THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768—1771. SECOND »> »» ten 1777— 1784. THIRD »> »? eighteen 1788— 1797. FOURTH *» »» twenty 1801 — 1810. FIFTH »> »> twenty 1815— 1817. SIXTH »i >> twenty 1823 — 1824. SEVENTH it »> twenty-one 1830 — 1842. EIGHTH ji j> twenty-two 1853-1860. NINTH 99 >> twenty-five 1875—1889. TENTH J> ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903. ELEVENTH )» published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE All rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXII POLL to REEVES New York Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. 342 Madison Avenue Copyright, in the United States of America, 191 1, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company. INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,! WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. A. Bo.* A. C. G. A. C. McG. A. D. A. de W. F A. E. G.* of J] Auguste Boudinhon, D.D., D.C.L. Professor of Canon Law at the Catholic University of Paris. Honorary Canon of J. Pope. Paris. Editor of the Canoniste Contemporain. Albert Charles Lewis Gotthilf Guenther, M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S. Keeper of Zoological Department, British Museum, 1875-1895. Gold Medallist, . Royal Society, 1878. Author of Catalogues of Colubrine Snakes, Batrachia, Salientia and Fishes in the British Museum ; &c. Rev. Arthur Cushman McGiffert, M.A., Ph.D., D.D. Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. Author of ) p rnn u * r:„ j, nr A History of Christianity in the. Ahnstolir. Aop.\ &r F.ditor of the Histnria Er.desia) rr0 P nel \ m fan). of Eusebius. History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age; &c. Editor of the Historia Ecclesia 1 Austin Dobson, LL.D., D.C.L. -f Prior Matthew See the biographical article: Dobson, Henry Austin. ^rnor, mannew. Arthur de Wint Foote. J Power Transmission: Superintendent of North Star Mining Company, California. (_ Pneumatic. Rev. Alfred Ernest Garvie, M.A., D.D. f Principal of New College, Hampstead. Member of the Board of Theology and J _ j ac i-_ a i- _ the Board of Philosophy, London University. Author of Studies in the Inner Life | Weaesunaiion. of Jesus ; &c. I A. E. H. A. E. Houghton. f Formerly Correspondent of the Standard in Spain. Author of Restoration of the A Quesada y MatheUS. Bourbons in Spain. L A. E. S. Arthur Everett Shipley, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. f Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University. <, Priapuloidea. Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History. I A. G. Major Arthur George Frederick Griffiths (d. 1908). f H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgate ;\ Prison. Secrets of the Prison House ; &c. L A. Ha. Adolf Harnack, Ph.D. f „,,„„ w /• *„„,\ See the biographical article: Harnack, Adolf. \ «°P nel U» part). A. J. G. Rev. Alexander James Grieve, M. A., B.D. rprfiaphinff' Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent rreacning, College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and Member ofj Primitive MetnodlSt Church; Mysore Educational Service. [ PriSCillian. A. L. Andrew Lang. J" Poltergeist; Prometheus; See the biographical article: Lang, Andrew. \ Psychical Research. A. McA. Alexander McAulay, M.A. f" Professor of Mathematics and Physics, University of Tasmania. Author of Utility -j Quaternions {in part), of Quaternions in Physics; &c. {_ A. M. CI. Agnes Muriel Clay (Mrs Edward Wilde). f Formerly Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Joint-author of Sources < Publieam. of Roman History, 133-70 B.C. \ A. N. Alfred Newton, F.R.S. See the biographical article: Newton, Alfred. Pratincole; Quail; Quezalj Rail {in part); Raven; Razorbill; Redshank; Redstart; Redwing. 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. V VI A. SI. A. S. P.-P A. S. Wo. A. T. H. A. Wi.* A. W. Po. A. W. R. B. B. A. C. B. H C. E. w. C. F. A. C. G. Cr. C. Hi • C. H. Ha. C. H. T.* C R. B. C. T. J. D. B. Ma D. C. B. D D A. D. P. T. D. G. H. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Arthur Shadwell, M.A., M.D., LL.D. | Member of Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of The London Water- "i Prostitution, Supply; Industrial Efficiency; Drink, Temperance and Legislation. I Andrew Seth Pringle-Pattison, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. f Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford J Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 191 1. Fellow of the British Academy. 1 Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos; The Philosophical Radicals; &c. I Arthur Smith Woodward, LL.D., F.R.S. [ Keeper of Geology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Secretary of i PterodactyleS. the Geological Society of London. I Arthur Twining Hadley, LL.D. See the biographical article: Hadley, Arthur Twining. Pythagoras (in part). Railways: Economics. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the i Proclamation. i Railways: Accident Statistics. \ Quieherat. Railways: part). Aneurin Williams, M.A. _ f Barrister-at-Law of the Inner Temple. Chairman of Executive, International J _ „. , . Co-operative Alliance. M.P. for Plymouth, 1910. Author of Twenty-eight Years 1 rront-Snaring. of Co-partnership at Guise; &c. I Alfred William Pollard, M.A. Assistant Keeper of Printed Books, British Museum. Fellow of King's College, London. Hon. Secretary, Bibliographical Society. Editor of Books about Books -\ Polyglott. and Bibliographica. Joint-editor of the Library. Chief Editor of the " Globe " Chaucer. Alexander Wood Renton, M.A., LL.B. Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Laws of England. B RAMAN BLANCHARD ADAMS. Associate Editor of the Railway Age Gazette, New York. Charles Bemont, D.Litt. See the biographical article : Bemont, C. C. E. Webber, C.B., M.Inst.CE., M.I.E.E. (1838-1905). Major-General, Royal Engineers. Served in Indian Mutiny, 1857-1860; Egyptian Expedition, 1882; &c. Founder (with late Sir Francis Bolton) and Past President of the Institute of Electrical Engineers. Charles Francis Atkinson. _ f Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal \ Ravenna: Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. {. Charles George Crump, M.A. Balliol College, Oxford. Clerk in H.M. Public Record Office, London. Editor of -| Record. Landor's Works; &c. Charles Hiatt. Author of Picture Posters; &c. Carlton Huntley Hayes, A.M., Ph.D. Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City, of the American Historical Association. Crawford Howell Toy, A.M., LL.D. See the biographical article: Toy, Crawford Howell. Charles Raymond Beazley, M.A., D.Litt., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S. Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c. Light Railways {in Battle of ijia. J. Poster. Member -I Purgatory. Proverbs, Book of. Polo, Marco (in part); Ptolemy (in part); Pytheas (in part). Printing. Charles T. Jacobi. Managing Partner of the Chiswick Press, London. Author of Printing; &c. Duncan Black Macdonald, M.A., D.D. r Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, Hartford, Conn. I n ,_ Author of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional i Kamauan. Theory; Selections from Ibn Khaldun; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam; &c. I Demetrius Charles Boulger. Author of England and Russia in Central Asia; History of China; India in the iQth Century ; History of Belgium ; &c. Life of Gordon ; J Raffles, Sir Thomas. Protestant Episcopal Church. Rev. Daniel Dulany Addison, D.D. Rector of All Saints' Church, Brookline, Mass. Examining Chaplain to Bishop of Massachusetts. Secretary, Cathedral Chapter of Diocese of Massachusetts. Author of The Episcopalians ; &c. I Donald Francis Tovey. f Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The -j Programme Music. Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. (. David George Hogarth, M.A. Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 an d ' 1903; Ephesus, 1 904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. Priene; Pteria. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Vll D, H. D. H. S. D. W. T. E. A. J. E. A. M. E. Ba. E. Br. E. B. E. E. C. B. David Hannay. Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Naiy; Life of Emilio Castelar; &c. &*i. f cl . it- , t ,1 d J Quiberon, Battle of; Author of Short Hrstory of the Royal j Raleigh> Slr Walter# E. G. E. Ga. E. Gr. E. G. C E. H. B. E. J. J. E. O'N. E. Pr. E. Ru. E. R. B. P. C. C. Duktnfield Henry Scott, M.A., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. President of the Linnean Society. Professor of Botany, Royal College of Science, London, 1 885-1 892. Author of Structural Botany; Studies in Fossil Botany; &c. D'Akcy Wentworth Thompson, C.B., M.A. Professor of Natural History, University Bering Sea Fisheries and other Conferences. &c. College, Dundee. British Delegate, Author of A Glossary of Greek Birds ; Pringsheim, Nathanael. Ray, John. E. Alfred Jones. Author of Old English Gold Plate; Old Church Plate of the Isle of Man; Old Silver Sacramental Vessels of Foreign Protestant Churches in England ; Illustrated Catalogue "j Quaich. of Leopold de Rothschild' s Collection of Old Plate ; A Private Catalogue of the Royal Plate at Windsor Cqstle; &c. Edward Alfred Minchin, M.A., F.Z.S. f Polyp; Professor of Protozoology in the University of London. Formerly Fellow of J Protoplasm" Merton College, Oxford, and Jodrell Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, I _ . ' University College, London. I Protozoa. Edwin Bale, R.I. f Art Director, Cassell & Company, Ltd. Member of the Royal Institute of Painters ■<, Process. in Water Colours. Hon. Sec, Artists' Copyright Committee. L Ernest Barker, M.A. Fellow and Lecturer in Modern History, St John's College, Oxford. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar, 1895. Raymund of Antioch; Raymund of Toulouse; Raymund of Tripoli; Raynald of Chatillon. F 1 Edward B. Ellington. Founder and Chief Engineer of the General Hydraulic Power Co., Ltd. Author of J Power Transmission: Contributions to Proceedings of Institutions of Civil Engineers and of Mechanical 1 Hydraulic. Engineers. I Right Rev. Edward Cuthbert Butler, M.A., O.S.B., Litt.D. Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius ' in Cambridge Texts and Studies. Author of Manual of Edmund Gosse, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article : Gosse, Edmund. Emile Garcke, M.Inst.E.E. Managing Director of British Electric Traction Co., Ltd. Electrical Undertakings; &c. Ernest Arthur Gardner, M.A. See the biographical article: Gardner, Percy. Ernest George Coker, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. (Edin.), M.Sc, M.I.Mech.E. Premonstratensians; Ranee, Armand de. Prologue; Prose. f Railways : Light Railways (in I part). I Propylaea. Professor of Mechanical Engineering in the City and Guilds of London Technical J p-.ii.,, College. Author of various papers in Transactions of the Royal Societies of London, | " u * le "' Edinburgh and Canada ; &c. I Sir Edward Herbert Bunbury, Bart., M.A., F.R.G.S. (d. 1895). M.P. for Bury St Edmunds, 1 847-1 852. Author of A History of Ancient Geography; &c. Edmund Janes James, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D. President of the University of Illinois; President of American Economic Associa- tion. Author of History of American Tariff Legislation, and Essays and Mono- graphs on Economic, Financial, Political and Educational subjects. Elizabeth O'Neill, M.A. (Mrs H. 0. O'Neill). Formerly University Fellow and Jones Fellow of the University of Manchester. Edgar Prestage. . Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Commendador, Portuguese Order of S Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon " Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society ; &c. Editor of Letters of a Portuguese Nun; Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea; &c. Ernest Rutherford, F.R.S., D.Sc, LL.D., Ph.D. C Langworthy Professor of Physics, University of Manchester. Nobel Prize for < Radio-activity. Chemistry, 1908. Author of Radio-activity; Radio-active Transformations; &c. [ Edwyn Robert Bevan, M.A. f New College, Oxford. Author of The House of Seleucus; Jerusalem under the High< Ptolemies. Priests. [ Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare, M.A., D.Th. r Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. J Purification Editor of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle. Author of Myth, Magic and~\ Morals; &c. I Pompeii (in part); Ptolemy (in part); Pytheas (in fart). Protection. Prebendary; Prelate; Prior; Procurator. Portugal: Literature. Vlll F. C. S. S. F. Dr. F. D. A. F. E. W. F. G. P.* F. H. D.* F. J. H. M. F. K.* F. LI. G. F. M. L.* F. P. F. R. C. F. Wa. F. W. R.* F. Y. E. G. A. Gr. G. C. W. G. E.* G. G. S. G. J. A G. J. T. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Ferdinand Canning Scott Schiller, M.A., D.Sc. Fellow and Tutor of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Sphinx ; Studies in Humanism ; &c. Francis M. D. Drummond. Author of Riddles of the i Pragmatism, ■I Precedence (in part). Frank Dawson Adams, Ph.D., D.Sc, F.G.S., F.R.S. Dean of the Faculty of Applied Science and Logan Professor of Geology, McGill University, Montreal; President of Canadian Mining Institute. Author of Papers - dealing with problems of Metamorphism, &c, also Researches on Experimental Geology; &c. Rev. Frederick Edward Warren, M.A., F.S.A. Rector of Bardwell, Bury St Edmunds, and Honorary Canon of Ely. Fellow of St John's College, Oxford, 1 865-1 882. Author of The Old Catholic Ritual done into ' English and compared with the Corresponding Offices in the Roman and Old German Manuals ; The Liturgy and Ritual of the Celtic Church ; &c. Frank George Pope. Quebec (in part); Queen Charlotte Islands. Prayer, Book of Common. Lecturer on Chemistry, East London College (University of London). { Purin. Frank Haigh Dixon, Ph.D., A.M. f „.,.„„„„. , • D ■, Professor of Economics, Dartmouth College, Hanover, N.H. Member of the 4 R a"ways. American Railway National Waterways Commission. Author of State Railroad Control. [ Legislation. Hon. Frederick James Hamilton Merrill, Ph.D., F.G.S. (America), M American Inst.M.E., &c. Consulting Geologist and Mining Engineer. State Geologist of New York, "j Quarrying. 1899-1904. Author of Reports of New Jersey and New York Geological Surveys; &c. Fernand Khnopff. See the biographical article: Khnopff, F. E. J. M. Francis Llewellyn Griffith, M.A., Ph.D., F.S.A. Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of Stories of the High Priests of Memphis ; &c. Francis Manley Lowe. Major R.A. (retired). Member of the Staff of Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth & Co., Ltd., Elswick Works. Assistant-Superintendent of Experiments, Shoebury- ness, 1898-1903. Author of articles in the Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution; &c. Frank Podmore, M.A. (d. 1910). r Pembroke College, Oxford. Author of Studies in Psychical Research; Modern 4 Premonition Spiritualism; &c. |_ Frank R. Cana. Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. Francis Watt, M.A. Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Portaels, J. F. Psammetichus; Rameses (in part). Range-finder. Author of Law's Lumber Room. f Portuguese East Africa; LRabah Zobeir. < Pound (in part). f Pyrites; Y Pyrope. : 1 v Probability. Frederick William Rudler, I.S.O., F.G.S. Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. President of the Geologists' Association, 1 887-1 889. Francis Ysidro Edgeworth, M.A., D.C.L. Professor of Political Economy in the University of Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, and of King's College, London. Editor of the Economic Journal. Author of Mathematical Psychics, and numerous papers on the Calculus of Proba bilities in the Philosophical Magazine ; &c. George Abraham Grierson, CLE., Ph.D., D.Litt, Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of Linguistic Survey of India, 1898- 1902. Gold Medallist, Royal Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President of the Royal Asiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of The Languages of India ; &c. George Charles Williamson, Litt.D. r Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures ; Life of Richard J _ . p . Cosway, R.A.; George Engleheart; Portrait Drawings; &c. Editor of New Edition | *T" ieur > rierre. of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers. [ Robert Geoffrey Ellis. f Peterhouse, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Joint-editor of English < Privy Council. Reports. Author of Peerage Law and History. [ George Gregory Smith, M.A. r Professor of English Literature, Queen's University, Belfast. Author of The J Ramsay Allan. Days of James IV.; The Transition Period; Specimens of Middle Scots; &c. . 1 Prakrit; Rajasthani. George Johnston Allman, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. , D.Sc (1824-1905). Professor of Mathematics in Queen's College, Galway, and in Queen's University of Ireland, 1853-1893. Author of Greek Geometry from Thales to Euclid; &c. Ptolemy (in part); Pythagoras: Geometry. George James Turner. Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Society. [ Provision; Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Selden A Tj aD o INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES IX G. Re G. Sa. G. W. T. H. A. Y. H. D. W. H. Fr H. F. G. H F. P. H M R. H N. D. H. 0. H. R. L. H. Ti. H. T. A. H. W. C. L. H. Y. I. A. J. A. B. J. A. Bl. J. A. H. J. A. S. J. E. S.* Portraiture. Quinet; Rabelais; Racine. Rawendis. Sir George Reid, LL.D. See the biographical article: Reid, Sir George. George Saintsburv, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article : Saintsbury, George E. B. Rev. Griffithes Wheeler Thatcher, M.A., B.D. Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. TTor atio Arthur V orkf C B i Lieut.-Colonel, R.E. (retired). Chief Inspecting Officer of Railways, Board of \ X*Uvi&ys: British Railway Trade. Served in Afghan War, 1879-1880; Nile Expedition, 1884-1885. I Legislation. Sir Henry Drummond Wolfe, G.C.B., G.C.M.G. (1830-1908). f Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary at Madrid, 1892-1900. M.P. for^ Christchurch, 1874-1880; for Portsmouth, 1880-1885. Author of A Life of Napoleon at Elba ; &c. Henri Frantz. Art Critic, Gazette des beaux arts, Paris. Primrose League. Puvis de Chavannes. Hans Friedrich Gadow, F.R.S., Ph.D. f Python; Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. Author -I Ratitae; of " Amphibia and Reptiles " in the' Cambridge Natural History; &c. Rattlesnake (in Part) Henry Francis Pelham, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article: Pelham, H. F. i Polybius {in part). Hugh Munro Ross. [" Formerly Exhibitioner of Lincoln College, Oxford. Editor of The Times Engineering -i Supplement. Author of British Railways. { Railways: Introduction, Con- struction, Rolling Stock. Red Sea. Henry Newton Dickson, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.(Edm.), F.R.G.S. Professor of Geography at University College, Reading. Formerly Vice-President, . Royal Meteorological Society. Lecturer in Physical Geography, Oxford University. Author of Meteorology ; Elements of Weather and Climate ; &c. Hermann Oelsner, M.A., Ph.D. r Taylorian Professor of the Romance Languages in the University of Oxford. Mem- J Provencal Literature: ber of Council of the Philological Society. Author of A History of Provencal Litera- 1 Modem. ture; &c. Ji). Porson (in part). The Rev. Henry Richards Luard, M.A., D.D. (1825-1 Registrary of the University of Cambridge, 1862-1891. Formerly Fellow, Bursar and Lecturer at Trinity College. Honorary Fellow of King's College, London. - Editor of the Annates Monastici; the Historia of Matthew Paris and other works for the " Rolls " Series. Henry Tiedemann. f London Editor of the Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant. Author of a Dutch biography, < Potgieter. and various pamphlets and travel works, including Via Flushing. |_ Rev. Herbert Thomas Andrews. r Professor of New Testament Exegesis, New College, London. Author of "The J Polycarp; Commentary on Acts" in the Westminster New Testament; Handbook on the") Presbyter. Apocryphal Books in the " Century " Bible. [ Henry William Carless Davis, M.A. [ Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, J Ralph Of Coggeshall. 1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. | Sir Henry Yule, K.C.S.I., C.B. See the biographical article: Yule, Sir Henry. J Polo, Marco (in part); \Prester John; Ramusio. Israel Abrahams, M.A. Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c. Sir Jervoise Athelstane Baines, C.S.I. President, Royal Statistical Society, 1909-1910. Census Commissioner under the Government of India, 1889-1893. Secretary to Royal Commission on Opium, 1894-1895. Author of Official Reports on Provincial Administration of Indian Census Operations; &c. John A. Black. Press reader of the New Volumes of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (10th ed.). John Allen Howe, B.Sc. Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. The Geology of Building Stones. John Addington Symonds, LL.D. See the biographical article: Symonds, John A. John Edwin Sandys, M.A., Litt.D., LL.D. Public Orator in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of A History of Classical ' Scholarship; &c. Proselyte; Qaraites; Qaro; Raba Ben Joseph Ben Hama Rabbah Bar Nahmani; Rapoport, Samuel; Rashbam; Rashi. Population. Proof-reading (in part). f Author of J Pre-Cambrian. 1 A Pontanus, Jovianus. Porson (in pari). X J. F.-K. J. G. C. A. J. G. F. J. G. Fr. J. G. K. J. G. Sc. J. Hn. J. H. M. I. Ja. J. L.* J. M. J. M. M. J. P. B. J. P. P. J. R.* J. S. F. J. S. R. J. T. Be. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES James Fitzmaurice-Kelly, Litt.D., F.R.Hist.S. Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the {British Academy. Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c. John George Clark Anderson, M.A. Student, Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln College. Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1896. Conington Prizeman, 1893. Sir Joshua Girling Fitch, LL.D. See the biographical article: Fitch, Sir Joshua Girling. James George Frazer, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Litt.D. Professor of Social Anthropology, Liverpool University. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of The Golden Bough ; &c. John Graham Kerr, M.A., F.R.S. Regius Professor of Zoology in the University of Glasgow. Formerly Demon- strator in Animal Morphology in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge, 1898-1904. Walsingham Medallist, 1898. Neill Prizeman, Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1904. Quevedo y Villegas. Pontus. Polytechnic (in part). Praefect (in part); Praeneste (in part); Praetor (in part); Proserpine (in part); Province (in Ray (in part). Author of Burma ; ■{ Rangoon. University of Bonn. Author of < Puttkammer, Sir James George Scott, K.C.I.E. Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. The Upper Burma Gazetteer. Justus Hashagen, Ph.D. Privatdozent in Medieval and Modern History, Das Rheinland unter der Franzosische Herrschaft. John Henry Middleton, M.A., Litt.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South J Raphael. Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Times; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times. Joseph Jacobs, Litt.D. . r Professor of English Literature in the Jewish Theological Seminary, New York. Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Corresponding J Purim. Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid. Author of Jews of Angevin England; Studies in Biblical Archaeology; &c. I Sir Joseph Larmor, M.A., D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S. r Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in _ j ioti -_ rr,T,.„„„ .«. the University. Secretary of the Royal Society. Professor of Natural Philosophy, \ KMUMKm, ineory 01, Queen's College, Galway, 1880-1885. Author of Ether and Matter, and various Radiometer. memoirs on Mathematics and Physics. I Sir John Macdonell, C.B., LL.D. Master of the Supreme Court. Counsel to the Board of Trade and London Chamber of Commerce. Formerly Quain Professor of Comparative Law, University College, London. Editor of State Trials; Civil Judicial Statistics; &c. Author of Survey of Political Economy; The Land Question; &c. John Malcolm Mitchell. Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London < College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. Jean Paul Hippolyte Emmanuel Adhemar Esmein. Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Member of the Institute of France. Author of Cours elementdire d'histoire du droit ' francais; &c. John Percival Postgate, M.A., Litt.D. Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Editor of the Classical Quarterly. " Editor-in-chief of the Corpus Poetarum Latinorum ; &c. John Randall. Formerly Secretary of the London Association of Correctors of the Press. Sub- . editor of the Athenaeum and Notes and Queries. John Smith Flett, D.Sc, F.G.S. Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edin- burgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby " Medallist of the Geological Society of London. James Smith Reid, M.A., LL.D., Litt.D. Professor of Ancient History and Fellow and Tutor of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Browne's and Chancellor's Medals. Editor of editions of Cicero's " Academia, De Amicitia • &c. John Thomas Bealby. Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical . Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. Protectorate. Pomponazzi, Pietro; Price, Richard. Prefect; Provost (in France). Propertius, Sextus. Proof-reading (in part). Porphyry; Pumice; Pyroxenite; Quartzite; Quartz-Porphyry Quintilian. Poltava (in part); Pskov (in part); Radom (in part). INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES XI J. T. Cr. J. W. J. W.* J. W. G. K. G. J. K. S. L. Bl. L. J. So L. Wr L. W. V.-H M. Br M. Ha M. M. Bh. M. N. T, M 0. B.C. N. M. N. W T. 0. c. w. 0. H. P. A. K. James Troubridge Critchell. London Correspondent of the Australasian P astoralists' Review, North Queensland. Herald; &c. Fellow of the Royal Colonial Institute. Author of Polynesian Labour in Queensland ; Guide to Queensland ; &c. Queensland: History. James Williams, D.C.L., LL.D. All Souls' Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford. College. Author of Wills and Succession ; &c. James Ward, LL.D. See the biographical article: Ward, James. „ „ , . . , j Possession (law); Fellow of Lincoln | prescriDtion ^ ^ \ Psychology. John Walter Gregory, D.Sc, F.R.S. r Professor of Geology at the University of Glasgow. Professor of Geology and J _ . , r , Mineralogy at the University of Melbourne, 1900-1904. Author of The Bead Heart | tjueensiana. Lreology of Australia; &c. L r Kingsley Garland Jayne. f Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford. Matthew Arnold Prizeman, 1903. -\ An + Vinr nf Vnsrn Jn Clnwin /rn/1 hi'; ^ijrrpwnr? Author of Vasco da Gama and his Successors. Kathleen Schlesinger. Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra. Portugal: Geography and History. Pommer; Portative Organ; Positive Organ; Psaltery; Raekett; Ravanastron; Rebab; Rebec; Recorder (music); Reed Instruments. Count Lutzow, Litt.D. (Oxon.), D.Ph. (Prague), F.R.G.S. f Chamberlain of H.M. the Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia. Hon. Member of the Royal Society of Literature. Member of the Bohemian Academy, &c. Author of Bohemia: a Historical Sketch; The Historians of Bohemia (Ilchester , Lecture, Oxford, 1904) ; The Life and Times of John Hus; &c. I Louis Bell, Ph.D. f Consulting Engineer, Boston, U.S.A. Chief Engineer, Electric Power Trans- J mission Department, General Electric Co., Boston. Formerly Editor of Electrical } World, New York. Author of Electric Power Transmission ; &c. , I Leonard James Spencer, M.A. Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineral- ogical Magazine. I Lewis Wright. Author of The Practical Poultry Keeper; The New Book of Poultry; &c. L. W. Vernon-Harcourt (d. 1909). Barrister-at-Law. Author of His Grace the Steward and the Trial of Peers. Margaret Bryant. Prague. Formerly Fellow of the Royal in Cambridge Natural History; Marcus Hartog, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S. Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork. University of Ireland. Author of " Protozoa ' and papers for various scientific journals. Sir Mancherjee Merwanjee Bhownaggree, K.C.I.E. Fellow of Bombay University. M.P. for N.E. Bethnal Green, 1895-1906. Author of History of the Constitution of the East India Company ; &c. Marcus Niebuhr Tod, M.A. Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. Power Transmission: Electrical. Proustite; Pyrargyrite; Pyrolusite; Pyromorphite; Pyrrhotite; Quartz; Realgar. Poultry and Poultry-farming, Reclamation of Land. Pope, Alexander (in part). Proteomyxa; Radiolaria. Readymoney, Sir Cowasji Jehangir. Pylos. J Polycrates; Maximilian Otto Bismarck Caspari, M.A. Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham -» n . ... University, 1 905- 1908. [Funic wars, Norman M'Lean, M.A. f Lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge University. Fellow and Hebrew Lecturer, Christ's ■< Rabbula. College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of the larger Cambridge Septuagint. [_ Northcote Whitridge Thomas, M.A. f Government Anthropologist to Southern. Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the J p„ c . M .s AT1 f p M ,,j.i«., P '> Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and] rossesslon \rsycnoiogy,„ Marriage in Australia; &c: I Rev. Owen Charles Whitehouse, M.A., D.D. f Senior Theological Tutor and Lecturer in Hebrew, Cheshunt College, Cambridge. J Priest (in part) ; Formerly Principal and Professor of Biblical Exegesis and Theology in the Countess j Prophet (in part). of Huntingdon's College, Cheshunt. Author of Primer of Hebrew Antiquities; &c. L Olaus Magnus Friedrich Henrici, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. f Professor of Mechanics and Mathematics in the Central Technical College of the J p_ n i p(> « nn City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of Vectors and Rotors; Congruent j iTOjecuon. Figures; &c. I. Prince Peter Alexeivitch Kropotkin. See the biographical article: Kropotkin, Prince P. A. [ Poltava (in part); ■i Pskov (in part); [Radom (in part). Xll P. C. Y. P. G. P. Gi. P. G. K. P. G. T. P.M. P. McC. R. H. K. R. I. P. R. J. M. R. L.* INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES R. Mo . R. M. L. R. M. W R. N. B. R. Po, R. P. S. R. R. M. R, S. C. stc. S. F. H. StG. M. S. R G. Philip Chesney Yorke, M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford. Editor of Letters of Princess Elizabeth of England. Percy Gardner, Litt.D., LL.D., F.S.A. See the biographical article: Gardner, Percy. Peter Giles, M.A., LL.D., Litt.D. Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philological Society. Paul George Konody. Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of the Artist. - Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c. Peter Guthrie Tait, LL.D. ^ee the biographical article: Tait, Peter Guthrie. Paul Meyer. See the biographical article: Meyer, Paul Hotacinthe. Primrose McConnell, F.G.S. f Member of the Royal Agricultural Society. Author of Diary of a Working Farmer; \ Reaping, &c. I Rev. Robert Hatch Kennett, M.A., D.D. f Regius Professor of Hebrew, Cambridge, and Canon of Ely. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, Queens' College, and University Lecturer in Aramaic. Author of A Short Account of the Hebrew Tenses; In our Tongues; &c. Reginald Innes Pocock, F.Z.S. Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. Ronald John McNeill, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's Gazette, London. J" Prynne, William {in part); IPym, John. f Polyclitus; Polygnotus; 1 Praxiteles. Q; R. Potter, Paul. -j Quaternions {in part). ("Provencal Language; I Provencal Literature {in part). Psalms, Book of {in part). { Pyenogonida. Racquets. Porcupine {in part); Porpoise; Primates; Proboscidea; Prongbuck; Rabbit {in part); Rat; Ratel. I Railways: General Statistics 1 and Financial Organization. j Pygmy. { Richard Lydekker, F.R.S., F.Z.S. , F.G.S. Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum ; The Deer of all Lands ; &c. Ray Morris, M.A. Formerly Managing Editor, Railway Age Gazette, New York. Author of Railroad A dministration. Robert Murray Leslie, M.A., M.D., M.R.C.P. Senior Physician, Prince of Wales's General Hospital, London. Lecturer on Medicine, London Post-Graduate College. ' Author of Clinical Types of Pneu- monia; &c. R. Mortimer Wheeler. Robert Nisbet Bain (d. 1909). Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 15 13-1900; The First Romanovs, " 1613-1725 ; Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1460 to 1706; &c. Rene Poupardin, D.-es-L. Secretary of the Ecole des Chartes. Honorary Librarian at the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. Author of Le Royaume de Provence sous les Carolingiens ; Recueil ' des chartes de Saint-Germain ; &c. R. Phene Spiers, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c. Robert Ranulf Marett, M.A. Reader in Social Anthropology, Oxford University, and Fellow and Tutor of Exeter -i Prayer. College. Author of The Threshold of Religion. Robert Seymour Conway, M.A., D.Litt. f Pompeii: Oscan Inscriptions; Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. J pjaeneste (in part) - Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff ; and Fellow of Gonville | „ . .... * ' Punch. Poniatowski, Joseph A.; Potemkin, Prince; Potocki, Ignaty; Potocki, Stanislaw F.; Prokopovich; Pugachev; Rak6czy; Razin. Provence; Quierzy, Capitulary of. - Porch. and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. Viscount St Cyres. See the biographical article: Iddesleigh, ist Earl of. Sidney Frederic Harmer, D.Sc, F.R.S., F.Z.S. Keeper of Zoology, Natural History Departments, British Museum. Fellow, formerly Tutor and Lecturer, King's College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of The ' Cambridge Natural History. St George Jackson Mivart, M.D., F.R.S. See the biographical article: Mivart, St George Jackson. Samuel Rawson Gardiner, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article: Gardiner, S. R. Quesnel, Pasquier; Quietism. Polyzoa; Pterobranchia. \ Rattlesnake {in part). J Prynne, William {in part). INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Xlll To As. T. A. C. T. A. I. T. Ba. T. F. D. T. H. T. H. H.* T. L. H. T. Se. T. Wo. W. A. B. C. W. A L. W. A. P. W. Ba. W. B. P. W. E. D. W. F. C. W. G. W. H. F. W. H. L. Thomas Ashby, M.A., D.Litt. Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topo- graphy of the Roman Campagna. Timothy Augustine Coghlan, I.S.O. Agent-General for New South Wales. Government Statistician, New South Wales, 1886-1905. Honorary Fellow of the Royal Statistical Society. Author of Wealth and Progress of New South Wales; Statistical Account of Australia and New Zealand; &c. Pompeii (in part); Pomposa; Pomptine Marshes; Popilia, Via; Portus; Postumia, Via; Praeneste (in pari); Praenestina, Via; Puteoli; Pyrgi; .Ravenna (in part). Queensland: Geography and Statistics. rPost and Postal Service; i Pound (in part); <- Praemunire. Thomas Allan Ingram, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin. Sir Thomas Barclay. f Privateer Member of the Institute of International Law. Officer of the Legion of Honour. J _ . ' Author of Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for ] rnze - war, Blackburn, 1910. I R aio; Rebellion. Thomas F. Dale, M.A. f Queen's College, Oxford. Steward and Member of the Council of the Polo and -l Polo. Riding Pony Society. Author of Polo, Past and Present; &c. [ Ravenna (in part). Quetta. Porism. Thomas Hodgkin, D.C.L., Litt.D. See the biographical article: Hodgkin, Thomas. Sir Thomas Hungerford Holdich, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc. Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S., London, 1887. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Countries of the King's Award; India; Tibet. Sir Thomas Little Heath, K.C.B., Sc.D. Assistant-Secretary to the Treasury, London. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. . Author of Apollonius of Perga; Treatise on Conic Sections; The Thirteen Books of Euclid's Elements ; &c. l Thomas Seccombe, M.A. [ Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, J p„ ev „ rrenrv University of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of] Jteevc ' "«"»• Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson; &c. I Thomas Woodhouse. J* Head of the Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical College, Dundee. I. ' Rev. William Augustus Brevoort Coolidge, M.A., F.R.G.S., Ph.D. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's College, Lampeter, 1 880-1 881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland: The Alps in Nature and in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c. William Alexander Lindsay, K.C., M.A., J. P., D.L., F.S.A. Windsor Herald. Bencher of the Middle Temple. Peerage Counsel Royal Household, 1837-1897; &c. Walter Alison Phillips, M.A. Ramie. Ragatz; Rambert. Author of The \ Precedence (in part). Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, -i " rince > Knight of the Iron Crown. \ Rabbi. Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c Wilhelm Bacher, Ph.D. Professor at the Rabbinical Seminary, Budapest. Author of Die Agada der Tannaiten; &c. William Barclay Parsons, C.E., LL.D. Formerly Chief Engineer, Rapid Transit Commission, New York. Advisory - Engineer, Royal Commission on London Traffic. Author of Track; Turnouts; &c. William Ernest Dalby, M.A., M.Inst.CE. Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering at the City and Guilds of London Institute Central Technical College, South Kensington. Formerly University - Demonstrator in the Engineering Department, Cambridge. Author of The Balancing of Engines; Valves and Valve-Gear Mechanism; &c. William Feilden Craies, M.A. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (23rd edition). William Garnett, M.A., D.C.L. Educational Adviser to the London County Council. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of St John's College, Cambridge. Principal and Professor of Mathematics, Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Author of Elementary Dynamics; &c. Sir William Henry Flower, F.R.S. See the biographical article: Flower, Sir W. H. William H. Lang, M.B., D.Sc. Barker Professor of Cryptogamic Botany, University of Manchester. \ Provost (in part). Railways: Inlra-Urban Rail- ways. Power Transmission: Intro- ductory and Mechanical; Railways: Locomotive Power. Quarter Sessions, Court of; Recognizance. Polytechnic (in part). f Porcupine (in part) ; 1 Rabbit (in part). { Pteridophyta. XIV w. L. G. w. M. w. M F. P w. 0. B. w. R. M. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES William Lawson Grant, M.A. f Prince Edward Island; Professor at Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly Beit Lecturer in J q„-i,m>" p rim ;„ rp f,„ *„wV Colonial History at Oxford University. Editor ;of Acts of the Privy Council (Colonial 1 q " . province {in part). Series) ; Canadian Constitutional Development (in collaboration). L «*uebec: Lily. William Minto, M.A., LL.D. See the biographical article: Minto, William. William Matthew Flinders Petrie, F.R.S., D.C.L., Litt.D. See the biographical article: Petrie, W. M. F. Ven. Winfrid Oldfield Burrows, M.A. Archdeacon of Birmingham. Student and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford, l88< 1891. Principal of Leeds Clergy School, 1891-1900. Author of The Mystery of the' Cross. Pope, Alexander (in part). Pyramid. Prayers for the Dead. William Richard Morfill, M.A. (d. 1910). f Formerly Professor of Russian and the other Slavonic Languages in the University J Pushkin. of Oxford. Curator of the Taylorian Institution, Oxford. Author of Russia;"] Slavonic Literature; &c. W. R. S. W. W. FV W. Y. William Robertson Smith, LL.D. See the biographical article: Smith, William Robertson. William Warde Fowler, M.A. Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-Rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer, Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans; The Roman Festivals of the Republican Period ; &c. (Priest (in pari); Prophet (in part); Psalms, Book of (in part); Rameses (in part). Pontifex. Rev. William Young. Minister, Higher Broughton Presbyterian Church, Manchester, 1877-1901, Association Secretary for the Religious Tract Society in the North of England. and J. Presbyterianism. PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES Pollination. Potentiometer. Prussic Acid. Polygon. Prerogative. Public Health Polyhedron. Press Laws. Publishing. Polynesia. Primrose. Puffin. Pomegranate. Primulaceae. Pugilism. Pomerania. Princeton University. Pump. Pontoon. Principal and Agent. Punjab. Poor Law. Probate. Pyrazoles. Poplar. Procession. Pyrenees. Porto Rico. Proctor. Pyridine. Portuguese Guinea. Prohibition. Pyrones. Potassium. Protestant. Quarantine. Potato. Prussia. Quinine. Quinoline. Quinones. Radium. Rainbow. Ranunculaceae. Rare Earths. Raspberry. Rationalism. Ravenna, Exarchate ot Real Property. Red River. ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXII POLL, strictly the head, in men or animals. Skeat connects the word with O. Swed. kolle (initial p and k being interchange- able) and considers a Celtic origin probable; cf. Irish coll, Welsh col, peak, summit. " Poll " is chiefly used in various senses derived from that of a unit in an enumeration of persons or things, e.g. poll-tax (q.v.), or "challenge to the polls " in the case of a jury (q.v.). The most familiar derivative uses are those connected with voting at parliamentary or other elections; thus " to poll " is to vote or to secure a number of votes, and " the poll," the voting, the number of votes cast, or the time during which voting takes place. The verb " to poll " also means to clip or shear the top of anything, hence " polled " of hornless cattle, or " deed-poll " (i.e. a deed with smooth or unindented edges, as distinguished from an "indenture"). A tree which has been "polled," or cut back close in order to induce it to make short bushy growth, is called a " pollard." At the university of Cambridge, a " pass " degree is known as a " poll-degree." This is generally explained as from the Greek oi iroXXoi, the many, the common people. POLLACK (Gadus pollachius), a fish of the family Gadidae, abundant on rocky coasts of northern Europe, and extending as far south as the western parts of the Mediterranean, where, however, it is much scarcer and does not attain to the same size as in its real northern home. In Scotland and some parts of Ireland it is called lythe. It is distinguished from other species of the genus Gadus by its long pointed snout, which is twice as long as the eye, with projecting lower jaw, and without a barbel at the chin. The vent is below the anterior half of the first dorsal fin. A black spot above the base of the pectoral fin is another distinguishing mark. Although pollack are well- flavoured fish, and smaller individuals (from 12 to 16 in.) excellent eating, they do not form any considerable article of trade, and are not preserved, the majority being consumed by the captors. Specimens of 12 lb are common, but the species is said to attain occasionally as much as 24 lb in weight, (See also Coalfish.) POLLAIUOLO, the popular name of the brothers Antonio and Piero di Jacobo Benci, Florentines who contributed much to Italian art in the 15th century. They were called Pollaiuolo because their father was a poulterer. The nickname was also extended to Simone, the nephew of Antonio. Antonio (1429-1498) distinguished himself as a sculptor, jeweller, painter and engraver, and did valuable service in perfecting the art of enamelling. His painting exhibits an excess of brutality, of which the characteristics can be studied in the " Saint Sebastian," painted in 1475, and now in the National Gallery, London. A " St Christopher and the Infant Christ " is in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. But it was as a sculptor and metal-worker that he achieved his greatest suc- cesses. The exact ascription of his works is doubtful, as his brother Piero did much in collaboration with him. The museum of Florence contains the bronze group " Hercules strangling Cacus " and the terra-cotta bust " The Young Warrior "; and in the South Kensington Museum, London, is a bas-relief representing a contest between naked men. In 1489 Antonio took up his residence in Rome, where he executed the tomb of Sixtus IV. (1493), a composition in which he again manifested the quality of exaggeration in the anatomical features of the figures. In 1496 he went to Florence in order to put the finishing touches to the work already begun in the sacristy of Santo Spirito. He died in 1498, having just finished his mausoleum of Inno- cent VIII., and was buried in the church of San Pietro in Vincula, where a monument was raised to him near that of his brother. Piero (1443-1496) was a painter, and his principal works were his " Coronation of the Virgin," an altar-piece painted in 1483, in the choir of the cathedral at San Gimignano; his " Three Saints," an altar-piece, and " Prudence " are both at the Uffizi Gallery. Simone (1457-1508), nephew of Antonio Pollaiuolo, a cele- brated architect, was born in Florence and went to Rome in 1484; there he entered his uncle's studio and studied architecture. On his return to Florence he was entrusted with the completion of the Strozzi palace begun by Benedetto de Maiano, and the cornice on the facade has earned him lasting fame. His highly coloured accounts of Rome earned for him the nickname of il Cronaca (chronicler). About 1498 he built .the church of San Francesco at Monte and the vestibule of the sacristy of Santo Spirito. In collaboration with Guiliano da Sangallo he designed the great hall in the Palazzo Vecchio. He was a close friend and adherent of Savonarola. See also Maud Cruttwell, Antonio Pollaiuolo (1907). POLLAN (Coregonus pollan), the name given to a species of the Salmonoid genus Coregonus (whitefish) which has been found in the large and deep loughs of Ireland only. A full ?,ccount of the fish by its first describer, W. Thompson, may be found in his Natural History of Ireland, iv. 168. 