesicular structure is very common in rhyolites; in fact the pumiceous obsidians have this character in greater perfec- tion than any other rocks (see Pumice); but even the felso- rhyolites are very often vesicular. The cavities are usually lined with opal and tridymite; in the older rocks they may be filled with agate and chalcedony. The " mill-st'one porphyries," extensively used in Germany for grinding corn, are porous rhyolites; the abundance of quartz makes them hatd, and their rough surfaces render them peculiarly suitable for this purpose. In some of them the cavities are partly secondary. These rocks are obtained in the Odenwald, Thur- ingerwald and Fichtelgebirge. In Britain a pale grey Tertiary rhyolite occurs at Tardree, Antrim (the only British rock containing tridymite), and in Skye. Felsitic rhyolites occur among the Old Red rocks of Scotland (Pent- land Hills, Lome, &c), in Devonshire, and in large numbers in North Wales. The Carnarvonshire rhyolites are often much altered and silicified ; many of them have a nodular structure which is very conspicuous on weathered surfaces. The spheroids may be two or three inches in diameter; some of them are built up of con- centric shells. Rhyolites are also known from Fishguard, Malvern, Westmorland and Co. Waterford. One of the oldest volcanic rocks of Britain (pre-Cambrian, Uriconian) is the spherulitic rhyolite of the Lea Rock near Wellington in Shropshire. It shows bright red spherulites in great numbers and is probably an obsidian completely devitrified. Perlitic structure is also visible in it. In other parts of Europe rhyolites have a fairly wide distribution though they are not very numerous. In Hungary (Hlinik, &c.) there are many well-known examples of this class. They extend along the margin of the Carpathians and are found also in Sieben- burgen. In Italy they occur in the Euganean Hills and in the Lipari Islands; the latter being the principal source of pumice at the present day. Rhyolites of Recent age occur in Iceland (Myvatn, &c), where they are characterized by the frequent absence of quartz, and the presence of much plagioclase and pyroxene. Some of these rocks have been called trachyte-obsidians, but they seem to be rhyolites which contain an exceptionally large amount of soda. The older rhyolites, which are generally called quartz- porphyries in Germany, are mostly of Permian or Carboniferous age and are numerous in the Vosges, Odenwald, Thuringerwald, &c. They are often accompanied by basic rocks (melaphyres). Permian rhyolites occur also at Lugano in Italy. Rhyolites are known also in Asia Minor and the Caucasus, in New Zealand, Colorado, Nevada and other parts of western North America. In the Yellowstone National Park there is a well-known cliff of obsidian which shows remarkably perfect columnar jointing. Some of the rhyolites of Nevada are exceedingly rich in porphyritic minerals, so that they appear at first sight to be_holocrystalline rocks, since the ground- mass is scanty and inconspicuous. To this type the name nevadite has been given, but it is rare and local in its distribution. In the island of Pantellaria, which lies to the south-west of Sicily, there are rocks of rhyolitic affinities which present so many unusual features that they have been designated pantellarites. They contain less silica and alumina and more alkalis and iron than do ordinary rhyolites. Their felspars are of the anorthoclase group, being rich in soda together with potash, and are very variable in crystalline development. Aegirine-augite and forms of soda- amphibole are also characteristic of these rocks: dark brown aenigmatite or cossyrite often occur in them. Quartz is not very plentiful; other ingredients are olivine, arfvedsonite and tridymite. The ground-mass varies much, being sometimes quite vitreous, at other times a glass filled with swarms of microliths, while in certain pantellarites it is a microcrystalline aggregate of quartz and alkali felspar. The absence of plagioclase and biotite are marked distinctions between these rocks and the rhyolites, together with the scarcity of quartz and the prevalence of soda-bearing pyroxenes and amphiboles. Among the Palaeozoic volcanic rocks of Germany there is a group of lavas, the quartz-keratophyres, which are of acid composition and rich in alkali felspar. Their dominant alkali is soda: hence their _ felspars are albite and cryptoperthite, not sanidine as in rhyolites. Quartz occurs sometimes as corroded phenocrysts, but is often scarce even in the ground-mass. Porphyritic biotite or augite are very rare, but occur in the matrix along with felspars and quartz. Micropegmatite is not infrequent in these rocks, and they may be silicified like the rhyolites. As quartz-keratophyres mostly occur in districts where there has been a good deal of folding, they are often crushed and more or less serialized. They are best known from the Devonian rocks of Westphalia and the Harz, but are also found in Queensland, and similar rocks have been described (as soda-felsites) from Ireland. The rocks which they accompany are usually diabases and spilites. The other group of rhyolitic rocks rich in alkali felspars and soda pyroxenes and amphiboles are the comendites. They are often porphyritic, with crystals of quartz, sanidine, microperthite or albite: the ground-mass is microcrystalline or rarely micrographic, and often filled with spongy growths of aegirine and riebeckite. They are known from the recent eruptive districts of East Africa, from Sardinia and Texas, and very similar rocks occur as intrusive masses which may be grouped with the porphyries. The following analyses show the composition of some of the principal types of rhyolites : — Si0 2 A1 2 3 Fe 2 3 FeO CaO MgO K 2 Na 2 H 2 I. 76-34 13-22 193 1-85 o-2i 3-67 2-84 o-6i II. 72-15 13-50 3-12 0-93 0-16 4-54 4-20 0-85 HI- 77-59 12-75 0-67 n.f. 0-04 0-16 3-99 2-56 1-54 IV. 67-48 9-70 7-42 2-ai 1-45 0-77 2-94 7-21 0-96 V. 70-97 13-84 3-21 0-78 1-26 0-20 1-57 6-27 0-74 VI. 74-76 u-6o 3-50 0-19 0-07 0-18 4-92 4-35 0-64 RHYTHM 277 I. Rhyolite, Telki Banya, Hungary. II. do. . Mafahlid, Iceland. III. do. Omahu, New Zealand. IV. Pantellarite, Pantellaria. V. Quartz-keratophyfe, Muhlenthal, Harz. VI. Comendite, Sardinia. We note in the rhyolites I. -III. the very high silica, with alkalis and alumina also in considerable amount, while lime, magnesia and iron are very low. In the pantellarite, keratophyre and comendite the silica tends to be less abundant, while the alkalis, especially soda, increase; they have less alumina but are richer in iron and magnesia.' It is easy to see why the latter types contain less quartz, felspars often very rich in soda, and femic minerals which contain iron and alkalis in notable amounts such as aegirine, riebeckite and arfvedsonite. (J. S. F.) RHYTHM (Greek pvOnds, from frtiv, to flow), the measured flow of movement, or beat, in verse, music or by analogy in other connexions, e.g. " rhythm of life." The early critic of prosody, Aristoxenus, distinguished as the three elements out of which rhythm is composed, the spoken word, X££u, the tune of music and song, fteXqs, and the bodily motion, dvn