11 POLLARD— POLLINATION POLLARD, EDWARD ALBERT (1828-1872), American journalist, was born in Nelson county, Virginia, on the 27th of February 1828. He graduated at the university of Virginia in 1849, studied law at the College of William and Mary, and in Baltimore (where he was admitted to the bar), and was engaged in newspaper work in California until 1855. In 1857-1861 he was clerk of the judiciary committee of the National House of Representatives. By 1859 he had become an outspoken Secessionist, and during the Civil War he was one of the principal editors- of the Richmond Examiner, which supported the Con- federacy but was hostile to President Jefferson Davis. In 1864 Pollard sailed for England, but the vessel on which he sailed was captured as a blockade runner, and he was confined in Fort Warren in Boston Harbour from the 29th of May until the 12th of August, when he was paroled. In December he was placed in close confinement at Fort Monroe by order of Secretary Stanton, but was soon again paroled by General B. F. Butler, and in January proceeded to Richmond to be exchanged there for Albert D. Richardson (1 833-1 869), a well-known corre- spondent of the New York Tribune, who, however, had escaped before Pollard arrived. In 1867-1869 Pollard edited a weekly paper at Richmond, and he conducted the Political Pamphlet there during the presidential campaign of 1868. His publications include Black Diamonds Gathered in the Darkey Homes of the South (1859), in which he advocated a reopening of the slave trade ; The Southern History of the War (3 vols. : First Year of the War, with B. M. DeWitt, 1862; Second Year of the War, 1864; Third Year of the War, 1864); Observations in the North: Eight Months in Prison and on Parole (1865) ; The Lost Cause (1866) ; Lee and His Lieutenants (1867); The Lost Cause Regained (1868), a southern view of reconstruction urging the necessity of white supremacy; The Life of Jefferson Davis (1869), an arraignment of the Confederate president; and The Virginia Tourist (1870). POLLENTIA (mod. Pollenzo), an ancient town of Liguria, Italy, 10 m. to the north of Augusta Bagiennorum, on the left bank of the Tanarus (mod. Tanaro). Its position on the road from Augusta Taurinorum to the coast at Vada Sabatia, at the point of divergence of a road to Hasta (Asti) gave it military importance. Decimus Brutus managed to occupy it an hour before Mark Antony in 43 B.C.; and it was here that Stilicho on the 29th of March 403 fought the battle with Alaric which though undecided led the Goths to evacuate Italy. The place was famous for its brown wool, and for its pottery. Considerable remains of ancient buildings, an amphitheatre, a theatre and a temple still exist. The so-called temple of Diana is more probably a tomb. See G. Franchi-Pont in Atti dell' accademia di Tornio (1805- 1808), p. 321 sqq. POLLINATION, in botany, the transference of the pollen from the stamen to the receptive surface, or stigma, of the pistil of a flower. The great variety in the form, colour and scent of flowers (see Flower) is intimately associated with pollination which is effected by aid of wind, insects and other agencies. Pollen may be transferred to the stigma of the same flower — self-pollination (or autogamy) , or to the stigma of another flower on the same plant or another plant of the same species— cross- pollination (or allogamy). Effective pollination may also occur between flowers of different species, or occasionally, as in the case of several orchids, of different genera — this is known as hybridization. The method of pollination is to some extent governed by the distribution of the stamens and pistil. In the case of unisexual flowers, whether monoecious, that is, with staminate and pistillate flowers on one and the same plant, such as many of our native trees — oak, beech, birch, alder, &c, or dioecious with staminate and pistillate flowers on different plants, as in willows and pop- lars, cross pollination only is possible. In bisexual or herma- phrodite flowers, that is, those in which both stamens and pistil are present, though self-pollination might seem the obvious course, this is often prevented or hindered by various arrange- ments which favour cross-pollination. Thus the anthers and stigmas in any given flower are often mature at different times; this condition, which is known as dichogamy and was first pointed out by Sprengel, may be so well marked that the stigma has ceased to be receptive before the anthers open, or the anthers have withered before the stigma becomes receptive, when cross- pollination only is possible, or the stages of maturity in the two organs are not so distinct, when self-pollination becomes possible later on. The flower is termed proterandrous or proterogynous according as anthers or stigmas mature first. The term homogamy is applied to the simultaneous maturity of stigma and anthers. Spontaneous self-pollination is rendered impossible in some homogamous flowers in consequence of the relative position of the anthers and stigma — this condition has been termed herkogamy. Flowers in which the relative position of the organs allows of spontaneous self-pollination may be all alike as regards length of style and stamens (homomorphy or homostyly), or differ in this respect (heteromorphy) the styles (From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.) Fig. 1. — Long-styled, L, and short-styled, K, flowers of Primula sinensis. G, Level of stigma; 5, level of anthers; P, N, pollen grains and stigmatic papillae of long-styled form ; p, n, ditto of short-styled form. and stamens being of different lengths in different flowers (heterostyly) or the stamens only are of different lengths (heter- anthery). Flowers which are closed at the time of maturity of anthers and stigmas are termed cleistogamous. Self-pollination is effected in very various ways. In the simplest case the anthers are close to the stigmas, covering these with pollen when they open; this occurs in a number of small annual plants, also in Narcissus, Crocus, &c. In snowdrop and other pendulous flowers the anthers form a cone around the style and the pollen falls on to the underlying stigmas, or in erect flowers the pollen may fall on to the stigmas which lie directly beneath the opening anthers (e.g. Narthecium). In very many cases the pollen is carried to the stigma by elongation, curvature or some other movement of the filament, the style or stigma, or corolla or some other part of the flower, or by correlated move- ments of two or more parts. For instance, in many flowers the filaments are at first directed outwards so that self-pollina- tion is not possible, but later incline towards the stigmas and pollinate them (e.g. numerous Saxifragaceae, Cruciferae and others), or the style, which first projects beyond the anthers, shortens later on so that the anthers come into contact with the stigmas (e.g. species of Cactaceae), or the style bends so that the stigma is brought within the range of the pollen (e.g. species of Oenothera, Epilobium, most Malvaceae, &c.) . In Mirabilis Jalapa and others the filaments and style finally become intertwined, so that pollen is brought in contact with the stigma. Self- pollination frequently becomes possible towards the end of the life of a flower which during its earlier stages has been capable only of cross-pollination. This is associated with the fact, so ably demonstrated by Darwin, that, at any rate in a large number of cases, cross-pollination yields better results, as measured by the number of seeds produced and the strength of the offspring, than self-pollination; the latter is, however, preferable to absence of pollination. In many cases pollen has no effect on the stigma of the same flower, the plants are self- sterile, in other cases external pollen is more effective (pre-potent) than pollen from the same flower; but in a very large number of cases experiment has shown that there is little or no difference POLLINATION between the effects of external pollen and that from the same flower. Cross-pollination may occur between two flowers on the same plant (geitonogamy) or between flowers on distinct plants [xenogamy). The former, which is a somewhat less favourable method than the latter, is effected by air-currents, insect agency, the actual contact between stigmas and anthers in neighbouring flowers, where, as in the family Compositae, flowers are closely crowded, or by the fall of the pollen from a Fig. 3. — Cleistogamous (From Darwin's Dijjerent Forms of Flowsrs by permission.) Fig. 2. — Diagram of the flowers of the three forms of Lythrum salicaria in their natural position, with the petals and calyx removed on the near side. (X 6 times.) The dotted lines with the arrow show the directions in which pollen must be carried to each stigma to ensure full fertility. higher on to the stigmas of a lower flower. Anton Kerner has shown that crowded inflorescences such as those of Compositae and Umbelliferae are especially adapted for geitonogamy. Xenogamy is of course the only possible method in diclinous plants; it is also the usual method in monoclinous plants, owing to the fact that stamens and carpels often mature at different times (dichogamy), the plants being proterandrous or protero- gynous. Even in homogamous flowers cross-pollination is in a large proportion of cases the effective method, at any rate at first . owing to the relative position of anther and stigma or the fact that the plant is self-sterile. The subject of heterostyly was investigated by Darwin (see his Forms of Flowers) and later by Hildebrand. In the case of a dimorphic flower, such as Primula, four modes of pollination are possible, two distinguished by Darwin as legitimate, between anthers and stigmas on corresponding levels, and two so-called illegitimate unions, between anthers and stigmas at different levels (cf. fig. 1). In a trimorphic flower such as Lythrum salicaria there are six possible legitimate unions and twelve illegitimate (see fig. 2). Experiment showed that legitimate unions yield a larger quantity of seed than illegitimate. Many plants produce, in addition to ordinary open flowers, so-called cleistogamous flowers, which remain permanently closed but which notwithstanding produce fruit; in these the corolla is inconspicuous or absent and the pollen grows from the anther on to the stigma of the same flower. Species of Viola (see fig. 3), Oxalis acelosella (wood sorrel) and Lamium amplexi- caule are commonly occurring in- stances. The cleistogamous flowers are developed before or after the normal open flowers at seasons less favourable for cross-pollination. In some cases flowers, which open under normal circumstances, remain closed owing to unfavourable circumstances, and self-pollination occurs as in a typical cleistogamous flower — these flower of Viola sylvatica. have been distinguished as pseudo- 1, nower X 4. , . . T "V .2, flower more highly cleistogamous. Instances occur in magn if le{ j an( j cut ope n. water plants, where flowers are un- a , anther; s, pistil; able to reach the surface (e.g. Alisma st, style; v, stigmatic. natans, water buttercup, &c.) or surface, where flowers remain closed in dull or cold weather. Systems of classification of flowers according to the agency by which pollination is effected have been proposed by Delpino, H. Muller and other workers on the subject. Knuth suggests the following, which is a modification of the systems proposed hy Delpino and Muller. A. Water-pollinated plants, Hydrophilae. A small group which is subdivided thus: — a. Pollinated under the water; e.g. Najas where the pollen grains are rather heavier than water, and sinking down are caught by the stigmas of the extremely simple female flowers. b. Pollination on the surface, a more frequent occurrence than (a). In these the pollen floats on the surface and reaches the stigmas of the female flowers as in Callitriche, Ruppia, Zostera, Elodea. In Vallisneria (fig. 4) the male flowers become detached and float on the surface of the water; the anthers are thus brought in contact with the stigmas of the female flowers. Wind-pollinated plants, Anemophilae. — In these the pollen grains are smooth and light so as to be easily blown about, and are produced in great quantity; the stigmas are brush' like or feathery, and usually long and protruding so as readily to catch the pollen. As no means of attraction are required the flowers are inconspicuous and without scent or _ nectar. The male inflorescence is often a pendulous catkin, as in hazel and many native English trees (fig. 5) ; or the anthers are loosely fixed on long thread-like filaments as in grasses (fig. 6). B ^k- Fig. 4. — Vallisneria spiralis. A, female flower; J, stigmas. B, male flowers; 1 before; 2, after spreading of the petals. A male flower has floated alongside a female and one of its anthers, which have opened to set free the pollen, is in contact with a stigma, a, anther. C. Animal-pollinated plants, Zoidiophilae, are subdivided according to the kind of animal by agency of which pollination is effected, thus: — a. Bat-pollinated, Chiropterophilae. — A Freycinetia, native of Java, and a species of Bauhinia in Trinidad are visited by bats which transfer the pollen. POLLINATION b. Bird-pollinated, Ornithophilae. — Humming-birds and honey- suckers are agents of pollination in certain tropical plants; they visit the generally large and brightly-coloured flowers either for the honey which is secreted in considerable quantity or for the insects which have been attracted by the honey (fig. 7). Fig. Fig. 6. — Grass Flower show- 5. — Catkin of Male ing pendulous anthers and pro- Flowers of Hazel. truding hairy stigmas. Snail or slug-pollinated flowers, Malacophilae. — In small flowers which are crowded at the same level or in flat flowers in which the stigmas and anthers project but little, slugs or snails creeping over their surface may transfer to the stigma the pollen which clings to the slimy foot. Such a transfer has been described in various Aroids, Rohdea japonica (Liliaceae), and other plants. {From a drawing in the Botanical Gallery at the British Museum.) Fig. 7. — Flower of Datura sanguinea visited by humming-bird Docimastes ensiferus. d. Insect-pollinated, Entomophilae, a very large class characterized by sticky pollen grains, the surface of which bears spines, warts or other projections (fig. 8) which facilitate adhesion to some part of the insect's body, and a relatively small stigma with a sticky surface. The flowers have an attractive floral envelope, are scented and often contain honey or a large amount of pollen; by these means the insect is enticed to visit it. The form, colour and scent of the flower vary widely, according to the class of insect whose -1, anther; 2, pollen grain of Hollyhock {Althaea rosea) enlarged. The pollen grain bears numerous spines, the dark spots indicate thin places in the outer wall. aid is sought, and there are also numerous devices for pro- tecting the pollen and nectar from rain and dew or from the visits of those insects which would not serve the purpose of pollen-transference (unbidden guests). 1 The following subdivisions have been suggested A. Pollen Flowers. — These offer only pollen to their visitors, as species of anemone, poppy, rose, tulip, &c. They are simple in structure and regular in form, and the generally abundant pollen is usually freely exposed. B. Nectar Flowers. — These contain nectar and include the following groups : — ■ 1. Flowers with exposed nectar, readily visible and accessible to all visitors. These are very simple, open and gener- ally regular flowers, white, greenish-yellow or yellow in colour and are chiefly visited by insects with a short proboscis, such as short-tongued wasps and flies, also beetles and more rarely bees. Examples are Umbelliferae as a family, saxifrages, holly, Acer, Rhamnus, Euonymus, Euphorbia, &c. 2. Flowers with nectar partly concealed and visible only in bright sunshine. The generally regular flowers are completely open only in bright sunshine, closing up into cups at other times. Such are most Cruciferae, buttercups, king-cup (Caltha), Potentilla. White and yellow colours predominate and insects with a pro- boscis of medium length are the common pollinating agents, such as short-tongued bees. 3. Flowers with nectar concealed by pouches, hairs, &c. Regular flowers predominate, e.g. Geranium, Cardamine pratensis, mallows, Rubus, Oxalis, Epilobium, &c, but many species show more or less well-marked median symmetry (zygomorphism) as Euphrasia, Orchis, thyme, &c, and red, blue and violet are the usual colours. Long-tongued insects such as the honey-bee are the most frequent visitors. 4. Social flowers, whose nectar is concealed as in (3), but the flowers are grouped in heads which render them strikingly conspicuous, and several flowers can be simul- taneously pollinated. Such are Compositae as a class, also Scabiosa, Armeria (sea-pink) and others. 5. Hymenopterid flowers, which fall into the following groups: Bee-flowers proper, humble-bee flowers requiring a longer proboscis to reach the nectar, wasp-flowers such as fig-wort (Scrophularia nodosa) and ichneumon flowers such as tway-blade {Lister a ovata). The shapes and colours are extremely varied ; bilater- ally symmetrical forms are most frequent with red, blue or violet colours. Such are Papilionaceous flowers, Violaceae, many Labiatae, Scrophulariaceae and others. Many are highly specialized so that pollination can be effected by a few species only. Examples of more special mechanisms are illustrated by Salvia (fig. 9). The long connective of the single stamen is hinged to the short filament and has a shorter arm ending in a blunt process and a longer arm bearing a half-anther. A large bee in probing for honey comes in contact with the end of the short arm of the lever and causes the longer arm to descend and the pollen is deposited on the back of the insect (fig. 9, 1). In a later stage (fig. 9, 2) the style elongates and the forked stigma occupies the same position as the anther in fig- 9. I- (From Strasburger's Lehrbuchder Boianik, by Fig. 9. — Pollination 1, Flower visited by a humble- bee, showing the projection of the curved connective bearing the anther from the helmet- shaped upper lip and the depo- sition of the pollen on the back of the humble-bee. 2, Older flower.with connective drawn back, and elongated style. permission of Gustav Fischer.) of Salvia pratensis. 4, The staminal apparatus at rest, with connective enclosed within the upper lip. 3, The same, when disturbed by the entrance of the proboscis of the bee in the direction of the arrow;/, filament; c, connective; s, the obstructing half of the anther. 1 See A. Kerner, Plants and their Unbidden Guests. POLLIO 5 In Broom there is an explosive machanism; the pressure of the insect visitor on the keel of the corolla causes a sudden release of the stamens and the scatter- ing of a cloud of pollen over its body. 6. Lepidopterid flowers, visited chiefly by Lepidcptera, which are able to reach the nectar concealed in deep, narrow tubes or spurs by means of their long slender proboscis. Such are: (a) Butterfly-flowers, usually red in colour, as Dianthus carthusianorum; (b) Moth-flowers, white or whitish, as honeysuckle (Loniceta periclymenum) . 7. Fly flowers, chiefly visited by Diptera, a.nd including very different types: — a. Nauseous flowers, dull and yellowish and dark purple in colour and often spotted, with a smell attractive to carrion flies and dung flies, e.g. species of Saxifraga. b. Pitfall flowers ^uch as Asarum, Aristolochia and Arum macu- latum, when the insect is caught and detained until pollination is effected (fig. c. Pinch-trap flowers, as in the family Asclepiadaceae, where the proboscis, claw or bristle of the insect is caught in the clip to which the pairs of pollinia are attached. Bees, wasps and larger insects serve as pollinating agents Fig. 10. — Spadix of Arum maculatum from which the greater part of the spathe has been cut away. p, Pistillate, s, staminate flowers; h, sterile flowers form- ing a circlet of stiff hairs closing the mouth of the chamber formed by the lower part of the spathe. (From Vines's Text Book of Botany, by permission. ) 12. — Flower of Veronica. k, Calyx. u, u, u, The three lobes of the lower lip of the rotate corolla. o, The upper lip. s, s, The two stamens. Fig. 11. — Grass of Parnassus (Parnassia palustris). 1, One of the scales which form the coronet in the flower, enlarged. d. Deceptive flowers such as Parnassia, where the conspicuous coronet of glistening yellow balls suggests a plentiful supply of nectar drops (fig. 11). e. Hoverfly flowers, small flowers which are beautifully coloured with radiating streaks pointing to a sharply-defined centre in which is the nectar, as in Veronica chamaedrys (fig. 12). Literature. — Joseph Gottlieb Kolreuter l (d. 1806) was the first to study the pollination of flowers and to draw attention to the necessity of insect visits in many cases; he gave a clear account of cross-pollination by insect aid. He was followed by Christian Konrad Sprengel, whose work Das enldeckte Geheimniss der Natur iw- Bau und in der Befruchtung der Blumen (Berlin, 1793), contains a description of floral adaptations to insect visits in nearly 500 species of plants. Sprengel came very near to appreciating the meaning of cross-pollina- tion in the lite of plants when he states that " it seems that Nature is unwilling that any flower should be fertilized by its own pollen." In 1799 an Englishman, Thomas Andrew Knight, after experiments on the cross-fertilization of cultivated Fig. plants, formulated the conclusion that no plant fertilizes itself through many genera- tions. Sprengel's work, which had been almost forgotten, was taken up again by Charles Darwin, who concluded that no organic being can fertilize itself through an unlimited number of generations; but a cross with other individuals is occasion- n, The stigma, ally— perhaps at very long intervals — indis- pensable. Darwin's works on dimorphic flowers and the fertiliza- tion of orchids gave powerful support to this statement. The study of the fertilization, or as it is now generally called " pollina- tion," of flowers, was continued by Darwin and taken up by other workers, notably Friedrich Hildebrand, Federico Delpino and the brothers Fritz and Hermann Miiller. Hermann Muller's work on The Fertilization of Flowers by Insects and their Reciprocal Adapta- tions (1873), followed by subsequent works on the same lines, brought together a great number of observations on floral mechanisms and their relation to insect-visits. Miiller also suggested a modification of the Knight-Darwin law, which had left unexplained the numer- ous instances of continued successful self-pollination, and restated it on these terms: " Whenever offspring resulting from crossing comes into serious conflict with offspring resulting from self- fertilization, the former is victorious. Only where there is no such struggle for existence does self-fertilization often prove satis- factory for many generations." An increasing number of workers in this field of plant biology in England, on the Continent and in America has produced a great mass of observations, which have recently been brought together in Dr Paul Knuth's classic work, Handbook of Flower Pollination, an English translation of which has been published (1908) by the Clarendon Press. POLLIO, GAIUS ASINIUS (76 b.c.-a.d. 5; according to some, 75 b.c.-a.d. 4), Roman orator, poet and historian. In 54 he impeached unsuccessfully C. Porcius Cato, who in his tribunate (56) had acted as the tool of the triumvirs. In the civil war between Caesar and Pompey Pollio sided with Caesar, was present at the battle of Pharsalus (48) , and commanded against Sextus Pompeius in Spain, where he was at the time of Caesar's assassination. He subsequently threw in his lot with M. Antonius. In the division of the provinces, Gaul fell to Antony, who entrusted Pollio with the administration of Gallia Trans- padana. In superintending the distribution of the Mantuan territory amongst the veterans, he used his influence to save from confiscation the property of the poet Virgil. In 40 he helped to arrange the peace of Brundisium by which Octavian (Augustus) and Antonius were for a time reconciled. In the same year Pollio entered upon his consulship, which had been promised him in 43. It was at this time that Virgil addressed the famous fourth eclogue to him. Next year Pollio conducted a successful campaign against the Parthini, an Illyrian people who adhered to Brutus, and celebrated a triumph on the 25th of October. The eighth eclogue of Virgil was addressed to Pollio while engaged in this campaign. From the spoils of the war he constructed the first public library at Rome, in the Atrium Libertatis, also erected by him (Pliny, Nat. hist. xxxv. 10), which he adorned with statues of the most celebrated 1 Vorldufige Nachricht von einigen das Geschlecht der Pflanzen betreffenden Versuchen und Beobachtungen, 3, 4, 6 (Leipzig, 1761). POLLNITZ— POLL-TAX authors, both Greek and Roman. Thenceforward he withdrew from active life and devoted himself to literature. He seems to have maintained to a certain degree an attitude of independence, if not of opposition, towards Augustus. He died in his villa at Tusculum, regretted and esteemed by all. Pollio was a distinguished orator; his speeches showed ingenuity and care, but were marred by an affected archaism (Quintilian, Inst. x. I, 113; Seneca, Ep. 100). He wrote tragedies also, which Virgil (Eel. viii. 10) declared to be worthy of Sophocles, and a prose history' of the civil wars of his time from the first triumvirate (60) down to the death of Cicero (43) or later. This history, in the composition of which Pollio received assistance from the grammarian Ateius Praetextatus, was used as an authority by Plutarch and Appian (Horace, Odes, ii. 1 ; Tacitus, Annals, iv. 34). As a literary critic Pollio was very severe. He censured Sallust (Suetonius, Gram. 10) and Cicero (Quintilian, Inst. xii. 1, 22) and professed to detect in Livy's style certain provincialisms of his native Padua (Quintilian, i. 5, 56, viii. I, 3); he attacked the Commentaries of Julius Caesar, accusing their author of carelessness and credulity, if not of deliberate falsification (Suet. Caesar, 56). Pollio was the first Roman author who recited his writings to an audience of his friends, a practice which afterwards became common at Rome. The theory that Pollio was the author of the Bellum africanum, one of the supplements to Caesar's Commentarii, has met with little support. All his writings are lost except a few fragments of his speeches (H. Meyer, Orat. torn, frag., 1842), and three letters addressed to Cicero (Ad. Fam. x. 31-33). See Plutarch, Caesar, Pompey; Veil. Pat. ii. 36, 63, 73, 76; Florus iv. 12, 11; Dio Cassius xlv. 10, xlviii. 15; Appian, Bell, civ. ; V. Gardthausen, Augustus und seine Zeit (1891), i. ; P. Groebe, in Pau\y-\\'isso\va' s Realencyclopddie (1896), ii. pt. 2 ; Teuffel-Schwaben, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. trans.), § 221 ; M. Schanz, Geschichte der romischen Litter atur, pt. 2, p. 20 (2nd ed., 1899); Cicero, Letters, ed. Tyrrell and Purser, vi. introd. p. 80. POLLNITZ, KARL LUDWIG, Freiherr von (1692-1775), German adventurer and writer, was born at Issum on the 25th of February 1692. His father, Wilhelm Ludwig von Pollnitz (d. 1693), was in the military service of the elector of Branden- burg, and much of his son's youth was passed at the electoral court in Berlin. He was a man of restless and adventurous disposition, unscrupulous even for the age in which he lived, visited many of the European courts, and served as a soldier in Austria, Italy and Spain. Returning to Berlin in 1735 he obtained a position in the household of King Frederick William I. and afterwards in that of Frederick the Great, with whom he appears to have been a great favourite; and he died in Berlin on the 23rd of June 1775- - Pollnitz's Memoires (Liege, 1734), which were translated into German (Frankfort, 1735), give interesting glimpses of his life and the people whom he met, but they are very untrustworthy. He also wrote Nouveaux memoires (Amsterdam, 1737); Etat abrigS de la cour de Saxe sous le regne d'Auguste III. (Frankfort, 1734; Ger. trans., Breslau, 1736); and Mimoires pour servir & Vhistoire des quatres derniers souverains de la maison de Brandenbourg, published by F. L. Brunn (Berlin, 1791; Ger. trans., Berlin, 1791). Per- haps his most popular works are La Saxe galante (Amsterdam, 1734), an account of the private life of Augustus the Strong, elector of Saxony and king of Poland; and Histoire secrete de la duchesse d'Hanovre, epouse de Georges I. (London, 1 732). There is an English translation of the Memoires (London, 1738-1739). See P. von Pollnitz, Stammtafeln der Familie von Pollnitz (Berlin, 1894); and J. G. Droysen, Geschichte der preussischen Politih, pt. iv. (Leipzig, 1870). POLLOCK, the name of an English family which has con- tributed many important members to the legal and other profes- sions. David Pollock, who was the son of a Scotsman and built up a prosperous business in London as a saddler, had three distin- guished sons: Sir David Pollock (1780-1847), chief justice of Bombay; Sir Jonathan Frederick Pollock, Bart. (1783-1870), chief baron of the exchequer; and Sir George Pollock, Bart. (1786-1872), field-marshal. Of these the more famous were the two last. Field Marshal Sir George Pollock, who rendered valuable military service in India, and especially in Afghanistan in 1 841-1843, ended his days as constable of the Tower of London, and was buried in Westminster Abbey; his baronetcy, created in 1872, descended to his son Frederick (d. 1874), who assumed the name of Montagu-Pollock, and so to his heirs. Chief Baron Sir J. Frederick Pollock, who had been senior wrangler at Cam- bridge, and became F.R.S. in 1816, was raised to the bench in 1844, and created a baronet in 1866. He was twice married and had eight sons and ten daughters, his numerous descendants being prominent in many fields. The chief baton's eldest son, Sir William Frederick Pollock, 2nd Bart. (1815-1888), became a master of the Supreme Court (1846) and queen's remembrancer (1874); his eldest son, Sir Frederick Pollock, 3rd Bart. (b. 1845), being the well-known jurist and legal historian, fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Corpus professor of jurisprudence at Oxford (1883-1903), and the second son, Walter Hemes Pollock (b. 1850), being a well-known author and editor of the Saturday Review from 1883 to 1894. The chief baron's third son, George Frederick Pollock (b. 1821), became a master of the Supreme Court in 1851, and succeeded his brother as queen's (king's) remembrancer in 1886; among his sons were Dr W. Rivers Pollock (1859-1909), Ernest Murry Pollock, K.C. (b. 1861), and the Rt. Rev. Bertram Pollock (b. 1863), bishop of Norwich, and previously head master of Wellington College from 1893 till 1910. The chief baron's fourth son, Sir Charles Edward Pollock (1823-1897), had a successful career at the bar and in 1873 became a judge, being the last survivor of the old barons of the exchequer; he was thrice married and had issue by each wife. POLLOK, ROBERT (1798-1827), Scottish poet, son of a small farmer, was bcrn at North Moorhouse, Renfrewshire, on the 19th of October 1798. He was trained as a cabinet-maker and after- wards worked on his father's farm, but, having prepared himself for the university, he took his degree at Glasgow, and studied for the ministry of the United Secession Church. He published Tales of the Covenanters while he was a divinity student, and planned and completed a strongly Calvinistic poem on the spiri- tual life and destiny of man. This was the Course of Time (1827), which passed through many editions and became a favourite in serious households in Scotland. It was written in blank verse, in ten books, in the poetic diction of the 18th century, but with abundance of enthusiasm, impassioned elevation of feeling and copious force of words and images. The poem at once became popular, but within six months of its publication, on the 18th of September 1827, its author died of consumption. POLLOKSHAWS, a police burgh and burgh of barony of Renfrewshire, Scotland, on the White Cart, now virtually a suburb of Glasgow, with which it is connected by electric tramway and the Glasgow & South-Western and Caledonian railways. Pop. (1901), 11,183. It is named from the shaws or woods (and is locally styled " the Shaws ") and the lands of Pollok, which have been held by the Maxwells since the 13th century. The family is now called Stirling-Maxwell, the estate and baronetcy having devolved in 1865 upon Sir William Stirling of Keir, who then assumed the surname of Maxwell. Pollok House adjoins the town on the west. The staple indus- tries are cotton-spinning and weaving, silk-weaving, dyeing, bleaching, calico-printing and the manufacture of chenille and tapestry, besides paper mills, potteries and large engineering works. Pollokshaws was created a burgh of barony in 181 3, and is governed by a council and provost. About 2 m. south- west is the thriving town of Thornliebank (pop. 2452), which owes its existence to the cotton-works established towards the end of the 18th century. POLL-TAX, a tax levied on the individual, and not on property or on articles of merchandise, so-called from the old English poll, a head. Raised thus per capita, it is sometimes called a capitation tax. The most famous poll-tax in English history is the one levied in 1380, which led to the revolt of the peasants under Wat Tyler in 1381, but the first instance of the kind was in 1377, when a tax of a groat a head was voted by both clergy and laity. In 1379 the tax was again levied, but on a graduated scale. John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, paid ten marks, and the scale descended from him to the peasants, who paid one groat each, every person over sixteen years of age being liable. In 1380 the tax was also graduated, but less steeply. For some years after the rising of 1381 money was only raised in this way from aliens, but in 1513 a general poll tax was imposed. This, however, only produced about £50,000, instead I of £160,000 as was expected, but a poll-tax levied in 1641 I resulted in a revenue of about £400,600. During the reign of POLLUX, JULIUS— POLO, MARCO Charles II. money was obtained in this way on several occasions, although in 1676-167 7 especially there was a good deal of resentment against the tax. For some years after 1688 poll- taxes were a favourite means of raising money for the prosecution of the war with France. Sometimes a single payment was asked for the year; at other times quarterly payments were required. The poll-tax of 1697 included a weekly tax of one penny from all persons not receiving alms. In 1698 a quarterly poll-tax produced £321,397. Nothing was required from the poor, and those who were liable may be divided roughly into three classes. Persons worth less than £300 paid one shilling; those worth £300, including the gentry and the professional classes, paid twenty shillings; while tradesmen and shopkeepers paid ten shillings. Non-jurors were charged double these rates. Like previous poll-taxes, the tax of 1698 did not produce as much as was anticipated, and it was the last of its kind in England. Many of the states of the United States of America raise money by levying poll-taxes, or, as they are usually called, capitation taxes, the payment of this tax being a necessary preliminary to the exercise of the suffrage. See S. Dowell, History of Taxation and Taxes in England (1888), vol. iii. ; and W. Stubbs, Constitutional History (1896), vol. ii. POLLUX, JULIUS, of Naucratis in Egypt, Greek grammarian and sophist of the 2nd century a.d. He taught at Athens, where, according to Philostratus ( Vit. Soph.) , he was. appointed to the professorship of rhetoric by the emperor Commodus on account of his melodious voice. Suidas gives a list of his rhetorical works, none of which has survived. Philostratus recognizes his natural abilities, but speaks of his rhetoric in very moderate terms. Pollux is probably the person attacked by Lucian in the Lexiphanes and Teacher of Rhetoricians. In the Teacher of Rhetoricians Lucian satirizes a worthless and ignorant person who gains a reputation as an orator by sheer effrontery; the Lexiphanes, a satire upon the use of obscure and obsolete words, may conceivably have been directed against Pollux as the author of the Onomasticon. This work, which we still possess, is a Greek dictionary in ten books, each dedicated to Commodus, and arranged not alphabetically but according to subject-matter. Though mainly a dictionary of synonyms and phrases, chiefly intended to furnish the reader with the Attic names for indi- vidual things, it supplies much rare and valuable information on many points of classical antiquity. It also contains numerous fragments of writers now lost. The chief authorities used were the lexicological works of Didymus, Tryphon, and Pamphilus; in the second book the extant treatise of Rufus of Ephesus On the Names of the Parts of the Human Body was specially consulted. The chief editions of the Onomasticon are those of W. Dindorf (1824), with the notes of previous commentators, I. Bekker (1846), containing the Greek text only, and Bethe (1900). There are mono- graphs on special portions of the vocabulary; by E. Rohde (on the theatrical terms, 1870), and F. von Stojentin (on constitutional antiquities, 1875). POLLUX, or Pollucite, a rare mineral, consisting of hydrous caesium and aluminium silicate, H 2 Cs4Al 4 (Si03)9. Caesium oxide (CsoO) is present to the extent of 30-36 %, the amount varying somewhat owing to partial replacement by other alkalis, chiefly sodium. The mineral crystallizes in the cubic system. It is colourless and transparent, and has a vitreous lustre. There is no distinct cleavage and the fracture is conchoidal. The hardness is 65 and the specific gravity 2-90. It occurs sparingly, together with the mineral " castor " (see Petalite), in cavities in the granite of the island of Elba, and with beryl in pegmatite veins at Rumford and Hebron in Maine. POLO, GASPAR GIL (?iS3o-iS9i), Spanish novelist and poet, was born at Valencia about 1530. He is often confused with Gil Polo, professor of Greek at Valencia University between 1566 and 1573; but this professor was not named Gaspar. He is also confused with his own son, Gaspar Gil Polo, the author of De origine et progressu juris romani (1615) and other legal treatises, who pleaded before the Cortes as late as 1626. A notary by profession, Polo was attached to the treasury / commission which visited Valencia in 1571, became coadjutor to the chief accountant in 1572, went on a special mission to Barcelona in 1580, and died there in 1591. Timoneda, in the Sarao de amor (1561), alludes to him as a poet of repute; but of his miscellaneous verses only two conventional, eulogistic sonnets and a song survive. Polo finds a place in the history of the novel as the author of La Diana enamorada, a continuation of Monte- mayor's Diana, and perhaps the most successful continuation ever written by another hand. Cervantes, punning on the writer's name, recommended that " the Diana enamorada should be guarded as carefully as though it were by Apollo himself "; the hyperbole is not wholly, nor even mainly, ironical. The book is one of the most agreeable of Spanish pastorals; interesting in incident, written in fluent prose, and embellished with melodious poems, it was constantly reprinted, was imitated by Cervantes in the Canto de Caliope, and was translated into English, French, German and Latin. The English version of Bartholomew Young, published in 1598 but current in manu- script fifteen years earlier, is said to have suggested the Felismena episode in the Two Gentlemen of Verona; the Latin version of Caspar Barth, entitled Erotodidascalus (Hanover, 1625), is a per- formance of uncommon merit, as well as a bibliographical curiosity. POLO, MARCO (c. 1 2 54-13 24), the Venetian, greatest of medieval travellers. Venetian genealogies and traditions of uncertain value trace the Polo family to Sebenico in Dalmatia, and before the end of the nth century one Domenico Polo is found in the great council of the republic (1094). But the ascertained line of the traveller begins only with his grandfather. Andrea Polo of S. Felice was the father of three sons, Marco, Nicolo and Maffeo, of whom the second was the father of the subject of this article. They were presumably " noble," i.e. belonging to the families who had seats in the great council, and were enrolled in the Libro d' Oro; for we know that Marco the traveller is officially so styled (nobilis vir). The three brothers were engaged in commerce; the elder Marco, resident apparently in Constantinople and in the Crimea, (especially at Sudak), suggests, by his celebrated will, a long business partnership with Nicolo and Maffeo. About 1260, and even perhaps as early as 1250, we find Nicolo and Maffeo at Constantinople. Nicolo was married and had left his wife there. The two brothers went on a speculation to the Crimea, whence a succession of chances and openings carried them to the court of Barka Khan at Sarai, further north up to Bolghar (Kazan), and eventually across the steppes to Bokhara. Here they fell in with certain envoys who had been on a mission from the great Khan Kublai to his brother Hulagu in Persia, and by them were persuaded to make the journey to Cathay in their company. Under the heading China the circumstances are noticed which in the last half of the 13th century and first half of the 14th threw Asia open to Western travellers to a degree unknown before and since— until the 19th century. Thus began the medieval period of intercourse between China and catholic Europe. Kublai, when the Polos reached his court, was either at Cambaluc (Khanbaligh, the Khan's city), i.e. Peking, which he had just rebuilt, or at his summer seat at Shangtu in the country north of the Great Wall. It was the first time that the khan, a man full of energy and intelligence, had fallen in with European gentlemen. He was delighted with the Venetian brothers, listened eagerly to all they had to tell of the Latin world, and decided to send them back as his envoys to the pope, with letters requesting the despatch of a large body of educated men to instruct his people in Christianity and the liberal arts. With Kublai, as with his predecessors, religion was chiefly a political engine. Kublai, the first of his house to rise above the essential barbarism of the Mongols, had perhaps discerned that the Christian Church could afford the aid he desired in taming his countrymen. It was only when Rome had failed to meet his advance that he fell back upon Buddhism as his chief civilizing instrument. The brothers arrived at Acre in April 1269. They learned that Clement IV. had died the year before, and no new pope had yet been chosen. So they took counsel with an eminent church- man, Tedaldo, archdeacon of Liege and papal legate for the 8 POLO, MARCO whole realm of Egypt, and, being advised by him to wait patiently, went home to Venice, where they found that Nicolo's wife was dead, but had left a son Marco, now fifteen. The papal in- terregnum was the longest that had been known, at least since the dark ages. After the Polos had spent two years at home there was still no pope, and the brothers resolved on starting again for the East, taking young Marco with them. At Acre they again saw Tedaldo, and were furnished by him with letters to authenticate the causes that had hindered their mission. They had not yet left Lajazzo, Layas, or Ayas on the Cilician coast (then one of the chief points for the arrival and departure of the land trade of Asia), when they heard that Tedaldo had been elected pope. They hastened back to Acre, and at last were able to execute Kublai's mission, and to obtain a papal reply. But, instead of the hundred teachers asked for by the Great Khan, the new pope (styled Gregory X.) could supply but two Dominicans; and these lost heart and turned back, when they had barely taken the first step of their journey. The second start from Acre must have taken place about November 1271; and from a consideration of the indications and succession of chapters in Polo's book, it would seem that the party proceeded from Lajazzo to Sivas and Tabriz, and thence by Yezd and Kirman down to Hormuz (Hurmua) at the mouth of the Persian Gulf, with the purpose of going on to China by sea; but that, abandoning their naval plans (perhaps from fear of the flimsy vessels employed on this navigation from the Gulf east- wards), they returned northward through Persia. Traversing Kirman and Khorasan they went on to Balkh and Badakshan, in which last country young Marco recovered from illness. In a passage touching on the climate of the Badakshan hills, Marco breaks into an enthusiasm whiqh he rarely betrays, but which is easily understood by those who have known what it is, with fever in the blood, to escape to the exhilarating mountain air and fragrant pine-groves. They then ascended the upper Oxus through Wakhan to the plateau of Pamir (a name first heard in Marco's book). These regions were hardly described again by any European traveller (save Benedict Goes) till the expedition in 1838 of Lieut. John Wood of the Indian navy, whose narrative abounds in incidental illustration of Marco Polo. Crossing the Pamir the travellers descended upon Kashgar, Yarkand and Khotan (Khutan). These are regions which remained almost absolutely closed to our know- ledge till after i860, when the temporary overthrow of the Chinese power, and the enterprise of British, Russian and other explorers, again made them known. From Khotan the Polos passed on to the vicinity of Lop-Nor, reached for the first time since Polo's journey by Prjevalsky in 1 87 1. Thence the great desert of Gobi was crossed to Tangut, as the region at the extreme north-west of China, both within and without the Wall, was then called. In his account of the Gobi, or desert of Lop, as he calls it, Polo gives some description of the terrors and superstitions of the waste, a description which strikingly reproduces that of the Chinese pilgrim Suan T'sang, in passing the same desert in the contrary direction six hundred years before. The Venetians, in their further journey, were met and welcomed by the Great Khan's people, and at last reached his presence at Shangtu, in the spring of 1275. Kublai received them with great cordiality, and took kindly to young Marco, by this time about twenty-one years old. The " young bachelor," as the book calls him, applied himself diligently to the acquisi- tion of the divers languages and written characters chiefly in use among the multifarious nationalities subject to the Khan; and Kublai, seeing that he was both clever and discreet, soon began to employ him in the public service. G. Pauthier found in the Chinese annals a record that in the year 1277 a certain Polo was nominated as a second-class commissioner or agent attached to the imperial council, a passage which we may apply to the young Venetian. Among his public missions was one which carried him through the provinces of Shansi, Shensi, and Szechuen, and the wild country on the borders of Tibet, to the remote province of Yunnan, called by the Mongols Karajang, and into northern Burma (Mien). Marco, during his stay at court, had observed the Khan's delight in hearing of strange countries, of their manners, marvels, and oddities, and had heard his frank expressions of disgust at the stupidity of envoys and commissioners who could tell of nothing but their official business. He took care to store his memory or his note-book with curious facts likely to interest Kublai, which, on his return to court, he related. This south-western journey led him through a country which till about i860 was almost a terra incognita — though since the middle of the 19th century we have learned much regarding it through the journeys of Cooper, Gamier, Richthofen, Gill, Baber and others. In this region there existed and still exists in the deep valleys of the great rivers, and in the alpine regions which border them, a vast ethnological garden, as it were, of tribes of various origin, and in every stage of semi-civilization or barbarism; these afforded many strange products and eccentric traits to entertain Kublai. Marco rose rapidly in favour and was often employed on distant missions as well as in domestic administration; but we gather few details of his employment. He held for three years the government of the great city of Yangchow; on another occasion he seems to have visited Kangchow, the capital of Tangut, just within the Great Wall, and perhaps Karakorum on the north of the Gobi, the former residence of the Great Khans: again we find him in Ciampa, or southern Cochin-China; and perhaps, once more, on a separate mission to the southern states of India. We are not informed whether his father and uncle shared in such employments, though they are mentioned as having rendered material service to the Khan, in forwarding the capture of Siang-yang (on the Han river) during the war against southern China, by the construction of powerful artillery engines — a story, however, perplexed by chronological difficulties. All the Polos were gathering wealth which they longed to carry back to their home, and after their exile they began to dread what might follow Kublai's death. The Khan, however, was deaf to suggestions* of departure and the opportunity only came by chance. Arghun, khan of Persia, the grandson of Kublai's brother Hulagu, lost in 1 286 his favourite wife, called by Polo Balgana {i.e. Bulughan or " Sable "). Her dying injunction was that her place should be filled only by a lady of her own Mongol tribe. Ambassadors were despatched to the court of Peking to obtain such a bride. The message was courteously received, and the choice fell on the lady Cocacin (Kukachin), a maiden of seventeen. The overland road from Peking to Tabriz was then imperilled by war, so Arghun's envoys proposed to return by sea. Having made acquaintance with the Venetians, and eager to profit by their experience, especially by that of Marco, who had just returned from a mission to the Indies, they begged the Khan to send the Franks in their company. He consented with reluctance, but fitted out the party nobly for the voyage, charging them with friendly messages to the potentates of Christendom, including the pope, and the kings of France, Spain and England. They sailed from Zaiton or Amoy Harbour in Fukien (a town corresponding either to the modern Changchow or less probably toTswanchoworChinchew),thenoneof the chief Chinese havens for foreign trade, in the beginning of 1292. The voyage in- volved long detention on the coast of Sumatra, and in south India, and two years or more passed before they arrived in Persia. Two of the three envoys and a vast proportion of their suite perished by the way; but the three Venetians survived all perils, and so did the young lady, who had come to look on them with filial regard. Arghun Khan had died even before they quitted China; his brother reigned in his stead; and his son Ghazan succeeded to the lady's hand. The Polos went on (apparently by Tabriz, Trebizond, Constantinople and Negro- pont) to Venice, which they seem to have reached about the end of 1295. The first biographer of Marco Polo was the famous geo- graphical collector John Baptist Ramusio, who wrote more than two centuries after the traveller's death. Facts and dates POLO, MARCO sometimes contradict his statements, but he often adds detail, evidently authentic, of great interest and value, and we need not hesitate to accept as a genuine tradition the substance of his story of the Polos' arrival at their family mansion in St John Chrysostom parish in worn and outlandish garb, of the scornful denial of their identity, and the stratagem by which they secured acknowledgment from Venetian society. We next hear of Marco Polo in a militant capacity. Jealousies had been growing in bitterness between Venice and Genoa throughout the 13th century. In 1298 the Genoese prepared to strike at their rivals on their own ground, and a powerful fleet under Lamba Doria made for the Adriatic. Venice, on hearing of the Genoese armament, equipped a fleet still more numerous, and placed it under Andrea Dandolo. The crew of a Venetian galley at this time amounted, all told, to 250 men, under a comito or master, but besides this officer each galley carried a sopracomito or gentleman-commander, usually a noble. On one of the galleys of Dandolo's fleet Marco Polo seems to have gone in this last capacity. The hostile fleets met before Curzola Island on the 6th of September, and engaged next morning. The battle ended in a complete victory for Genoa, the details of which may still be read on the facade of St Matthew's church in that city. Sixty-six Venetian galleys were burnt in Curzola Bay, and eighteen were carried to Genoa, with 7000 prisoners, one of whom was Marco Polo. The captivity was of less than a year's duration; by the mediation of Milan peace was made, on honourable terms for both republics, by July ■ 1299; and Marco was probably restored to his family during that or the following month. But his captivity was memorable as the immediate cause of his Book. Up to this time he had doubtless often related his experiences among his friends; and from these stories, and the frequent employment in them (as it would seem) of grand numerical expressions, he had acquired the nickname of Marco Millioni. Yet it would seem that he had committed nothing to writing. The narratives not only of Marco Polo but of several other famous medieval travellers (e.g. Ibn Batuta, Friar Odoric, Nicolo Conti) seem to have been extorted from them by a kind of pressure, and committed to paper by other hands. Examples, perhaps, of that intense dislike to the use of pen and ink which still prevails among ordinary respectable folk on the shores of the Mediterranean. In the prison of Genoa Marco Polo fell in with a certain person of writing propensities, Rusticiano or Rustichello of Pisa, also a captive of the Genoese. His name is otherwise known as that of a respectable literary hack, who abridged and recast several of the French romances of the Arthurian cycle, then in fashion. He wrote down Marco's experiences at his dictation. We learn little of Marco Polo's personal or family history after this captivity; but we know that at his death he left a wife, Donata (perhaps of the Loredano family, but this is uncertain), and three daughters, Fantina and Bellela (married, the former to Marco Bragadino), and Moreta (then a spinster, but married at a later date to Ranuzzo Dolfino). One last glimpse of the traveller is gathered from his will, now in St Mark's library. On the 9th of January 1324 the traveller, in his seventieth year, sent for a neighbouring priest and notary to make his testament. We do not know the exact time of his death, but it fell almost certainly within the year 1324, for we know from a scanty series of documents, beginning in June 1325, that he had at the latter date been some time dead. He was buried, in accordance with his will, in the Church of St Lorenzo, where the family burying-place was marked by a sarcophagus, erected by his filial care for his father Nicolo, which existed till near the end of the 16th century. On the renewal of the church in 1592 this seems to have disappeared. The archives of Venice have yielded a few traces of our tra- veller. Besides his own will just alluded to, there are the wills of his uncle Marco and of his younger brother Maffeo; a few legal documents connected with the house property in St John Chrysostom, and other papers of similar character; and two or three entries in the record of the Maggior Con- siglio. We have mentioned the sobriquet of Marco Millioni. Ramusio tells us that he had himself noted the use of this name in the public books of the commonwealth, and this statement has been verified in an entry in the books of the Great Council (dated April 10, 1305), which records as one of the securities in a- certain case. the " Nobilis vir Marchus Paulo Milion." It is alleged that long after the traveller's death there was always in the Venetian masques one individual who assumed the character of Marco Millioni, and told Munchausen-like stories to divert the vulgar. There is also a record (March 9, 13 n) of the judgment of the court of requests (Curia Peti- tionum) upon a suit brought by the " Nobilis vir Marcus Polo " against Paulo Girardo, who had been an agent of his, to recover the value of a certain quantity of musk for which Girardo had not accounted. Another document is a catalogue of certain curiosities and valuables which were collected in the house of Marino Faliero, and this catalogue comprises several objects that Marco Polo had given to one of the Faliero family. The most tangible record of Polo's memory in Venice is a portion of the Ca' Polo — the mansion (there is reason to believe) where the three travellers, after their long absence, were denied entrance. The court in which it stands was known in Ramusio's time as the Corte del millioni, and now is called Corte Sabbionera. That which remains of the ancient edifice is a passage with a decorated archway of Italo-Byzantine character pertaining to the 13th century. No genuine portrait of Marco Polo exists. There is a medallion portrait on the wall of the Sala dello Scudo in the ducal palace, which has become a kind of type; but it is a work of imagination no older than iy6r. The oldest professed portrait is one in the gallery of Monsignor Badia at Rome, which is inscribed Marcus Polus venetus totius orbis et Indie peregrator primus. It is a good picture, but evidently of the 16th century at earliest. The Europeans at Canton have absurdly attached the name of Marco Polo to a figure in a Buddhist temple there containing a gallery of " Arhans " or Buddhist saints, and popularly known as the " temple of the five hundred gods." The Venetian municipality obtained a copy of this on the occasion of the geographical congress at Venice in 1881. The book indited by Rusticiano is in two parts. The first, or prologue, as it is termed, is unfortunately the only part which con- sists of actual personal narrative. It relates in an interesting though extremely brief fashion the circumstances which led the two elder Polos to the Khan's court, together with those of their second journey (when accompanied by Marco), and of the return to the west by the Indian seas and Persia. The second and staple part consists of a series of chapters of unequal length and unsystem- atic structure, descriptive of the different states and provinces of Asia (certain African islands and regions included), with occasional notices of their sights and products, of curious manners and re- markable events, and especially regarding the Emperor Kublai, his court, wars and administration. A series of chapters near the close treats of sundry wars that took place between various branches of 'the house of Jenghiz in the latter half of the 13th century. This last series is either omitted or greatly curtailed in all the MS. copies and versions except one (Paris, National Library, Fonds Fr. n 16). It was long doubtful in what language the work was originally written. That this had been some dialect of Italian was a natural presumption, and a contemporary statement could be alleged in its favour. But there is now no doubt that the original was French. This was first indicated by Count Baldelli-Boni, who published an elaborate edition of two of the Italian texts at Florence in 1827, and who found in the oldest of these indisputable signs that it was a translation from the French. The argument has since been followed up by others; and a manuscript in rude and peculiar French, belonging to the National Libraiy of Paris (Fonds Fr. 1 1 16), which was printed by the Societe de geographie in 1824., is evidently either the original or a close transcript of the original dictation. A variety of its characteristics are strikingly indicative of the unrevised product of dictation, and are such as would necessarily have disappeared either in a translation or in a revised copy. Many illustrations could be adduced of the fact that the use of French was not a circumstance of surprising or unusual nature; for the language had at that time, in some points of view, even a wider diffusion than at present, and examples of its literary em- ployment by writers who were not Frenchmen (like Rusticiano himself, a compiler of French romances) are very numerous. 10 POLO, MARCO Eighty-five MSS. of the book are known, and their texts exhibit considerable differences. These fall under four principal types. Of these, type i. is found completely only in that old French codex which has been mentioned (Paris, National Library, Fr. 1116). Type ii. is shown by several valuable MSS. in purer French (Paris, Nat. Libr., Fr. 2810; Fr. 5631; Fr. 5649; Bern, Canton Library, 125), which formed the basis of the edition prepared by the late M. Pauthier in 1865. It exhibits a text condensed and revised from the rude original, but without any exactness, though perhaps under some general direction by Marco Polo himself, for an inscrip- tion prefixed to certain MSS. (Bern, Canton Libr. 125; Paris, Nat. Libr., Fr. 5649) records the presentation of a copy by the tra- veller himself to the Seigneur Thiebault de Cepoy, a distinguished Frenchman known to history, at Venice in the year 1306. Type iii. is that of a Latin version prepared in Marco Polo's lifetime, though without any sign of his cognisance, by Francesco Pipino, a Dominican of Bologna, and translated from an Italian copy. In this, condensation and curtailment are carried a good deal further than in type ii. Some of the forms under which this type appears curiously illustrate the effects of absence of effective publication, not only before the invention of the press, but in its early days. Thus the Latin version published by Grynaeus at Basel in the Novus Orbis (1532) is different in its language from Pipino's, and yet is clearly traceable to that as its foundation. In fact it is a retranslation into Latin from some version of Pipino (Marsden thinks the Portuguese printed one of 1502). It introduces changes of its own, and is worthless as a text; yet Andreas Mtiller, who in the 17th century took so much trouble with Polo, unfortunately chose as his text this fifth-hand version. The French editions published in the middle of the 16th century were translations from Grynaeus's Latin. Hence they complete this curious and vicious circle of transmission — French, Italian, Pipino's Latin, Portuguese, Grynaeus's Latin, French. Type iv. deviates largely from those already mentioned; its history and true character are involved in obscurity. It is only represented by the Italian version prepared for the press by John Baptist Ramusio, with interesting preliminary dissertations, and published at Venice two years after his death, in the second volume of the Navigationi e viaggi. Its peculiarities are great. Ramusio seems to imply that he made some use of Pipino's Latin, and various passages confirm this. But many new circumstances, and anec- dotes occurring in no other copy, are introduced ; many names assume a new shape; the whole style is more copious and literary than that of any other version. While a few of the changes and interpolations seem to carry us farther from the truth, others contain facts of Asiatic nature or history, as well as of Polo's alleged experiences, which it is difficult to ascribe to any hand but the traveller's own. We recognize to a certain extent tampering with the text, as in cases where Polo's proper names have been identified, and more modern forms substituted. In some other cases the editorial spirit has gone astray. Thus the age of young Marco has been altered to correspond with a date which is itself erroneous. Ormuz is described as an island, contrary to the old texts, and to the fact in Polo's time. In speaking of the oil-springs of Caucasus the phrase " camel-loads " has been substituted for " ship-loads," in ignorance that the site was Baku on the Caspian. But, on the other hand, there are a number of new circumstances certainly genuine, which can hardly be ascribed to any one but Polo himself. Such is the account which Ramusio's version gives of the oppressions exercised by Kublai's Mahommedan minister Ahmad, telling how the Cathayans rose against him and murdered him, with the addition that Messer Marco was on the spot when all this happened. Not only is the whole story in substantial accordance with the Chinese annals, even to the name of the chief conspirator {Vanchu in Ramusio, Wangcheu in the Chinese records), but the annals also tell of the frankness of " Polo, assessor of the privy council," in opening Kublai's eyes to the iniquities of his agent. Polo was the first traveller to trace a route across the whole longitude of Asia, naming and describing kingdom after kingdom which he had seen ; the first to speak of the new and brilliant court which had been established at Peking; the first to reveal China in all its wealth and vastness, and to tell of the nations on its borders; the first to tell more of Tibet than its name, to speak of Burma, of Laos, of Siam, of Cochin-China, of Japan, of Java, of Sumatra and of other islands of the archipelago, of the Nicobar and Andaman Islands, of Ceylon and its sacred peak, of India but as a country seen and partially explored ; the first in medieval times to give any distinct account of the secluded Christian Empire of Abyssinia, and of the semi-Christian island of Sokotra, and to speak, however dimly, of Zanzibar, and of the vast and distant Madagascar; whilst he carries us also to the remotely opposite region of Siberia and the Arctic shores, to speak of dog-sledges, white bears and reindeer- riding Tunguses. The diffusion of the book was hardly so rapid as has been some- times alleged. We know from Gilles Mallet's catalogue of the books collected in the Louvre by Charles V., dating c. 1370-1375, that five copies of Marco Polo's work were then in the collection ; but on the other hand, the 202 known MSS. and the numerous early printed editions of " Mandeville," with his lying wonders, indicates a much greater popularity. Dante, who lived twenty-three years after the book was dictated, and who touches so many things in the seen and unseen worlds, never alludes to Polo, nor, we believe, to any- thing that can be connected with him; nor can any trace of Polo be discovered in the book of his contemporary, Marino Sanudo the Elder, though this worthy is well acquainted with the work, later by some years, of Hayton the Armenian, and though many of the subjects on which he writes in his own book {Secreta Fidelium Cruris 1 ) challenge a reference to Polo's experiences. " Mande- ville " himself, who plundered right and left, hardly ever plunders Polo (see one example in Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. 323, note). The only literary works we know of the 14th century which show acquaintance with Polo's book or achievements are Pipino's Chronicle, Villani's Florentine History, Pietro d'Abano's Conciliator, the Chronicle of John of Ypres, and the poetical romance of Baudouin de Sebourc, which last borrows themes largely from Polo. Within the traveller's own lifetime we find the earliest examples of the practical and truly scientific coast-charts (Portolani), based upon the experience of pilots, mariners, merchants, &c. In two of the most famous of the 14th century Portolani, we trace Marco Polo's influence — first, very slightly in the Laurentian or Medicean Portolano of 1 35 1 (at Florence), but afterwards with clearness and in remarkable detail in the Catalan Atlas of 1375 (now at Paris). Both of these represent a very advanced stage of medieval knowledge, a careful attempt to represent the known world on the basis of collected fact, and a disregard for theological or pseudo- scientific theory; in the Catalan Atlas, as regards Central and Further Asia, and partially as regards India, Marco Polo's Book is the basis of the map. His names are often much perverted, and it is not always easy to understand the view that the compiler took of his itineraries. Still we have Cathay placed in the true position of China, as a great empire filling the south-east of Asia. The trans-Gangetic peninsula is absent, but that of India proper is, for the first time in the history of geography, represented with a fair approximation to correct form and position. It is curious that, in the following age, owing partly to his un- happy reversion to the fancy of a circular disk, the map of Fra Mauro (1459), one of the greatest map-making enterprises in history, and the result of immense labour in the collection of facts and the endeavour to combine them, gives a much less accurate idea of Asia than the Carta catalana. Columbus possessed a printed copy of the Latin version of Polo's book made by Pipino, and on more than seventy pages of this there are manuscript notes in the admiral's handwriting, testifying, what is sufficiently evident from the whole history of the Columbian voyages, to the immense in- fluence of the work of the Venetian merchant upon the discoverer of the new world. When, in the 16th century, attempts were made to combine new and old knowledge, the results were unhappy. The earliest of such combinations tried to realize Columbus's ideas regarding the identity of his discoveries with the Great Khan's dominions; but even after America had vindicated its independent existence, and the new knowledge of the Portuguese had named China where the Catalan map had spoken of Cathay, the latter country, with the whole of Polo's nomenclature, was shunted to the notth, forming a separate system. Henceforward the influence of Polo's work on maps was simply injurious; and when to his names was added a sprinkling of Ptolemy's, as was usual throughout the 16th century, the result was a hotchpotch conveying no approximation to facts (see further Map). As to the alleged introduction of important inventions into Europe by Polo — although the striking resemblance of early Euro- pean block-books to those of China seems clearly to indicate the derivation of the art from that country, there is no reason for connecting this introduction (any more than that of gunpowder or the mariner's compass) with the name of Marco. In the 14th century not only were missions of the Roman Church established in some of the chief cities of eastern China, but a regular overland trade was carried on between Italy and China, by way of Tana (Azov), Astrakhan, Otrar, Kamul (Hami) and Kanchow. Many a traveller other than Marco Polo might have brought home the block-books, and some might have witnessed the process of making them. This is the less to be ascribed to Polo, because he so curiously omits to speak of the process of printing, when, in describing ihe block-printed paper-money of China, his subject seems absolutely to challenge a description of the art. See the Recueil of the Paris Geographical Society (1824), vol. i., giving the text of the fundamental MS. (Nat. Libr. Paris, Fr. 1 1 16; see above), as well as that of the oldest Latin version; G. Pauthier's edition, Livre . . . de Marco Polo . . . (Paris, 1865), based mainly upon the three Paris MSS. (Nat. Libr. Fr. 2810; Fr. 5631; Fr. 5649; see above) and accompanied by a commentary of great value; Baldelli-Boni's Italian edition, giving the oldest Italian version (Florence, 1827); Sir Henry Yule's edition, which in its final shape, as revised and augmented by Henri Cordier (. . . Marco Polo . . . London, 1903)', is the most complete 1 Printed by Bongars in the collection called Gesta Dei per Francos (1611), ii. 1-281. POLO ii History. storehouse of Polo learning in existence, embodying the labours of all the best students of the subject, and giving the essence of such works as those of Major P. Molesworth Sykes {Ten Thousand Miles in Persia, &c.) so far as these touch Marco Polo; the Archimandrite Palladius Katharov's " Elucidations of Marco Polo " (from vol. x. of the Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1876), pp. 1-54; F. von Richthofen, Letters to Shangai Chamber of Commerce; E. C. Baber, Travels . . . in Western China; G. Phillips, Identity of . . . Zaitun with Chang- chau in T'oung Pao (Oct. 1890), and other studies in T'oung-Pao (Dec. 1895 and July 1896). There are in all 10 French editions of Polo as well as 4 Latin editions, 27 Italian, 9 German, 4 Spanish, I Portuguese, 12 English, 2 Russian, 1 Dutch, I Bohemian (Chekh), I Danish and I Swedish. See also E. Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources, i. 239, 167; ii. 8, 71, 81-84, 184; Leon Cahun, Introduction & Vhistoire de I'Asie, 339, 386; C. Raymond Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. 15-160, 545-547. 554, 556-563. (H. Y.; C. R. B.) POLO (Tibetan pulu, ball), the most ancient of games with stick and ball. Hockey, the Irish national game of hurling (and possibly golf and cricket) are derived from polo. The latter was called hockey or hurling on horse- back in England and Ireland respectively, but historically hockey and hurling are polo on foot. The earliest records of polo are Persian. From Persia the game spread westward to Constantinople, eastwards through Turkestan to Tibet, China and Japan. From Tibet polo travelled to Gilgit and Chitral, possibly also to Manipur. Polo also flourished in India in the 16th century. Then for 200 years its records in India cease, till in 1854 polo came into Bengal from Manipur by way of Cachar and in 1862 the game was played in the Punjab. There have been twelve varieties of the game during its existence of at least 2000 years. (1) A primitive form consisting of feats of horsemanship and of skill with stick and ball. (2) Early Persian, described in Shahnama, a highly organized game with rules, played four a side. (3) Later Persian, 16th century, the grounds 300 by 1 70 yds. Sir Anthony Shirley says the game resembled the rough football of the same period in England. (4) The game in the 17th century in Persia. A more highly organized game than No. 3, as described by Chardin. (5) The Byzantine form played at Constantinople in the 12th century. A leathern ball the size of an apple and a racquet were used. (6) The Chinese game, about a.d. 600 played with a light wooden ball. The goal was formed by two posts with a boarding between, in the latter a hole being cut and a net attached to it in the form of a bag. The side which hit the ball into the bag were the winners. Another Chinese form was two teams ranged on opposite sides of the ground, each defending its own goal. The object of the game was to drive the ball through the enemy's goal. (7) The Japanese game, popular in feudal times, still survives under the name of Dakiu, or ball match. The Japanese game has a boarded goal; 5 ft. from the ground is a circular hole 1 ft. 2 in. in diameter with a bag behind. The balls are of. paper with a cover of pebbles or bamboo fibre, diameter 1-7 in., weight i\ oz. The sticks are racket shaped. The object is to lift over or carry the ball with the racket and place it in the bag. (8) Called rol, played with a long stick with which the ball was dribbled along the ground. (9) Another ancient Indian form in which the sides ranged up on opposite sides of the ground and the ball was thrown in. This is probably the form of the game which reached India from Persia and is represented at the present day by Manipur and Gilgit polo, though these forms are probably rougher than the old Indian game. (10) Modern English with heavy ball and sticks, played in England and the colonies and wherever polo is played in Europe. Its characteristics are: offside; severe penalties for breach of the rules; close combination; rather short parsing; low scoring, and a strong defence, (n) Indian polo has a lighter ball, no boards to the grounds, which are usually full-sized; a modified offside-rule, but the same system of penalties. ~It is a quicker game than the English. (12) The American game has no offside and no penalties, in the English sense. The attack is stronger, the passing longer, the pace greater and more sustained. American players are more certain goal-hitters and their scoring is higher. They defeated the English players in 1909 with ease. Polo was first played in England by the 10th Hussars in 1869. The game spread rapidly and some good play was seen at Lillie Bridge. But the organization of polo in England dates from its adoption by the Hurlingham Club in 1873. The ground was boarded along the sides, and this device, which was employed as a remedy for the irregular shape of the Hurlingham ground has become almost universal and has greatly affected the develop- ment of the game. The club committee, in 1874, drew up the first code of rules, which reduced the number of players to five a side and included offside. The next step was the foundation of the Champion Cup, in 1877. Then came the rule dividing the game into periods of ten minutes, with intervals of two minutes for changing ponies after each period, and five minutes at half- time. The height of ponies was fixed at 14-2, and a little later an official measurer was appointed, no pony being allowed to play unless registered at Hurlingham. The next change was the present scale of penalties for offside, foul riding or dangerous play. A short time after, the crooking of the adversary's stick, unless in the act of hitting the ball, was forbidden. The game grew faster, partly as the result of these rules. Then the ten minutes' rule was revised. The period did not close until the ball went over the boundary. Thus the period might be ex- tended to twelve or thirteen minutes, and although this time was deducted from the next period the strain of the extra minutes was too great on men and ponies. It was therefore laid down that the ball should go out of play on going out of bounds or striking the board, whichever happened first. In 1910 a polo handicap was established, based on the American system of estimating the number of goals a player was worth to his side. This was modified in the English handicap by assigning to each player a handicap number as at golf. The highest number is ten, the lowest one. The Hurlingham handicap is revised during the winter, again in May, June and July, each handicap coming into force one month after the date of issue. In tournaments under handicap the individual handicap numbers are added together, and the team with the higher aggregate concedes goals to that with the lower, according to the con- ditions of the to„urnament. The handicap serves to divide second from first class tournaments, for the former teams must not have an aggregate over 25. The size of the polo ground is 300 yds. in length and from 160 to 200 yds. in width. The larger size is only found now where boards are not used. The ball is made of willow root, is 3 J in. in diameter, weight not over 5! oz. The polo stick has no standard size or weight, and square or cigar-shaped heads are used at the discretion of the player. On soft grounds, the former, on hard grounds the latter are the better, but Indian and American players nearly always prefer the cigar shape. The goal posts, now generally made of papier mache, are 8 yds. apart. This is the goal line. Thirty yards from the goal line a line is marked out, nearer than which to the goal no one of a fouled side may be when the side fouling has to hit out, as a penalty from behind the back line, which is the goal line produced. At 50 yds. from each goal there is generally a mark to guide the man who takes a free hit as a penalty. Penalties are awarded by the umpires, who should be two in number', well mounted, and with a good knowledge of the rules of the game. The Hurlingham and Ranelagh clubs appoint official umpires. There should also be a referee in case of disagreement between the umpires, and it is usual to have a man with a flag behind each goal to signal when a goal is scored. The Hurlingham club makes and revises the rules of the.game, and its code is, with some local modifications, in force in the United Kingdom, English-speaking colonies, the Argentine Republic, California, and throughout Europe. America and India are governed by their own polo associations. The American rules have no offside, and their penalties consist of subtracting a goal or the fraction of a goal, according to the offence, from the side which has incurred a penalty for fouling. The differences between the Hurlingham and Indian rules 12 POLONAISE— POLONNARUWA are very slight, and they tend to assimilate more as time goes on. Polo in the army is governed by an army polo committee, which fixes the date of the inter-regimental tournament. The semi-finals and finals are played at Hurlingham. The earlier ties take place at centres arranged by the army polo committee, who are charged by the military authorities with the duty of checking the expenditure of officers on the game. The value of polo as a military exercise is now fully recognized, and with the co-operation of Hurlingham, Ranelagh and Roehampton the expenses of inter-regimental tournaments have been regulated and restrained. The County Polo Association has affiliated to it all the county clubs. It is a powerful body, arranging the conditions of county tournaments, constructing the handicaps for county players, and in conjunction with the Ranelagh club holding a polo week for county players in London. The London clubs are three — Hurlingham, Ranelagh and Roehampton. Except that they use Hurlingham rules the clubs are independent, and arrange the con- ditions and fix the dates of their own tournaments. Ranelagh has four, Roehampton three and Hurlingham two polo grounds. There are about 400 matches played at these clubs, besides members' games from May to July during the London season. At present the Meadowbrook still hold the cup which was won later- by an English team in 1886. In 1002 an American national team made an attempt to recover it and failed. Polo. They lacked ponies and combination; but they bought the first and learned the second, and tried again successfully in 1909, thus depriving English polo of the championship of the world. Polo in England has passed through several stages. It was always a game of skill. The cavalry regiments in India in early The Game. P°'° days, the 5th, 9th, 12th and 17th Lancers, the 10th Hussars and the 13th Hussars, had all learned the value of combination. In very early days regimental players had learned the value of the backhanded stroke, placing the ball so as to give opportunities to their own side. The duty of support- ing the other members of the team and riding off opponents so as to clear the way for players on the same side was understood. This combination was made . easier when the teams -were reduced from five a side to four. Great stress was laid on each man keeping his place, but a more flexible style of play existed from early days in the 17 th Lancers and was improved and perfected at the Rugby Club by the late Colonel Gordon Renton and Captain E. D. Miller, who had belonged to that regiment. For a long time the Rugby style of play, with its close combination, short passes and steady defence, was the model on which other teams formed themselves. The secret of the success of Rugby was the close and unselfish combination and the hard work done by every member of the team. After the American victories of 1909 a bolder, harder hitting style was adopted, and the work of the forwards became more important, and longer passes are now the rule. But the main principles are the same. The forwards lead the attack and are supported by the half-back and back when playing towards the adversaries' goal. In defence the forwards hamper the opposing No. 3 and No. 4 and endeavour to clear the way for their own No. 3 and No. 4, who are trying not merely to keep the ball out of their own goal but to turn defence into attack*. Each individual player must be a good horseman, able to make a pony gallop, must have a control of the ball, hitting hard and clean and in the direction he wishes it to go. He must keep his eye on the ball and yet know where the goal-posts are, must be careful not to incur penalties and quick to take advantage of an opportunity. Polo gives no time for second thoughts. A polo player must not be in a hurry, but he must never be slow nor dwell on his stroke. He must be able to hit when galloping his best pace on to the ball and able to use the speed of his pony in order to get pace. He must be able to hit a backhander or to meet a ball coming to him, as the tactics of the game require. Polo has given rise to a new type of horse, an animal of 14 hands 2 in. with the power of a hunter, the courage of a racehorse and the docility of a pony. At first the ponies were small, but now each pony must pass the Hurlingham official measurer and be entered on the register. The English The Polo system of measurement is the fairest and most Pony. humane possible. The pony stripped of his clothing is led by an attendant, not his own groom, into a box with a perfectly level floor and shut off from every distraction. A veterinary surgeon examines to see that the pony is neither drugged nor in any way improperly prepared. The pony is allowed to stand easily, and a measuring standard with a spirit-level is then placed on the highest point of the wither, and if the pony measures 14-2 and is five years old it is registered for life. Ponies are of many breeds. There are Arabs, Argentines, Americans, Irish and English ponies, the last two being the best. The Polo and Riding Pony Society, with headquarters at 12 Hanover Square, looks after the interests of the English and Irish pony and encourages their breeders. The English ponies are now bred largely for the game and are a blend of thoroughbred blood (the best are always the race-winning strains) or Arab and of the English native pony. Authorities. — Polo in England: J. Moray Brown, Riding and Polo, Badminton Library, revised and brought up to date by T. F. Dale (Longmans, 1899) ; Captain Younghusband, Polo in India, (n.d.); J. Moray Brown, Polo (Vinton, 1896); T. F. Dale, The Game of Polo (A. Constable & Co., 1897) ; Captain Younghusband, Tourna- ment Polo (1897); Captain de Lisle, Durham Light Infantry, Hints to Polo Players in India (1897); T. B. Drybrough, Polo (Vinton, 1898; revised, Longmans, 1906); Captain E. D. Miller, Modem Polo (1903); H. L. Fitzpatrick, Equestrian Polo, in Spalding's Athletic Library (1904); Major G. J. Younghusband, Tournament Polo (1904); T. F. Dale " Polo, Past and Present," Country Life; Walter Buckmaster, " Hints on Polo Combination," Library of Sport (George Newnes Ltd., 1905 ; Vinton & Co., 1909) ; Hurlingham Club, Rules of Polo, Register of Ponies; Polo and Riding Pony Society Stud Booh (12 vols., 12 Hanover Square). Annuals: American Polo Association, 143 Liberty Street, New York; Indian Polo Association, Lucknow, N. P.; Captain E. D. Miller, D.S.O., The Polo Players' Guide and Almanack ; The Polo Annual, ed. by L. V. L. Simmonds. Monthlies: Bailey's Magazine (Vinton & Co.); The Polo Monthly (Craven House, Kingsway, London). Polo in Persia; Firdousi's Shahnama, translated as Le Lime des rois by J. Mohl, with notes and coram.; Sir Anthony Shirley, Travels in Persia (1569); Sir John Chardin, Voyages en Perse (1686), ed. aug. de notes, &c. par L. Langles, 1811 ; Sir William Ouseley, Travels in Various Countries of the East, particularly Persia (1810). There are many allusions to polo in the poets, notably Nizami, Jami and Omar Khayyam. Polo in Constantinople: Cinnamus Joannes epitome rerum.ab loanne et Alexio Commenis gest. (Bonn, 1836). Polo in India: Ain-i-Akbari (1555); G. F. Vigne, Travels in Kashmir (Ladakh and Iskardo, 1842); Colonel Algernon Durand, The Making of a Frontier (1899). Polo in Gilgit and Chitral: " Polo in Baltistan." The Field (1888); Polo in Manipur, Captain McCulloch, Manipuri% and the Adjacent Tribes (1859). (T. F. D.) POLONAISE {i.e. Polish, in French), a stately ceremonious dance, usually written in \ time. As a form of musical com- position it has been employed by such composers as Bach, Handel, Beethoven, and above all by Chopin. It is usual to date the origin of the dance from the election (1573) of Henry duke of Anjou, afterwards Henry III. of France, to the throne of Poland. The ladies of the Polish nobility passed in cere- monial procession before him at Cracow to the sound of stately music. This procession of music became the regular opening ceremony at royal functions, and developed into the dance. The term is also given to a form of skirted bodice, which has been fashionable for ladies at different periods. POLONNARUWA, a ruined city and ancient capital of Ceylon. It first became a royal residence in a.d. 368, when the lake of Topawewa was formed, and succeeded Anuradhapura as the capital in the middle of the 8th century. The principal ruins date chiefly from the time of Prakrama Bahu (a.d. 1153- 11 86). The most imposing pile remaining is the Jetawa- narama temple, a building 170 ft. in length, with walls about 80 ft. high and 12 ft. thick. The city is now entirely deserted, and, as in the case of Anuradhapura, its ruins have only recently been rescued from the jungle. POLOTSK— POLTAVA 13 POLOTSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Vitebsk, at the confluence of the Polota with the Dvina, 62 m. by rail N.W. of the town of Vitebsk. Pop. 20,751. Owing to the continuous wars, of which, from its position on the line of communication between central Russia and the west it was for many centuries the scene, scarcely any of its remarkable anti- quities remain. The upper castle, which stood at the confluence of the rivers and had a stone wall with seven towers, is in ruins, as is the lower castle formerly enclosed with strong walls and connected with the upper castle by a bridge. The cathedral of St Sophia in the upper castle, built in the 12th century, fell to ruins in the 18th century, whereupon the United Greek bishop substituted a modern structure. Upwards of two-thirds of the inhabitants are Jews ; the remainder have belonged mostly to the Orthodox Greek Church since 1839, when they were compelled to abandon the United Greek Church. Flax, linseed, corn and timber are the leading articles of commerce. Polotesk or Poltesk is mentioned in 862 as one of the towns given by the Scandinavian Rurik to his men. In 980 it had a prince of its own, Ragvald (Rogvolod or Rognvald), whose daughter is the subject of many legends. It remained an independent principality until the 12th century, resisting the repeated attacks of the princes of Kiev; those of Pskov, Lithu- ania, and the Livonian Knights, however, proved more effective," and Polotsk fell under Lithuanian rule in 1320. About 1385 its independence was destroyed by the Lithuanian prince Vitovt. It was five times besieged by Moscow in 1500-18, and was taken by Ivan the Terrible in 1563. Recaptured by Stephen Bathory, king of Poland, sixteen years later, it became Polish by the treaty of 1582. It was then a large and populous city, and carried on an active commerce. Pestilences and conflagrations were its ruin; the plague of 1566 wrought great havoc among its inhabitants, and that of 1600 destroyed 15,000. The castles, the town and its walls were burned in 1607 and 1642. The Russians continued their attacks, burning and plundering the town, and twice, in 1633 and 1705, taking possession of it for a few years. It was not definitely annexed, however, to Russia until 1772, after the first dismemberment of Poland. In 181 2 its inhabitants resisted the French invasion, and the town was partially destroyed. POLTAVA, a government of south-western Russia, bounded by the government of Chernigov on the N., Kharkov on the E-, Ekaterinoslav and Kherson on the S., and Kiev on the W., and having an area of 19,260 sq. m. Its surface is an undulating plain 500 to 600 ft. above sea-level, with a few elevations reach- ing £70 ft. in the north, and gently sloping to 300 and 400 ft. in the south-west. Owing to the deep excavations of the rivers, their banks, especially those on the right, have the aspect of hilly tracts, while low plains stretch to the left. Almost the whole of the surface consists of Tertiary deposits; Cretaceous rocks appear in the north-east, at the bottom of the deeper ravines. The government touches the granitic region of the Dnieper only in the south, below Kremenchug. Limestone with dolerite veins occurs in the isolated hill of Isachek, which rises above the marshes of the Sula. The whole is covered with a layer, 20 to 60 ft. thick, of boulder clay, which again is often mantled with a thick sheet of loess. Sandstone (sometimes suitable for grindstones) and limestone are quarried, and a few beds of gypsum and peat-bog are known within the government. With the exception of some sandy tracts, the soil is on the whole very fertile. Poltava is drained by the Dnieper", which flows along its border, navigable throughout, and by its tributaries the Sula, Psiol, Vorskla, Orel, Trubezh, and several others, none of them navigable, although their courses vary from 150 to 270 m. each in length. Even those which used to be navigated within the historical period, such as the Trubezh and Supoi, are now drying up, while the others are being partially trans- formed into marshes. Deep sand-beds intersected by number- less ravines and old arms of the river stretch along the left bank of the Dnieper, where accordingly the settlements are few. Only 5% of the total area is under forest; timber, wooden wares, and pitch are imported. The estimated population in 1906 was 3,312,400. The great majority are Little Russians.' Agriculture is the principal pursuit, 60% of the total area being arable land. The crops chiefly grown are wheat, rye and oats; the sunflower is largely cultivated, especially for oil, and the growing of tobacco, always important, has made a great advance. Kitchen gardening, the cultivation of the plum, and the preparation of preserved fruits are important branches of industry. At Lubny, where an apothecaries' garden is maintained by the Crown, the col- lection and cultivation of medicinal plants are a speciality. The main source of wealth in Poltava always has been, and still is, its live-stock breeding — horses, cattle, sheep, pigs. Some of the wealthier landowners and many peasants rear finer breeds of horses. The land is chiefly owned by the peasants, who possess 52% of the cultivable area; 42% belongs to private persons, and the remainder to the Crown, the clergy, and the municipalities. Among the manufactures distilleries hold the leading place, after which come flour-mills, tobacco factories, machine-making, tanneries, saw-mills, sugar-works and woollen manufactures. In the villages and towns several domestic trades are carried on, such as the preparation of sheepskins, plain woollen cloth, leather, boots and pottery. The fair of Poltava is of great importance for the whole woollen trade of Russia, and leather, cattle, horses, coarse woollen cloth, skins, and various domestic wares are exchanged for manufactures imported from Great Russia. The value of merchandise brought to the fair averages over £2,500,000. Several other fairs, the aggregate returns for which reach more than one-half of the above, are held at Romny (tobacco), Kremenchug (timber, corn, tallow and salt), and Kobelyaki (sheepskins). Corn is exported to a considerable extent to the west and to Odessa, as also saltpetre, spirits, wool, tallow, skins and woollen cloth. The Dnieper is the principal artery for the exports and for the import — timber. The chief river-ports are Kremenchug and Poltava. Steamers ply between Kiev and Ekaterinoslav; but the navigation is hampered by want of water and becomes active only in the south. Traffic mostly follows the railway. Poltava is divided into fifteen districts, of which the chief towns are Poltava, Gadyach, Khorol, , Kobelyaki, Konstantinograd, Kremenchug, Lokhvitsa, Lubny, Mirgorod, Pereyaslavl, Piryatin, Priluki, Romny, Zenkov and Zolotonosha. History. — At the dawn of Russian history the region now occupied by Poltava was inhabited by the Slav tribe of the Syeveryanes. As early as 988 the Russians erected several towns on the Sula and the Trubezh for their protection against the Turkish Petchenegs and Polovtsi, who held the south- eastern steppes. Population extended, and the towns of Pereyaslavl, Lubny, Priluki, Piryatin, Romny, begin to be mentioned in the nth and 12th centuries. The Mongol invasion of 1239-42 destroyed most of them, and for two centuries afterwards they disappear from Russian annals. About 133 1 Gedimin, prince of Lithuania, annexed the so-called " Syeversk towns " and on the recognition of the union of Lithuania with Poland they were included in the united kingdom along with the remainder of Little Russia. In 1476 a separate principality of Kiev under Polish rule and Polish institutions was formed out of Little Russia, and remained so until the rising of the Cossack chief Bogdan Chmielnicki in 1654. By the Andrussowo Treaty, the left bank of the Dnieper being ceded to Russia, Poltava became part of the dominions of the Zaporogian Cossacks, and was divided into " regiments," six of which (Poltava, Pereyaslavl, Priluki, Gadyach, Lubny and Mirgorod) lay within the limits of the present government. They lost their independence in 1764. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) POLTAVA, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the same name, on the right bank of the Vorskla, 88 m. by rail W.S.W. of Kharkov. Pop. 53,060. The town is built on a plateau which descends by steep slopes on nearly every side. Several suburbs, inhabited by Cossacks, whose houses are buried amid gardens, and a German colony, surround the town. The oldest buildings are a monastery, erected in 1650, and a wooden H POLTERGEIST church visited by Peter the Great after the battle of Poltava. There are a military school for cadets, a theological seminary and two girls' colleges; also flour-mills, tobacco works and a tannery. Poltava is mentioned in Russian annals in 1174, under the name of Ltava, but does not again appear in history until 1430, when, together with Glinsk, it was given by Gedimin, prince of Lithuania, to the Tatar prince Leksada. Under the Cossack chief, Bogdan Chmielnicki, it was the chief town of the Poltava " regiment." Peter the Great of Russia defeated Charles XII. of Sweden in the immediate neighbourhood on the 27th of June 1 709, and the victory is commemorated by a column over 50 ft. in height. POLTERGEIST (Ger. for " racketing spirit "), the term applied to certain phenomena of an unexplained nature, such as movements of objects without any traceable cause, and noises equally untraced to their source; but in some cases exhibiting intelligence, as when raps answer a question by a code. In the word Poltergeist, the phenomena are attributed to the action of a Geist, or spirit: of old the popular explanation of all residuary phenomena. The hypothesis, in consequence of the diffusion of education, has been superseded by that of "electricity"; while sceptics in all ages and countries have accounted for all the phenomena by the theory of imposture. The last is at least a vera causa: imposture has often been detected; but it is not so certain that this theory accounts for all the circumstances. To the student of human nature the most interesting point in the character of poltergeist phenomena 'is their appearance in the earliest known stages of culture, their wide diffusion, and their astonishing uniformity. Almost all the beliefs usually styled " superstitious " are of early occurrence and of wide diffusion: the lowest savages believe in ghosts of the dead and in wraiths of the living. Such beliefs when found thriving in our own civilization might be explained as mere survivals from savagery, memories of all " The superstitions idle-headed eld Received and did deliver to our age." But wc have not to deal only with a belief that certain apparently impossible things may occur and have occurred in the past. We are met by the evidence of sane and credible witnesses, often highly educated, who maintain that they themselves have heard and beheld the unexplained sounds and sights. It appears, therefore, that in considering the phenomena of the poltergeist we are engaged with facts of one sort or another; facts produced either by skilled imposture, or resting on hallucinations of the witnesses; or on a mixture of fraud and of hallucination caused by " suggestion." There remains the chance that some agency of an unexplored nature is, at least in certain cases, actually at work. A volume would be needed if we were to attempt to chronicle the phenomena of the poltergeist as believed in by savages and in ancient and medieval times. But among savages they are usually associated with the dead, or with the medicine-men of the tribes. These personages are professional " mediums," and like the mediums of Europe and America, may be said to have do- mesticated the poltergeist. At their seances, savage or civilized, the phenomena are reported to occur — such as rappings and other noises, loud or low, and " movements of objects without physical contact." (See, for a brief account, A. Lang, Cock Lane and Common Sense, " Savage Spiritualism "; and see the Jesuit Lettres Sdifiantes, North America, 1620-1770, and Kohl's Kitchi Garni.) But :l induced phenomena," where professional mediums and professional medical men are the agents, need not here be considered. The evidence, unless in the case of Sir William Crookes's experiments with Daniel Dunglas Home, is generally worthless, and the laborious investigations of the Society for Psychical Research resulted only in the detection of fraud as far as " physical " manifestations by paid mediums were concerned. The spontaneous poltergeist, where, at least, no professional is present, and no seance is being held, is much more curious and interesting than the simple tricks played in the dark by impudent charlatans. The phenomena are identical, as reported, literally " from China to Peru." The Cieza de Leon (1549) tells us that the cacique of Pirza, in Popyan, during his conversion to Christianity, was troubled by stones falling mysteriously through the air (the mysterious point was the question of whence they came, and what force urged them), while Chris- tians saw at his table a glass of liquor raised in the air, by no visible hand, put down empty, and replenished! Mr Denny s {Folk Lore of China, 1876, p. 79) speaks of a Chinese householder who was driven to take refuge in a temple by the usual phenomena — throwing about of crockery and sounds of heavy footfalls — after the decease of an aggrieved monkey. This is only one of several Chinese cases of poltergeist; and the phenomena are described in Jesuit narratives of the 18th century, from Cochin China. In these papers no explanation is suggested. There is a famous example in a nunnery, recorded (1528) by a notable witness, Adrien de Montalembert, almoner to Francis I. The agent was supposed to be the spirit of a sister recently deceased. Among multitudes of old cases, that of the " Drummer of Tedworth " (1662-1663; see Glanvil, Sadducismus iriumphatus, 1666); that at Rerrick, recorded by the Rev. Mr Telfer in 1695; that of the Wesley household (171 6- 171 7) chronicled in contemporary letters and diaries of the Wesley family (South ey's Life of John Wesley); that of Cideville (1851), from the records of the court which tried the law-suit arising out of the affair (Proc. Soc. Psychical Research, xviii. 454-463) ; and the Alresford case, attested by the great admiral, Lord St Vincent, are ' among the most remarkable. At Tedworth we have the evidence of Glanvil himself, though it does not amount to much; at Rerrick, Telfer was a good chronicler and gives most respectable signed vouchers for all the marvels: Samuel Wesley and his wife were people of sense, they were neither alarmed nor superstitious, merely puzzled; while the. court which tried the Cideville case, only decided that " the cause of the events remains unknown." At Alresford, in Hampshire, the phenomena attested by Lord St Vincent and his sister Mrs Ricketts, who occupied the house, were pecu- liarly strange and emphatic: the house was therefore pulled down. At Willington Mill, near Morpeth (183^1847), the phenomena are attested by the journal of Mr Procter, the occupant, a Quaker, a " tee-totaller," and a man of great resolution. He and his family endured unspeakable things for sixteen years, and could find no explanation of the sights and sounds, among which were phantasms of animals, as at Epworth, in the Wesley case. Of all these cases that of the Wesleys has attracted most critical attention. It was not, in itself, an extreme instance of poltergeist: at Alresford, at the close of the 18th century, and at Willington Mill in the middle of the 19th the disturbances were much more violent and persistent than at Epworth, while our evidence is, in all three examples, derived from the contem- porary narratives, letters and journals of educated persons. The Wesleys, however, were people so celebrated and so active in religion that many efforts have been made to explain their " old Jeffrey," as they called the disturbing agency. These attempts at explanation have been fruitless. The poet Coleridge, who said that he knew many cases, explained all by a theory of contagious epidemic hallucination of witnesses. Dr Salmon, of Trinity College, Dublin, set all down to imposture by Hetty Wesley, a vivacious girl (Fortnightly Review, 1866). The documents on which he relied, when closely studied, did not support his charges, for he made several important errors in dates, and on these his argument rested. F. Podmore, in several works (e.g. Studies in Psychical Research), adopted a theory of exaggerative memory in the narrators, as one element, with a dose of imposture and of hallucination begotten of excited expectation. The Wesley letters and journals, written from day to day, do not permit of exaggerative memory, and when the records of 17.16-1717 are compared with the remini- scences collected from his family by John Wesley in 1726, the discrepancies are seen to be only such as occur in all human POLTERGEIST 15 evidence about any sort of events, remote by nine or ten years. Thus, in 1726, Mrs Wesley mentioned a visionary badger seen by her. She did not write about it to her son Samuel in 1717, but her husband and her daughter did then describe it to Samuel, as an experience of his mother at that date. The whole family, in 1717, became familiar with the phenomena, and were tired of them and of Samuel's questions. (Mr Podmore's arguments are to be found in the Journal of the Studies of Psychical Research, ix. 40-45. Some dates are mis- printed.) The theory of hallucination cannot account for the uniformity of statements, in many countries and at many dates, to the effect that the objects mysteriously set in motion moved in soft curves and swerves, or " wobbled." Suppose that an adroit impostor is throwing them, suppose that the spectators are excited, why should their excitement every- where produce a uniform hallucination as to the mode of motion? It is better to confess ignorance, and remain in doubt, than to invent such theories. A modern instance may be analysed, as the evidence was given contemporaneously with the events (Podmore, Proc. Soc. Psychical Research, xii. 45-58: "Poltergeists"). On the 20th or 21st of February 1883 a Mrs White, in a cottage at Worksop, was " washing up the tea-things at the table," with two of her children in the room, when " the table tilted up at a considerable angle," to her amazement. On the 26th of February, Mr White being from home, Mrs White extended hospitality to a girl, Eliza Rose, " the child of an imbecile mother." Eliza is later described as " half-witted," but no proof of this is given. On the 1st of March, White being from home, at about- 11.30 p.m. a number of things " which had been in the kitchen a few minutes before " came tumbling down the kitchen stairs. Only Mrs White and Eliza Rose were then in the kitchen. Later some hot coals made an invasion. On the following night, White being at home in the kitchen, with his wife and Eliza, a miscellaneous throng of objects came in, Mr White made vain research upstairs, where was his brother Tom. On his return to the kitchen " a little china woman left the mantelpiece and flew into the corner." Being replaced, it repeated its flight, and was broken. White sent his brother to fetch a doctor; there also came a policeman, named Higgs; and the doctor and policeman saw, among other things, a basin and cream jug rise up automatically, fall on the floor and break. Next morning, a clock which had been silent for eighteen months struck; a crash was heard, and the clock was found to have leapt over a bed and fallen on the floor. All day many things kept flying about and breaking themselves, and Mr White sent Miss Rose about her business. Peace ensued. Mr Podmore, who visited the scene on the 7th and 8th of April and collected depositions, says (writing in 1883): "It may be stated generally that there was no. possibility, in most cases, of the objects having been thrown by hand. . . . More- over it is hard to conceive by what mechanical appliances, under the circumstances described, the movements could have been effected. ... To suppose that these various objects were all moved by mechanical contrivances argues incredible stupidity, amounting almost to imbecility, on the part of all the persons present who were not in the plot," whereas Higgs, Dr Lloyd and a miner named Curass, all " certainly not wanting in intelligence," examined the objects and could find no explana- tion. White attested that fresh invasions of the kitchen by inanimate objects occurred as Eliza was picking up the earlier arrivals; and he saw a salt-cellar fly from the table while Eliza was in another part of the room. The amount of things broken was valued by White at £9. No one was in the room when the clock struck and fell. Higgs saw White shut the cupboard doors, they instantly burst open, and a large glass jar flew into the yard and broke. " The jar could not go in a straight line from the cupboard out of the door; but it certainly did go " (Higgs). The depositions were signed by the witnesses (April 1883). In 1806, Mr Podmore, after thirteen years of experience in examining reports of the poltergeist, produced his explana- tions. (1) The witnesses, though " honest and fairly intelli- gent," were " imperfectly educated, not skilled in accurate observation of any kind." (They described, like many others, in many lands, the " wobbling " movement of objects in flight.) (2) Mr Podmore took the evidence five weeks after date; there was time for exaggerated memories. (Mr Podmore did not consult, it seems, the contemporary evidence of Higgs in the Retford and Gainsborough Times, 9th of March 1883. On examination it proves to tally as precisely as possible with the testimonies which he gave to Mr Podmore, except that in March he mentioned one or two miracles which he omitted five weeks later! The evidence is published in Lang's The Making of Religion, 1898, p. 356.) (3) In the evidence given to Mr Podmore five weeks after date, there are discrepancies between Higgs and White as to the sequence of some events, and as to whether one Coulter was present when the clock fell: he asserts, Higgs and White deny it . (There is never evidence of several witnesses, five weeks after an event, without such discrepancies. If there were, the evidence would be suspected as " cooked." Higgs in April gave the same version as in March.) (4) As there are discrepancies, the statements that Eliza was not always present at the abnormal occurrences may be erroneous. " It is perhaps not unreasonable to conjecture that Eliza Rose herself, as the instrument of mysterious agencies, or simply as a half- witted girl gifted with abnormal cunning and love of mischief, may have been directly responsible for all that took place." (How, if, as we have seen, the theory of mechanical appliances is abandoned, " under the circumstances described " ? We need to assume that all the circumstances are wrongly described. Yet events did occur, the breakages were lamentable, and we ask how could the most half-witted of girls damage so much property undetected, under the eyes of the owner, a policeman, a medical practitioner and others? How could she throw things from above into the room where she was picking up the things as they arrived? Or is that a misdescription? No evidence of Eliza's half-wittedness and abnormal cunning is adduced. If we call her "the instrument of mysterious agencies," the name of these agencies is — poltergeist! No later attempt to find and examine the abnormal girl is recorded.) The explanations are not ideally satisfactory, but they are the result, in Mr Podmore's mind, of examination of several later cases of poltergeist. 1 In one a girl, carefully observed, was detected throwing things, and evidence that the phenomena occurred, in her absence, at another place and time, is discounted. In several other cases, exaggerations of memory, malobservation and trickery combined, are the explanations, and the conclu- sion is that there is " strong ground " for believing in trickery as the true explanation of all these eleven cases, including the Worksop affair. Mr Podmore asserts that, at Worksop, " the witnesses did not give their testimony until some weeks after the event." That is an erroneous statement as far as Higgs goes, the result apparently of malobservation of the local news- paper. More or less of the evidence was printed in the week when the events occurred. Something more than unconscious exaggeration, or malobservation, seems needed to explain the amazing statements made by Mr Newman, a gamekeeper of Lord Portman, on the 23rd of January 1895, at Durmeston in another case. Among other things, he said that on the 18th of December 1894, a boot flew out of a door. " I went and put my foot on the boot and said ' I defy anything to move this boot.' Just as I stepped off, it rose up behind me and knocked my hat off. There was nobody behind me." Gamekeepers are acute observers, and if the narrative be untrue, malobservation or defect of memory does not explain the fact. In this case, at Durmeston, the rector, Mr Anderson, gave an account of 1 The present writer criticized Mr Podmore's explanation in The Making of Religion. Mr Podmore replied (Proc. Soc. Psychical Research, xiv. 133, 136), pointing out an error in the critic's presentation of his meaning. He, in turn, said that the writer " champions the supernormal interpretation," which is not exact, as the writer has no theory on the subject, though he is not satisfied that " a naughty little girl " is a uniformly successful solution of the poltergeist problem. i6 POLTERGEIST some of the minor phenomena. He could not explain them, and gave the best character to the Nonconformist mother of the child with whom the events were associated. No trickery- was discovered. The phenomena are frequently connected with a person, often a child, suffering from nervous malady or recent nervous shock. No such person appears in the Alresford, Willington, Epworth and Tedworth cases, and it is not stated that Eliza Rose at Worksop was subjected to a medical examination. In a curious case, given by Mrs Crewe, in The Night Side of Nature, the young person was the daughter of a Captain Molesworth. Her own health was bad, and she had been depressed by the death of a sister. Captain Molesworth occupied a semi-detached villa at Trinity, near Edinburgh; his landlord lived next door. The phenomena set in: the captain bored holes in the wall to discover a cause in trickery, and his landlord brought a suit against him in the sheriff's court at Edinburgh. The papers are preserved, but the writer found that to discover them would be a herculean labour. He saw, how- ever, a number of documents in the office of a firm of solicitors employed in the case. They proved the fact of the lawsuit but threw no other light on the matter. We often find that the phenomena occur after a nervous shock to the person who may be called the medium. The shock is frequently consequent on a threat from a supposed witch or wizard. This was the case at Cideville in 1850-1851. (See an abstract of the documents of the trial, Proceedings S.P.R. xviii. 454-463. The entire report was sent to the writer.) In 1901 there was a case at Great Grimsby; the usual flying of stones and other objects occurred. The woman of the house had been threatened by a witch, after that the poltergeist developed. No explanation was forthcoming. In Proc. S.P.R. xvii. 320 the Rev. Mr Deanley gives a curious parallel case with detection of imposture. In Miss O'Neal's Devonshire Idylls is an excellent account of the phenomena which occurred after a Devonshire girl of the best character, well known to Miss O'Neal, had been threatened by a witch. In the famous instance of Christian Shaw of Bargarran (1697) the child had been thrice formally cursed by a woman, who prayed to God that her soul " might be hurled through hell." Christian fell into a state which puzzled the medical faculty (especially when she floated in the air), and doubtless she herself caused, in an hysterical state, many phenomena which, however, were not precisely poltergeistish. A very marked set of phenomena, in the way of movements of objects, recently occurred in the Hudson Bay territory, after a half-breed girl had received a nervous shock from a flash of lightning that struck near her. Heavy weights automatically " tobogganed," as Red Indian spectators said, and there were the usual rappings in tent and wigwam. If we accept trickery as the sufficient explanation, the uniformity of tricks played by hysterical patients is very singular. Still more singular is a long series, continued through several years, of the same occurrences where no hysterical patient is known to exist. In a very curious example, a carpenter's shop being the scene, there was concerned nobody of an hysterical temperament, no young boy or girl, and there was no explanation (Proc. S.P.R. vii- 383-394). The events went on during six weeks. An excellent case of hysterical fraud by a girl in France is given by Dr Grasset, professor of clinical medicine at Montpellier (Proc. S.P.R. xviii. 464-480). But in this instance, though things were found in unusual places, nobody over eight years old saw them flying about; yet all concerned were deeply superstitious. On the whole, while fraud, especially hysterical fraud, is a vera causa in some cases of poltergeist, it is not certain that the explanation fits all cases, and it is certain that detection of fraud has often been falsely asserted, as at Tedworth and Willington. No good chronic case, as at Alresford, Epworth, Spraiton (Bovet's Pandaemonium), Willington, and in other classical instances, has been for months sedulously observed by sceptics. In short-lived cases, as at Worksop, science appears on the scene long enough after date to make the theory of exaggeration of memory plausible. If we ask science to explain how the more remarkable occurrences could be produced by a girl ex hypothese half-witted, the reply is that the occurrences never occurred, they were only " described as occurring " by untrained observers with " patent double magnifying " memo- ries; and with a capacity for being hallucinated in a uniform way all the world over. Yet great quantities of crockery and furniture were broken, before the eyes of observers, in a house near Ballarmina, in North Ireland, in January 1907. The experiment of exhibiting a girl who can break all the crockery without being detected, in the presence of a doctor and a policeman, and who can, at the same time, induce the spectators to believe that the flying objects waver, swerve and " wobble," has not been attempted. An obvious difficulty in the search for authentic information is the circumstance that the poor and imperfectly educated are much more numerous than the well-to-do and well educated. It is therefore certain that most of the disturbances will occur in the houses of the poor and ill educated, and that their evidence will be rejected as insufficient. When an excellent case occurs in a palace, and is reported by the margravine of Bayreuth, sister of Frederick the Great, in her Memoirs, the objection is that her narrative was written long after the events. When we have contemporary journals and letters, or sworn evidence, as in the affairs of Sir Philip Francis, Cideville and Willington, criticism can probably find some other good reasons for setting these testimonies aside. It is certain that the royal, the rich and the • well-educated observers tell, in many cases, precisely the same sort of stories about poltergeist phenomena as do the poor and the imperfectly instructed. On the theory that there exist " mysteribus agencies " which now and then produce the phenomena, we may ask what these agencies can possibly be? But no answer worthy of considera- tion has ever been given to this question. The usual reply is that some unknown but intelligent force is disengaged from the personality of the apparent medium. This apparent medium need not be present; he or she may be far away. The High- landers attribute many poltergeist phenomena, inexplicable noises, sounds of viewless feet that pass, and so forth, to tdradh, an influence exerted unconsciously by unduly strong wishes on the part of a person at a distance. The phrase falbh air fdrsaing (" going uncontrolled ") is also used (Campbell, Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Scottish Highlands, 1902, pp. 144-147). The present writer is well acquainted with cases attributed to tdradh, in a house where he has often been a guest. They excite no alarm, their cause being well understood. We may call this kind of thing telelhoryby, a racket produced from a distance. A very marked case in Illinois would have been attributed in the Highlands to the tdradh of the late owner of the house, a dipsomaniac in another state. On his death the disturbances ceased (first-hand evidence from the disturbed lady of the house, May 1907). It may be worth while to note that the phenomena are often regarded as death-warnings by popular belief. The early incidents at the Wesleys' house were thought to indicate the death of a kinsman; or to announce the approach- ing decease of Mr Wesley pere, who at first saw and heard nothing unusual. At Worksop the doctor was called in, because the phenomena were guessed to be " warnings " of the death of a sick child of the house. The writer has first-hand evidence from a lady and her son (afterwards a priest) of very singular movements of untouched objects in their presence, which did coincide with the death of a relation at a distance. Bibliography. — The literature of the subject is profuse, but scattered. For modern instances the Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research may be consulted, especially an essay by F. W. H. Myers, vii. 146-198, also iv. 29-38; with the essay by Podmore, already quoted. Books like Dale Owen's Footfalls on the. Boundary of Another World, and Fresnoy's Recueil des dis- sertations sur les apparitions, are stronger in the quantity of anec- dotes than in the quality of evidence. A. Lang's Book of Dreams and Ghosts, contains outlandish and Celtic examples, and Telfair's (Telfer's) A True Relation of an Apparition (1694-1696) shows un- usual regard for securing signed evidence. Kiesewetter's Geschichte des neueren Occultismus and Graham Dalyell's Darker Super- stitions of Scotland, with any collections of trials for witchcraft POLTROON— POLYANTHUS 17 may be consulted, and Bovet's Pandaemonium (1684) is very rich in cases. The literature of the famous drummer of Tedworth (March 1662-April 1663) begins with an abstract of the sworn deposition of Mr Mompesson, whose house was the scene of the dis- turbances. The abstract is in the Mercurius publicus of April 1663, the evidence was given in a court of justice on the 15th of April. There is also a ballad, a rhymed news-sheet of 1662 (Anthony Wood's Collection 401 (193), Bodleian Library). Pepys mentions " books " about the affair in his Diary for June 1663. Glanvil's first known version is in his Sadducismus triumphatus of 1666. The sworn evidence of Mompesson proves at least that he was disturbed in an intolerable manner, certainly beyond any means at the disposal of his two daughters, aged nine and eleven or there- abouts. The agent may have been the taradh of the drummer whom Mompesson offended. Glanvil in 1666 confused the dates, and, save for his own experiences, merely repeats the statements curient in 1662-1663. The ballad and Mompesson's deposition are given in Proc. S.P.R. xvii. 304-336, in a discussion between the writer and Mr Podmore. The dated and contemporary narrative of Procter in the Willington Mill case (1835- 1847), is printed in the Journ. S.P.R. (Dec. 1892), with some contemporary letters on the subject. Mr Procter endured the disturbances for sixteen years before he retreated from the place. There was no naughty little girl in the affair; no nervous or hysterical patient. The Celtic hypothesis of taradh, exercised by " the spirit of the living," includes visual apparitions, and many a so-called " ghost " of the dead may be merely the tiradh of a living person. (A. L.) POLTROON, a coward, a worthless rogue without courage or, spirit. The word comes through Fr. poltron from Ital. poltrone, an idle fellow, one who lolls in a bed or couch (Milanese palter, Venetian polirona, adapted from Ger. Polster, a pillow; cf. English " bolster"). The old guess that it was from Lat. pollice truncus, maimed in the thumb, and was first applied to those who avoided military service by self-mutilation, gave rise probably to the French application of poltron to a falcon whose talons were cut to prevent its attacking game. POLTROT, JEAN DE (c. 153 7-1 563), sieur de Mere or Merey, a nobleman of Angoumois, who murdered Francis, duke of Guise. He had lived some time in Spain, and his knowledge of Spanish, together with his swarthy complexion, which earned him the nickname of the " Espagnolet," procured him employment as a spy in the wars against Spain. Becoming a fanatical Huguenot, he determined to kill the duke of Guise, and gained admission as a deserter to the camp of the Catholics who were besieging Orleans. In the evening of the 18th of February 1563 he hid by the side of a road along which he knew the duke would pass, fired a pistol at him, and fled. But he was captured the next day, and was tried, tortured several times, and sentenced to be drawn and quartered. On the 18th of March 1563 he underwent a frightful punishment. The horses not being able to drag off his limbs, he was hacked to pieces with cutlasses. He had made several contradictory declarations regarding the complicity of Coligny. The admiral protested emphatically against the accusation, which appears to have had no foundation. See Memoires du prince de Conde (London, 1743) ; T. A. D'Aubign£, Histoire universelle (ed. by de Ruble, Soc. de Vhistoire de France, 1886) ; A. de Ruble, L'Assassinat du due Francois de Lorraine (Paris, 1897). POLYAENUS, a Macedonian, who lived at Rome as a rhetori- cian and pleader in the 2nd century a.d. When the Parthian War (162-5) broke out, Polyaenus, too old to share in the campaign, dedicated to the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus a work, still extant, called Strategica or Strategemata, a historical collection of stratagems and maxims of strategy written in Greek and strung together in the form of anecdotes. It is not strictly confined to warlike stratagems, but includes also examples of wisdom, courage and cunning drawn from civil and political life. The work is uncritically written, but is nevertheless important on account of the extracts it has preserved from histories now lost. It is divided into eight books (parts of the sixth and seventh are lost), and originally contained nine hundred anecdotes, of which eight hundred and thirty-three are extant. Polyaenus intended to write a history of the Parthian War, but there is no evidence that he did so. His works on Macedonia, on Thebes, and on tactics (perhaps identical with the Strategica) are lost. His Strategica seems to have been highly esteemed by the Roman emperors, and to have been handed down by them as a sort of heirloom. From Rome it passed to Constantinople; at the end of the 9th century it was diligently studied by Leo VI., who himself wrote a work on tactics; and in the middle of the loth century Constantine Porphyrogenitus mentioned it as one of the most valuable books in the imperial library. It was used by Stobaeus, Suidas, and the anonymous author of the work Ilepi InrioTuv (see Palaephatus). It is arranged as follows: bks. 1., ii., iii., strata- gems occurring in Greek history; bk. iv., stratagems of the Mace- donian kings and successors of Alexander the Great; bk. v., strata- gems occurring in the history of Sicily and the Greek islands and colonies; bk. vi., stratagems of a whole people (Carthaginians, Lacedaemonians, Argives), together with some individuals (Philopoemen, Pyrrhus, Hannibal) ; bk. vii., stratagems of the barbarians (Medes, Persians, Egyptians, Thracians, Scythians, Celts); bk. viii., stratagems of Romans and women. This dis- tribution is not, however, observed very strictly. Of the negligence or haste with which the work was written there are many instances : e.g. he confounds Dionysius the elder and Dionysius the younger, Mithradates satrap of Artaxerxes and Mithradates the Great, Scipio the elder and Scipio the younger, Perseus, king of Macedonia and Perseus the companion of Alexander; he mixes up the strata- gems of Caesar and Pompey; he brings into immediate connexion events which were totally distinct; he narrates some events twice over, with variations according to the different authors from whom he draws. Though he usually abridges, he occasionally amplifies arbitrarily the narratives of his authorities. He never mentions his authorities, but amongst authors still extant he used Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Polybius, Diodorus, Plutarch, Frontinus and Suetonius; amongst authors cf whom only fragments now remain he drew upon Ctesias, Ephorus, Timaeus, Phylarchus and Nicolaus Damascenus. His style is clear, but monotonous and inelegant. In the forms of his words he generally follows Attic usage. The best edition of the text is Wolfflin and Melber (Teubner Series, 1887, with bibliography and editio princeps of the Strate- gemata of the emperor Leo) ; annotated editions by Isaac Casaubon (1589) and A. Coraes (1809); I. Melber, Ueber die Quellen und Werth der Strategemensammlung Polydns (1885); Knott, De fide et fontibus Polyaeni (1883), who largely reduces the number of the authorities consulted by Polyaenus. Eng. trans, by R. Shepherd (1793)- POLYANDRY (Gr. iroXfe, many, and avqp, man), the system of marriage between one woman and several men, who are her husbands exclusively (see Family). The custom locally legal- izing the marriage of one woman to more than one husband at a time has been variously accounted for as the result of poverty and of life in unfertile lands, where it was essential to check popula- tion as the consequence of female infanticide, or, in the opinion of J. F. McLennan and L. H. Morgan, as a natural phase through which human progress has necessarily passed. Polyandry is to be carefully differentiated from communal marriage, where the woman is the property of any and every member of the tribe. Two distinct kinds of polyandry are practised: one, often called Nair, in which, as among the Nairs of India, the husbands are not related to each other; and the second, the Tibetan or fraternal polyandry, in which the woman is married to all the brothers of one family. Polyandry is practised by the tribes of Tibet, Kashmir and the Himalayan regions, by the Todas, Koorgs, Nairs and other peoples of India, in Ceylon, New Zealand, by some of the Australian aborigines, in parts of Africa, in the Aleutian archipelago, among the Koryaks and on the Orinoco. See McLennan's Primitive Marriage (London, 1885) ; Studies in Ancient History (London, 1886); "The Levirate and Polyandry," in The Fortnightly Review, new series, vol. xxi. (London, 1877) ; L. H. Moigan, System of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family (Washington, 1869); Lord Avebury, Origin of Civilization; E. Westermarck, History of Human Marriage. POLYANTHUS, one of the oldest of the florists' flowers, is probably derived from P. variabilis, itself a cross between the common primrose and the cowslip; it differs from the primrose in having the umbels of flowers carried up on a stalk. The florists' polyanthus has a golden margin, and is known as the gold-laced polyanthus, the properties being very distinctly laid down and rigidly adhered to. The chief of these are a clear, unshaded, blackish or reddish ground colour, an even margin or lacing of yellow extending round each segment and cutting through its centre down to the ground colour, and a yellow band surrounding the tube of exactly the same hue as the yellow of the lacing. The plants are quite hardy, and grow best in strong, loamy soil tolerably well enriched with well-decayed dung and leaf -mould; i8 POLYBIUS they should be planted about the end of September or not later than October. Plants for exhibition present a much better and cleaner appearance if kept during winter in a cold well-aired frame. For the flower borders what are called fancy polyanthuses are adopted. These are best raised annually from seed, the young crop each year blooming in succession. The seed should be sown as soon as ripe, the young plants being allowed to stand through the winter in the seed bed. In April or May they are planted out in a bed of rich garden soil, and they will bloom abundantly the following spring. A few of the better " thrum- eyed " sorts (those having the anthers in the eye, and the pistil sunk in the tube) should be allowed to ripen seed; the rest may be thrown away. In some remarkable forms which have been cultivated for centuries the ordinarily green calyx has become petaloid; when this is complete it forms the hose-in-hose prim- rose of gardeners. There are also a few well-known double- flowered varieties. POLYBIUS (c. 204-122 B.C.), Greek historian, was a native of Megalopolis in Arcadia, the youngest of Greek cities (Paus. viii. 9), which, however, played an honourable part in the last days of Greek freedom as a stanch member of the Achaean League (q.v.). His father, Lycortas, was the intimate friend of Philopoemen, and on the death of the latter, in 182, succeeded him as leader of the league. The date of Polybius's birth is doubtful. He tells us himself that in 181 he had not yet reached the age (? thirty years, Polyb. xxix. 9) at which an Achaean was legally capable of holding office (xxiv. 6). We learn from Cicero (Ad Fam. v. 12) that he outlived the Numantine War, which ended [in 132, and from Lucian [Macrob. 22) that he died at the age of eighty-two. The majority of authorities therefore place his birth between 214 and 204 B.C. Little is known of his early life. As the son of Lycortas he was naturally brought into close contact with the leading men of the Achaean League. With Philopoemen he seems to have been on intimate terms. After Philopoemen's tragic death in Messenia (182) he was entrusted with the honour- able duty of conveying home the urn in which his ashes had been deposited (Plut. Phil. 21). In 181, together with his father, Lycortas and the younger Aratus, he was appointed, in spite of his youth, a member of the embassy which was to visit Ptolemy Epiphanes, king of Egypt, a mission, however, which the sudden death of Ptolemy brought to a premature end (xxv. 7). The next twelve years of his life are a blank, but in 169 he reappears as a trusted adviser of the Achaeans at a difficult crisis in the history of the League. In 1 7 1 war had broken out between Rome and the Macedonian king Perseus, and the Achaean statesmen were divided as to the policy to be pursued; there were good reasons for fearing that the Roman senate would regard neu- trality as indicating a secret leaning towards Macedon. Polybius therefore declared for an open alliance with Rome, and his views were adopted. It was decided to send an Achaean force to co- operate with the Roman general, and Polybius was selected to command the cavalry. The Roman consul declined the proffered assistance, but Polybius accompanied him throughout the campaign, and thus gained his first insight into the military system of Rome. In the next year (168) both Lycortas and Polybius were on the point of starting at the head of 1200 Achaeans to take service in Egypt against the Syrians, when an intimation from the Roman commander that armed inter- ference was undesirable put a stop to the expedition (xxix. 23). The success of Rome in the war with Perseus was now assured. The final victory was rapidly followed by the arrival in Achaea of Roman commissioners charged with the duty of establishing Roman interests there. Polybius was arrested with 1000 of the principal Achaeans, but, while his companions were con- demned to a tedious incarceration in the country towns of Italy, he obtained permission to reside in Rome. This privilege he owed to the influence of L. Aemilius Paullus and his two sons, Scipio and Fabius (xxxii. 9). Polybius was received into Aemi- lius's house, and became the instructor of his sons. Between Scipio (P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus the younger), the future conqueror of Carthage ,and himself a friendship soon sprang up, which ripened into a lifelong intimacy, and was of inestimable service to him throughout his career. It protected him from interference, opened to him the highest circles of Roman society, and enabled him to acquire a personal influence with the leading men, which stood him in good stead when he afterwards came forward to mediate between his countrymen and Rome. It placed within his reach opportunities for a close study of Rome and the Romans such as had fallen to no historian before him, and secured him the requisite leisure for using them, while Scipio's liberality more than once supplied him with the means of conducting difficult and costly historical investigations (Pliny, N.H. v. 9). In 151 the few surviving exiles were allowed to return to Greece. But the stay of Polybius in Achaea was brief. The estimation in which he was held at Rome is clearly shown by the anxiety of the consul Marcus (or Manlius) Manilius (149) to take him as his adviser on his expedition against Carthage. Polybius started to join him, but broke off his journey at Corcyra on learning that the Carthaginians were inclined to yield (xxxvi. 3). But when, in 147, Scipio himself took the command in Africa, Polybius hastened to join him, and was an eye-witness of the siege and destruction of Carthage. During his absence in Africa the Achaeans had made a last desperate attempt to assert their independence of Rome. He returned in 146 to find Corinth in ruins, the fairest cities of Achaea at the mercy of the Roman soldiery, and the famous Achaean League shattered to pieces (see Achaean Leacue). All the influence he possessed was freely spent in endeavouring to shield his countrymen from the worst consequences of their rashness. The excesses of the soldiery were checked, and at his special intercession the statues of Aratus and Philopoemen were preserved (xxxix. 14). An even more difficult task was that entrusted to him by the Roman authorities themselves, of persuading the Achaeans to acquiesce in the new regime imposed upon them by their con- querors, and of setting the new machinery in working order. With this work, which he accomplished so as to earn the heartfelt, gratitude of his countrymen (xxxix. 16), his public career seems to have closed. The rest of his life was, so far as we know, devoted to the great history which is the lasting monument of his fame. He died, at the age of eighty-two, of a fall from his horse (Lucian, Macrob. 22). The base of a statue erected to him by Elis was found at Olympia in 1877. It bears the inscrip- tion 17 ir6\i.s ri 'HXeicoy HoKvpiov Avuopra Me-y OLKoTroXirriv. Of the forty books which made up the history of Polybius, the first five alone have come down to us in a complete form ; of the rest we have only more or less copious fragments. But the general plan and scope of the work are explained by Polybius himself. His intention was to make plain how and why it was that " all the known regions of the civilized world had fallen under the sway of Rome " (iii. 1). This empire of Rome, unprecedented in its extent and still more so in the rapidity with which it had been ac- quired, was the standing wonder of the age, and " who," he exclaims (i. 1), " is so poor-spirited or indolent as not to wish to know by what means, and thanks to what sort of constitution, the Romans subdued the world in something less than fifty-three years? " These fifty-three years are those between 220 (the point at which the work of Aratus ended) and 168 B.C., and extend therefore from the outbreak of the Hannibalic War to the defeat of Perseus at Pydna. To this period then the main portion of his history is devoted from the third to the thirtieth book inclusive. But for clearness' sake he prefixes in bks. i. and ii. such a preliminary sketch of the earlier history of Rome, of the First Punic War, and of the contemporary events in Greece and Asia, as will enable his readers more fully to understand what follows. This seems to have been his original plan, but at the opening of bk. iii., wiitten apparently after 146, he explains that he thought it desirable to add some account of the manner in which the Romans exercised the power they had won, of their temperament and policy and of the final catastrophe which destroyed Carthage and for ever broke np the Achaean League (iii. 4, 5). To this appendix, giving the history from 168-146, the last ten books are devoted. Whatever fault may be found with Polybius, there can be no question that he had formed a high conception of the task before him. He lays repeated stress on two qualities as distinguishing his history from the ordinary run of historical compositions. The first of these, its synoptic character, was partly necessitated by the nature of the period. The various states fringing the basin of the Mediterranean had become so inextricably interwoven that it was no longer possible to deal with them in isolation. Polybius therefore claims for his history that it will take a comprehensive }s koI xaiaas) ; the other consists of two fragments from the " select passages " from Greek historians compiled by the directions of Constantine Porphyrogenitus in the 10th century. To these must be added the Vatican excerpts edited by Angelo Mai in the present century. The following are the more important modern editions of Polybius : Ernesti (3 vols., 1763-1764); Schweighauser (8 vols., 1793, and Oxford, 1823); Bekker (2 vols., 1844); L. Dindorf (4 vols., 1866- 1868, 2nd ed., T. Buttner-Wobst, 5 vols., Leipzig, 1882-1904); Hultsch (4 vols., 1867-1871); J. L. Strachan-Davidson, Selections from Polybius (Oxford, 1888). For the literature of the subject, see Engelmann, Biblioth. script, class.: Script, graeci, pp. 646- 650 (8th ed. Leipzig, 1880). See also W. W. Capes, The History of the Achaean League (London, 1888); F. Susemihl, Gesch. d. griech. Litteratur in d. Alexandrinerzeit, ii. 80-128 (Leipzig, 1891- 1892); 0. Cuntz, Polybios und sein Werk (Leipzig, 1902); R. v. Scala, Die Studien des Polybios (Stuttgart, 1890); J. B. Bury, Ancient Greek Historians (1909), "a whole-hearted appreciation of Polybius"; J. L. Strachan-Davidson, in Hellenica, pp. 353- 387 (London, 1898), and in Appendix II. to Selections from Polybius pp. 642-668 (Oxford, 1888). (H. F. P.; X.) POLYCARP (c. 69-e. 155), bishop of Smyrna and one of the Apostolic Fathers, derives much of his importance from the fact that he links together the apostolic age and that of nascent Catholicism. The sources from which we derive our knowledge of the life and activity of Polycarp are: (1) a few notices in the writings of Irenaeus, (2) the Epistle of Polycarp to the Church at Philippi, (3) the Epistle of Ignatius to Polycarp, (4) the Epistle of the Church at Smyrna to the Church at Philomelium, giving an account of the martyrdom of Polycarp. Since these authori- ties have all been more or less called in question and some of them entirely rejected by recent criticism, it is necessary to say a few words about each. 1. The Statements of Irenaeus are found (a) in his Adversus haereses, iii. 3, 4, (b) in the letter to Victor, where Irenaeus gives an account of Polycarp's visit to Rome, (c) in the letter to Florinus — a most important document which describes the intercourse between Irenaeus and Polycarp and Polycarp's relation with St John. No objection has been made against the genuineness of the statements in the Adversus haereses, but the authenticity of the two letters has been stoutly contested in recent times by van Manen. 1 The main attack is directed against the Epistle to Florinus, doubtless because of its importance. " The manifest exaggerations," says van Manen, " coupled with the fact that Irenaeus never shows any signs of acquaintance with Florinus . . . enable us to perceive clearly that a writer otherwise unknown is speaking to us here." The criticism of van Manen has, however, found no supporters outside the Dutch school. The epistle is quoted by Eusebius 1 Ency. Bib. iii. 3490. (v. 20), and is accepted as genuine by Harnack 8 and Kriiger.' The relevant statements in the letter, moreover, are supported by the references to Polycarp which we find in the body of Irenaeus's great work. 2. The Epistle of Polycarp. — Though Irenaeus states that Polycarp wrote many " letters to the neighbouring churches or to certain of the brethren " 4 only one has been preserved, viz. the well-known letter to the Philippians. The epistle is largely involved in the Ignatian controversy (see Ignatius). The testimony which it affords to the Ignatian Epistles is so striking that those scholars who regard these letters as spurious are bound to reject the Epistle of Polycarp altogether, or at any rate to look upon it as largely interpolated. The former course has been adopted by Schwegler, 6 Zeller, 6 and Hilgenfeld, 7 the latter by Ritschl 8 and Lipsius. 9 The rehabilitation of the Ignatian letters in modern times has, however, practically destroyed the attack on the Epistles of Polycarp. The external evidence in its favour is of considerable weight. Irenaeus (iii. 3, 4) expressly mentions and commends a " very adequate " (kavuTOTt;) letter of Polycarp to the Philippians, and we have no reason for doubting the identity of this letter mentioned by Irenaeus with our epistle. Eusebius (iii. 36) quotes extracts from the epistle, and some of the extracts contain the very passages which the critics have marked as interpolations, and Jerome (De Vir. III. xvii.) testifies that in his time the epistle was publicly read in the Asiatic churches. The internal evidence is equally strong. There is absolutely no motive for a forgery in the contents of the epistle. As Harnack says, " There is no trace of any tendency beyond the immediate purpose of maintaining the true Christian life in the church and warning it against covetousness and against an un- brotherly spirit. The occasion of the letter was a case of embezzle- ment, the guilty individual being a presbyter at Philippi. It shows a fine combination of mildness with severity; the language is simple but powerful, and, while there is undoubtedly a lack of original ideas, the author shows remarkable skill in weaving together pregnant sentences and impressive warnings selected from the apostolic epistles and the first Epistle of Clement. In these circum- stances it would never have occurred to any one to doubt the genuineness of the epistle or to suppose that it had been inter- polated, but for the fact that in several passages reference is made to Ignatius and his epistles." The date of the epistle depends upon the date of the Ignatian letter;; and is now generally fixed between 112 and 118. An attempt has been made in some quarters to prove that certain allusions in the epistle imply the rise of the heresy of Marcion and that it cannot therefore be placed earlier than 140. Lightfoot, however, has proved that Polycarp's statements may equally well be directed against Corinthianism or any other form of Docetism, while some of his arguments are absolutely inapplicable to Marcionism. 3. The Epistle of Ignatius to Polycarp. — This epistle has of course been subjected to the same criticism as has been directed against the other epistles of Ignatius (see Ignatius). Over and above the general criticism, which may now be said to have been completely answered by the investigations of Zahn, Lightfoot and Harnack, one or two special arguments have been brought against the Epistle to Polycarp. Ussher, for instance, while accepting the other six epistles, rejected this on the ground that Jerome says that Ignatius only sent one letter to Smyrna— a mistake due to his misinterpre- tation of Eusebius. Some modern scholars (among whom Harnack was formerly numbered, though he has modified his views on the point) feel a difficulty about the peremptory tone which Ignatius adopts towards Polycarp. There was some force in this argument when the Ignatian Epistles were dated about 140, as in that case Polycarp would have been an old and venerable man at the time. But now that the date is put back to about 112 the difficulty vanishes, since Polycarp was not much over forty when he received the letter. We must remember, too, that Ignatius was writing under the consciousness of impending martyrdom and evidently felt that this gave him the right to criticize the bishops and churches of Asia. 4. The Letter of the Church at Smyrna to the Philomelians is a most important document, because we derive from it all our in- formation with regard to Polycarp's martyrdom. Eusebius has preserved the greater part of this epistle (iv. 15), but we possess it entire with various concluding observations in several Greek MSS., and also in a Latin translation. The epistle gives a minute description of the persecution in Smyrna, of the last days of Polycarp and of his trial and martyrdom; and as it contains many instructive details and professes to have been written not long after the events to which it refers, it has always been regarded as one of the most precious remains of the 2nd century. Certain recent critics, however, have questioned the authenticity of the narrative. 2 Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur, i. 593-594. 3 Early Christian Literature (Eng. trans., 1897), p. 150. 4 Letter to Florinus ap. Euseb. v. 20. 5 Nachapostolisches Zeitalter, ii. 154. 6 Apostolgeschichte, p. 52. 7 Apostolische Vater, p. 272. 8 Entstehung der altkatholischen Kirche, p. 584. 9 Ueber das Verhaltniss, &c, p. 14. POLYCARP 21 Lipsius brings 1 the date of the epistle down to about 260, though he admits many of the statements as trustworthy. Keim, too, 2 endeavours to show that, although it was based on good information, it could not have been composed till the middle of the 3rd century. A similar position has also been taken up by Schurer, 3 Holtzmann, 4 Gebhardt, 6 Reville, 6 and van Manen. 7 The last named regards the document "as a decorated narrative of the saint's martyrdom framed after the pattern of Jesus' martyrdom," though he thinks that it cannot be put as late as 250, but must fall within the limits of the 2nd century. It cannot be said, however, that the case against the document has been at all substantiated, and the more moderate school of modern critics {e.g. Lightfoot, 8 Harnack, 9 Kruger) 10 is unanimous in regarding it as an authentic document, though it recognizes that here and there a few slight interpolations have been inserted. 11 Besides these we have no other sources for the life of Polycarp ; the Vita S. Polycarpi auctore Pionio (published by Duchesne, Paris, 1881, and Lightfoot Ignatius and Polycarp, 1885, ii. 1015-1047) is worthless. Assuming the genuineness of the documents mentioned, we now proceed to collect the scanty information which they afford with regard to Polycarp's career. Very little is known about his early life. He must have been born not later than the year 60, for on the day of his death (c. 155) he declared that he had served the Lord for eighty-six years (Martyrium, 9). The statement seems to imply that he was of Christian parentage; he cannot have been older than eighty-six at the time of his martyrdom , since he had paid a visit to Rome almost immediately before. Irenaeus tells us that in early life Polycarp "had been taught by apostles and lived in familiar intercourse with many that had seen Christ " (iii. 3,4)- This testimony is expanded in the remarkable words which Irenaeus addresses to Florinus: " I saw thee when I was still a boy (waZs en &v) in Lower Asia in company with Polycarp ... I can even now point out the place where the blessed Polycarp used to sit when he discoursed, and describe his goings out and his comings in, his manner of life and his personal appearance and the discourses which he delivered to the people, how he used to speak of his intercourse with John and with the rest of those who had seen the Lord, and how he would relate their words. And everything that he had heard from them about the Lord, about His miracles and about His teaching, Polycarp used to tell us as one who had received it from those who had seen the Word of Life with their own eyes, and all this in perfect harmony with the Scriptures. To these things I used to listen at the time, through the mercy of God vouchsafed to me, noting them down, not on paper but in my heart, and constantly by the grace of God I brood over my accurate recollections." These are priceless words, for they establish a chain of tradition (John-Polycarp-Irenaeus) which is without a parallel in early church history. Polycarp thus becomes the living link between the Apostolic age and the great writers who flourished at the end of the 2nd century. Recent criticism, however, has endeavoured to destroy the force of the words of Irenaeus. Harnack, for instance, attacks this link at both ends. 12 (a) The connexion of Irenaeus and Polycarp, he argues, is very weak, because Irenaeus was only a boy {irals) at the time, and his recollections therefore carry very little weight. The fact too that he never shows any signs of having been influ- enced by Polycarp and never once quotes his writings is a further proof that the relation between them was slight, (b) The connexion which Irenaeus tries to establish between Polycarp and John the apostle is probably due to a blunder. Irenaeus has confused John the apostle and John' the presbyter. Polycarp was the disciple of the latter, not the former. In this second 1 Zeitschr.f. wissensch. Theol. (1874), p. 200 seq. 2 Aus dem Urchristenthy.m (1878), p. 90. : 3 Zeitschr.f. hist. Theol. (1870), p. 203 seq. 4 Zeitschr.f '. wissensch. Theol. (1877). 5 Zeitschr.f. hist. Theol. (1875). 6 De anno Polycarpi. (1881). 7 Oud-Christ (1861), and Ency. Bib. iii. 3479. 8 Ignatius and Polycarp, i. 589 seq. 9 Gesch. d. altchrist. Lit. II. i. 341. 10 Early Christian Lit. (Eng. trans., 1897), p. 380. 11 Amongst these we ought probably to include the expression v noBoKixii inK\riCH 2 ,&c. X CH 2 , CH 2 C-H 2 \CH 2 -CH 2 , \CH 2 -CIl/ Cyc/o-propane, -butane, -pentane, -hexane. The unsaturated members of the series are named on the Geneva system in which the termination -ane is replaced by-ene, -diene, -triene, according to the number of double linkages in the compound, the position of such double linkages being shown by a numeral immediately following the suffix -ene\ for example I. is methyl-cyc/o-hexadiene — 1. 3. An alterna- tive method employs A. v. Baeyer's symbol A. Thus A 2-4 indicates the presence of two double bonds in the molecule situated immediately after the carbon atoms 2 and 4; for example II. is A 2-4 dihydrophthalic acid. (2) (3) (2) (3) ,, CH-CH ^ /C(C0 2 H):CH> (i)CH r c{ >CH(4),(i)H0 2 C-CH/ >CH( 4 ). '\, CHrCH,/ (6) (5) I. \CH 2 CH/ (6) (5) II. As to the stability of these compounds, most trimethylene derivatives are comparatively unstable, the ring being broken fairly readily; the tetramethylene derivatives are rather more stable and the penta- and hexa-methylene compounds are very stable, showing little tendency to form open chain compounds under ordinary conditions (see Chemistry: Organic). Isomerism. — No isomerism can occur in the monosubstitution derivatives but ordinary position isomerism exists in the di- and poly-substitution compounds. Stereo-isomerism may occur: the simplest examples are the dibasic acids, where a cis- (maleinoid) form and a trans- (fumaroid) form have been ob- served. These isomers may frequently be distinguished by the facts that the m-acids yield anhydrides more readily than the trans-acids, and are generally converted into the trans-acids on heating with hydrochloric acid. O. Aschan (Ber., 1902, 35, p. 3389) depicts these cases by representing the plane of the carbon atoms of the ring as a straight line and denoting the substituted hydrogen atoms by the letters X, Y, Z. Thus for dicarboxylic acids (C0 2 H = X) the possibilities are represented by (cis), ^ (trans),. jr (I). The trans compound is perfectly asymmetric and so its mirror image (I) should exist, and, as all the trans compounds syn- thetically prepared are optically inactive, they are presumably racemic compounds (see O. Aschan, Chemie der alicyklischen Verbindungen, p. 346 seq.). General Methods of Formation. — Hydrocarbons may be ob- tained from the dihalogen paraffins by the action of sodium or zinc dust, provided that the halogen atoms are not attached to the same or to adjacent carbon atoms (A. Freund, Monats., 1882, 3, p. 625; W. H. Perkin, jun., Journ. Chem. Soc, 1888, 53, p. 213):— CH r CHrBr , „ v oM c , CH 2 -CH 2 CH 2 .CH 2 -Br+ 2Na = 2NaBr +CH 2 .CH 2 ; by the action of hydriodic acid and phosphorus or of phos- phonium iodide on benzene hydrocarbons (F. Wreden, Ann., 1877, 187, p. 153; A. v. Baeyer, ibid., 1870, 155, p. 266), ben- zene giving methylpentamethylene ; by passing the vapour of benzene hydrocarbons over finely divided nickel at 180-250 C. (P. Sabatier and J. B. Senderens, Comptes rendus, 1901, 132, p. 210 seq.); and from hydrazines of the type C n H 2 „_i-NH-NH 2 by oxidation with alkaline potassium ferricyanide (N. Kijner, Journ. prak. Chem., 1901, 64, p. 113). Unsaturated hydro- carbons of the series may be prepared from the corre- sponding alcohols by the elimination of a molecule of water, using either the xanthogenic ester method of L. Tschugaeff (Ber. 1899, 32, p. 3332): CnH^ONa-^CnHzn-iO-CS-SNaCR) — 3>C„H 2 „_ 2 -|-COS-)-R'SH; or simply by dehydrating with anhydrous oxalic acid (N. Zelinsky, Ber., 1901, 34, p. 3249); and by eliminating the halogen acid from mono- or di-halogen polymethylene compounds by heating them with quinoline. Alcohols are obtained from the corresponding halogen com- pounds by the action of moist silver oxide, or by warming them with silver acetate and acetic acid; by the reduction of ketones with metallic sodium; by passing the vapours of monohydric phenols and hydrogen over finely divided nickel (P. Sabatier and J. B. Senderens, loc. cil.); by the reduction of cyclic esters with 3° POLYMETHYLENES sodium and alcohol (L. Bouveault and G. Blanc, Comptes renins, 1903. 136, P- 1676; 137, p. 60); and by the addition of the elements of water to the unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbons on boiling with dilute acids. Aldehydes and Ketones. — The aldehydes are prepared in the usual manner from primary alcohols and acids. The ketones are obtained by the dry distillation of the calcium salts of di- basic saturated aliphatic acids (J. Wislicenus, Ann., 1893, 275, p. 309): [CH a -CH 2 -C0 2 ] 2 Ca->[CH 2 -CH 2 ] !! CO; by the action of sodium on the esters of acids of the adipic and pimelic acid series (W. Dieckmann, Ber., 1894, 27, pp. 103, 2475): — CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 2 -C0 2 R CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 2 . CH 2 -CH 2 -C0 2 R ~*CH 2 -CH 2 C-0 ' by the action of sodium ethylate on 5-ketonic acids (D. Vor- lander, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 2348) : — ,CH 2 -CH 2 . /CH 2 -CH 2X CH >CO; < x C0 2 H-> CH,. .. X CO-CH 3 \CO-CH 2 / from sodio-malonic ester and aj3-unsaturated ketones or ketonic esters: — ,CH 2 CO (R0 2 C) 2 CH 2 +Ph-CH :CH-COCHfr_>PhCIl V CH 2 ^CH(C0 2 R)-CO- from aceto-acetic ester and esters of a/3-unsaturated acids, followed by elimination of the carboxyl group : — /CH 2 *CR 2\ CH 3 -CO-CH 2 -CO 2 R+R' 2 C:CH-C0 2 R->CO< >CHC0 2 R; \CH 2 -CO / by the condensation of two molecules of aceto-acetic ester with aldehydes followed by saponification (E. Knoevenagel, Ann., 1894, 281, p. 25; 1896, 288, p. 321; .Ber., 1904, 37, p. 4461):— ,CH 2 -CHR' X 2CH 3 -CO-CH 2 -C0 2 R+OHOR'-»CH 3 -c/ >CH 2 ; »CH — CO / from 1 • 5-diketones which contain a methyl group next the keto-group (W. Kerp, Ann., 1896, 290, p. 123): — /CH 2 -C(CH 3 ) 3CH 3 -CO-CHs-»(CH 3 ) 2 C< CH 2 -co/ CH; by the condensation of succinic acid with sodium ethylate, fol- lowed by saponification and elimination of carbon dioxide: — „/-• ur tr*r\ tli\ CH 2 -CH 2 -CO 2C 2 H 4 (C0 2 H)^ Co . CHi . fcHt ; and from the condensation of ethyl oxalate with esters of other dibasic acids in presence of sodium ethylate (W. Dieckmann, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 1470; 1899, 32, p. 1933):— C0 2 R y C0 2 R CO-CH 2 . .! +CH< _> I \CH 2 . C0 2 R x C0 2 R CO-CH/ Acids may be prepared by the action of dihalogen paraffins on sodio-malonic ester, or sodio-aceto-acetic ester (W. H. Perkin, jun., Journ. Chem. Soc, 1888, 53, p. 194) : — C 2 H 4 Br 2 +2NaCH(C0 2 R) 2 -*(CH 2 ) 2 C(C0 2 R) 2 +CH 2 (C0 2 R) 2 ; ethyl butane tetracarboxylate is also formed which may be converted into a tetramethylene carboxylic ester by the action of bromine on its disodium derivative (W. H. Perkin and Sinclair, ibid., 1829, 61, p. 36). The esters of the acids may also be obtained by condensing sodio-malonic ester with a-halogen derivatives of unsaturated acids: — CH-CO R CHs-CH:CBr-C0 2 R4-NaCH(C0 2 R) 2 -»CH 3 -CH< / .| * ; X C(C0 2 R) 2 by the action of diazomethane or diazoacetic ester on the esters of unsaturated acids, the pyrazoline carboxylic esters so formed losing nitrogen when heated and yielding acids of the cyclo- propane series (E. Buchner, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 703; Ann., 1895, 284, p. 212; H. v. Pechmann, Ber., 1894, 27, p. 1891): — ™. T CH-C0 2 R N:N-CH-C0 2 R /CHC0 2 R CH 2 N 2 + II -► I ■ I -»H,c/ ; CH-C0 2 R H 2 C— CH-C0 2 R X:HC0 2 R and by the Grignard reaction (S. Malmgren, Ber., 1903, 36, pp. 668, 2622; N. Zelinsky, ibid., 1902, 35, p. 2687). Cyclo-propane Group. Trimethylene, C 3 H 6 , obtained by A. Freund (Monats., 1882, 3, p. 625) by heating trimethylene bromide with sodium, is a gas, which may be liquefied, the liquid boiling at —35° C. (749 mm.). It dis- solves gradually^ in concentrated sulphuric acid, forming propyl sulphate. Hydriodic acid converts it into w-propyl iodide. It is decomposed by chlorine in the presence of sunlight, with explosive violence. It is stable to cold potassium permanganate. Cyclo-propane carboxylic acid, C 3 H s -C0 2 H, is prepared by heating the 1 . 1 -dicarboxylic acid ; and by the hydrolysis of its nitrile, formed by heating 7-chlorbutyro-nitrilewith potash (L. Henry and P. Dalle, Chem. Centralblatt, 1901, I, p. 1357; 1902, 1, p. 913). It is a colour- less oil, moderately soluble in water. The 1.1 dicarboxylic acid is prepared from ethylene dibromide and sodio-malonic ester. The ring is split by sulphuric or hydrobromic acids. The cis 1.2-cyclo-propane dicarboxylic acid is formed by elimi- nating carbon dioxide from cycfo-propane tricarboxylic acid -1.2.3 (from a/3-dibrompropionic ester and sodio-malonic ester). The trans-acid is produced on heating pyrazolin-4.5-dicarboxylic ester, or by the action of alcoholic potash on o-bromglutaric ester. It does not yield an anhydride. Cyclo-butane Group. Cyclo-butane, C 4 H 8 , was obtained by R. Willstatter (Ber., 1907, 40, p. 3979) by the reduction of cyclobutene by the Sabatier and Senderens method. It is a colourless liquid which boils at 1 1-12 C„ and its vapour burns with a luminous flame. Reduction at 180- 200° C. by the above method gives w-butane. Cyclo-butene, C 4 H 6 , formed by distilling trimethyl-cye/o-butyl- ammonium hydroxide, boils at 1.5-2.0° C. (see N. Zelinsky, ibid., p. 4744; G. Schweter, ibid., p. 1604). When sodio-malonic ester is condensed with trimethylene bromide the chief product is ethyl pentane tetracarboxylate, tetramethylene l.l-dicarboxylic ester being also formed, and from this the free acid may be obtained on hydrolysis. It melts at 154-156° C, losing carbon dioxide and passing into cye/o-butane carboxylic acid, C 4 H 7 C0 2 H. This basic acid yields a monobrom derivative which, by the action of aqueous potash, gives the corresponding hydroxy- cyc/o-butane carboxylic acid, C 4 H 6 (OH)-C0 2 H. Attempts to elimi- nate water from this acid and so produce an unsaturated acid were unsuccessful; on warming with sulphuric acid, carbon monoxide is eliminated and cycfo-butanone (keto-tetramethylene) is probably formed. The truxillic acids, C J8 H. 6 4 , which result by the hydrolytic split- ting of truxilline, C 38 H 46 N 2 8 , are phenyl derivatives of cyc/o-butane. Their constitution was determined by C. Liebermann (Ber., 1888, 21, p. 2342; 1889, 22, p. 124 seq.). They are polymers of cinnamic acid, into which they readily pass on distillation. The o-acid on oxidation yields benzoic acid, whilst the /3-acid yields benzil in _ addition. The a-acid is diphenyl-24-cycfo-butane dicarboxylic acid -1.3; and the /3-acid diphenyl-34-cyclo-butane dicarboxylic acid -1.2. By alkalis they are transformed into stereo-isomers, the a-acid giving -y-truxillic acid, and the /3-acid S-truxillic acid. The o-acid was synthesized by C. N. Riiber (Ber., 1902, 35, p. 241 1; I9°4. 37. P- 2274), by oxidizing diphenyl-2.4-cydo-butane-bismethy- lene malonic acid (fron cinnamic aldehyde and malonic acid in the presence of quinoline) with potassium permanganate. Cyclo-/>e»toree Group. Derivatives may be prepared in many cases by the breaking down of the benzene ring when it contains an accumulation of negative atoms (T. Zincke, Ber., 1886-1894; A. Hantzsch, Ber., 1887, 20, p. 2780; 1889, 22, p. 1238), this type of reaction being generally brought about by the action of chlorine on phenols in the presence of alkalis (see Chemistry: Organic). A somewhat related example is seen in the case of croconic acid, which is formed by the action of alkaline oxidizing agents on hexa-oxybenzene : — HO-C-C(OH):C(OH) HO-C-CO-CO HO-C-CO. HO-C-C(OH) ; C(OH) HO-C-CO-CO HO-C-CO^ Hexa-oxybenzene. Rhodizonic acid. Croconic acid. Cyc\o-pentane, C5H10, is obtained from cycfo-pentanone by reducing it to the corresponding secondary alcohol, converting this into the iodo-compound, which is finally reduced to the hydrocarbon (J. Wislicenus, Ann., 1893, 275, p. 327). It is a colourless liquid which boils at 50-51° C. Methyl-cyclo-pentane, C 6 H 9 CH 3 , first obtained by F. Wreden (Ann., 1877, 187, p. 163) by the action of hydriodic acid and red phosphorus on benzene, and considered to be hexahydro- benzene, is obtained synthetically by the action of sodium on' 1-5 dibromhexane ; and by the action of magnesium on acetylbutyl iodide (N. Zelinsky, Ber., 1902, 35, p. 2684). It is a liquid boiling at 72° C. Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-42) oxidizes it to succinic and acetic acids. Cyclo-pentene, C 6 H S , a liquid obtained by the action of alcoholic potash on iodo-cycio-pentane, boils at 45° C. Cyclo- pentadiene, C 6 H 6 , is found in the first runnings from crude benzene distillations. _ It is a liquid which boils at 41° C. It rapidly poly- merizes to di-cyc/o-pentadiene. The -CH 2 - group is very reactive and behaves in a similar manner to the grouping -CO-CH 2 -CO- in open chain compounds, e.g. with aldehydes and ketones it gives the POLYMETHYLENES 3i fulvenes, substances characterized by their intense orange-red colour HC:CH (J.Thiele, Ber., 1900, 33, p. 669). Phenylfulven, I >C:CHPh, HCtCH 7 obtained from benzaldehyde and cyc/o-pentadiene, forms dark red plates. Diphenylfulven, from benzophenone and cyc/o-pentadiene, crystallizes in deep red prisms. Dimethylfulven is an orange- coloured oil which oxidizes rapidly on exposure. Concentrated sulphuric acid converts it into a deep red tar. Cydo-pentanone, C 6 H 8 0, first prepared pure by the distillation of calcium adipate (J. Wislicenus, Ann., 1893, 275, p. 312), is also ob- tained by the action of sodium on the esters of pimelic acid; by the distillation of .calcium succinate; and by hydrolysis of the cyclo- pentanone carboxylic acid, obtained by condensing adipic and oxalic esters in the presence of sodium ethylate. Reduction gives cyc/o-pentanol, C5H9OH. Croconic acid (dioxy-cyc/o-pentene-trione) , C5H2OS, is formed when triquinoyl is boiied with water, or by the oxidation of hexa-oxyben- zene or dioxydiquinoyl in alkaline solution (T. Zincke, Ber., 1887, 20, p. 1267). It has the character of a quinone. On oxidation it yields cyc/o-pentane-pentanone (leuconic acid). Derivatives of the cye/o-pentane group are met with in the break- ing-down products of the terpenes (q.v.). Campholactone, QH14O2, is the lactone of trimethyl-2-2-3-cyc/o- pentanol-5-carboxylic acid-3. For an isomer, isocampholactone (the lactone of trimethyl-2-2-3-cyc/o-pentanol-3-carboxylic acid-i) see W. H. Perkin, jun., Proc. Chem. Soc, 1903, 19, p. 61. Lauronolic acid, C9H14O5, is trimethyl-2-2-3-cyc/o-pentene-4-acid-i. Isolauro- nolic acid, C9H14O2, is trimethyl-2-2-3-cyc/o-pentene-3-acid-4. Campholic acid, CioH 18 02, is tetrametnyl-i-2-2-3-cyc/o-pentane acid-3. Camphononic acid, CjHuOa, is trimethyl-2-2-3-cyc/o-penta- none- 1 -carboxylic acid-3. Camphorphorone, C 9 Hi40, is methyl-2- isobuty-lene-5-cyc/o-pentanone-i. Isothujone, Ci Hi 6 O, is dim- ethyl-i-2-isopropyl-3-cycto-pentene-l-one-5. (F. W. Semmler, Ber., I9°°, 33, p. 275.) L. Bouveault and G. Blanc (Comples rendus, 1903, 136, p. 1460), prepared hydrocarbons of the cyc/o-pentane series from cyclo- hexane compounds by the exhaustive methylation process of A. W. Hofmann (see Pyridine). For phenyl derivatives of the cyclo- pentane group see F. R. Japp, Jour. Chem. Soc, 1897, 71, pp. 139, 144; H. Stobbe, Ann., 1901, 314, p. in; 315, p. 219 seq.; 1903, 326, p. 347. Cydo-hexane Group. Hydrocarbons. — Cydo-hexane, or hexahydro benzene, C6H 12 , is obtained by the action of sodium on a boiling alcoholic solution of i-6-dibromhexane, and by passing the vapour of benzene, mixed with hydrogen, over finely divided nickel. It is a liquid with an odour like that of benzene. It boils at 80-81 ° C. Nitric acid oxidizes it to adipic acid. When heated with bromine in a sealed tube for some days at 150-200 C, it yields i-2-4'5-tetrabrombenzene (N. Zelinsky, Ber., 1901, 34, p. 2803). It is stable towards halogens at ordinary temperature. Benzene hexachloride, C 6 H 6 C1 6 , is formed by the action of chlorine on benzene in sunlight. By recrystallization from hot benzene, the a form is obtained in large prisms which melt at 157 C, and at their boiling-point decompose into hydrochloric acid and trichlorbenzene. The /3 form results by chlorinating boiling benzene in sunlight, and may be separated from the a variety by distillation in a current of steam. It sublimes at about 310 C. Similar varieties of benzene hexabromide are known. Hexakydrocymene (methyl-l-isopropyl-4-cyc/o-hexane), Ci H 2 o, is important since it is the parent substance of many terpenes (q.fl.). It is obtained by the reduction of 1-4 dibrommenthane with sodium (J. de Montgolfier, Ann. chim. phys., 1880 [5], 19, p. 158), or of cymene, limonene, &c, by Sabatier and Senderens's method. It is a colourless liquid which boils at 180 C. Cydo-hexene (tetrahydrobenzene), C 6 H l0 , was obtained by A. v. Baeyer by removing the elements of hydriodic acid from iodo- cyc/o-hexane on boiling it with quinoline. It is a liquid which boils at 82 C. Hypochlorous acid converts it into 2-chlor-cyc/o-hexanol-i, whilst potassium permanganate oxidizes it to cyc/c-hexandi-ol. Cydo-hexadiene (dihydrobenzene) , C«H g . — Two isomers are pos- sible, namely cycto-hexadiene-i-3 and cycfo-hexadiene-i-4. A. v. Baeyer obtained what was probably a mixture of the two by heating I -4 dibrom-cyc/o-hexane with quinoline. C. Harries (Ann., 1903, 328, p. 88) obtained them tolerably pure by the dry distillation of the phosphates of l-3-diamino and l-4-diamino-cyc/o-hexane. The I -3 compound boils at 81-82° C. and on oxidation yields succinic and oxalic acids. The 1-4 compound also boils at 81-82° C. and on oxidation gives succinic and malonic acids. Alcohols. — Cydo-hexanol, C«HuOH, is produced by the reduction of the corresponding ketone, or of the iodhydrin of quinite. Nitric acid oxidizes it to adipic acid, and chromic acid to cyc/o-hexanone. Quinite (cyc/o-hexanediol-l-4) is prepared by reducing the correspond- ing ketone with sodium amalgam, cm-, and ^rani-modifications being obtained which may be separated by their acetyl derivatives. Phloroglucile _(cyc/o-hexane-triol-i-3-5) is obtained by reducing an aqueous solution of phloroglucin with sodium (W. Wislicenus, Ber., 1894, 27, p. 357). Quercile (cydo-hexane-pentol-i-2-3-4-5), isolated from acorns in 1849 by H. Braconnot (Ann. chim. phys. [3], 27, p. 392), crystallizes in colourless prisms which melt at 234° C. When heated in vacuo to 240° C. it yields hydroquinone, quinone and pyrogallol. It is dextro-rotatory. A laevo-form occurs in the leaves of Gymnema sylvestre (F. B. Power, Journ. Chem. Soc, 1904, 85, p. 624). Inosite (cydo-hexane-hexol), CeH 6 (OH)e. — The inactive form occurs in the muscles of the heart and in other parts of the human body. The d-iortn is found as a methyl ether in pinite (from the juice of Pinus lambertina, and of caoutchouc from Mateza roritina of Madagascar), from which it may be obtained by heating with hydriodic acid. The Worm is also found as a methyl ether in quebrachite. By mixing the d- and I- forms, a racemic variety melting at 253° C. is obtained. A dimethyl ether of inactive inosite is dambonite which occurs in caoutchouc from Gabon. Ketones. — Cydo-hexanone, CeH l0 O, is obtained by the distillation of calcium pimelate, and by the electrolytic reduction of phenol, using an alternating current. It is a colourless liquid, possessing a peppermint odour and boiling at 155° C. Nitric acid oxidizes it to adipic acid. It condenses under the influence of sulphuric acid to form dodecahydrotriphenylene, Ci ? H24, and a mixture of ketones (C. Mannul, Ber., 1907, 40, p. 153). M-ethyl-i-cydo-hexanone-$, CH 3 -C 6 H 9 0, is prepared by the hydrolysis of pulegone. It is an optically active liquid which boils at 168-169° C. Homologues of menthone may be obtained from the ketone by successive treatment with sodium amide and alkyl halides (A. Haller, Comples rendus, 1905, 140, p. 127). On oxidation with nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-4) at 60-70° C, a mixture of — and — -methyl adipic acids is obtained (W. Markownikoff, Ann., 1905, 336, p. 299). It can be transformed into the isomeric methyl-i-cydo-hexanone-2 (O. Wallach, Ann., 1904, 329, p. 368). For methyl-i-cydo-hexanone-4, obtained by distilling 7-methyl pimelate with lime, see O. Wallach, Ber., 1906, 39, p. 1492. Cydo-hexane-dione-i-5 (dihydroresorcin), C«H 8 02, was obtained by G. Merling (Ann., 1894, 278, p. 28) by reducing resorcin in hot alcoholic solution with sodium amalgam. Cydo-hexane-dione-l-^ is obtained by the hydrolysis of succino-succinic ester. On reduction it yields quinite. It combines with benzaldehyde, in the presence of hydrochloric acid, to form 2-benzyl-hydroquinone. Cyclo- hexane-trione-l-3-5 (phloroglucin) is obtained by the fusion of many resins and of resorcin with caustic alkali. It may be prepared synthetically by" fusing its dicarboxylic ester (from malonic ester and sodio malonic ester at 145° C.) with potash (C. W. Moore, Journ. Chem. Soc, 1904, 85, p. 165). It crystallizes in prisms, which melt at 218° C. With ferric chloride it gives a dark violet coloration. It exhibits tautomerization, since in many of its reactions it shows the properties of a hydroxylic substance. Rhodizonic acid (dioxydiquinoyl), C 6 H 2 06, is probably the enolic form of an oxypentaketo-cyc/o-hexane. It is formed by the reduction of triquinoyl by aqueous sulphurous acid, or in the form of its potassium salt by washing potassium hexa-oxybenzene with alcohol (R. Nietzki, Ber., 1885, 18, pp. 513, 1838). Triquinoyl (hexaketo-cycZo-hexane) C606-8H 2 0, is formed on oxidizing rhodi- zonic acid or hexa-oxybenzene. Stannous chloride reduces it to hexa-oxybenzene, and when boiled with water it yields croconic acid (dioxy-cyc/o-pentene-trione). Cydo-hexenones.— Two types of ketones are to be noted in this group, namely the a/3 and 187 ketones, depending upon the position of the double linkage in the molecule, thus : .0112:011 ^CH-CH2 v H 2 C/ ^CO HC< >C0 X CH 2 CH 2 / X CH 2 -CH 2 / (a/3) _ _ _ (0y) These two classes show characteristic differences in properties. For example, on reduction with zinc and alcoholic potash, the o/8 compounds give saturated ketones and also bi-molecular compounds, the f)y being unaffected; the ffy series react with hydroxylamine in a normal manner, the o/3 yield oxamino-oximes. Methyl-i-cydo-hexene-i-one-3, CH 3 -C 6 H70, isobtained by condens- ing sodium aceto-acetate with methylene iodide, the ester so formed being then hydrolysed. Isocamphorphorone, C 9 Hi 4 0, is trimethyl i'6-6.-cyc/o-hexene-l-one 6. Isocamphor, CioHhO, is methyl-i- isopropyl-3-cyc/o-hexene-i-one 6. Acids. — Hexahydrobenzoic acid, CeHn-Q^H, is obtained by the reduction of benzoic acid, or by the condensation of 1-5 dibrompen- tane with disodio-malonic ester. It crystallizes in small plates which melt at 30-31 ° C. and boil at 232-233° C. (J. C. Lumsden, Journ. Chem. Soc, 1905, 87, p. 90). The sulphochloride of the acid on reduction with tin and hydrochloric acid gives hexahydrothiophenol, CeHnSH, a colourless oil which boils at 158-160° C. (W. Borsche, Ber., 1906, 39, p. 392), Quinic acid, C 6 H7(OH)4C02H (tetra-oxy-cycfo-hexane carboxylic acid), is found in coffee beans and in quinia bark. It crystallizes in colourless prisms and is optically active. When heated to about 250° C. it is transformed into quinide, probably a lactone, which on heating with baryta water gives an inactive quinic acid. Hexahydrophthalic acids, C 6 Hio(C0 2 H)2 (cyc/o-hexanedicarboxylic acids). — Three acids of this group are known, containing the Carb- oxyl-groups in the 1-2, 1-3, and 1-4 positions, and each exists in two stereo-isomeric forms (cm- and trans-). The anhydride ofthecw-i-2 32 POLYMETHYLENES A2 and A4 Tetrahydro^- -ii Heat A I Tetrahydro Hydrobromide on reduction Hexahydro Sodium amalgam A 1* DlHVDRO^- acid obtained byheadingthe anhydride of the trans-acid, forms prisms which melt at 192° C. When heated with hydrochloric acid it passes into the trans-variety. The racemic trans-acid is produced by the reduction of the dihydrobromide of A 4 -tetrahydrophthalic acid or A 2,6 dihydrophthalic acid. It is split into its active components by means of its quinine salt (A. Werner and H. E. Conrad, Ber., '899, 3 2 , P' 3°4°)- Hexahydroisophthalic acids (cyc/o-hexane-i-3- dicarboxylic acids) are obtained by the action of methylene iodide on disodio-pentane tetracarboxylic ester (W. H. Perkin, Journ. Chem. Soc, 1 89 1, 59, p. 798); by the action of trimethylene bromide on disodio-propane tetracarboxylic ester ; and by the reduction of isophthalic acid with sodium amalgam, the tetrahydro acids first formed being converted into hydrobromides and further reduced (A. v. Baeyer and V. Villiger, Ann., 1893, 276, p. 255). The cis- and trans- forms can be separated by means of their sodium salts. The trans-acid is a racemic compound, which on heating with acetyl chloride gives the anhydride of the CM-acid. Hexahydroterephthalic acids (cyc/o-hexane-l-4-dicarboxylic acids). These acids are obtained by the reduction of the hydrobromides of the di- and tetra-hydroterephthalic acids or by the action of ethylene dibromide on disodio-butane tetracarboxylic acid. An important derivative is succino-succinic acid, CeHeOjfCQjH^, or cydo-hexane- dione-2-5-dicarboxylic acid-i-4, which is obtained as its ester by the action of sodium or sodium ethylate on succinic ester (H. Fehling, Ann., 1844, 49, p. 192; F. Hermann, Ann., 1882, 211, p. 306). It crystallizes in needles or prisms, and dissolves in alcohol to form a bright blue fluorescent liquid, which on the addition of ferric chloride becomes cherry red. The acid on heating loses C0 2 and gives eyc/o-hexanedione-l-4. Tetrahydrobenzoic acid (cydo-hsxene- i-carboxylic acid-i ), C 6 H 9 -C0 3 H. Three structural isomers are possible. The A) acid results on boiling the A 2 acid with alkalis, or on eliminating hydro- bromic acid from i-brom-cycio-hexane- carboxylic acid- 1. The A 2 acid is formed on the reduction of benzoic acid with sodium amalgam. The A 3 acid is obtained by eliminating the elements of water from 4-oxy-cydo-hexane-l-carb- oxylic acid (W. H. Perkin, iun., Journ. Chem. Soc, 1904, 85, p. 431). Shikimic acid (s^-e-trioxy-A'-tetrahydrobenzoic acid) is found in the fruit of Illicium religiosum. On fusion with alkalis it yields para-oxybenzoic acid, and nas- cent hydrogen reduces it to hydro- shikimic acid. Sedanolic acid, C12H20O3, which is found along with sedanonic acid, C12H18O3, in the higher boiling fractions of celery oil, is an ortho- oxyamyl-A 5 -tetrahydrobenzoic acid, sedanonic acid being ortho- valeryl-A^tetrahydrobenzoicacidCG. Ciamician and P. Silber, Ber., I 8 97> 3°. PP. 49 2 > 501. I4'9 seq.). Sedanolic acid readily decom- poses into water and its lactone sedanolid, CuHigCX, the odorous constituent of celery oil. Tetrahydrophthalic acids {cyclo - hexene dicarboxylic acids), C 6 H 8 (CO_2H) 2 . Of the ortho-series four acids are known. The A 1 acid is obtained as its anhydride by heating the A 2 acid to 220 C, or by distilling hydropyromellitic acid. Alkaline potassium permanganate oxidizes it to adipic acid. The A 2 acid is formed along with the A 4 acid by reducing phthalic acid with sodium amalgam in hot solutions. The A 4 acid exists in cm- and trans- forms. The trans- variety is produced by reducing phthalic acid, and the CM-acid by reducing A 2 " 4 dihydrophthalic acid. In the meta-series, four acids are also known. The A 2 acid is formed along with the A 4 (cm) acid by reducing isophthalic acid. The trans A 4 acid is formed by heating the CM-acid with hydrochloric acid under pressure. The A s acid is formed when the anhydride of tetrahydro rimesic acid is distilled (W. H. Perkin, junr., Journ. Chem. Soc, 1905, 87, p. 293). In the para-series, three acids are known. The A 1 acid is formed by the direct reduction of terephthalic acid ; by boiling the A 2 acid with caustic soda; and by the reduction (in the heat) of A 1-4 dihydro- terephthalic acid. The A 2 acid exists in cm- and trans- forms; these are produced simultaneously in the reduction of A 1-3 or A 1-6 dihydro- terephthalic acids by sodium amalgam. There are five possible dihydrobenzoic acids. One was obtained in the form of its amide by the reduction of benzamide in alkaline solution with sodium amalgam (A. Hutchinson, Ber., 1891, 24, p. 177). The A 1 ' 8 acid is obtained on oxidizing dihydrobenzalde- hyde with silver oxide or by the reduction of meta-trimethyl- aminobenzoic acid (R. Willstatter, Ber., 1904, 37, p. 1859). Of the dihydrophthalic acids, five are known in the ortho-series, two of which are stereo-isomers of the cm- and trans-type, and a similar number are known in the para-series. The A 1-4 acid is obtained as its anhydride by heating A 2-4 dihydrophthalic anhydride with acetic anhydride. When boiled with caustic soda it isomerizes to a mixture of the A 2 ' 4 and A 2 ' 6 dihydrophthalic acids. The A 2-4 acid is obtained by boiling the dihydrobromide of the A 2 ' 6 acid with alcoholic potash or by continued boiling of the A 2 ' 6 acid with caustic soda. The A 2 ' 6 acid is formed when phthalic acid is reduced in the cold by sodium amalgam or by heating the A 2 ' 4 and A 3 ' 5 acids with caustic soda. The irons- modification of A 3 ' 5 acid is produced when phthalic acid is reduced by sodium amalgam in the presence of acetic acid. When heated for some time with acetic anhydride it changes to the CM-form. The /ro?M-acid has been resolved by means of its strychnine salts into two opticalry active isomerides, both of which readily pass to A 2 ' 6 dihydrophthalic acid (A. Neville, Journ. Chem. Soc, 1906, 89, p. 1744). Of the dihydroterephthalic acids, the A 1 ' 3 acid is obtained by heat ing the dibromide of the A 2 tetrahydro acid with alcoholic potash. It cannot be prepared by a direct reduction of terephthalic acid. On warming with caustic soda it is converted into the A 1 ' 4 acid. The A 1 ' 4 acid is also obtained by the direct reduction of terephthalic acid. It is the most stable of the dihydro acids. The A 1 ' 6 acid is obtained by boiling the cis- and trans- A*' h acids with water, which are obtained on reducing terephthalic acid with sodium amalgam in faintly alka- line solution. The relationships existing between the various hydrophthalic acids may be shown as follows : — Sodium amalgam (hot) - Phthalic acid • Sodium amalgam + acetic acid Sodium Sodium amalgam (cold) T amalgam (hot) - A 28 Dihydro <~ Alkali Hydrobromide with alcoholic potash A 2-4 Dihydro Anhydride with I acetic anhydride A 1-4 Dihydro A3-5 Dihydro (trans.) J, Acetic anhydridz A3- 5 Ddiydro (as.) Boil with water A2-5 D Ai-SD 4 Sodium amalgam in faintly alkaline solution * EHYDRO , Boil with water HYDRO podium amalgam BqU + NaQR Sodium amalgam (hot) A 2 TETRAHYDRO' Reduce ->A 1 Tetrahydro Dibromide + alcoholic potash A i'3 Dihydro ^~ Remove H Br from Hydrobromide on reduction -Hexahydro dibromide Cyclo-heptane Group. Cydo-heptane (suberane), C7H14, obtained by the reduction of suberyl iodide, is a liquid which boils at 117° C. On treatment with bromine in the presence of aluminium bromide it gives chiefly pentabromtoluene. When heated with hydriodic acid to 230 C. it gives methylhexamethylene. On oxidation with nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-4) it yields pimelic acid. Disuberyl, CjH.a-QHu, a thick oily liquid, boiling at 290-291 ° C, is obtained by the reduction of suberyl bromide. Cyclo-heptene, C 7 H 12 , is obtained by the action of alcoholic potash on suberyl iodide; and from cyc/o-heptane carboxylic acid, the amide of which by the action of sodium hypobromite is converted into cya'o-heptanamine, which, in its turn, is destructively methylated (R. Willstatter, Ber., 1901, 34, 131). Cydo-heptadiene 1-3, C 7 H 10 , is obtained from cyc/o-heptene (Willstatter, loc. cit.). It is identical with the hydrotropilidine, which results by the destructive methyla- tion of tropane. Euterpene (trimethyl-I ^^-cydo-heptadiene I -5), C 10 Hi S is prepared from dihydroeucarveol. By the action of hydrobromic acid (in glacial acetic acid solution) and reduction of the resulting product it yields l-2-dimethyl-4-ethylbenzene (A. v. Baeyer, Ber., 1897, 30, P- 2075). Cydo-heptatriene (tropilidine), C 7 H 8 , is formed on dis- tilling tropine with baryta; and from cycfo-heptadiene by forming its addition product with bromine and heating this with quinoline to 150-160° C. (R. Willstatter, loc. cit.). Chromic acid oxidizes it to benzoic acid and benzaldehyde. With bromine it forms a di- bromide, which then heated to 110° C. decomposes into hydro- bromic acid and benzyl bromide. Cy do-heptanol, CiH 13 OH, is formed by the reduction of suberone, and by the action of silver nitrite on the hydrochloride of cyclo- hexanamine (N. L?emjanow, Centralblatt, 1904, i. p. 1214). Cydo-heptanone (suberone), C 7 Hi 2 0, is formed on the dis- tillation of suberic acid with lime, and from a-brom-cyc/o-heptane carboxylic acid by treatment with baryta and subsequent distilla- tion over lead peroxide (R. Willstatter, Ber.. 1898, 31, p. 2507). It is a colourless liquid having a peppermint odour, and boiling at I78-5-I79-5 C. Nitric acid oxidizes it to n-pimelic acid. POLYNESIA 33 Tropilene, C7H10O, is obtained in small quantities by the distillation of a-methyltropine methyl hydroxide, and by the hydrolysis of 18- methyltropidine with dilute hydrochloric acid. It is an oily liquid, with an odour resembling that of benzaldehyde. It forms a benzai compound, and gives an oyxmethylene derivative and cannot be oxidized to an acid, reactions which point to it being a ketone con- taining the grouping -CH 2 -CO-. It is thus to be regarded as a cyc/o-heptene- 1 -one- 7 . Cyc\o-heptane carboxylic acid (suberanic acid), C7HH1CO2H, is obtained by the reduction of cyc/o-heptene-l-carboxylic acid; from brom-cyc/o-heptane by the Grignard reaction ; and by the re- duction of hydrotropilidine carboxylic acid by sodium in alcoholic solution (R. Willstatter, Ber., 1898, 31. p. 2504). The corresponding oxyacid is obtained by the hydrolysis of the nitrile, which is formed by the addition of hydrocyanic acid to suberone (A. Spiegel, Ann., 1882, 211, p. 117). Four cyc2o-heptene carboxylic acids are known. Cyc\o-heptene-\- carboxylic acid-i is prepared from oxysuberanic acid. This acid when heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid to 120-130° C. yields a chlor-acid, which on warming with alcoholic potash is trans- formed into the cycio-heptene compound. Cyc\o-heptene-2-carboxylic acid-i is formed by the reduction of cye/o-heptatriene 246-carb- oxylic acid- 1. On boiling with caustic soda it isomerizes to the corresponding l-acid. Cyclo-heptatriene carboxylic acids, C7H7CO2H. All four are known. According to F. Buchner (Ber., 1898, 31, p. 2242) they may be represented as follows : — CH 2 — CH- -CH a CH 2 ■CH:CH CH 2 HO NM : 8 CHj*-CHj CH CH 2 — -CH = = CH CH 2 CHj-CH irydo-octadiene A.IA5«(. AlAtorji. il,4.6orV i2,4.8orS The a-acid (a-isophenylacetic acid) is obtained by the hydrolysis of pseudophenylacetamide, formed bv condensing diazoacetic ester with benzene, the resulting pseudophenyl acetic ester being then left in contact with strong ammonia for a long time. 0-Isophenylacetic acid is formed by strongly heating pseudophenylacetic ester in an air-free sealed tube and hydrolysing the resulting |8-isophenylacetic ester, y-1 sophenylacetic acid is obtained by heating the and 8 acids for a long time with alcoholic potash (A. Einhorn, Ber., 1894, 27, p. 2828; E. Buchner, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 2249). 5-Isophenyl- acetic acid is obtained by heating the iodmethylate of anhydro- ecgonine ester with dilute caustic soda (A, Einhorn, Ber., 1893, 26, P- 329). Numerous aminc-derivatives of the eycfo-heptane series have been prepared by R. Willstatter in the course of his investigations on the constitution of tropine (q.v.). Amino-cyc\o-heptane (suberylamine) is obtained by the reduction of suberone oxime or by the action of sodium hypobromite on the amide of cycloheptane carboxylic acid. CycXo-octane Group. Few members of this group are known. By the distillation of the calcium salt of azelaic acid H. Mayer (Ann., 1893, 275, p. 363) obtained azelain ketone, CgH^O, a liquid of peppermint odour. It boils at 90-91 ° C. (23 mm.) and is readily oxidized by potassium permanganate to oxysuberic acid. It is apparently cycio-octanone (see also W. Miller and A. Tschitschkin, Centralblatt, 1899, 2 -> p. 181). Pseudopelletierine (methyl granatonine), C 9 Hi 6 NO, an alkaloid of the pomegranate, is a derivative of cydo-octane, and resembles tropine in that it contains a nitrogen bridge between two carbon atoms. It is an inactive base, and also has ketonic properties. On oxidation it yields methyl granatic ester, which, by the exhaustive methylation process, is converted into homopiperylene dicarboxylic ester, H0 2 CCH:CH CH 2 CH 2 CH:CH C0 2 H, from which suberic acid may be obtained on reduction. When reduced in alcoholic solution by means of sodium amalgam it yields methyl granatoline, CsHuOH-NCFU; this substance, on oxidation with cold potassium permanganate, is converted into granatoline, CsHi 5 NO, which on distillation over zinc dust yields pyridine. Methyl granatoline on treatment with hydriodic acid and red phosphorus, followed by caustic potash, yields methyl granatinine, CgHisN, which when heated with hydriodic acid and phosphorus to 240° C. is converted into methyl granatanine, C 8 Hi4.NCH 3 , and granatanine, CsHuNH. The hydrochloride of the latter base when distilled over zinc dust yields a-propyl pyridine. By the electrolytic reduction of pseudopellet- ierine, TV- methyl granatanine is obtained, and this by exhaustive methylation is converted into A Wei-dimethyl granatanine. This latter compound readily forms an iodmethylate, which on treatment with silver oxide yields the corresponding ammonium hydroxide. The ammonium hydroxide on distillation decomposes into trimefhyl- amine, water and cydo-octadienei 3. CH 2 CH— CH 2 CH 2 NMe CO - CH3CH— CH 2 Pseudopelletierine xxn. 2 CH 2 CH— CH 2 >CH 2 NMe CH 2 CH 2 CH— CH 2 iV-methyl granatanine CH 2 CH— CH 2 *CH 2 HONMe 2 CH 2 CH, CH— CH 2 CH2 *CH — CH2 CH,NMeCH^ CH 2 CH = CH A - 4 de.s-methyl granatanine Qyc\o-octadiene, CsHi 2 , as above prepared, is a strong-smelling oil which decolorizes potassium permanganate solution instantaneously. It readily polymerizes to a di-cyc/o-octadiene and polymer (C s Hi 2 )„ (R. Willstatter, Ber., 1905, 38, pp. 1975, 1984; G. Ciamician and P. Silber, Ber., 1893, 26, p. 2750; A. Piccinini, Gazz., 1902, 32, 1 p. 260). {}-cyc\o-octadiene has been prepared from methyl granatinine iodmethylate. Cyclo-octane, CsH 16 is obtained by the reduction of the above unsaturated hydrocarbon by the Sabatier and Senderens's method. It is a liquid which boils at 146-3-148° C. and possesses a strong camphor odour. On oxidation it yields suberic acid (R. Willstatter, Ber., 1907, 40, pp. 957). O. Doebner (Ber., 1902, 35, pp. 2129, 2538; 1903, 36, p. 4318) obtained compounds, which in all probabi- lity are cycto-octadienes, by the distillation of /3-vinylacrylic acid, sorbic acid, and cinnamenyl acrylic acid with anhydrous baryta. Cyclo-nonane Group. According to N. Zelinsky (Ber., 1907, 40, p. 780) cyclononanone, CgHieO, a liquid boiling at 95-97° C, is formed on distilling sebacic acid with lime, and from this, by reduction to the corresponding secondary alcohol, conversion of the latter into the iodide, and subsequent reduction of this with zinc, cyc\o-nonane, CgHis, a iiquid boiling at 1 70-1 72° C. is obtained. POLYNESIA, (Gr. ttoKvs, many, and vrjcros, island), a term sometimes used to cover the whole of the oceanic islands in the central and western Pacific, but properly for the eastern of the three great divisions of these islands. The chief groups thus included are Hawaii, the Ellice, Phoenix, Union, Manihiki and Marquesas groups, Samoa and Tonga, the Cook, Society, Tubuai and Tuamotu groups, and many other lesser islands. (See Pacific Ocean, section on Island, and separate articles on the principal groups, &c.) The Polynesian Race. — For the ethnological problems offered by Polynesia no thoroughly satisfactory solutions have yet been found. By some the term Polynesian has been treated as a synonym for Malayo-Polynesian, and has been made to include all the brown races of Malaysia, Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. Linguistically, physically and mentally this view is untenable. Whatever be the origin of the Polynesians, they are not Malays, though, themselves of mixed blood, they have probably certain racial elements in common with the latter, who are undoubtedly hybrids. There is every reason to be- lieve that the Polynesians are ethnologically a far older race than the Malays, who, as they now exist, are a comparatively' modern people; and thus Friedrich Miiller's and D. G. Brinton's theory, that they form a branch of the Malays, fails. Joseph Deniker declares the Polynesians a separate ethnic group of the Indo-Pacific area, and in this view he is followed by A. H. Keane, who suggests that they are a branch of the Caucasie division of mankind who possibly migrated in the Neolithic period from the Asiatic mainland. Of the migration itself no doubt is now felt, but the first entrance of the Polynesians into the Pacific must have been an event so remote that neither by tradition nor otherwise can it be even approximately fixed. The journey of these Caucasians would naturally be in stages. Their earliest halting place was probably the Malay Archi- pelago, where a few of their kin linger in the Mentawi Islands on the west coast of Sumatra. Thence at a date within historic times a migration eastward took place. The absence of San- skrit roots in the Polynesian languages appears to indicate that this migration was in pre-Sanskritic times. Whether anything like a definite date can be fixed for it may well be questioned. Abraham Fornander 1 has, however, with great probability, traced back the history of the Hawaiians to the 5th century. He has studied the folk-lore of those islands exhaustively, and from this source comes to the conclusion that the Polynesian migration from the Indian Archipelago may be approximately assigned to the close of the 1st or to the 2nd century. The traditions of many of the Polynesian peoples tend to make Savaii, the largest of the Samoan Islands, their ancestral home in the East Pacific, and linguistic and other evidence goes to 1 An Account of the Polynesian Race (1878), i. 168. 11 34 POLYNESIA support the theory that the first Polynesian settlement in the East Pacific was in Samoa, and that thence the various branches of the race made their way in all directions. Most likely Samoa was the first group permanently occupied by them. Owing to the admixture of the Polynesians with the Papuans in Fiji some authorities have thought the first settlement was in those islands, and that the settlers were eventually driven thence by the Papuan occupiers. We can, however, account for the presence of Polynesian blood in Fiji in another way, viz. by the intercourse that has been kept up between the people of Tonga and Fiji. If the first resting-place of the Polynesians was in that group, there is good reason to believe that Samoa was the first permanent home of the race. It used to be doubted whether these people could have gone from the Indian archipelago so far eastward, because the pre- vailing winds and currents are from the east. But it is now well known that at times there are westerly winds in the region over which they would have to travel, and that there would be no insuperable difficulties in the way of such a voyage. The Poly- nesians are invariably navigators. There is ample evidence that in early times they were much better seamen than they are at present. Indeed their skill in navigation has greatly declined since they have become known to Europeans. They used to construct decked vessels capable of carrying one or two hundred persons, with water and stores sufficient for a voyage of some weeks duration. These vessels were made of planks well fitted and sewn together, the joints being caulked and pitched. 1 It is only in recent times that the construction of such vessels has ceased. The people had a knowledge of the stars, of the rising and setting of the constellations at different seasons of the year; by this means they determined the favourable season for making a voyage and directed their course. The Polynesians were by no means a savage people when they entered the Pacific. Indeed their elaborate historical legends show that they possessed a considerable amount of civilization. Those who are familiar with these legends, and have studied native manners and customs, see many unmis- takable proofs that the Polynesians had, at their migration, considerable knowledge and culture, and that the race has greatly deteriorated. The Polynesians are physically a very fine race. On some islands they average 5 ft. 10 in. in height. De Quatrefages, in a table giving the stature of different races of men, 2 puts the natives of Samoa and Tonga as the tallest people in the world. He gives 5 ft. 9-92 in. as their average height. They are well developed in proportion to their height. Their colour is a brown, lighter or darker generally according to the amount of their exposure to the sun — being darker on some of the atolls where the people spend much time in fishing, and among fishermen on the volcanic islands, and lighter among women, chiefs and others less exposed than the bulk of the people. Their hair is dark brown or black; smooth and curly, very different from the frizzly mop of the Papuan or the lank straight locks of the Malay. They have very little beard. Their features are gen- erally fairly regular and often beautiful; eyes invariably black, and in some persons oblique; jaws not projecting, except in a few instances; lips of medium thickness; the noses are naturally long, well shaped and arched, but many are artificially flat- tened at the bridge in infancy. Their foreheads are fairly high, but rather narrow. The young of both sexes are good-looking. The men often have more regular features than the women. Formerly the men paid more attention to personal appearance than the women. Polynesians generally are of singularly cleanly habits, love bathing, and have a taste for neatness and order. Their clothing is simple: a loin cloth for the men and for the women a girdle or petticoat of leaves. Sometimes women cover the shoulders, and on great occasions the men robe themselves in tapa, bark-cloth. The men are usually 1 Coco-nut fibre and the gum which exudes from the bread-fruit tree are generally used for " caulking " and " pitching " canoes. ' The Human Species (International Scientific Series), pp. 57-60. tattooed in elaborate designs from the navel to the thigh, and often around mouth and eyes. As a race the Polynesians are somewhat apathetic. An enervating climate and lavish natural resources incline them to lead easy lives. On the more barren islands, and on those more distant from the equator, they show more energy. Under certain circumstances they become excitable, and manifest a kind of care-for-nothing spirit. As savages they were strict in their religious observances and religion came into almost every action of life, and they have been, in most instances, easily led to accept Christianity. Their essential trait is their per- ennial cheerfulness, and their fondness for dance and song and every sort of amusement. 3 They are shrewd, intelligent and possess much common sense. Where they have from early years enjoyed the advantages of a good education, Polynesian youths have proved themselves to possess intellectual powers of no mean order. They are almost invariably fluent speakers; with many of them oratory seems to be a natural gift; it is also carefully cultivated. An orator will hold the interest of his hearers for hours together at a political gathering, and in his speech he will bring in historical allusions and precedents, and will make apt quotations from ancient legends in a manner which would do credit to the best parliamentary orators. Many of them are very brave, and think little of self-sacrifice for others where duty or family honour is concerned. Polynesian society is divided into the family and the clan. Each clan has a name which is usually borne by one of the oldest members, who is the chief or head for the time being. This clan system no doubt generally prevailed in early times, and was the origin of the principal chieftainships. But changes have been made in most of the islands. In some the head of one clan has become king over several. In many cases large clans have been divided into sections under secondary heads, and have even been subdivided. As a rule near relations do not intermarry. In some islands this rule is rigidly adhered to. There have been exceptions, however, especially in the case of high chiefs ; but usually great care is taken to prevent the union of those within the prescribed limits of con- sanguinity. Children generally dwell with their kin on the father's side, but they have equal rights on the mother's side, and sometimes they take up their abode with their mother's family. The only names used to express particular relationships are father and mother, son and daughter, brother and sister. There is usually, no distinction between brothers (or sisters) and cousins, all the children of brothers and sisters speak of each other as brothers and sisters, and they call uncles and aunts fathers and mothers. Above the relationship of parents all are simply ancestors, no term being used for grandfather which would not equally apply to any more remote male ancestor. In the same way there is no distinctive term for grandchild. A man speaks of his grandchild as his son or daughter, or simply as his child. 4 Polygamy was often practised,, especially by chiefs, and also concubinage. In some places a widow was taken by the brother of her deceased husband, or, failing the brother, by some other relative of the deceased, as an additional wife. Divorce was an easy matter, and of frequent occurrence; but as a rule, a divorced wife would not marry again without the consent of her former husband. An adulterer was always liable to be killed by the aggrieved husband, or by some member of his clan. If the culprit himself could not be reached, any member of the clan was liable to suffer in his stead. In some islands female virtue was highly regarded. Perhaps of all the groups Samoa stood highest in this respect. There was a special ordeal through which a bride passed to prove her virginity, and a proof of her immorality brought disgrace upon all her relatives. But in other islands there was much freedom in the relations of the sexes. Owing to the almost promis- cuous intercourse which prevailed among a portion of the race, in some groups titles descended through the mother and not through the father. In Hawaii there was a peculiar system of marriage 3 Wrestling and boxing, a kind of hockey and football, canoe and foot races, walking-matches, swimming, archery, cockfighting, fishing-matches and pigeon-catching are among their pastimes. Of indoor games they have a number, many being of a gambling nature. Much time is spent, especially after the evening meal, in asking riddles, in rhyming, &c. The recital of songs and myths is a common amusement, and on special occasions there is dancing. The night-dances were generally accompanied by much indecency and immorality. 4 Dr Lewis H. Morgan, in Ancient Society, -pp. 419-423, makes the Polynesians to have distinctive terms for grandfather, grandmother, grandson and granddaughter. In this he is mistaken. It is evident from his own lists that the Hawaiian kupuna means simply an ancestor. In like manner moopUna simply means a descendant of any generation after the first. POLYNESIA 35 relationship," brothers with their wives, and sisters with their husbands, possessing each other in common." There also, especially in the case of chiefs and chieftainesses, brothers and sisters some- times intermarried. But these customs did not prevail in other groups. It is almost certain that they did not prevail in Hawaii in early times, but that they were the result of that deterioration in the race which their traditions and many of their customs indicate. 1 Women have always occupied a relatively high position among the Polynesians. In most groups they have great influence and are treated with much respect. In some cases they take hereditary titles and hold high offices. As among their congeners in Mada- gascar, so also in parts of Polynesia, there may be a queen or a chief- tainess in her own right ; and a woman in high position will command as much respect, and will exercise as great authority, as a man would in the same position. Everywhere infanticide prevailed; in some of the smaller islands it was regulated by law in order to prevent over- population. It was also a very common practice to destroy the foetus, but parents were affectionate towards their children. The practice of adopting children was, and still is, common. Often there is an exchange made between members of the same clan; but sometimes there is adoption from without. Tattooing generally prevailed among the men, different patterns being followed in differ- ent groups of islands. In some a larger portion of the body is tattooed than in others. A youth was considered to be in his minority until he was tattooed, and in former times he would have no chance of marrying until he had, by submitting to this process, proved himself to be a man. Puberty in the. other sex was generally marked by feasting, or some other demonstration, among the female friends. Old age is generally honoured. Often an inferior chief will give up his title to a younger man, yet he himself will lose but little by so doing. The neglect of aged persons is extremely rare. Property belonging to a clan is held in common. Each clan usually possesses land, and over this no one member has an exclusive right, but all have an equal right to use it. The chief or recognized head of the clan or section alone can properly dispose of it or assign its use for a time to an outsider; and even he is expected to obtain the consent of the heads of families before he alienates the property. Thus land is handed down through successive generations under the nominal control of the recognized head of the clan. Changes have been made in many islands in this respect; but there can be little reason to doubt that the joint ownership of property in clans was common among the entire race in former times. In early times the head of each clan was supreme among his own people, but in all matters he had associated with him the principal men or heads of families in the clan. Their united authority extended over all the members and the possessions of the clan, and they were independent of every other clan. There are in some places vestiges of this primitive state of society still remaining ; the transition to a limited or to a despotic monarchy may be traced by means of the ancient legends in some islands, and in others it is a matter of recent history. One clan being more numerous and stronger than another, and its chief being ambitious, it is easy to see how by conquering a neighbouring clan he increased the import- ance of his clan and extended his own power. In some of the islands this transition process has hardly yet developed into an absolute monarchy. We may even see two or three stages of the progress. In one instance a certain clan has the right to nominate the principal chief over an entire district; though it is known as the ruling clan, its rule is mainly confined to this nomination, and to decision for or against war. In all other respects the district enjoys the privilege of self-government. In another case the nominal king over a dis- trict, or over an entire island, can be elected only from among the members of a certain clan, the monarchy being elective within that alone; but this king has little authority. In other cases a more despotic monarchy has grown up — the prowess of one man leading to the subjugation of other clans. Even in this case the chiefs or 1 Morgan has founded one of his forms of family — the consanguine — on the supposed existence in former times among the Malays and Polynesians of the custom of " intermarriage of brothers and sisters, own and collateral, in a group." All the evidence he finds in support of this is (i) the existence of the custom above mentioned in Hawaii; and (2) the absence of special terms for the relationship of uncle, aunt and cousin, this indicating, he thinks, that these were regarded as fathers, mothers, brothers and sisters. He admits that " the usages with respect to marriage which prevailed when the system was formed may not prevail at the present time." But he adds, . " To sustain the deduction it is not necessary that they should " (Ancient Society, p. 408). Morgan has given special terms for grand- father and grandmother, because it would prove too much to show that the people had no grandfathers, &c. But these terms are used for ancestors of any generation. The terms used for grandchildren, in like manner, are used for any generation of descendants. He says (p. 406) the terms of husband and wife are used in common by a group of sisters or brothers, but the fact is that the words used for husband and wife in Hawaii simply mean male and female. In some islands there are terms used for wife in the most strict sense. The word wife is not used more exclusively among us than among some Polynesian people. heads of clans sometimes still hold their property and rule over their own people, only rendering a kind of feudal service and paying tribute to the king. The Polynesians are exceedingly fond of rank and of titles. Much deference is paid to chiefs and to persons of rank; and special terms are generally employed in addressing these. Every part of a chief's body and all his belongings have names different from those employed for common people. The grade of rank which a person occupies will often be indicated by the language in which he is addressed. Thus, in Samoa there are four different terms for to come: sau is for a common man; maliu mai is a respectful term for a person without a title; susu mai for a titled chief; and afio mai for a member of the royal family. In addressing chiefs, or others to whom one wishes to be respectful, the singular number of the personal pronoun is rarely used ; the dual is employed instead — the dual of dignity or of respect. Offices and titles are seldom hereditary in our sense of the term, as descending from father to son. They are rather elective within the limits of the clan, or the division of a clan. A common practice is for the holder of a high titlt to nominate a successor; and his nomination is generally confirmed by the chiefs, or heads of house- holds, with whom the right of election rests. In ancient times the authority of a high chief or king did not usually extend to any details of government. But in Hawaii there are traditions of a wise king who interested himself in promoting the social well-being of the people, and made good laws for their guidance. 2 Usually all matters affecting a district or an island were settled by the chiefs of the district, while those of a single village were settled by a council consisting of the chiefs and heads of households in the village. In some islands each clan, or each village, would feel itself at liberty to make war on another clan or village without consulting the views of any higher authority. Indeed the rule was for each clan or dis- trict to settle its own affairs. In the case of offences against individuals, either the person injured, or another member of his elan, would avenge the injury done. For most offences there was some generally recognized punishment — such as death for murder or adultery; but often vengeance would fall upon another person instead of the wrongdoer. In avenging wrong, a member of the village or of the clan to which the offender belonged would serve equally well to satisfy their ideas of justice if the culprit himself could not be easily reached. Sometimes all the members of the family, or of a village, to which a culprit belonged would flee from their homes and take refuge in another village, or seek the protection of a powerful chief. In some places, in cases of crime, the members of the family or village would convey the culprit bound — sometimes even carrying him like a pig that is to be killed — and place him with apologies before those against whom he had transgressed. The ignominy of such a proceeding was generally considered sufficient atonement for the gravest offences. There were slaves in many islands, either persons conquered in war, or those who had been condemned to lose their personal liberty on account of evil conduct. Pottery was not manufactured by the Polynesians: a fact which, it has been argued, goes far to prove the remoteness of the Poly- nesian migration from the Malay Archipelago, where there is not a single tribe which does not possess the art. It may, however, be that, moving among small coral islands for scores of generations and thus without materials, they lost the art. Those of them who possessed pottery obtained it from the Papuans. In most of their manufactures they were, however, in advance of the Papuans. They made use of the vegetable fibres abounding in the islands, the: women manufacturing cloth, chiefly from the bark of the paper mulberry (Morus papyrifera), but also in some islands from the bark of the bread-fruit tree and the hibiscus. This in former times furnished them with most of their clothing. They also made various kinds of mats, baskets and fans from the leaves of the pan- danus, the bark of the hibiscus, from species of bohmeria or other Urticaceous plants. Some of their mats are very beautifully made, and in some islands they are the most valuable property the people possess. The people also use the various fibre-producing plants for the manufacture of ropes, coarse string and fine cord, and for making fishing nets. The nets are often very large, and are netted with a needle and mesh as in hand-netting among ourselves. The Polynesians, who have always been entirely without metals, are clever workers in wood. Canoe and house building are trades usually confined to certain families. The large canoes in which they formerly made long voyages are no longer built, but various kinds of smaller canoes are made, from the commonest, which is simply a hollowed-out tree cut into form, to the finely shaped one built upon a keel, the joints of the various pieces being nicely fitted, and the whole stitched together with cord made from the husk of coco- nuts. Some of the larger canoes are ornamented with rude carving; and in some islands they are somewhat elaborately decorated with inlaid mother-of-pearl. The houses are generally well and elabor- ately made, but nearly all the ornamentation is put on the inside of the roof. They manufacture several wooden utensils for household use, 2 See a remarkable example in Fornander's Account of the Poly- | nesian Race, ii. 89. 36 POLYNESIA such as dishes or deep bowls, head-rests and stools. Having no | metal or other vessels in which to boil water, all cooking is done by baking, generally in holes in the ground. They also make wooden j gongs, or drums. They used to make wooden fishhooks, clubs, | spears and bows. They still make wooden fishspears and carved and inlaid combs. They employ the bamboo for making drums and flutes. Formerly knives were made of bamboo, which is still some- times used for that purpose. In the manufacture of these things they employed adzes made of stone, shell or hard wood, and a wooden drill pointed with stone, shell or bone. They made mother-of-pearl fishhooks, and they still use a part of those old hooks — or artificial bait — in combination with steel hooks, the native-made portion being generally shaped like a small fish. For water-vessels, &c, they employ gourds and large coco-nut shells, in preparing which they pour in water and allow the pulp or the kernel to decay, so that it may be removed without breaking the rind or shell. Their drink- ing cups are made of half a coco-nut shell. Sharks' teeth, shells and bamboo were formerly generally used as cutting instruments for shaving and surgical operations. They employ vegetable dyes for painting their bark-cloth, calabashes, &c. In some islands they also use a red earth for this purpose. Their cloth is generally ornamented with geometrical patterns. Any drawings of animals, &c, which they make are exceedingly inartistic, and no attempt is made at perspective. Their musical instruments are few and rude — consisting of the drums and flutes already mentioned, and shell trumpets. The Polynesians were all polytheists. Without doubt many of their gods are deified men ; but it is clear that some are the forces of Nature personified, while others appear to represent human passions which have become identified with particular persons who have an existence in their historical myths. 1 But the conception which they had of Tangaloa (Taaroa and Kanaloa in some islands) is of a higher order. Among the Tahitians he was regarded as " the first and principal god, uncreated and existing from the beginning, or from the time he emerged from po, or the world of darkness." 2 " He was said to be the father of all the gods, and creator of all things, yet was scarcely reckoned an object of worship." 3 Dr Turner says, " the unrestricted, or unconditioned, may fairly be regarded as the name of this Samoan Jupiter." 4 The worship of certain of the great gods was common to all the people in a group of islands. Others were gods of villages or of families, while others were gods of individuals. The gods of clans were probably the spirits of the ancestors in their own line. In some islands, when the birth of a child was expected, the aid of the gods of the family was invoked, beginning with the god of the father. The god prayed to at the instant of birth became the god of the child. In other places the name of the child's god was declared when the umbilical cord was severed. The gods were supposed to dwell in various animals, in trees, or even in inanimate objects, as a stone, a shell, &c. In some islands idols bearing more or less resem- blance to the human shape were made. But in all cases the material objects were regarded simply as the abodes of the immaterial spirits of the gods. Their temples were either national, for a single village, or for the god of a family. They were sometimes large stone enclosures (marae), sometimes a grove, or a house. The principal priests were a particular order, the priesthood being hereditary. In some cases, however, the father of a family was priest in his own household and presented offerings and prayers to the family god. In some islands human sacrifices were of "frequent occurrence; in others they were offered only on very rare and exceptional occasions, when the demand was made by the priests for something specially valuable. The usual offerings to the gods were food. The system of taboo was connected with their religious rites. There were two ways by which things might become taboo: (i) by contact with anything belonging to the god, as his visible representation or his priest. Probably it was thought that a portion of the sacred essence of the god, or of a sacred person, was directly communicable to objects which they touched. (2) Things were made taboo by being dedicated to the god ; and it is this form of taboo which is still kept up. If, e.g., any one wishes to preserve his coco-nuts from being taken, he will put something upon the trees to indicate that they are sacred or dedicated. They cannot then be used until the taboo is removed. Disease and death were often connected with the violation of taboo, the offended gods thus punishing the offenders. Disease was generally attributed to the anger of the gods. Hence offerings, &c, were made to appease their anger. The first-fruits of a crop were usually dedicated to the gods to prevent them from being angry; and new canoes, fishing-nets, &c, were dedicated by prayers and offerings, in order that the gods might be propitious to their owners in their use J The following books may be consulted on this subject: Rev. W. W. Gill's Myths and Songs from the South Pacific; Dr Turners Samoa; and Mr Shortland's Maori Religion and Mythology; Sir George Grey, Polynesian Mythology. * Polynesian Researches i. 323. * Tahitian Dictionary. * Samoa, p. 5.J. The Polynesians invariably believe in the existence of the spirit of man after the death of the body. Their traditions on the condi- tion of the dead vary considerably in different groups ; yet there is a general agreement upon main points. Death is caused by the departure of the spirit from the body. The region of the dead is subterranean. When the spirit leaves the body it is conveyed by waiting spirits to the abode of spirits. In most islands the place of descent is known. It is generally towards the west. In some traditions there is a distinction between chief and common people in the spirit world. In others all are much alike in condition. Some traditions indicate a marked distinction between the spirits of warriors and those of others: the former go to a place where they are happy and are immortal, while the latter are devoured by the gods and are annihilated. In some, however, the spirits are said to live again after being eaten. Some speak of the abode of spirits as being in darkness ; but usually the condition of things is similar to that which exists upon earth. Amongst all the people it is believed that the spirits of the dead are able to revisit the scenes of their earthly life. The visits are generally made in the night, and are often greatly dreaded, especially when there may be any supposed reason for spite oh the part of the dead towards living relatives. Some writers have connected Polynesian cannibalism with religion. In the Cook and Society Islands, when a human being was offered as a sacrifice, the priest presented an eye of the victim to the king, who either ate it or pretended to do so. Probably the earliest human sacrifices were the bodies of enemies slain in battle. As it was supposed by some that the spirits of the dead were eaten by the gods, the bodies of those slain in battle may have been eaten by their victors in triumph. Mr Shortland appears to think that cannibalism among the Maories of New Zealand may have thus originated. 6 Among the Polynesians generally it appears to have been the practice at times to eat a portion of a slain enemy to make his degradation the greater. But where cannibalism was practised as a means of subsistence, it probably originated in times of actual want, such as may have occurred during the long voyages of the people. The Polynesian race has been continuously, and in some places rapidly, decreasing since their first contact with Euro- peans. Doubts have been thrown on the current statements regarding the rate of decrease, which some good authorities believe to be not so great as is commonly represented. They hold that former estimates of the number of inhabitants in the various insular groups were mere guesswork. Thus it is pointed out that Cook's estimate of 240,000 for the Society Archipelago (Tahiti) was at the time reduced by his associate, Forster, to 150,000, so that the 300,000 credited by him to the Sandwich Islands should also be heavily discounted. That is probably true, and it may be admitted that, as a rule, the early calcula- tions erred on the side of excess. But when full allowance is made for all such exaggerations, the following facts will show that the decrease has been excessive. The Tahitians, 150,000 in 1774, fell from 17,000 in 1880 to 10,300 in 1899; and in this group, while the pure stock appears to be dying out, there is a small increase amongst the half-breeds. When New Zealand was occupied (1840) -the Maori were said to number 120,000, and were doubtfully stated to be still 56,000 in 1857; since then the returns of the 1881 and 1891 censuses gave 44,000 and 40,000 respectively. During the last two decades of the 19th century the decrease has been from 30,000 to 17,500 in Tonga; from 11,500 to 8400 in the Cook group; from 8000 to 3600 in Wallis; from 1600 to 100 in Manahiki; from 1400 to 1000 in Tubuai; and from 600 to 100 in Easter Island. A general decline seems thus to be placed beyond doubt, though it may be questioned whether it is to be attributed to a decayed vitality, as some hold, or to external causes, as is the more general opinion. The prevalence of elephantiasis and the occurrence of leprosy, for instance, in Hawaii, would seem to point at least in some places to a racial taint, due perhaps to the unbridled licentiousness of past generations. On the other hand, such a decrease as has occurred in Tahiti and Tonga, can be accounted for only by an" accumulation of outward causes, such as wars, massacres, and raidings for the Australian and South American labour mar- kets before this traffic was suppressed or regulated. Other destructive agencies were epidemics, such especially as measles and small-pox, which swept away 30,000 Fijians in 1875; the introduction of strong drinks, including, besides vile spirits, a most pernicious concoction brewed in Tahiti from oranges; 5 Maori Religion and Mythology, p. 26. 31 MlffOEYP^iPOLYPHEMUS the too sudden adoption of European clothing, rendering the body supersensitive to changes of temperature; lastly, the action of over-zealous missionaries in suppressing the dances, merry- making and free joyous life of pagan times, and the preaching of a sombre type of Christianity, with deadening effects on the buoyant temperament of these children of Nature. Most of these abuses have been checked or removed, and the results may perhaps be detected in a less accelerated rate of decline, which no longer proceeds in geometric proportion, and seems even almost arrested in some places, as in Samoa and New Zealand. If such be indeed the case, perhaps the noblest of all primitive races may yet be saved from what at one time seemed inevitable extinction; and the Maori, the Samoans, and Tahi- tians may, like the Hawaiians, take their place Reside the Europeans as free citizens of the various states of which they are now subjects. Authorities— Jean L. A. de Quatrefages, Les Polynisiens et leur migrations (Paris, 1866); G. Turner, Nineteen Years in Polynesia (London 1861); Pierre Adolphe Lesson, Les Polynisiens, leur origxne, &c. Paris, 1 880-1 884); Henri Mager, Le Monde polynesien (Pans, 1902); Maximilien Albert H. A. Le Grand, Au pays des Unaques (Paris, 1893); Sir George Grey, Polynesian Mythology (London, 1855); T. A. Moerenhout, Voyages aux ties du Grand Ocean, &c (Pans, 1837); Abraham Fornander, An Account of the Polynesian Race (1878). The account given above reproduces the main descriptive passages in the Rev. S. J. Whitmee's article in the 9th ed of the Ency. Brit. POLYP, the name given by zoologists to the form of animal especially characteristic of the subphylum Cnidaria of the Coelentera (q.v.). In the subdivision Anthozoa, comprising the sea-anemones and corals, the individual is always a polyp; in the Hydrozoa, however, the individual may be either a polyp or a medusa (q.v.). A good example of a polyp may be seen in a common sea-anemone or in the well-known fresh-water polyp, Hydra (fig. 1). The body may be roughly compared in structure to a sac, the wall of which is 37 composed of two layers of cells. The outer layer is known technically as the ectoderm, the inner layer as the endoderm. Between ectoderm and endoderm is a supporting layer of struc- q V tureless gelatinous substance / termed mesogloea, secreted by the cell-layers of the body-wall; the mesogloea may be a very thin layer, or may reach a fair thickness, and then sometimes contains skeletal elements formed by cells which have migrated into it from the ectoderm. The sac-like body built up in this way is attached usually to some firm object by its blind end, and bears _ rr , at the upper end the mouth i-ic. 1— Hydra viri dis, the fresh- surrounded by a circle of waterpolyp. The animal is attached tent!lr ^ JZh W 1 ■ to the stem of a plant, and is repre- tentacles - *5, many, and r'txvn, an art), a term which may be held to designate any institution formed with a view to encourage or to illustrate various arts and sciences. It has, however, been used with different applications in several European countries. In France the first icole polytechnique was founded by the National Convention at the end of the 18th century, as a practical protest against the almost exclusive devotion to literary and abstract studies in the places of higher learning. The institution is described as one " ou l'on instruit les jeunes gens, destines a entrer dans les ecoles speciales d'artillerie, du genie, des mines, des ponts et chaussees, cre6 en 1794 sous le nom d'ecole centrale des travaux publiques, et en 1795 sous celui qu'elle porte aujourd'hui " (Littri). In Ger- many there are nine technical colleges which, in like manner, have a special and industrial rather than a general educational purpose. In Switzerland, the principal educational institution, which is not maintained or administered by the communal authorities, but is non T local and provided by the Federal govern- ment, is the Polytechnikum at Zurich. In all the important towns of the Federation there are trade and technical schools of a more or less special character, adapted to the local indus- tries; e.g. schools for silk-weaving, wood-carving, watchmaking, or agriculture. But the Zurich Polytechnikum has a wider and more comprehensive range of work. It is a college designed to give instruction and practical training in those sciences which stand in the closest relation to manufactures and commerce and to skilled industry in general and its work is of university rank. To the English public the Word polytechnic has only recently become familiar, in connexion with some London institutions of an exceptional character. In the reign of William The First IV. there was an institution in London called after Polytechnics the name of his consort-^" The Adelaide Gallery " to England. —and devoted rather to the display of new scientific inven- tions and curiosities than to research or to the teaching of science. It enjoyed an ephemeral popularity, and was soon imitated by an institution called the Polytechnic in Regent Street, with a somewhat more pretentious programme, a diving- bell, electrical and mechanical apparatus, besides occasional illustrated lectures of a popular and more or less recreative character. In the popular mind this institution is inseparably associated with " Professor " Pepper, the author of The Boy's Playbook of Science and of Pepper's Ghost. Both of these institutions, after a few years of success, failed financially; and in 1880 Mr Quintin Hogg, an active and generous philan- thropist, purchased the disused building in Regent Street, and reopened it on an altered basis, though still retaining the name of Polytechnic, to which, however, he gave a new significance. He had during sixteen years been singularly successful in gathering together young shopmen and artisans in London in the evenings and on Sunday for religious and social intercourse, and in acquiring their confidence. But by rapid degrees his enterprise, which began as an evangelistic effort, developed into an educational institution of a novel and comprehensive char- acter, with classes for the serious study of science, art, and literature, a gymnasium, library, reading circles, laboratories for physics and chemistry, conversation and debating clubs, organized country excursions, swimming, rowing, and natural history societies, a savings bank, and choral singing, besides religious services, open to all the members, though not obli- gatory for any. The founder, who from the first took the closest personal interest in the students, well describes his own aims: " What we wanted to develop our institute into was a place which should recognize that God had given man more than one side to his character, and where we could gratify any reason- able taste, whether athletic, intellectual, spiritual or social. I The success of this effort was remarkable. In the first winter POLYTECHNIC 39 6800 members joined, paying fees of 3s. per term, or 10s. 6d. per year; and the members steadily increased, until in 1900 they reached a total of 15,000 The average daily attendance is 4000; six hundred classes in different grades and subjects are held weekly; and upwards of forty clubs and societies have been formed in connexion with the recreative and social departments. The precedent thus established by private initiative has since been followed in the formation of the public institutions which, Later under the name of " Polytechnics," have become institutions so prominent and have exercised such beneficent of this influence among the working population of London. class - The principal resources for the foundation and maintenance of these institutions have been derived from two funds — that administered under the City Parochial Charities Act of 1883, and that furnished by the London County Council, at first under the terms of the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act of 1890, and the Technical Instruction Act 1889, but since the 1st of May 1904 under the Education Act 1902, as applied to London by the act of 1903. More detailed refer- ence to these two acts seems to be necessary in this place. The royal commission of inquiry into the parochial char- ities of London was appointed in 1878, mainly at the instance The city °^ ^ r J ames Bryce, and under the presidency of Parochial the Duke of Northumberland. Its report appeared Charities i n 1880, giving particulars of the income of the Act ~ parishes, and revealing the fact that the funds had largely outgrown the original purposes of the endowments, which were ill adapted to the modern needs of the class for whose benefit they were intended. The act of parliament of 1883 was designed to give effect to the recommendations of the commissioners It provided that while five of the largest parishes were to retain the management of their own charitable funds, the endowments of the remaining 107 parishes in the city should be administered by a corporate body, to be en- titled " the Trustees of the London Parochial Charities" (other- wise known in relation to the polytechnics as " the Central Governing Body"), this body to include five nominees of the Crown and four of the corporation of London. The remaining members were to be chosen under a subsequent scheme of the charity commission, which added four nominees of the Lon- don County Council, two of the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, and one each appointed by the university of London, Univer- sity College, King's College, the City and Guilds institute, and the governing bodies of the Bishopsgate and the Cripplegate foundations. For the purpose of framing the scheme, a special commissioner, Mr James Anstie, Q.C., was temporarily attached to the charity commission, and it thus became the duty of the commission to prepare a statement of the charity property possessed by the 107 parishes, distinguishing between the secular and the ecclesiastical parts of the endowments. The annual income derived from the ecclesiastical fund was £35,000, and that from the secular portion of the fund £50,000. The scheme assigned capital grants amounting to £15.5,000 to the provision of open spaces, and £149,500 to various institutions, including free libraries in Bishopsgate and Cripplegate, the People's Palace, the Regent Street and Northampton Institutes, and the Victoria Hall. A capital sum of £49,355 out of the ecclesiastical fund. was devoted to the repair of city churches; and the balance of the annual income of this fund, after allowances for certain vested interests, was directed to be paid to the Ecclesiastical Commissioners. This balance has varied by slight increases from year to year, and amounted in 1906 to £20,875. The remaining fund thus set free for secular purposes was by the scheme largely devoted to the erection and main- tenance of polytechnic institutions, or " industrial institutes," as they were at first called. It was the opinion of Mr Anstie and his fellow-commissioners that in this way it would be possible to meet one of the most urgent of the intellectual needs of the metropolis, and to render service nearly akin to the original purposes of the obsolete charitable endowments. For the year 1906-1907 the grants made to the polytechnics and kindred institutions (the Working Men's College, College for Working Women, &c.) by the Central Governing Body amounted to £39,140, and the total amount contributed by the Central Governing Body since its creation amounts to £543,000. The general scope and aims of the institutions thus con- templated by the commissioners are defined in the A Typlcal " general regulations for the management of an Indus- Scheme trial institute," which are appended as a schedule to underthe the several schemes, and which run as follows: — Act ' The object of this institution is the promotion of the industrial skill, general knowledge, health and well-being of young men and women belonging to the poorer classes by the following means: — i. Instruction in — a. The general rules and principles of the arts and sciences applicable to any handicraft, trade or business. b. The practical application of such general rules and principles in any handicraft, trade or business. c. Branches or details of any handicraft, trade or business, facilities for acquiring the knowledge of which cannot usually be obtained in the workshop or other, place of business. The classes and lectures shall not be designed or arranged so as to be in substitution for the practical experience of the workshop or place of business, but so as to be supplementary thereto. ii. Instruction suitable for persons intending to emigrate. iii. Instruction in such other branches and subjects of art, science, language, literature and general knowledge as may be approved by the governing body. iv. Public lectures or courses of lectures, musical and other entertainments and exhibitions. v. Instruction and practice in gymnastics, drill, swimming and other bodily exercises. vi. Facilities for the formation and meeting of clubs and societies. vii. A library, museum and reading room or rooms. Within the limits prescribed, the governing body may from time to time, out of the funds at their disposal, provide and maintain buildings and grounds, including workshops and laboratories suit- able for all the purposes herein specified, and the necessary furniture, fittings, apparatus, models and books, and may provide or receive by gift or on loan works of art or scientific construction, or objects of interest and curiosity, for the purpose of the institute, and for the purpose of temporary exhibition. Other provisions in the scheme require: (1) that the educa- tional benefits of the institute shall be available for both sexes equally, but that common rooms, refreshment rooms, gymnasia and swimming-baths may be established separately, under such suitable arrangements as may be approved by the governing body; (2) that the fees and subscriptions shall be so fixed as to place the benefits of the institute within the reach of the poorer classes; (3) that no intoxicating liquors, smoking or gambling shall be allowed in any part of the building; (4) that the build- ings, ground and premises shall not be used for any political, denominational or sectarian purpose, although this rule shall not be deemed to prohibit the discussion of political subjects in any debating society approved by the governing body; (5) t!hat no person under the age of sixteen or above twenty-five shall be admitted to membership except on special grounds, and that the number thus specially admitted shall not exceed 5 % of the total number of members. These and the like provisions have formed the common basis for all the metropolitan polytechnics. In 1890 a large sum was placed by the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act at the disposal of the county and county n f^iBoard borough councils for the general purposes of tech- of the nical education, and in 1893 the London County London Council determined to devote a considerable portion S!""'« of this revenue to the further development and sus- tentation of polytechnics. While the funds granted by : the Central Governing Body may be employed in aid of the social and recreative as well as the educational purposes of the various institutes, it is a statutory obligation that the sums contributed by the London County Council should be applied to educational work only. - Dr William Garnett, the educational adviser of the London County Council, has, in a published lecture delivered before the international congress on technical education in June 1897, thus described the conditions under which the council offers financial help to the London polytechnics: — +0 POLYTECHNIC The objects which the technical education board has had in view in its dealings with the polytechnics have been : — 1 . To allow to the several governing bodies the greatest possible freedom in the conduct of social, recreative and even religious work within the provisions of the schemes of the Charity Com- missioners. 2. To secure to each polytechnic the services of an educational principal, who should be responsible to his governing body for the organization and conduct of the whole of the work of the institution. 3. To provide in each polytechnic a permanent staff of teachers, who should be heads of their respective departments and give their whole time to the work of the institution, and thus to establish a corporate or collegiate life in the polytechnic. 4. To ensure that all branches of experimental science are taught experimentally, and that the students have the opportunity of carrying out practical laboratory work, at an inclusive fee not exceeding ten shillings for any one subject. 5. To provide efficient workshop instruction in all practical trade subjects. 6. To secure that the number of students under the charge of any one teacher in laboratory or workshop classes, or in other classes in which personal supervision is of paramount importance, shall not exceed a stated limit (fifteen in the workshop, or twenty in the laboratory). 7. To exclude from classes students who, for want of preliminary training, are incapable of profiting by the instruction provided; and to this end to restrict the attendance at workshop classes to those who are actually engaged in the trades concerned, and have thus opportunities of acquiring the necessary manual dexterity in the performance of their daily duties. 8. To furnish an adequate fixed stipend for all teachers, in place of a contingent interest in fees and grants. 9. To encourage private subscriptions and donations. 10. To establish an efficient system of inspection. 11. To facilitate the advertisement of polytechnic classes, and especially to invite the co-operation of trade societies in. supporting their respective classes. 12. To encourage the higher development of some special branch of study in each polytechnic. 13. To utilize the polytechnic buildings as far as possible in the daytime by the establishment of technical day schools, or otherwise. 14. To secure uniformity in the keeping of accounts. The regulations under which the council has attempted to secure its objects by means of grants have been changed from time to time as the work of the polytechnics has developed, but they provide that the council's aid should be partly in the form of a fixed grant to each institution, partly a share of the salaries of the principal and the permanent teachers, partly a grant on attendance, the scale depending on the subject and character of the instruction, and partly a subsidy (15%) on voluntary contri- butions. In addition to the annual grants for maintenance, substantial grants for building and equipment are made from time to time. The scale of grants adopted by the council for the session 1907-1908 was the following: — i. A fixed grant assigned to each polytechnic. ii. Three-fourths of the salary of the principal (subject to certain conditions). iii. Fifty per cent, of the salaries of heads of approved departments. iv. Ten per cent, of the salaries of other teachers. v. Fifteen per cent, on (voluntary) annual subscriptions or donations. vi. Attendance grants on evening classes varying from id. to 6d. per student-hour (subject to certain conditions of minimum attendance, eligibility, &c). vii. Special grants not exceeding £50 for courses of lectures on particular subjects required or approved by the council. viii. Special grants towards any departments which the council may desire to see established or maintained. ix. Equipment grants and building grants in accordance with the special requirements of the institutions. The above grants are independent of any contributions which the council may make towards secondary day schools or day schools of domestic economy or training colleges of domestic economy in the polytechnics. With a view to a due division of labour, and also to the co- operation of the public bodies concerned, the "London Poly- technic Council" was created in 1894. It was composed of representatives of the Central Governing Body, the technical education board of the London County Council, and the City and Guilds of London Institute, and its duty was to consult as to the appropriation of funds, the organiza- London tion of teaching, the holding of needful examina- Polytechnic tions, and the supervision of the work generally. CouacU - After ten years of work the London polytechnic council was dissolved in the summer of 1904 in consequence of the abolition of- the technical education board of the London County Council, when the council became responsible for all grades of education. A statement below shows the number and names of the several institutions, and the extent to which they have been severally aided by the Central Governing Body and the London County Council. The " People's Palace" owes its origin in part to the popu- larity of a novel by Sir Walter Besant, entitled All Sorts and Conditions of Men, in which the writer pointed out The the sore need of the inhabitants of East London People's for social improvement and healthy recreation, Palace. and set forth an imaginary picture of a " Palace of Delight," wherein this need might be partly satisfied. Much public interest was awakened, large subscriptions were given, and the Central Governing Body aided the project; but the munificence of the drapers' company in setting aside £7000 a year for its permanent maintenance released the London County Council from any obligation to make a grant. Apart from the social and recreative side of this popular institution, the edu- cational section, under the name of the East London Technical College, steadily increased in numbers and influence under the fostering care of the drapers' company and has now been re- cognized as a "school" of the university of London under the title of " The East London College" and is being utilized by the London County Council in the same way as other " schools of the university." Grants to the London Polytechnics during the Session 1906-1907. Central Governing Body. London County Council. Under Scheme. Voluntary Grants. Buildings and Equipment. Main- tenance. Battersea Polytechnic Birkbeck College . . Borough Road Polytechnic City of London College . East London College . Northampton Institute . Northern Polytechnic Regent Street Polytechnic South-Western Polytechnic Woolwich Polytechnic Sir John Cass's Institute . 2,500 1,000 2,500 1,000 3,500 3,350 1,500 3,500 1,500 nil nil 1,701 1,005 1,563 901 224 1,555 2,183 3,9i6 2,091 1,000 50 1,545 445 820 515 nil 3,415 2,660 965 1,275 2,525 5IO 4,760 3,450 5,285 3,725 nil 4,525 4,H5 7,665 6,265 5,495 2,400 Total .... j f 20,350 16,189 14,675 47,715 In the above table the grants are given to the nearest pound. Up to July 1907 the total expenditure of the council upon the polytechnics, apart from the day schools, training colleges, &c, conducted in them, was about £525,000, almost exactly the same as that of the Central Governing Body. The voluntary grants from the central governing body include a contribution towards a compassionate fund, and a pension fund based on endowment assurances for all permanent officers of the poly- technics in receipt of salaries of not less than £106 a year. The grants received from the board of education amount to about £30,000 a year, while the fees of students and members produce about £45,000. Voluntary subscriptions, including those from city companies and other sources of income, pro- duce about £30,000 in addition, so that out of a total expendi- ture of about £200,000 a year the council now contributes 30%, the Central Governing Body 18%, fees 22^%, the board of education 15% 15% and city companies and other subscribers POLYTECHNIC 4 1 The Goldsmiths' Institute at New Cross owed its existence and its annual maintenance to the generous initiative of the ancient city gild whose name it bore. It was therefore entirely independent of pecuniary subsidy from any other public body. In the year 1900 the number of class entries to this institute was 7574. In 1904 the goldsmiths' company presented the premises, together with an annual subsidy, to the university of London for the purposes of a training college for teachers, so that from that date it ceased to be one of the London poly- technics, although, pending the provision of other premises, many ' of the technical evening classes have been continued under the London County Council by permission of the university with the approval of the company. The clothworkers' com- pany has also contributed £18,000 to the Northern Polytechnic at Holloway. In all these institutions the general aims have been practically the same, although special features have been differentiated Aims and in order to meet the local needs and the wishes of Methods, the inhabitants. In all there are laboratories and lecture rooms, trade classes, art studios, gymnasia, provision for manual training and domestic economy and applied science. In nearly all, at first, mechanical and manual instruction were the prominent objects in view, partly owing to the conditions under which grants were made by the science and art department. But of late increased attention has been paid year by year to literary and humaner studies, and to general mental cultivation, pursued pari passu with technical and scientific training. The aid of the London organization for university extension, now a department of the university, has been especially serviceable in providing courses of lectures and classes in literary subjects at nearly all the polytechnics. As subsidiary to their main work, some of them have estab- lished junior continuation schools, with a view to provide suitable instruction for scholars who have left the public ele- mentary schools and are not yet prepared to enter the technical and trade classes. Although the workshops and the classes for artisans are used chiefly in the evenings, there is an increasing number of day students : e.g. at the Northampton Polytechnic Institute in Clerkenwell there is a very important day school of engineering conducted on the "sandwich system, " the students entering engineering works for the summer months and returning to the polytechnic for the winter session; at the Battersea Polytechnic there is a very important training col- lege for teachers of domestic economy; at Regent Street there are day schools in engineering, architecture, photo-process and carriage-building; at the South- Western Polytechnic there are important schools of mechanical and electrical engineering and a training college for women teachers of physical exercises; at the Northern Polytechnic, as at Battersea, there is a training college for teachers of domestic economy, and there are departments of commerce and of physics and chemistry, while the Woolwich Polytechnic receives in the daytime, by special arrangement with the war office, a large number of engineering apprentices employed in the arsenal. In short, the schemes of the several institutions are so elastic that the governing bodies are at liberty to open any classes or to try any educational or recreative experiment for which they can find a genuine local demand. The total number of scholars in the polytechnics and their branch institutions is variously estimated at from 40,000 to 50,000. and the total number of regular scholars in the evening schools of the council does not exceed 100,000. These figures may be usefully compared with the census returns, which show that within the metropolitan area there are 704,414 persons between the ages of thirteen and twenty- one. It is a noteworthy fact that, whereas in the population statistics for the whole of England and Wales the number at each year of age is regularly diminished by death from eight years onwards, there is a steady increase in London, year by year, from fourteen up to the age of thirty. This fact is owing to the constant immigration of young men and women from the provinces to the metropolis. The census commis- sioners in their report for 1901 (p. 15) computed that more than one-third of the population of London were not natives. They show also that, if all England and Wales be taken together, the number of persons between twenty and twenty-one is less by 12-8% than the number between thirteen and fourteen; but that, taking London alone, the number of persons between twenty and twenty-one is greater by 14-4% than the number between thirteen and fourteen. Hence, the proportion of the inhabitants who are of an age to benefit by polytechnics and continuation schools is in London exceptionally large. It would not be right for Londoners to complain that there is thus cast upon them the duty of providing suitable instruction for so many immigrants, for if the great city drains the rural districts of some of their best brain and muscle, she gains much from their industry and productive power. The figures, however, point to the necessity for taking every means possible to raise the standard, both physical and intellectual, of the London boy. The immigration into London of youths and young men means to a great extent the substitution of the provincially trained improver or artisan for the less fit London boy, who consequently falls into the ranks of the unskilled, then of the unemployed and ultimately of the unemployable. But it follows from the particulars thus given that neither the supply of suitable provision for mental improvement and rational recreation for the wage-earning classes, nor the demand for such provision on the part of the workers themselves is commensurate with the moral and intellectual needs of a com- munity of nearly seven millions of people (four and a half millions within the administrative county). The provision in evening schools, institutes, classes and polytechnics is still in some respects far inferior to that which is to be found in most German and Swiss towns, and needs to be greatly increased. In matters relating to the higher life, demand does not always precede supply; it is simply which is needed not only to satisfy the public demand, but to create it. As new and well-devised opportunities for mental culture are placed within reach, they will be more and more appreciated, new and healthier appetites will be stimulated, the art of employing leisure wisely and happily will be more systematically studied, and the polytechnics will become still more important centres of civilizing and educating influence than they have hitherto been. In particular, the reconstituted university of London has been placed in new and most helpful relation to the best of the polytechnics. By the statvites the senate of the university is empowered to include in the list of " schools of the university " all institutions which are duly equipped and able to furnish suitable instruction of an advanced and scholarly type; and also to recognize all thoroughly qualified professors in their several faculties and subjects as " teachers of the university," although some of their classes may meet in the evening only, and no student is to be prevented from taking a degree as an internal student of the university solely because he can attend classes only in the evening. There is thus a way open for the due recognition of the polytechnics as part of the teaching machinery of the university, and for the admission of the best students as undergraduates, with all the rights of internal students. The great possibilities of the metropolitan univer- sity under its new conditions were at first hardly revealed or accurately foreseen. But there were during the session 1906-1907 no less than eighty-six recognized " teachers of the university " on the staffs of the London polytechnics and more than 750 students who were working for London University degrees in the polytechnic classes. There is no reason to fear that the recreative, social, manual and industrial training, to which at first the special attention of the founder of the Regent Street Polytechnic was directed, will suffer from a fuller expansion of the academic and literary side of " polytechnic " life. Rather it may be hoped that the due co-ordination of the practical with the purely intellectual purposes of these institutions will serve to give to all the students, whatever their future destination may be, a truer and broader conception of the value of mental culture for its own sake. 42 POLYXENA— PQLYZOA See also a paper by Mr Sidney Webb, The London Polytechnic Institutes, in the second volume of special reports on educational subjects (1898) issued by the Education Department; the Report of the Central Governing Body of the London Parochial Charities; the Annual Reports of the London County Council; the Polytechnic Magazine, published from time to time at the institute in Regent Street; and various memoirs and papers contained in the Proceed- ings of the International Congress on Technical Education (1897), especially two — -that by Mr Quintin Hogg, detailing his own early experience in founding the first polytechnic, and that of Dr William Garnett, then secretary of the Technical Education Board. (J. G. F.;W. G.) POLYXENA, in Greek legend, daughter of Priam, king of Troy, and Hecuba. She had been betrothed to Achilles, who was slain by Paris in the temple of Apollo Thymbraeus, where the marriage was to have been celebrated (Hyginus, Fab. no). The shade of Achilles afterwards appeared to the returning Greeks in the Thracian Chersonese and demanded the sacrifice of Polyxena, who was put to death by Neoptolemus, son of Achilles, on his father's grave (Ovid, Metam. xiii. 440 sqq.). The tragic story is the subject of the Hecuba of Euripides, the Troades of Seneca and the Polyxena of Sophocles, of which only a few fragments remain. According to Philostratus {Heroica, 20, 18), Polyxena fled to the Greeks after the murder of Achilles and committed suicide on his tomb. POLYZOA, in zoology, a term (introduced by J. V. Thompson, 1830) synonymous with Bryozoa (Ehrenberg, 183 1) for a group commonly included with the Brachiopoda in the Molluscoidea (Milne Edwards, 1843). The correctness of this association is questionable, and the Polyzoa are here treated as a primary division or phylum of the animal kingdom. They may be defined as aquatic animals, forming colonies by budding; with ciliated retractile tentacles and a U-shaped alimentary canal. The phylum is subdivided as follows. Class I. Entoprocta (Nitsche). Lophophore circular, in- cluding both mouth and anus. Tentacles infolded, during retraction, into a vestibule which can be closed by a sphincter. Body-wall not calcified, body-cavity absent. Definite excretory organs present. Reproductive organs with ducts leading to the vesti- bule. Zooids possessing a high degree of individuality. Loxosoma Pedicellina (fig. 1), Urtatella. Class II. Ectoprocta (Nitsche). Lophophore circular or horseshoe shaped, including the mouth but not the anus. Tentacles retractile into an introvert (" tentacle-sheath "). Body- wall membranous or calcified, body- cavity distinct. Specific excretory organs absent, with the doubtful excep- tion of the Phylactolaemata. Repro- ductive organs not continuous with ducts. Zooids usually connected laterally with their neighbours. Order 1. Gymnolaemata (Allman). — Lophophore circular, with no epistome. Fig. 1. — Part of the Body-cavities of zooids not continuous creeping stolon, with with one another. Body-wall not muscular. zooids, of Pedicellina Sub-order 1. Trepostomata (Ulrich); belgica. Fossil. — Zooecia, long and coherent, pris- a, c, Stalks of zooids matic or cylindrical, with terminal orifices, of different ages; b, their wall thin and simple in structure DU d. proximally, thickened and complicated distally. Cavity of the zooecium subdivided by transverse diaphragms, most numerous in the distal portion. Orifices of the zooecia often separated by pores (mesopores). Sub-order 2. Cryptostomata (Vine); Fossil. — Zooecia usually short. Orifice concealed at the bottom of a vestibular shaft, sur- rounded by a solid or vesicular calcareous deposit. Sub-order 3. Cyclostomata (Busk). — rZooecia prismatic or cylindrical, with terminal, typically circular orifice, not protected by any special organ. The ovicells are modified zooecia, and contain numerous embryos which in the cases so far investigated arise by fission of a primary embryo developed from an egg. Crisia (fig. 2), Tubuliportt, Hornera, Lichenopora. Suborder A. Ctbwostomata (Busk). — Zooecia with soft uncalci- fied 1 walls, the external part of the introvert being closed during retraction by a membranous collar. Zooecia either arising from a stolon, without lateral connexion with one another, or laterally united to form sheets. Alcyonidium, Flustrella, Bowerbankia (fig- 3) > Farrella, Victorella, Paludicella. (After van Beneden. ) (After Hincks.) Fig. 2. — Part of a Branch of Crisia eburnea. g, zooecia ; x, imperfectly developed ovicell. Sub-order 5. Cheilostomata (Busk). — Zooecia with more or less calcified walls. Orifice closed by a lid-like operculum. Poly- morphism usually occurs, certain individuals having the form of avicularia or vibracula. The ovicells commonly found as globular swellings surmounting ;' the orifices are not direct modifications of zooecia, and each typically contains a single egg or embryo. Membranipora, Flustra, Onychocella, Lunu- lites, Steganoporella, Scrupo- cellaria, Menipea, Caberea, ;// Bicellaria, Bugula, Beania, (After Hincks.) (After Hincks.) Fig. 3.— Part of a branch of Fig. 4. — Zooecia of Umbonula Bowerbankia pustulosa, showing pavonella, showing a pair of the thread-like stolon from which minute avicularia on either side arise young and mature zooecia. of the orifice of each zooecium. The tentacles are expanded in some of the latter. Membraniporella, Cribrilina, Ccllaria, Micropora, Selenaria, Um- bonula (fig. 4), Lepralia, Schizoporella, Cellepora, Mucronella, Smittia, Retepora, Catenicella, Microporella, Adeona, Order 2. Phylactolaemata (Allman).— Lophophore horse-shoe shaped, or in Fredericella circular. Mouth guarded by an epistome. Body-cavities of zooids continuous with one another. Body-wall uncalcified and muscular. Reproduction sexual and by means of " statoblasts," peculiar internal buds protected by a chitinous shell. Fredericella, Plumatella (fig. 5), Lophopus, Crislatella, Pectinatella. Hatschek (1888) treated the Entoprocta as a division of his group Scolecida, characterized by the possession of a primary body-cavity and of protonephridia; while he placed the Ecto- procta, with the Phoronida and Brachiopoda, in a disfinct group, the Tentaculata. Against this view may be urged the essential similarity between the processes of budding in Entoprocta and Ectoprocta (cf. Seeliger, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. xlix. 168; 1., 560), and the resemblances in the development of the two classes. Of the forms above indicated there is no palaeontological evidence with regard to the Entoprocta. The Trepostomata are in the main Palaeozoic, although Heteropora, of which recent species exist, is placed by Gregory in this division. The Cryptostomata are also Palaeozoic, and include the abundant and widely-distributed genus Fenestella. The Cyclostomata are numerous in Palaeozoic rocks, but attained a specially predominant position in the Creta- ceous strata, where they are represented by a profusion of genera and species; while they still survive in considerable numbers at the present day. The Ctenostomata are ill adapted for preserva- tion as fossils, though remains referred to this group have been 1 Calcareous spicules have been described by Lomas in Alcyoni- dium gelatinosum. POLYZOA 43 (After AUman.) Fig. 5. — Zooid Plumatella, with ex- panded tentacles. a. Anus : lopho- shaped phore ; Ectocyst ; Caecum of stomach. described from Palaeozoic strata. They constitute a small proportion of the recent Polyzoa. The Cheilostomata are usually believed to have made their appearance in the Jurassic period. They are the dominant group at the present day, and are Represented by a large number of genera and species. The Phylactolaemata are a small group confined to fresh water, and possess clear indications of adaptation to that habitat. The fresh-water fauna also contains a representative of the Entoprocta (Urnatella), two or three Ctenostomes, such as Victorella and Palu- dicella, and one or two species of Cheilo- stomata. With these exceptions, the existing Polyzoa are marine forms, occur- ring from between tide-marks to abyssal depths in the ocean. The Polyzoa are colonial animals, the colony (zoarium) originating in most cases from a free-swimming larva, which attaches itself to some solid object and becomes metamorphosed into the primary individual, or " ancestrula." In the Phylactolaemata, however, a new colony may originate not only from a larva, but also from a peculiar form of bud known as a statoblast, or by the fission of a fully-developed colony. The ancestrula inaugurates a process of budding, con- of tinued by its progeny, and thus gives rise to the mature colony. In Loxosoma the buds break off as soon as they become mature, and a colonial form is thus hardly br, Tentacles, arranged assumed. In other Entoprocta the buds on a horseshoe retain a high degree of individuality, a thread-like stolon giving off the cylindrical stalks, each of which dilates at its end into the body of a zooid. In some of the Ctenostomata the colony is similarly constituted, a branched stolon giving off the zooids, which are not connected with one another. In the majority of Ectoprocta there is no stolon, the zooids growing out of one another and being usually apposed so as to form con- tinuous sheets or branches. In the encrusting type, which is found in a large proportion of the genera, the zooids are usually in a single layer, with their orifices facing away from the sub- stratum; but in certain species the colony becomes multilaminar by the continued superposition of new zooids over the free surfaces of the older ones, whose orifices they naturally occlude. The zoarium may rise up into erect growths composed of a single layer of zooids, the orifices of which are all on one surface, or of two layers of zooids placed back to back, with the orifices on both sides of the fronds or plates. The rigid Cheilostomes which have this habit were formerly placed in the genus Eschara, but the bilaminar type is common to a number of genera, and there can be no doubt that it is not in itself an indication of affinity. The body-wall is extensively calcified in the Cyclostomata and in most Cheilo- stomata, which may form elegant network-like colonies, as in the unilaminar genus Retepora, or may consist of wavy anastomosing plates, as in the bilaminar Lepralia foliacea of the British coasts, specimens of which may have a diameter of many inches. In other Cheilostomes the amount of calcification may be much less, the supporting skeleton being largely composed of the organic material chitin. In Flustra and other forms belonging to this type, the zoarium is accordingly flexible, and either bilaminar or unilaminar. In many calcareous forms, both Cheilostomes and Cyclostomes, the zoarium is rendered flexible by the interposition of chitinous joints at intervals. This habit is characteristic of the genera Crista, Cellaria, Catenicella and others, while it occurs in certain species of other genera. The form of the colony may thus be a good generic character, or, on the contrary, a single genus or even species may assume a variety of different forms. While nearly all Polyzoa are permanently fixed to one spot, the colonies of Cristatella and Lophopus among the Phylactolaemata can crawl slowly from place to place. Anatomy. — The zooids of which the colonies of Ectoprocta are composed consist of two parts: the body-wall and the visceral mass (figs. 6, 9). These were at one time believed to represent two individuals of different kinds, together constituting a zooid. The visceral mass was accordingly termed the " polypide " and the body-wall which contains it the " zooecium." This view depended principally on the fact that the life of the polypide and of the zooecium are not coextensive. It is one of the most re- markable facts in the natural history of the Polyzoa that a single zooecium may be tenanted by several polypides, which successively degenerate. The periodical histolysis may be partly due to the absence of specific excretory organs and to the accumulation of pigmented excretory substances in the wall of the alimentary canal. On the degeneration of the polypide, its nutritive material is apparently absorbed for the benefit of the zooid, while the pig- mented substances assume a spheroidal form, which either remains as an inert " brown body" in the body-cavity or is discharged to the exterior by the alimentary canal of the new polypide. This is formed as a two-layered " polypide-bud," which usually develops from the inner side of the zooecial wall, and soon occupies the place of the previous polypide. The inner layer of the polypide-bud gives rise to the structures usually regarded as ectodermic and endodermic, the outer layer to the mesodermic organs. The polypide consists of a " lophophore " bearing a series of ciliated tentacles by which Diatoms and other microscopic bodies are collected as food, of a U-shaped alimentary canal, and of a central nervous system. While the mouth is invariably encircled by the bases of the tentacles, the anus lies within the series in the Entoprocta and outside it in the Ectoprocta. The lophophore is a simple circle in all Polyzoa except in the Phylactolaemata, where it typically has the form of a horse shoe outlined by the bases of the tentacles. In Fredericella belonging to this order it is, however, circular, but the systematic position of the genus is sufficiently indicated by its possession of an " epistome," a lip-like structure . guarding the anal side of the mouth in all Phylactolaemata and absent throughout the Gymnolaemata. The cavities of the hollow tentacles open into a circular canal which surrounds the oesophagus at the base of the lophophore. This is continuous with the general body-cavity in the Phylactolaemata, while in the Gymnolaemata it develops in the bud as a part of the body-cavity, from which it becomes completely separated. In the Entoprocta the tentacles are withdrawn by being infolded into the " vestibule," a depression of the oral surface which can be closed by a sphincter muscle. In the Ectoprocta they are retractile into an introvert, the " tentacle- sheath " (fig. 9), the external opening of which is the " orifice " of the zooecium. In the Cyclostomata, further distinguished by the cylindrical or prismatic form of their highly calcified zooecia, the orifice is typically circular, without any definite cjosing organ. In the Cheilostomata it is closed by a chitinous (rarely calcareous) " operculum " (fig. 9, C), while in the Ctenostomata it is guarded by a delicate membrane similar to a piece of paper rolled into a longitudinally creased cylinder. During retraction this " collar " lies concealed in the beginning of the introvert. It becomes visible when the polypide begins to protrude its tentacles, making its appearance through the orifice as a delicate hyaline frill through which the ten- tacles are pushed. In the Phylactolaemata the outermost layer of the body- wall is a flexible, uncalcified cuticle or " ectocyst," be- neath which follow in suc- cession the ectoderm, the muscular layers and the coelomic epithelium. In a few Gymnolaemata the ec- tocyst is merely chitinous, although in most cases the four vertical walls and the basal wall of the zooecium are calcareous. The free (frontal) wall may remain membranous and uncalcified, as in Membranipora (figs. 8 A, 9 A), but in many Cheilostomes the frontal surface is protected by a cal- careous shield, which grows from near the free edges of the vertical walls and com- monly increases in thickness as the zooecium grows older by the activity of the " epi- theca," a layer of living tissue outside it. The body- wall is greatly simplified in the Gymnolaemata, in cor- relation with the functional importance of the skeletal part of the wall. Even the ectoderm can rarely be recog- nized as an obvious epithe- lium except in regions where budding is taking place, while muscular layers are always absent and a coelomic epi- thelium can seldom be ob- served. The body-cavity is, however, traversed by mus- cles, and by strands of meso- dermic " funicular tissue,' (After AUman.) Fig. 6. — Zooid of Palvdicella articulata (= ehrenbergi). a, Anus. br, Expanded tentacles. i, Ectocyst. in, r' , Parietovaginal muscles. mr, Retractor muscle. 0, Ovary. oe, Oesophagus. v. Caecum of stomach, testis. Funiculi. I, X, X' usually irregular, but sometimes constituting definite funiculi (fig. 6, x, x'). This tissue is continuous from zooecium to zooecium 44 POLYZOA through perforated " ro6ette-plates " in the dividing walls. In the Phylactolaemata a single definite funiculus passes from the body- wall to the apex of the stomach. This latter organ is pigmented in all Polyzoa, and is produced, in the Ectoprocta, beyond the point where the intestine leaves it into a conspicuous caecum (fig. 6, v). The nervous system is represented by a ganglion situated between the mouth and the anus. The ovary (o) and the testis (t) of Ectoprocta are developed on the body-wall, on the stomach, or on the funiculus. Both kinds of reproductive organs may occur in a single zooecium, and the reproductive elements pass when ripe into the body-cavity. Their mode of escape is unknown in most cases. In some Gymnolaemata, polypides which develop an ovary possess a flask-shaped " intertentacular organ," situated between two of the tentacles, and affording a direct passage into the introvert for the eggs or even the spermatozoa developed in the same zooecium. In other cases the reproductive cells perhaps pass out by the atrophy of the polypide, whereby the body-cavity may become continuous with the exterior. The statoblasts of the Phylactolaemata originate on the funiculus, and are said to be derived partly from an ectodermic core possessed by this organ and partly from its external mesoderm (Braem), the former giving rise to the chitinous envelope and to a nucleated layer (fig. 7, ect), which later invaginates to form the inner vesicle of the polypide-bud. The mesodermic portion becomes charged with a yolk-like material (y), and, on the germina- tion of the statoblast, gives rise to the outer layer (mes) of the bud. The production of a polypide by the statoblast thus differs in no essential respect from the formation of a polypide in an ordinary zooecium. The statoblasts require a period of rest before germina- tion, and Braem has shown that their property of floating at the surface may be beneficial to them by exposing them to the action „, of frost, which in some cases improves the ger- minating power. The occurrence of Phylac- tolaemata in the tropics would show, however, without further evidence, that frost is not a factor essential for germination. The withdrawal of the extended polypide is effected by the contrac- tion of the retractor muscles (fig. 6, mr), and must result in an in- crease in the volume of the contents of the body- cavity. The alternate increase and diminution of volume is easily under- stood in forms with flex- ible zooecia. Thus in the Phylactolaemata the con- traction of the muscular body-wall exerts a pressure on the fluid of the body-cavity and is the cause of the protrusion of the polypide. In the Gymno- laemata protrusion is effected by the contraction of the parietal muscles, which pass freely across the body-cavity from one part of the body-wall to another. In the branching Ctenostomes the entire body-wall is flexible, so that the contraction of a parietal muscle acts equally on the two points with which it is connected. In encrusting Ctenostomes and in the Membranipora-like Cheilo- stomes (figs. 8 A, 9 A) the free surface or frontal wall is the only one in which any consider- able amount of movement can take place. The parie- tal muscles (p.m.), which pass from the vertical walls to the frontal wall, thus act by depressing the latter and so exerting a pressure on the fluid of the body- Fig. 8. — Diagrammatic Transverse cavity. In Cheilostomata Sections. w 'th a rigid frontal wall A, of Membranipora; B, of an J ull ^ n sh ° wed th . at P ro " immature zooecium of CribrUina; trusion and retraction were p.m., Parietal muscles. rendered possible by the existence 01 a compensa- tion-sac," in communication with the external water. In its most fully-developed condition (fig. 9, C) the compensation- sac (c.s.) is a large cavity which lies beneath the calcified frontal wall and opens to the exterior at the proximal border of the oper- culum (fig. 10). It is joined to the rigid body-wall by numerous muscle-fibres, the contraction of which must exert a pressure on the fluid of the body-cavity, thereby protruding the polypide. The exchange of fluid in the sac may well have a respiratory signifi- cance, in addition to its object of facilitating the movements of the tentacles. The evolution of the arrangements for protruding the polypide seems to have proceeded along several distinct lines: (i.) In certain sp (After Braem.) Fig. 7. — Section of a Germinating Statoblast of Cristatella mucedo. ann, Chitinous annulus, containing air- cavities which enable the stato- blast to float. Thickened part of the ectoderm, which will give rise to the inner layer of the polypide- bud. , Mesoderm, forming the outer layer of the bud. Anchoring spines of the statoblast. The yolk-like mesodermic mass. ect. sp, species of Membranipora the " frontal membrane," or membranous free-wall, is protected by a series of calcareous spines, which start from its periphery and arch inwards. In CribrUina similar spines Fig. 10. — Zooecium of CribrUina, showing the entrance to the Fig. 9. — Diagrammatic Longitudinal Sections of Cheilostomatous Zooecia. A, Membranipora (after Nitsche) ; B, CribrUina; C, Some of the Lepralioid forms, b.c, Body-cavity, cr., Cryptocyst. t.s., Compensation-sac. f.m., Frontal membrane. 0., Orifice, through which the tentacles are protruded, op., Operculum, p.m., Parietal muscles, t.s.. Tentacle-sheath. are developed in the young zooecium, but they soon unite with one another laterally, leaving rows of pores along the sutural lines (fig. 10). The operculum retains its continuity with the frontal membrane (fig. 9, B) into which the parietal muscles are still inserted. As indications that the conditions described in Membranipora and CribrUina are of special significance may be noted the fact that the ancestrula of many genera which have well-developed compensation-sacs in the rest of their zooecia is a Membranipora-\ike individual with a series of marginal calcareous spines, and the further fact that a considerable proportion of the Cretaceous Cheilos- tomes belong either to the Membrani- poridae or to the Cribrilinidae. (ii.) In Scrupocellaria, Menipea and Caberea a single, greatly dilated marginal spine, the " scutum " or " fornix," may protect the frontal membrane. (iii.) In Umbonula the frontal membrane and parietal muscles of the young zooecium are like compensation - sac on those of Membranipora, but they become the P roxln »I side of the covered by the growth, from the proximal °P er cuIum (op). and lateral sides, of a calcareous lamina covered externally by a soft membrane. The arrangement is perhaps derivable from a CribrUina-like condition in which the outer layer of the spines has become membranous while the spines themselves are laterally united from the first, (iv.) In the Microporidae and Steganoporellidae the body-cavity becomes partially subdivided by a calcareous lamina (" cryptocyst," Jullien) which grows from the proximal and lateral sides in a plane parallel to the frontal membrane and not far below it. The parietal muscles are usually reduced to a single pair, which may pass through foramina ' ("opesiules ") in the cryptocyst to reach their insertion. There is no compensation-sac in these families, (v.) Many of the Lepralioid forms offer special difficulties, but the calcareous layer of the frontal surface is probably a cryptocyst (as in fig. 9, C), the compensation- sac being developed round its distal border. The " epitheca " noticed above is in this case the persistent frontal membrane, (vi.) In Microporella the opening of the compensation-sac has become separated from the operculum by calcareous matter, and is known as the " median pore." Jullien believed that this pore opens into the tentacle-sheath, but it appears probable that it really communicates with the compensation-sac and not with the tentacle- sheath. The mechanism of protrusion in the Cyclostomata is a subject which requires further examination. The most singular of the external appendages found in the Polyzoa are the avicularia and vibracula of the Cheilostomata. The avicularium is so called from its resemblance, in its most highly differentiated condition, to the head of a bird. In Bugula, for instance, a calcareous avicularium of this type is attached by a narrow neck to each zooecium. The avicularium can move as a whole by means of special muscles, and its chitinous lower jaw POLYZOA 45 or " mandible " can be opened and closed. It is regarded as a modified zooecium, the polypide of which has become vestigial, although it is commonly represented by a sense-organ, bearing tactile hairs, situated on what may be termed the palate. The operculum of the normal zooecium has become the mandible, while the occlusor muscles have become enormous. In the vibra- culum the part representing the zooecium is relatively smaller, and the mandible has become the " seta," an elongated chitinous lash which projects far beyond the zooecial portion of the structure. In Caberea, the vibracula are known to move synchronously, but co-ordination of this kind is otherwise unknown in the Polyzoa. The avicularia and vibracula give valuable aid to the systematic study of the Cheilostomata. In its least differentiated form the avicularium occupies the place of an ordinary zooecium (" vicarious avicularium "), from which it is distinguished by the greater development of the operculum and its muscles, while the polypide is normally not functional. Avicularia of this type occur in the common Flustra foliacea, in various species of Membranipora, and in particular in the Onychocellidae, a remarkable family common in the Cretaceous period and still existing. In the majority of Cheilostomes, the avicularia are, so to speak, forced out of the ordinary series of zooecia, with which they are rigidly connected. There are comparatively few cases in which, as in Bugula, they are mounted on a movable joint. Although at first sight the arrange- ment of the avicularia in Cheilostomes appears to follow no general law some method is probably to be made out on closer study. They occur in particular in relation with the orifice of the zooecium, and with that of the compensation-sac. This delicate structure is frequently guarded by an avicularium at its entrance, while avicularia are also commonly found on either side of the operculum ■ or in other positions close to that structure. It can hardly be doubted that the function of these avicularia is the protection of the ten- tacles and compensation-sac. The suggestion that they are concerned in feeding does not rest on any definite evidence, and is probably erroneous. But avicularia or vibracula may also occur in other places — on the backs of unilaminar erect forms, along the sutural lines of the zooecia and on their frontal surface. These are probably important in checking overgrowth by encrusting organisms, and in particular by preventing larvae from fixing on the zoarium. Vibracula are of less frequent occurrence than avicularia, with which they may coexist as in Scrupocellaria, where they occur on the backs of the unilaminar branches. In the so-called Selenariidae, probably an unnatural association of genera which have assumed a free discoidal form of zoarium, they may reach a very high degree of development, but Busk's suggestion that in this group they " may be subservient to locomotion " needs verification. Development and Affinities. — It is generally admitted that the larva of the Entoprocta (fig. 11) has the structure of a Trocho- sphere. This appears to indicate that the Polyzoa are remotely allied to other phyla in which this type of larva prevails, and in particular to the Mollusca and Chaetopoda, as well as to the Rotifera, which are regarded as persistent Trochospheres. The praeoral portion (lower in fig. n) constitutes the greater part of the larva and contains most of the viscera. It is terminated by a well-developed structure (/g) corresponding with the apical sense-organ of ordinary Trocho- spheres, and an excretory organ (nph) of the type familiar in these larvae occurs on the ventral side of the stomach. The central nervous system (x) is highly developed, and in Loxosoma bears a pair of eyes. The larva swims by a ring of cilia, which corre- sponds with the praeoral circlet of a Trochosphere. The oral surface, on which are situated the mouth (in) and anus (a), is relatively small . The apical sense- organ is used for temporary attach- ment to the maternal vestibule in which development takes place, but permanent fixation is effected by the oral surface. This is followed by the atrophy of many of the larval organs, including the brain, the sense-organ and the ciliated ring. The alimentary canal persists and revolves in the median plane through an angle of 180 , accompanied by part of the larval vestibule, the space formed by the retraction of the oral surface. The vestibule breaks through to the exterior, and the tentacles, which have been developed within it, are brought into relation with the external water. In the common and widely-distributed Cheilostome, Membrani- ( After Ha tschek.) Fig. ii. — Larva of Pedicellina. a. Anus. /g, Apical sense-organ. kg, Intestine. /, Ventral wall of stomach. m, Mouth. nph, Excretory organ. x, Brain. pora pilosa, the pelagic larva is known as Cyphonautes, and it has a structure not unlike that of the larval Pedicellina. The principal differences are the complication of the ciliated band, the absence of the excretory organ, the great lateral compression of the body, the possession of a pair of shells protecting the sides, the presence of an organ known as the " pyriform organ," and the occurrence of a sucker in a position corresponding with the depression seen between (m) and (a) in fig. II. Fixation takes place by means of this sucker, which is everted for the purpose, part of its epithelium becoming the basal ectoderm of the ancestrula. The pyriform organ has probably assisted the larva to find an appropriate place for fixation (cf. Kupelwieser, 18); but, like the alimentary canal and most of the other larval organs, it undergoes a process of histo- lysis, and the larva becomes the ancestrula, containing the primary brown body derived from the purely larval organs. The polypide is formed, as in an ordinary zooecium after the loss of its polypide, from a polypide-bud. The Cyphonautes type has been shown by Prouho (24) to occur in two or three widely different species of Cheilostomata and Cteno- stomata in which the eggs are laid and develop in the external water. In most Ectoprocta, however, the development takes place internally or in an ovicell, and a considerable quantity of yolk is present. The alimentary canal, which may be represented by a vestigial structure, is accordingly not functional, and the larva does not become pelagic. A pyriform organ is present in most Gymnolaemata as well as the sucker by which fixation is effected. As, in the case of Cyphonautes, the larval organs degenerate and the larva becomes the ancestrula from which a polypide is developed as a bud. In the Cyclostomata the primary embryo undergoes repeated fission without developing definite organs, and each of the numerous pieces so formed becomes a free larva, which possesses no alimentary canal. Finally, in the Phylactolaemata, the larva becomes an ancestrula before it is hatched, and one or several poly pides, may be present when fixation is effected. The development of the Ectoprocta is intelligible on the hypo- thesis that the Entoprocta form the starting-point of the series. On the view that the Phylactolaemata are nearly related to Phoronis (see PhorOnidea), it is extremely difficult to draw any conclusions with regard to the significance of the facts of development. If the Phylactolaemata were evolved from the type of structure repre- sented by Phoronis or the Pterobranchia (g.».), the Gymnolaemata should be a further modification of this type, and the comparative study of the embryology of the two orders would appear to be meaningless. It seems more natural to draw the conclusion that the resemblances of the Phylactolaemata to Phoronis are devoid of phylogenetic significance. Bibliography. — For general accounts of the structure and development of the Polyzoa the reader's attention is specially directed to 12, 14, 6, 25, I, 2, 17, 26, 18, 23, 3, in the list given below; for an historical account to I ; for a full bibliography of the group, to 22; for fresh-water forms, to 1-3, 7-10, 17; for an indispensable synonymic list of recent marine forms, to 15; for Entoprocta, to 10, 11, 24; for the classification of Gymnolaemata, to 21, 14, 4, 13, 20; for Palaeontology, to 27, 22. References to important works on the species of marine Polyzoa by Busk, Hincks, Jullien, Levinsen, MacGillivray, Nordgaard, Norman, Waters and others are given in the Memoir (22) by Nickles and Bassler. (1) Allman, " Monogr. Fresh-water Polyzoa," Ray Soc. (1856). (2) Braem, " Bry. d. sflssen Wassers," Bibl. Zool. Bd. ii. Heft 6 (1890). (3) Braem, " Entwickel. v. Plumatella," ibid., Bd. x. Heft 23 (1897). (4) Busk, " Report on the Polyzoa," " Challenger " Rep. pt. xxx. (1884), 50 (1886). (5) Caldwell, " Phoro- nis," Proc. Roy. Soc. (1883), xxxiv. 371. (6) Calvet, " Bry. Ecto- proctes Marins," Trav. Inst. Montpellier (new series), Mem. 8 (1900). (7) Cori, " Nephridien d. Cristatella," Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. (1893), l v - 626. (8) Davenport, " Cristatella," Bull. Mus. Harvard ( 1 890-1 891), xx. 101. (9) Davenport, " Paludicella," ibid. (1891-1892), xxii. 1. (10) Davenport, " Urnatella," ibid. (1893), xxiv. 1. (11) Ehlers, " Pedicellineen," Abh. Ges. Gbttingen (1890), xxxvi. (12) Harmer, " Polyzoa," Cambr. Nat. Hist. (1896), ii. 463; art. " Poly- zoa," Ency. Brit. (10th ed., 1902), xxxi. 826. (13) Harrr.er, " Morph. Cheilostomata," Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. (1903), xlvi. 263. (14) Hincks, " Hist. Brit. Mar. Pol." (1880). (15) Jelly, " Syn. Cat. Recent Mar. Bry." (1889). (16) Jullien and Calvet, " Bryozoaires," Res camp. sci. prince de Monaco (1903), xxiii. (17) Kraepelin, " Deutsch. Susswasser-Bry.," Abh, . Ver. Hamburg (1887), x.; (1892), xii. (18) Kupelwieser, " Cyphonautes," Zoologica (1906), Bd. xix. Heft 47. (19) Lankester, art, " Polyzoa," Ency. Brit. (9th ed., 1885), xix. 429, (20) Levinsen, " Bryozoa," Vid. Medd. Naturh. Foren. (Copenhagen, 1902). (21) MacGillivray, " Cat. Mar. Pol. Victoria," P. Roy. Soc. Victoria (1887), xxiii. 187. (22) Nickles and Bassler, " Synopsis Amer. Foss. Bry.," Bull. US. Geol. Survey (1900), No. 173. (23) Pace, " Dev. Flustrella," Quart. Journ. Mic. Soc. (1906), 50, pt. 3, 435. (24) Prouho, " Loxo- " Fossil Polyzoa," in Zittel's Text-book of Palaeontology, Eng. ed. (1900), i. 257. (S. F. H.) 4 6 POMADE— POMEGRANATE POMADE, or Pomatum, a scented ointment, used formerly for softening and beautifying the skin, as a lip-salve, &c, but now principally applied to the hair. It was made originally from the juice of apples (Lat. pomum), whence the name. POMANDER (from Fr. pomme d'ambre, i.e. apple of amber), a ball made of perfumes, such as ambergris (whence the name), musk, civet, &c, and formerly worn or carried in a case, also known by the same name, as a protection against infection in times of pestilence or merely as a useful article to modify bad smells. The globular cases which contained the " pomanders " were hung from a neck-chain or attached to the girdle, and were usually perforated and made of gold or silver. Sometimes they contained several partitions, in each of which was placed a different perfume. There is an early Spanish pomander set with emeralds, and a fine 16th-century one, dredged from the Thames, in the British Museum. POMBAL, SEBASTIAO JOSE DE CARVALHO E MELLO, Marquess of (1699-1782), Portuguese statesman, was born at Soure near Pomba, on the 13th of May 1699. He was the son of Manoel de Carvalho e Athayde, a country gentleman (fidalgo) and of his wife D. Theresa Luiza de Mendonca e Mello. He studied law at Coimbra University, served for a short time as a private in the army, and afterwards lived the life of a man about town in Lisbon, sharing in the diversions of the " Mohocks " who then infested the streets. In 1733 he abducted and married D. Theresa de Noronha, a widow belonging to one of the most distinguished families in Portugal. He then retired to Soure, where, on the recommendation of Cardinal de Motta, King John V. commissioned him to write a series of biographical studies. In 1739 he was sent as Portuguese ambassador to London, where he remained until 1745. He was then transferred to Vienna. His first wife having died on the 7th of January 1739, he married, on the 18th of December 17451 Leonora Ernestine Daun, daughter of General Count Daun. In 1749 he was recalled to take up the post of secretary of state for foreign affairs and war. The appointment was ratified on the 3rd of August 1 7 50, by King Joseph, who had succeeded John V. in that year. Carvalho's career from 1750 to 1777 is part of the history of Portugal. Though he came into power only in his 51st year, without previous administrative experience, he was able to reorganize Portuguese education, finance, the army and the navy. He also built up new industries, promoted the development of Brazil and Macao, and expelled the Jesuits. His complete ascendancy over the mind of, King Joseph dates from the time of the great Lisbon earthquake (Nov. 1, 1755)- Though the famous words " Bury the dead and feed the living " were probably not spoken by him, they summarize his action at this time of calamity. In June 1759 his suppression of the so-called " Tavora plot " gained for him the title of count of Oeyras; and in September 1770 he was made marquess of Pombal. His severe adminis- tration had made many enemies, and his life had been attempted in 1769. Soon after the death of King Joseph, in 1777, Pombal was dismissed from office; and he was only saved from impeach- ment by the death of his bitterest opponent, the queen-mother, Mariana Victoria, in January 1781. On the 16th of August a royal decree forbade him to reside within twenty leagues of the court. He died at Pombal on the 8th of May 1782. See, in addition to the works dealing with the period 1 750-1 777 and quoted under Portugal: History; S.J. CM. (Pombal), Rela^ao abremada, &c. (Paris, 1758) ; Memoirs of the Court of Portugal, &c. (London, 1765); Anecdotes du ministere de Pombal (Warsaw, 1781); Administration du marquis de Pombal (4 vols., Amsterdam, 1787); Cartas . . . do marques de Pombal (3 vols., Lisbon, 1820-1824) ; J. Smith, Count of Carnota, Memoirs of the Marquess of Pombal, &c. (London, 1843) ; F. L. Gomes, Le Marquis de Pombal, &c. (Paris, 1869); B. Duhr (S.J.), Pombal, &c. (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1891) ; C. J. de Merrezes, Os Jesuitas e marques de Pombal (Oporto, 1893). See also articles in the Revue des deux monies for September 1870; the Revue bleue for September 1889, and the Revue, historique for September 1895 and January 1896. POMEGRANATE. The pomegranate {Punica Granatum) is of exceptional interest by reason of its structure, its history, and its utility. It forms a tree of small stature, or a bush, with opposite or alternate, shining, lance-shaped leaves, from the axils of some of which proceed the brilliant scarlet flowers. These are raised on a short stalk, and consist of a thick fleshy cylindrical or bell-shaped calyx-tube, with five to seven short lobes at the top. From the throat of the calyx proceed five to Fig. 1. — Pomegranate, Punica Granatum, flowering branch, half natural size. 1, Flower cut lengthwise; the 3, Same cut across, showing petals have been removed. seeds. 2, Fruit, about one-third natural 4, Seed, natural size. size. seven roundish, crumpled, scarlet or crimson petals, and below them very numerous slender stamens. The pistil consists of two rows of carpels placed one above another, both rows embedded in, and partially inseparate from, the inner surface of the calyx- tube. The styles are confluent into one slender column. The fruit, which usually attains the size of a large orange, consists (After Eichler, from Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer. ) Fig. 2. — Punica Granatum. A, Floral diagram. B, Longitudinal section of the ovary. of a hard leathery rind, enclosing a quantity of pulp derived from the coats of the numerous seeds. This pulp, filled as it is with refreshing acid juice, constitutes the chief value of the tree. The more highly cultivated forms contain more of it than the wild or half-wild varieties. The great structural peculiarity consists in the presence of the two rows of carpels one above another (a state of things which occurs exceptionally in apples and oranges), and in the fact that, while in the lower series the seeds are attached to the inner border or lower angle of the cavity, they occupy the outer side in the upper series, as if during growth the upper whorl had become completely bent over. By Bentham and Hooker the Punica is included as an anoma- lous genus in the order Lythraceae; others consider it more nearly allied to the myrtles; while its peculiarities are so great as, in the opinion of many botanists, to justify its inclusion in a POMERANIA 47 separate order, Punicaceae. Not only is the fruit valuable in hot countries for the sake of its pulp, but the rind and the bark and the outer part of the root (containing the alkaloid pelle- tierine) are valuable as astringents. The bark of the root is likewise valued as an anthelmintic in cases of tape-worm. The tree is wild in Afghanistan, north-western India, and the districts south and south-west of the Caspian, but it has been so long cultivated that it is difficult to say whether it is really native in Palestine and the Mediterranean region. It has been cited as wild in northern Africa, but this appears to be a mistake. Professor Bayley Balfour met with a wild species, heretofore un- known, in the island of Socotra, the flowers of which have only a single row of carpels, which suggests the inference that it may have been the source of the cultivated varieties. But, on the other hand, in Afghanistan, where Aitchison met with the tree truly wild, a double row of carpels was present as usual. The antiquity of the tree as a cultivated plant is evidenced by the Sanskrit name Dddimba, and by the references to the fruit in the Old Testament, and in the Odyssey, where it is spoken of as cultivated in the gardens of the kings of Phaeacia and Phrygia. The fruit is frequently represented on ancient Assyrian and Egyptian sculptures, and had a religious significance in connexion with several Oriental cults, especially the Phrygian cult of Gybele (Arnob. v. 5 seq.; see also Baudissin, Studien, ii. 207 seq.). It was well known to the Greeks and Romans, who were acquainted with its medicinal properties and its use as a tanning material. The name given by the Romans, malum punicum, indicates that they received it from Carthage, as indeed is expressly stated by Pliny ; and this circumstance has given rise to the notion that the tree was indigenous in northern Africa. ■ On a review of the whole evidence, botanical, literary and linguistic, Alphonse de Candolle (Origin of Cultivated Plants) pronounces against its African origin, and decides in favour of its source in Persia and the neighbouring countries. According to Saporta, the pomegra- nate existed in a fossil state in beds of the Pliocene epoch near Meximieux in Burgundy. The pomegranate is sometimes met with in cultivation against a wall in England, but it is too tender to withstand a severe winter. The double-flowered varieties are specially desirable for the beauty and long duration of their flowers. POMERANIA (German, Pommern), a territory of Germany and a maritime province of Prussia, bounded on the N. by the Baltic, on the W. by Mecklenburg, on the S. by Brandenburg, and on the E. by West Prussia. Its area is 11,630 sq. m., and the population in 1905 was 1,684,125, showing a density of 145 inhabitants to the square mile. The province is officially divided into the three districts of Stralsund, Stettin and Koslin, but more historical interest attaches to the names of Vorpommern and Hinterpommern, or Hither and Farther Pomerania, the former being applied to the territory to the west, and the latter to that to the east of the Oder. Pomerania is one of the flattest parts of Germany, although east of the Oder it :s traversed by a range of low hills, and there are also a few isolated eminences to the west. Off the west coast, which is very irregular, lie the islands of Rugen, Usedom and Wollin; the coast of Farther Pomerania is smooth in outline and is bordered with dunes, or sandbanks. Besides the Oder and its affluents, the chief of which are the Peene, the ticker and the Ihna, there are several smaller rivers flowing into the Baltic; a few of these are navigable for ships, but the greater number only carry rafts. Many of them end in small lakes, which are separated from the sea by narrow strips of land, through which the water escapes by one or more outlets. The interior of the province is also thickly sprinkled with lakes, the combined area of which is equal to about one-twentieth of the entire surface. The soil of Pomerania is for the most part thin and sandy, but patches of good land are found here and there. About 55% of the whole is under tillage, while 16% consists of meadow and pasture and 21% is covered by forests. The principal crops are potatoes, rye and oats, but wheat and barley are grown in the more fertile districts; tobacco, flax, hops and beetroot are also cultivated. Agriculture is still carried on in a somewhat primitive fashion, and as a rule the livestock is of an inferior quality, though the breed of horses, of a heavy build and mostly used in agriculture, is held in high esteem. Large flocks of sheep are kept, both for their flesh and their wool, and there are in the province large numbers of horned cattle and of pigs. Geese and goose feathers form lucrative articles of export. Owing to the long line of coast and the numerous lakes, fishing forms an important industry, and large quantities of herrings, eels and lampreys are sent from Pomerania to other parts of Germany. With the exception of the almost inexhaustible layers of peat, the mineral wealth of the province is insignificant. Its industrial activity is not great, but there are manufactures of machinery, chemicals, paper, tobacco and sugar; these are made chiefly in or near the large towns, while linen-weaving is practised as a domestic industry. Ship-building is carried on at Stettin and at several places along the coast. The commerce of Pomerania is in a flourishing condition, its principal ports being Stettin, Stralsund and Swinemiinde. Education is provided for by a university at Greifswald and by numerous schools. The province sends 14 members to the German Reichstag, and 26 to the Prussian house of representatives. The heir to the Prussian crown bears the title of governor of Pomerania. History. — In prehistoric times the southern coast of the Baltic seems to have been occupied by Celts, who afterwards made way for tribes of Teutonic stock. These in their turn migrated to other settlements and were replaced, about the end of the 5th century of our era, by Slavonic tribes, the Wilzi and the Pomerani. The name of Pomore, or Pommern, meaning " on the sea," was given to the district by the latter of the tribes about the time of Charlemagne, and it has often changed its political and geo- graphical significance. Originally it seems to have denoted the coast district between the Oder and the Vistula, a territory which was at first more or less dependent on Poland, but which, towards the end of the 1 2th century, was ruled by two native princes, who took the title of duke about n 70 and admitted the authority of the German king in 1181. Afterwards Pomerania extended much farther to the west, while being correspondingly curtailed on the east, and a distinction was made between Slavinia, or modern Pomerania, and Pomerellen. The latter, corresponding substantially to the present province of West Prussia, remained subject to Poland until 1309, when it was divided between Brandenburg and the Teutonic Order. Christianity was introduced in the 12th century, a bishopric being founded in the Island of Wollin, and its advance went rapidly hand in hand with the Germanizing of the district. The history of Pomerania, as distinct from that of Pomerellen, consists mainly of an almost endless succession of divisions of territory among the different lines of the ducal house, and of numerous expansions and contractions of territory through constant hostilities with the elector of Brandenburg, who claimed to be the immediate feudal superior of Pomerania, and with other neighbouring rulers. The names of Vorpom- mern and Hinterpommern were at first synonymous with Pomerania proper, or Slavinia and Pomerellen, but towards the close of the 14th century they were transferred to the two duchies into which the former was divided. In 1625 the whole of Pomerania became united under the sway of Duke Bogislaus XIV., and on his death without issue, in 1637, Branden- burg claimed the duchy by virtue of a compact made in 1571. In the meantime, however, Pomerania had been devastated by the Thirty Years' War and occupied by the Swedes, who had taken possession of its towns and fortresses. At the peace of Westphalia they claimed the duchy, in opposition to the elector of Brandenburg, and the result was that the latter was obliged to content himself with eastern Pomerania (Hinterpommern), and to see the western part (Vorpommern) awarded to Sweden. In 1720, by the peace of Stockholm, Swedish Pomerania was cur- tailed by extensive concessions to Prussia, but the district to the west of the Peene remained in the possession of Sweden until the general European settlement of 1815. Then Sweden assigned her German possessions to Denmark in exchange for Norway, whereupon Prussia, partly by purchase and partly by the cession .8 POMEROY— POMONA of the duchy of Lauenburg, finally succeeded in uniting the whole of Pomerania under her rule. For the history, see J. Bugenhagen, Pomerania, edited by O. Heinemann (Stettin, 1900) ; von Bohlen, Die Erwerbung Pommerns durch die Hohenzollern (Berlin, 1865) ; H. Berghaus, Landbuch des Herzogtums Pommern (Berlin, 1 865-1 876); the Codex Pomeraniae diplomaticus, edited by K. F. VV. Hasselbach and J. G. L. Kose- garten (Greifswald, 1862); the Pommersches Urkundenbuch, edited by R. Klempin and others (Stettin, 1 868-1 896); W. von Sommer- feld, Geschichte der Germanisierung des Herzogtums Pommern (Leipzig, 1896) ; F. W. Barthold, Geschichte von Riigen und Pommern (Hamburg, 1839-1845); K. Mass, Pommersche Geschichte (Stettin, 1899); M. VVehrmann, Geschichte von Pommern (Gotha, 1904-1906); and Uecker, Pommern in Wort und Bild (Stettin, 1904). See also the publications of the Gesellschaft fur pommersche Geschichte und Altertumskunde. POMEROY, a village and the county-seat of Meigs county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, about 85 m. S.S.E. of Columbus. Pop. (1890) 4726; (1900) 4639, including 453 foreign-born and 280 negroes; (1910) 4023. Pomeroy is served by the Hocking Valley and (across the river) Baltimore & Ohio railways, by inter-urban electric railway, and by passenger and freight boats to the leading river ports. It occupies a strip of ground between the river and a range of steep hills. Bituminous coal and salt abound in the district, and there are deposits of building stone, fireclay and glass sand. The first settlement here was established in 1816, coal mining was begun three years later,;and in 1827 a town was laid out and named Nyesville. There was little pro- gress, however, until 1833, when Samuel W. Pomeroy (in whose honour the present name was adopted) formed a company, which began mining coal on a large scale. Pomeroy was incor- porated as a village and was made the county-seat in 1841. In 1850 the first of several salt wells, from 1000 to 1200 ft. in depth, was operated. POMFRET, JOHN (1667-1702), English poet, son of Thomas Pomfret, vicar of Luton, was born in 1667. He was educated at Bedford grammar school and at Queens' College, Cambridge. He became rector of Maulden, Bedfordshire, in 1695, and of Millbrook in the same county in 1702. Dr Johnson says that the bishop of London refused to sanction preferment for him because in his Choice he declared that he would have no wife, although he expressed a wish for the occasional company of a modest and sprightly young lady. The poet was married in real life all the same, and — while waiting to clear up the misunder- standing with the bishop — he died in November 1702. The Choice or Wish: A Poem written by a Person of Quality (1700) expresses the epicurean desires of a cultivated man of Pomfret's time. It is smoothly written in the heroic couplet, and was widely popular. His Miscellany Poems were published in 1702. POMMEL (through O. Fr. pomel, from a diminutive pomellus of Lat. pomum, fruit, apple), any rounded object resembling an apple, e.g. the rounded termination of a saddle-bow; in archi- tecture, any round knob, as a boss, finial, &c. ; more particularly the rounded end to the hilt of a sword, dagger or other hand weapon, used to prevent the hand from slipping, and as a balance to the blade. " Pommel " is also a term used of a piece of grooved wood used in graining leather. This word may be the same in origin, or more probably from Fr. paumelle, from paume, the hand, palm. POMMER, or Bombard (Fr. hautbois; Ital. bombardo, bomhar- done), the alto, tenor and basses of the shawm or Schalmey family, and the forerunners respectively of the cor-anglais, bassoon or fagotto, and double bassoon or contrafagotto. The main difference to the casual observer between the medieval instruments and those of our orchestra which were evolved from them would be one of size. In the Pommers no attempt had been made to bend the tube, and its length, equal to that of an open organ pipe of the same pitch, was outstretched in all its unwieldiness in an oblique position in front of the performer. The great contrabass Pommer was 9 ft. long without the crook and reed, which, however, were bent downwards. It had five open fingerholes and five keys working inside a perforated case; in order to bring the holes within reach of the finger, they were cut obliquely through the tube. The compass extended from F below 8 ft. C to EorF in the bass stave, two octaves in all. The other members of the family were the bass Pommer, from 8 ft. C to middle C, corresponding to the modern bassoon or fagotto; the tenor or basset Pommer, a fifth higher in pitch; the alto pommer or nicolo, a fourth or a fifth above the tenor; and the high alto, or Klein Alt Pommer, an octave higher than the tenor, corresponding approximately to the cor-anglais. For the history of the Pommer family see Oboe and Bassoon. (K.S.) POMONA, an old Italian goddess of fruit and gardens. Ovid {Mel. xiv. 623) tells the story of her courtship by the silvan deities and how Vertumnus, god of the turning year, wooed and won her. Corresponding to Pomona there seems to have been a male Italian deity, called Pomunus, who was perhaps identical with Vertumnus. Although chiefly worshipped in the country, Pomona had a special priest at Rome, the fiamen Pomo- nalis, and a sacred grove near Ostia, called the Pomonal. She was represented as a beautiful maiden, with fruits in her bosom and a pruning-knife in her hand. POMONA, a city of Los Angeles county, in southern Cali- fornia, U.S.A., about 33 m. E. of the city of Los Angeles. Pop. (1890) 3634; (1900) 5526 (567 foreign-born) ; (1910) 10,207. It is served by the Southern Pacific, the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake, and the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe railways, and by an inter-urban electric line. The city is about 850 ft. above sea-level, and has a Carnegie library and several parks, including Ganesha park (45 acres), which commands a fine view. At Claremont, about 3 m. north, is Pomona College (1888, co- educational), which in 1908 had 34 instructors and 488 students. Pomona is in the midst of a prosperous fruit region, devoted especially to the growing of oranges. Orchards of oranges, lemons, apricots, peaches and prunes surround the city for miles, and some olives are grown; alfalfa and sugar-beets are raised in large quantities in the immediate neighbourhood. Pomona was settled by a colony of fruit-growers in 1875, and was chartered as a city in 1888. POMONA, or Mainland, the 'central and^ largest island of the Orkneys, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 16,235. It is 25 m. long from N.W. to S.E. and 15 m. broad from E. to W.; area, 190 sq. m.; but where the coast is cut into, on the N. by Kirkwall Bay and on the S. by Scapa Flow, the land is less than 2 m. across. Consequently, the portion of the island to the west of the waist of Pomona is sometimes described as the West Island, and the portion to the East as the East Island. The west coast is almost unbroken, the bays of Birsay and Skaill being the only bays of any importance. The east and south shores, on the other hand, are extensively carved out. Thus on the east side are found Eynhallow Sound, Wood Wick, the bays of Isbister, Firth, Kirkwall, and Inganess and Dee Sound, and on the south Holm Sound, Scapa Bay, Swanbister Bay and Bay of Ireland. The highest points of the watershed from Costa Head to the Scapa shore are Milldoe (734 ft.) to the north-east of Isbister and Wideford Hill (740 ft.) to the west of Kirkwall. There are also a few eminences towards the south-west, Ward Hill (880 ft.) in the parish of Orphir being the highest peak in the island. There are numerous lakes, some of considerable size and most of them abounding with trout. Loch Harray is 45 m. long by from J m. to about 2 m. wide, and Loch Stenhess 3 1 m. long by from J to 2 J m. wide. Lochs Swannay, Board- house and Hundland are situated in the extreme north, while Loch Kirbister lies near the south coast and Loch Tankerness adjoins Deer Sound. Off the east coast lie the islands of Rpusay, Egilshay, Viera, Eynhallow, Gairsay and Shapinshay, and off the south Copinshay and Lamb Holm. The hilly country is mostly moorland, and peat-mosses are met with in some of the low-lying land, but many of the valleys contain fertile soil, and there are productive tracts on the eastern and northern seaboard. Kirkwall, the capital of the Orkneys, and Stromness are the only towns. In Harray, the only parish in the Orkneys not trenched at some point by the sea, Norse customs have survived longer than elsewhere in the group save in North Ronaldshay. In Deerness POMPADOUR, MARQUISE DE 49 the most easterly parish in Pomona, were buried 200 Covenanters, taken prisoners at the battle of Bothwell Brig. They were carried to Barbados, to be sold as slaves for the plantations, when the ship foundered in Deer Sound, and all were drowned. In Sandside Bay, in the same parish, the fleet of Malcolm Canmore was defeated by that of Jarl Thorfinn; and at Summersdale, towards the northern base of the hills of Orphir, Sir James Sinclair, governor of Kirkwall, vanquished Lord Sinclair and 500 Caithness men in 1529. The antiquities of Pomona are of great interest. The examples of Pictish remains include brocks or round towers, chambered mounds, or buildings of stone covered in with earth, and weems, or underground dwellings afterwards roofed in. At Saverock, on the west wing of Kirkwall Bay, a good specimen of an earth- house will be found, and at Quanterness, 1 m. to the west of it, a chambered mound, containing seven rooms with beehive roofs. Farther west and 5 m. by road north-east of Stromness, and within a mile of the stone circles of Stenness, stands the great barrow or chambered mound of Maeshowe. The tumulus has the form of a blunted cone, is 36 ft. high, 300 ft. in circum- ference and 92 ft. in diameter, and at a distance of 90 ft. from its base is encircled by a moat 40 ft. wide and from 4 ft. to 8 ft. deep. The ground-plan shows that it was entered from the west by a passage, 54 ft. long, from 2 ft. to 3 ft. wide and from 25 ft. to 4§ ft. high, which led to a central apartment about 15 ft. square, the walls of which ended in a beehive roof, the spring of which began at a height of 13 ft. from the floor. This room and the passage are built of undressed blocks and slabs of sand- stone. About the middle of each side of the chamber, at a height of 3 ft. from the floor, there is an entrance to a small cell, 3 ft. high, 45 ft. wide and from 5! ft. to 7 ft. long. Mr James Farrer explored the mound in 1861, and discovered on the Walls and certain stones rude drawings of crosses, a winged dragon, and a serpent curled round a pole, besides a variety of Runic inscriptions. One of these inscriptions stated that the tumulus had been rifled by Norse pilgrims (possibly crusaders) on their way to Jerusalem under Jarl Rognvald in the 12th century. There can be little doubt but that it was a sepulchral chamber. Joseph Anderson ascribes it to the Stone Age (that is, to the Picts), and James Fergusson to Norsemen of the 10th century. The most interesting of all those links with a remote past are the stone circles forming the Ring of Brogar and the Ring of Stenness, often inaccurately described as the Stones of Stenness. The Ring of Brogar is situated to the north-west and the Ring of Stenness to the south-east of the Bridge of Brogar, as the narrow causeway of stone slabs is called which separates Loch Harray from Loch Stenness. The district lies some 43 m. north-east of Stromness. The Ring of Brogar, once known as the Temple of the Sun, stands on a raised circular platform of turf, 340 ft. in diameter, surrounded by a moat about 6 ft. deep, which in turn is invested by a grassy rampart. The ring originally comprised 60 stones, set up at intervals of 17 ft. Only 13 are now erect. Ten, still entire, lie prostrate, while the stumps of 13 others can yet be recognized. The height of the stones varies from 9 ft. to 14 ft. The Ring of Stenness — the Temple of the Moon of local tradition — is of similar construction to the larger circle, except that its round platform is only 104 ft. in diameter. The stones are believed to have numbered 12, varying in height from 15 ft. to 17 ft. but only two remain up- right. In the middle of the ring may be seen the relic of what was probably the sacrificial altar. The Stone of Odin, the great monolith, pierced by a hole at a height of 5 ft. from the ground, which figures so prominently in Scott's Pirate, stood 1 50 yds. to the north of the Ring of Stenness. The stones of both rings are of the native Old Red Sandstone. POMPADOUR, JEANNE ANTOINETTE POISSON LE NOR- MANT D'ETIOLES, Marquise de (1721-1764), mistress of Louis XV., was born in Paris on the 29th of December 1721, and baptized as the legitimate daughter of Francois Poisson, an officer in the household of the duke of Orleans, and his wife, Madeleine de la Motte, in the church of St Eustache; but she was suspected, as well as her brother, afterwards marquis of Marigny, to be the child of a very wealthy financier and farmer- general of the revenues, Le Normant de Tournehem. He at any rate took upon himself the charge of her education; and, as from the beauty and wit she showed from childhood she seemed to be born for some uncommon destiny, he declared her " un morceau de roi," and specially educated her to be a king's mistress. This idea was confirmed in her childish mind by the prophecy of an old woman, whom in after days she pensioned for the correctness of her prediction. In 1741 she was married to a nephew of her protector and guardian, Le Normant d'Etioles, who was passionately in love with her, and she soon became a queen of fashion. Yet the world of the financiers at Paris was far apart from the court world, where she wished to reign; she could get no introduction at court, and could only try to catch the king's eye when he went out hunting. But Louis XV. was then under the influence of Mme de Mailly, who carefully prevented any further intimacy with " la petite Etioles," and it was not until after her death that the king met the fair queen of the financial world of Paris at a ball given by the city to the dauphin in 1744, and he was immediately subjugated. She at once gave up her husband, and in 1745 was established at Versailles as " maltresse en titre." Louis XV. bought her the estate of Pompadour, from which she took her title of marquise (raised in 1752 to that of duchess). She was hardly established firmly in power before she showed that ambition rather than love had guided her, and began to mix in politics. Knowing that the French people of that time were ruled by the literary kings of the time, she paid court to them, and tried to play the part of a Maecenas. Voltaire was her poet in chief, and the founder of the physiocrats, Quesnay, was her physician. In the arts she was even more successful; she was herself no mean etcher and engraver, and she encouraged and protected Vanloo, Boucher, Vien, Greuze, arid the engraver Jacques Guay. Yet this policy did not prevent her from being lampooned, and the famous poissardes against her contributed to the ruin of many wits suspected of being among the authors, and notably of the Comte de Maurepas. The command of the political situation passed entirely into her hands; she it was who brought Belle-Isle into office with his vigorous policy; she corresponded regularly with the generals of the armies in the field, as her letters to the Comte de Clermont prove; and she introduced the Abbe de Bernis into the ministry in order to effect a very great alteration of French politics in 1756. The continuous policy of France since the days of Richelieu had been to weaken the house of Austria by alliances in Germany; but Mme de Pompadour changed this hereditary policy because Frederick the Great wrote scandalous verses on her; and because Maria Theresa wrote her a friendly letter she entered into an alliance with Austria. This alliance brought oh the Seven Years' War, with all its disasters, the battle of Rosbach and the loss of Canada; but Mme de Pompadour persisted in her policy, and, when Bernis failed her, brought Choiseul into office and supported hini in all his great plans, the Pacte de Famille, the suppression of the Jesuits, and the peace of Versailles. But it was to internal politics that this remarkable woman paid most attention; no one obtained office except through her; in imitation of Mme de Maintenon, she prepared all business for the king's eye with the ministers, and contrived that they should meet in her room; and she daily examined the letters sent through the post office with Janelle, the director of the post, office. By this continuous labour she made herself indispensable to Louis. Yet, when after a year or two she had lost the heart of her lover, she had a difficult task before her; to maintain her influence she had not only to save the king as much trouble as possible, but to find him fresh pleasures. When he first began to weary of her she remembered her talent for acting and her private theatricals at Etioles, and established the " theatre des petits cabinets,'" in which she acted with the greatest lords about the court for the king's pleasure in tragedies and comedies, operas and ballets. By this means and the " concerts spirituels " she kept in favour for a time; but at last she found a 5c POMPEII surer way, by encouraging the king in his debaucheries, and Louis wept over her kindness to his various mistresses. Only once, when the king was wounded by Damiens in 1757, did she receive a serious shock, and momentarily left the court; but on his recovery she returned more powerful than ever. She even ingratiated herself with the queen, after the example of Mme de Maintenon, and was made a lady-in-waiting; but the end was soon to come. " Ma vie est un combat," she said, and so it was, with business and pleasure she gradually grew weaker and weaker, and when told that death was at hand she dressed herself in full court costume, and met it bravely on the 15th of April 1764, at the age of forty-two. See Capefigue, Madame la marquise de Pompadour (1858); E. and J. de Goncourt, Les Mattresses de Louis XV., vol. ii. (i860); and Campardon, Madame de Pompadour et la cour de Louis XV. au milieu du dix-huitieme siicle (1867). Far more valuable are Malassis's two volumes of correspondence, Correspondance de Madame de Pompadour avec son pere M. Poisson, et son frere M. de Vandieres, &c. (1878), and Bonhomme, Madame de Pompadour, general d'armbe (1880), containing her letters to the Comte de Clermont. For her artistic and theatrical tastes see particularly J. F. Leturcq, Notice sur Jacques Guay, graveur sur pierres fines du roi Louis XV.: Documents inidits emanant de Guay et notes sur les Ceuvres de gravure en taille douce et en pierres durs de la marquise de Pompadour (1873) ; and Adolphe Jullien, Histoire du ihedtre de Madame de Pompadour, dit Theatre des Pettis Cabinets (1874). See also P. de Nolhac, La Marquise de Pompadour (1903). POMPEII, 1 an ancient town of Campania, Italy, situated near the river Sarnus, nearly 2 m. from the shore of the Bay of Naples, almost at the foot of Mt Vesuvius. Of its history before 79 b.c. comparatively little is recorded; but it appears that it had a population of a very mixed character, and passed succes- sively into the hands of several different peoples, each of which contributed an element to its composition. Its foundation was ascribed by Greek tradition to Heracles, in common with the neighbouring city of Herculaneum, but it is certain that it was not a Greek colony, in the proper sense of the term, as we know to have been the case with the more important cities of Cumae and Neapolis. Strabo (v. 4, 8), in whose time it was a populous and flourishing place, tells us that it was first occupied by the Oscans 2 (to whom we must attribute the Doric temple in the Foro Triangolare) , afterwards by the Tyrrhenians (i.e. Etruscans) and Pelasgians, and lastly, by the Samnites. The conquest of Campania by the last- mentioned people is an undoubted historical fact, and there can be no doubt that Pompeii shared the fate of the neighbouring cities on this occasion, and afterwards passed in common with them under the yoke of Rome. But its name is only once mentioned during the wars of the Romans with the Samnites and Campanians in this region of Italy, and then only incidentally (Liv. ix. 38), when a Roman fleet landed near Pompeii in 309 B.C. and made an unsuccessful marauding expedition up the river valley as far as Nuceria. 3 At a later period, however, it took a prominent part in the outbreak of the nations of central Italy, known as the Social War (91-89 B.C.), when it withstood a long siege by Sulla, and was one of the last cities of Campania that were reduced by the Roman arms. The inhabitants were admitted to the Roman franchise, but a military colony was settled in their territory in 80 B.C. by Sulla (Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum), and the whole population was rapidly Romanized. The municipal administration here, as elsewhere, was in the hands of two duoviri iure dicundo and two aediles, the supreme body being the city council (decuriones) . Before the close of the republic it became a resort of the Roman nobles, many of whom acquired villas in the neighbourhood. Among them was Cicero, whose letters abound with allusions to his Pompeian villa. The same fashion continued under the empire, and there can be no doubt that, during the first century of the Christian era, Pompeii had become a flourishing place 1 The etymology of the name is uncertain ; the ancients derived it from pompa or ici/iira (Gr. send), in allusion to the journey of Heracles with the oxen of Geryon, but modern authorities refer it to the Oscan pompa (five). 2 For the Oscan incriptions found in Pompeii see below ad fin. * Pompeii was attacked as a member of the Nucerine League. See Conway, Italic Dialects, p. 51 ; J. Beloch, Campanien, 2nd ed., P- '239- with a considerable population. Two events only are recorded of its history during this period. In a.d. 59 a tumult took place in the amphitheatre between the citizens and visitors from the neighbouring colony of Nuceria. Many were killed and wounded on both sides. The Pompeians were punished for this violent outbreak by the prohibition of all theatrical exhibitions for ten years (Tacitus, Ann. xiv. 17). A characteristic, though rude, painting, found on the walls of one of the houses gives a representation of this event. Four years afterwards (a.d. 63) an earthquake, which affected all the neighbouring towns, vented its force especially upon Pompeii, a large part of which, including most of the public buildings, was either destroyed or so seriously damaged as to require to be rebuilt (Tac. Ann. xv. 22; Seneca, Q.N. vi. 1). From the existing remains it is clear that the inhabitants were still actively engaged in repairing and restoring the ruined edifices when the whole city was overwhelmed by the great eruption of a.d. 79. Vesuvius (q.v.), the volcanic forces of which had been slumbering for unknown ages, suddenly burst into violent eruption, which, while it carried devastation all around the beautiful gulf, buried the two cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii under dense beds of cinders and ashes. It is singular that, while we possess a detailed description of this famous eruption in two letters of the younger Pliny (Epist. vi. 16, 20), he does not even notice the destruction of Pompeii or Herculaneum, though his uncle perished in the immediate neighbourhood of the former city. But their fate is noticed by Dio Cassius, and its circum- stances may be gathered with certainty from the condition in which the city has been found. These were such as to conduce to its preservation and interest as a relic of antiquity. Pompeii was merely covered with a bed of lighter substances, cinders, small stones and ashes, which fell in a dry state, while at Herculaneum the same substances, being drenched with water, hardened into a sort of tufa, which in places is 65 ft. deep. The whole of this superincumbent mass, attaining to an average thickness of from 18 to 20 ft., was the product of one eruption, though the materials may be divided generally into two distinct strata, the one consisting principally of cinders and small volcanic stones (called in Italian lapilli), and the other and uppermost layer of fine white ash, often consolidated by the action of water from above so as to take the moulds of objects contained in it (such as dead bodies, woodwork, &c), like clay or plaster of Paris. It was found impossible to rebuild the town, and its territory was joined to that of Nola. But the survivors returned to the spot, and by digging down and tunnelling were able to remove all the objects of value, even the marble facing slabs of the large buildings. In the middle ages, however, the very site was forgotten. Two inscriptions were found in making an underground aqueduct across the site in 1 594-1600, but it was not until 1748 that a more careful inspection of this channel revealed the fact that beneath the vineyards and mulberry grounds which covered the site there lay entombed ruins far more accessible, if not more inter- esting, than those of Herculaneum. It was not till 1763 that systematic excavations were begun; and; though they were carried on during the rest of the 18th century, it was only in the beginning of the 19th that they assumed a regular character; the work, which had received a vigorous stimulus during the period of the French government (1806-1814), was prosecuted, though in a less methodical manner, under the rule of the Bour- bon kings (1815-1861). Since 1861 it has been carried on under the Italian government in a more scientific manner, on a system devised by G. Fiorelli (d. 1896), according to which the town is for convenience divided into nine regions — though this rests on a misconception, for there is really no street between the Capua and the Nocera gates — and the results have been of the highest interest, though the rate of progress has been very slow. The town was situated on rising ground less than a mile from the foot of Vesuvius. This eminence is itself due to an outflow of lava from that mountain, during some previous eruption in prehistoric times, for we know from Strabo that Vesuvius had POMPEII 5i been quiescent ever since the first records of the Greek settle- ments in this part of Italy. Pompeii in ancient times was a prosperous seaport town situated close to the seashore, from which it is now nearly 2 m. distant, and adjoining the mouth of the river Sarnus or Sarno, which now enters the sea nearly 2 m. from its site. The present course of this stream is due in part to modern alteration of its channel, as well as to the effects of the great eruption. The prosperity of Pompeii was due partly to its commerce, as the port of the neighbouring towns, partly to the fertility of its territory, which produced strong wine, olive oil (a comparatively small quantity), and vegetables; fish sauces were made here. Millstones and pumice were also exported, but for the former the more gritty lava of Rocca Monfina was later on preferred. The area occupied by the ancient city was of an irregular oval form, and about 2 m. in circumference. It was sur- rounded by a wall, which is still preserved for more than two-thirds of its extent, but no traces of this are found on the side towards the sea, and there is no doubt that on this side ft had been already demolished in ancient times, so as to give room for the free extension of houses and other buildings in that direction. 1 These walls are strengthened at intervals by numerous towers, occupying the full width of the wall, which occur in some parts at a distance of only about 100 yds., but in general much less frequently. They are, however, of a different style of construction from the walls, and appear to have been added at a later period, probably that of the Social War. Similar evidences of the addition of subsequent defences are to be traced also in the case of the gates, of which no less than eight are found in the existing circuit of the walls. Some of these present a very elaborate system oi defence, but it is evident from the decayed condition of others, as well as of parts of the walls and towers, that they had ceased to be maintained for the purposes of fortification long before the destruction of the city. The names by which the gates and streets are known are entirely of modern origin. The general plan of the town is very regular, the streets being generally straight, and crossing one another at right angles or nearly so. But exceptions are found on the west in the street leading from the Porta Ercolanese (gate of Herculaneum) to the forum, which, though it must have been one of the principal thoroughfares in the city, was crooked and irregular, as well as very narrow, in some parts not exceeding 12 to 14 ft. in width, including the raised footpaths on each side, which occupy a considerable part of the space, so that the carriage-way could only have admitted of the passage of one vehicle at a time. The explanation is that it follows the line of the demolished city wall. Another exception is to be found in the Strada Stabiana (Stabian Street) or Cardo, which, owing to the existence of a natural depression which affects also the line of the street just east of it, is not parallel to the other north and south streets. The other main streets are in some cases broader, but rarely exceed 20 ft. in width, and the broadest yet found is about 32, while the back streets running parallel to the main lines are only about 14 ft. (It is to be remembered, however, that the standard width of a Roman highroad in the neighbourhood of Rome itself is about 14 ft.) They are uniformly paved with large poly- gonal blocks of hard basaltic lava, fitted very closely together, though now in many cases marked with deep ruts from the passage of vehicles in ancient times. They are also in all cases bordered by raised footways on both sides, paved in a similar manner; and for the convenience of foot-passengers, which was evidently a more important consideration than the obstacle which the arrangement presented to the passage of vehicles, which indeed were probably only allowed for goods traffic, these are connected from place to place by stepping-stones raised above the level of the carriage-way. In other respects they must have resembled those of Oriental cities — the living apartments all opening towards the interior, and showing only blank walls towards 1 It consisted of two parallel stone walls with buttresses, about 15 ft. apart and 28 in. thick, the intervening space being filled with earth, and there being an embankment on the inner side. the street; while the windows were generally to be found only in the upper storey, and were in all cases small and insignificant, without any attempt at architectural effect. In some instances indeed the monotony of their external appearance was broken by small shops, occupying the front of the principal houses, and let off separately; these were in some cases numerous enough to form a continuous facade to the street. This is seen especially in the case of the street from the Porta Ercolanese to the forum and the Strada Stabiana (or Cardo), both of which were among the most frequented thoroughfares. The streets were also diversified by fountains, small water-towers and reservoirs (of which an especially interesting example was found in 1902 close to the Porta del Vesuvio) and street shrines. The source of the water-supply is unknown. The first-mentioned of the two principal streets was crossed, a little before it reached the forum, by the street which led directly to the gate of Nola (Strada delle Terme, della Fortuna, and di Nola). Parallel to this last to the south is a street which runs from the Porta Marina through the forum, and then, with a slight turn, to the Sarno gate, thus traversing the whole area of the city from east to west (Via Marina, Strada dell' Abbondanza, Strada dei Diadumeni). These two east and west streets are the two decumani. The population of Pompeii at the time of its destruction cannot be fixed with certainty, but it may very likely have ex- ceeded 20,000. It was of a mixed character; both Oscan and Greek inscriptions are still found up to the last, and, though there is no trace whatever of Christianity, evidences of the presence of Jews are not lacking — such are a wall-painting, probably representing the Judgment of Solomon, and a scratched inscription on a wall, " Sodoma, Gomora." It has been estimated, from the number of skeletons discovered, that about 2000 persons perished in the city itself in the eruption of a.d. 79. Almost the Whole portion of the city which lies to the west of the Strada Stabiana, towards the forum and the sea, has been more or less completely excavated. It is over one-half of the whole extent, and that the most important portion, inasmuch as it includes the forum, with the temples and public buildings adjacent to it, the thermae, theatres, amphitheatre, &c. The greater part of that on the other side of the Strada Stabiana remains still unexplored, with the exception of the amphi- theatre, and a small space in its immediate neighbourhood. The forum at Pompeii was, as at Rome itself and in all other Italian cities, the focus and centre of all the life and movement of the city. Hence it was surrounded on all sides by public buildings or edifices of a commanding character. It was not, however, of large size, as compared to the open spaces in modern towns, being only 467 ft. in length by 126 in breadth (excluding the colonnades). Nor was it accessible to any description of wheeled carriages, and the nature of its pavement, composed of broad flags of travertine, shows that it was only intended for foot-passengers. It was adorned with numerous statues, some of the imperial family, others of dis- tinguished citizens. Some of the inscribed pedestals of the latter have been found. It was surrounded on three sides by a series of porticos supported on columns; and these porticos were originally surmounted by a gallery or upper storey, traces of the staircases leading to which still remain, though the gallery itself has altogether disappeared. It is, however, certain from the existing remains that both this portico and the adjacent buildings had suffered severely from the earthquake of 63, and that they were undergoing a process of restoration, involving material changes in the original arrangements, which was still incomplete at the time of their final destruction. The north end of the forum, where alone the portico is wanting, is occupied in great part by the imposing temple of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva being also worshipped here. It was raised on a podium 10 ft. high, and had a portico with six Corinthian columns in front. This magnificent edifice had, however, been evidently overthrown by the earthquake of 63, and is in its present condition a mere ruin, the rebuilding of which had not been begun at the time of the eruption, so that the cult of 52 POMPEII the three Capitoline divinities was then carried on in the so- called temple of Zeus Milichius. On each side of it were two arches, affording an entrance into the forum, but capable of being closed by gates. On the east side of the forum were four edifices; all of them are of a public character, but their names and attribution have been the subject of much controversy. The first (proceeding from the north), once known as the Pantheon, is generally regarded as a macellum or meat-market, consisting of a rectangular court surrounded by a colonnade, with a twelve- sided roofed building (tholus) in the centre. On the south side and Q. Catulus (78 B.C.), and therefore belongs to the Oscai period of the city, before the introduction of the Roman colony. It was an oblong edifice divided by columns into a central hall and a corridor running round all the four sides with a tribunal opposite the main entrance; and, unlike the usual basilicae, it had, instead of a clerestory, openings in the walls of the corridor through which light was admitted, it being almost as lofty as the nave. The temple was an extensive edifice, having a com- paratively small cella; raised upon a podium, and standing in the midst of a wide space surrounded by a portico of columns, Porta di Capua POMPEII Yards 50 100 150 1. Temple of Jupiter 8. Basilica 2. Macellum 9. Temple of Apollo 3. Sanctuary of Lares 10. Temple of Hercules 7 4. Temple of Vespasian 11. Temple of I sis 5. Building of Eumachia 12. Temple of Zeus Miliclti-js S.Comitium? 13. Temple of Fortuna Augusta '.Curia ate. 14. Temple of Venus Pompeiana iRedrawn by permission from Baedeker's Southern Italy.) were shops, and in the centre of the east side a chapel for the worship of the imperial house. Next to this comes the sanctuary of the Lares of the city, a square room with a large apse; and beyond this, as Mau proves, the small temple of Vespasian. Beyond this again, bounded on the south by the street known as the Strada dell' Abbondanza, is a large and spacious edifice, which, as we learn from an extant inscription, was erected by a priestess named Eumachia. Its purpose is uncertain — possibly a cloth-exchange, as the fullers set up a statue to Eumachia here. It is an open court, oblong, surrounded on all four sides by a colonnade; in front is a portico facing the forum, and on the other three sides theie is a corridor behind the colonnade with windows opening on it. On the south side of the Strada dell' Abbondanza was a building which Mau conjectures to have been the Comitium. At the south end of the forum are three halls side by side, similar in plan with a common facade— the central one, the curia or council chamber, the others the offices respec- tively of the duumvirs and aediles, the principal officials of the city; while the greater part of the west side is occupied by two large buildings — a basilica, which is the largest edifice in Pompeii, and the temple of Apollo, which presents its side to the forum, and hence fills up a large portion of the surrounding space. The former, as we learn from an inscription scratched on its walls, was anterior in date to the consulship of M. Lepidus finurv Walker sc. outside which again is a wall, bounding the sacred enclosure. Between this temple and the basilica the Via Marina leads ofl direct to the Porta Marina. Besides the temples which surrounded the forum, the remains of five others have been discovered, three of which are situated in the immediate neighbourhood of the theatres. Of these by far the most interesting, though the least perfect, is one which is commonly known as the temple of Hercules (an appellation wholly without foundation), and which is not only by far the most ancient edifice in Pompeii, but presents us with all the characters of a true Greek temple, resembling in its proportions that of the earliest temple of Selinus, and probably of as remote antiquity (6th century B.C.) . Unfortunately only the foundation and a few Doric capitals and other architectural fragments remain; they were coated with stucco which was brightly painted. In front of the temple is a monument which seems to have been the tomb of the founder or founders of the city; so that for a time this must have been the most important temple. The period of its destruction is unknown, for it appears certain that it cannot be ascribed wholly to the earthquake of 63. On the other hand the reverence attached to it in the later periods of the city is evidenced by its being left standing in the midst of a triangular space adjoining the great theatre, which is surrounded by a portico, so as to constitute a kind of forum (the so-called Fore POMPEII 53 Triangolare). Not far off, and to the north of the great theatre, stood a small temple, which, as we learn from the inscription still remaining, was dedicated to Isis, and was rebuilt by a certain Popidius Celsinus at the age of six (really of course by his parents), after the original edifice had been reduced to ruin by the great earthquake of 63. Though of small size, and by no means re- markable in point of architecture, it is interesting as the only temple that has come down to us in a good state of preservation of those dedicated to the Egyptian goddess, whose worship became so popular under the Roman Empire. The decorations were of somewhat gaudy stucco. The plan is curious, and deviates much from the ordinary type; the internal arrangements are adapted for the performance of the peculiar rites of this deity. Close to this temple was another, of very small size, commonly known as the temple of Aesculapius, but probably dedicated to Zeus Milichius. More considerable and important was a temple which stood at no great distance from the forum at the point where the so-called Strada di Mereurio was crossed by the wide line of thoroughfare (Strada della Fortuna) leading to the gate of Nola. We learn from an inscription that this was dedicated to the Fortune of Augustus (Fortuna Augusta), and was erected, wholly at his own cost, by a citizen of the name of M. Tullius. This temple appears to have suffered very severely from ' the earthquake, and at present affords little evidence of its original architectural ornament; but we learn from existing remains that its walls were covered with slabs of marble, and that the columns of the portico were of the same material. The fifth temple, that of Venus Pompeiana, lay to the west of the basilica; traces of two earlier periods underlie the extant temple, which was in progress of rebuilding at the time of the eruption. Before the earthquake of 63 it must have been the largest and most splendid temple of the whole city. It was surrounded by a large colonnade, and the number of marble columns in the whole block has been reckoned at 296. All the temples above described, except that ascribed to Her- cules, which was approached by steps on all four sides, agree in being raised on an elevated podium or basement — an arrange- ment usual with all similar buildings of Roman date. Neither in materials nor in style does their architecture exceed what might reasonably be expected in a second-rate provincial town; and the same may be said in general of the other public buildings. Among these the most conspicuous are the theatres/of which there were two, placed, as was usual in Greek towns, in close juxta- position with one another. The largest of these which was partly excavated in the side of the hill, was a building of considerable magnificence, being in great part cased with marble, and fur- nished with seats of the same material, which have, however, been almost wholly removed. Its internal construction and arrangements resemble those of the Roman theatres in general, though with some peculiarities that show Greek influence, and we learn from an inscription that it was erected in Roman times by two members of the same family, M. Holconius Rufus and M. Holconius Celer, both of whom held important municipal offices at Pompeii during the reign of Augustus. It appears, however, from a careful examination of the remains that their work was only a reconstruction of a more ancient edifice, the date of the original form of which cannot be fixed; while its first alteration belongs to the " tufa " period, and three other periods in its history can be traced. Recent investigations in regard to the vexed question of the position of the actors in the Greek theatre have as yet not led to any certain solution. 1 The smaller theatre, which was erected, as we learn from an inscription, by two magistrates specially appointed for the purpose by the decuriones of the city, was of older date than the large one, and must have been constructed a little before the amphitheatre, soon after the establishment of the Roman colony under Sulla. We learn also that it was permanently covered, and it was probably used for musical entertainments, but in the case of the larger theatre also the arrangements for the occasional extension of an awning (velarium) over the whole are distinctly found. The 1 See A. Mau, Pompeii in Leben und Kunst (Leipzig, 1908), pp. 150 sqq. smaller theatre is computed to have been capable of containing fifteen hundred spectators, while the larger could accommodate five thousand. Adjoining the theatres is a large rectangular enclosure, sur- rounded by a portico, at first the colonnade connected with the theatres, and converted, about the time of Nero, into the barracks of the gladiators, who were permanently maintained in the city with a view to the shows in the amphitheatre. This explains why it is so far from that building, which is situated at the south-eastern angle of the town, about 500 yds. from the theatres. Remains of gladiators' armour and weapons were found in some of the rooms, and in one, traces of the stocks used to confine insubordinate gladiators. The amphitheatre was erected by the same two magistrates who built the smaller theatre, C. Quinctius Valgus a nd M. Porcius (the former the father- in-law of that P. Servilius Rullus, in opposition to whose bill relating to the distribution of the public lands Cicero made his speech, De lege agraria), at a period when no permanent edifice of a similar kind had yet been erected in Rome itself, and is indeed the oldest structure of the kind known to us. But apart from its early date it has no special interest, and is wholly wanting in the external architectural decorations that give such grandeur of character to similar edifices in other instances. Being in great part excavated in the surface of the hill, instead of the seats being raised on arches, it is wanting also in the picturesque arched corridors which contribute so much to the effect of those Other ruins. Nor are its dimensions (460 by 345 ft.) such as to place it in the first rank of structures of this class, nor are there any underground chambers below the arena, with devices for raising wild beasts, &c. But, as we learn from the case of their squabble with the people of Nuceria, the games celebrated in the amphitheatre on grand occasions would be visited by large numbers from the neighbouring towns. The seating capacity was about 20,000 2 (for illustration see Amphitheatre). Adjoining the amphitheatre was found a large open space, nearly square in form, which has been supposed to be a forum boarium or cattle-market, but, no buildings of interest being discovered around it, the excavation was filled up again, and this part of the city has not been since examined. Between the entrance to the triangular forum (so-called) and the temple of Isis is the Palaestra, an. area surrounded by a colonnade; it is a structure of the pre-Roman period, intended for boys, not men. Among the more important public buildings of Pompeii were the public' baths {thermae). Three different establishments of this character have been discovered, of which the first, exca- vated in 1824, the baths near the forum, built about 80 B.C., was for a long time the only one known. Though the smallest of the three, it is in some respects the most complete and interesting; and it was until of late years the principal source from which we derived our knowledge of this important branch of the economy of Roman life. At Pompeii the baths are so well preserved as to show at a glance the purpose of all the different parts — while they are among the most richly decorated of all the buildings in the city. We trace without difficulty all the separate apart- ments that are described to us by Roman authors — the apody- terium, frigidarium, tepidarium, caldarium, &c. together with the apparatus for supplying both water and heat, the places for de- positing the bather's clothes, and other minor details (see Baths). The greater thermae (the so-called " Stabian " baths), which were originally built in the 2nd century B.C., and repaired about 80 B.C., are on a much more extensive scale than the others, and combine with the special purposes of the building a palaestra in the centre and other apartments for exercise or recreation. The arrangements of the baths themselves are, however, almost similar to those of the lesser thermae. In this case an inscription records the repair and restoration of the edifice after the 2 The interest taken by the Pompeians in the sports of the amphitheatre is shown by the contents of the numerous painted and scratched inscriptions relating tc them which have been found in Pompeii — notices of combats, laudatory inscriptions, including even references t6 the admiration which gladiators won from the fair sex, &c. 1 54 POMPEII earthquake of 63. It appears, however, that these two establish- ments were found inadequate to supply the wants of the in- habitants, and a third edifice of the same character, the so- called central baths, at the corner of the Strada Stabiana and the Strada di Nola, but on a still more extensive scale, intended for men only, while the other two had separate accommodation for both sexes, was in course of construction when the town was overwhelmed. Great as is the interest attached to the various public buildings of Pompeii, and valuable as is the light that they have in some instances thrown upon similar edifices in other ruined cities, far more curious and interesting is the insight afforded us by the numerous private houses and shops into the ordinary life and habits of the population of an ancient town. The houses at Pompeii are generally low, rarely exceeding two storeys in height, and it appears certain that the upper storey was generally of a slight construction, and occupied by small rooms, serving as garrets, or sleeping places for slaves, and perhaps for the females of the family. From the mode of destruction of the city these upper floors were in most cases crushed in and destroyed, and hence it was long believed that the houses for the most part had but one storey; but recent researches have in many cases brought to light incontestable evidence of the existence of an upper floor, and the frequent occurrence of a small staircase is in itself sufficient proof of the fact. The windows, as already mentioned, were generally small and insignificant, and contri- buted nothing to the external decoration or effect of the houses, which took both light and air from the inside, not from the outside. In some cases they were undoubtedly closed with glass, but its use appears to have been by no means generaL The principal living rooms, as well as those intended for the reception of guests or clients, were all on the ground floor, the centre being formed by the atrium, or hall, which was almost always open above to the air, and in the larger houses was gener- ally surrounded with columns. Into this opened other rooms, the entrances to which seem to have been rarely protected by doors, and could only have been closed by curtains. At the back was a garden. Later, under Greek influences, a peristyle with rooms round it was added in place of the garden. We notice that, as in modern Italy until quite recent years, elaborate precautions were taken against heat, but none against cold, which was patiently endured. Hypocausts are only found in connexion with bathrooms. All the apartments and arrangements described by Vitruvius and other ancient writers may be readily traced in the houses of Pompeii, and in many instances these have for the first time enabled us to understand the technical terms and details trans- mitted to us by Latin authors. We must not, however, hastily assume that the examples thus preserved to us by a singular accident are to be taken as representing the style of building in all the Roman and Italian towns. We know from Cicero that Capua was remarkable for its broad streets and widespread buildings, and it is probable that the Campanian towns in general partook of the same character. At Pompeii indeed the streets were not wide, but they were straight and regular, and the houses of the better class occupied considerable spaces, presenting in this respect no doubt a striking contrast, not only with those of Rome itself, but with those of many other Italian towns, where the buildings would necessarily be huddled to- gether from the circumstances of their position. Even at Pompeii itself, on the west side of the city, where the ground slopes somewhat steeply towards the sea, houses are found which consisted of three storeys or more. The excavations have provided examples of houses of every description, from the humble dwelling-place of the artisan or proletarian, with only three or four small rooms, to the stately mansions of Sallust, of the Faun, of the Golden Cupids, of the Silver Wedding, of the Vettii, of Pansa, 1 &c. — the hist of which is among the most regular in plan, and may be taken as an almost 1 It may be observed that the names given in most cases to the houses are either arbitrary or founded in the first instance upon erroneous inferences. perfect model of a complete Roman house of a superior class. But the general similarity in their plan and arrangement is very striking, and in all those that rise above a very humble class the leading divisions of the interior, the atrium, tablinum, peristyle, &c. may be traced with unfailing regularity. Another peculi- arity that is found in all the more considerable houses in Pompeii, is that of the front, where it faces one of the principal streets, being occupied with shops, usually of small size, and without any communication with the interior of the mansion. In a few instances indeed such a communication is found, but in these cases it is probable that the shop was used for the sale of articles grown upon the estate of the proprietor, such as wine, fruit, oil, &c, a practice that is still common in Italy. In general the shop had a very small apartment behind it, and probably in most cases a sleeping chamber above it, though of this the only remaining evidence is usually a portion of the staircase that led to this upper room. The front of the shop was open to the street, but was capable of being closed with wooden shutters, the remains of which have in a few instances been preserved. Not only have the shops of silversmiths been recognized by the precious objects of that metal found in them, but large quantities of fruits of various kinds preserved in glass vessels, various de- scriptions of corn and pulse, loaves of bread, moulds for pastry, fishing-nets and many other objects too numerous to mention, have been found in such a condition as to be identified without difficulty. Inns and wine-shops appear to have been numerous; one of the latter we can see to have been a thermopolium, where hot drinks were sold. Bakers' shops are also frequent, though arrangements for grinding and baking appear to have formed part of every large family establishment. In other cases, how- ever, these were on a larger scale, provided with numerous querns or hand-mills of the well-known form, evidently intended for public supply. Another establishment on a large scale was a fullonica (fuller's shop), where all the details of the business were illustrated by paintings still visible on the walls. Dyers' shops, a tannery and a shop where colours were ground and manufactured — an important business where almost all the rooms of every house were painted — are of special interest, as is also the house of a surgeon, where numerous surgical instru- ments were found, some of them of a very ingenious and elaborate description, but all made of b7onze. Another curious discovery was that of the abode of a sculptor, containing his tools, as well as blocks of marble and half-finished statues, The number of utensils of various kinds found in the houses and shops is almost endless, and, as these are in most cases of bronze, they are generally in perfect preservation. Of the numerous works of art discovered in the course of the excavations the statues and large works of sculpture, whether in marble or bronze, are inferior to those found at Herculaneum, but some of the bronze statuettes are of exquisite workmanship, while the profusion of ornamental works and objects in bronze and the elegance of their design, as well as the finished beauty of their execution, are such as to excite the utmost admiration — more especially when it is considered that these are the casual results of the examination of a second-rate provincial town, which had, further, been ransacked for valuables (as Hercu- laneum had not) after the eruption of 79. The same impression is produced in a still higher degree by the paintings with which the walls of the private houses, as well as those of the temples and other public buildings, are adorned, and which are noWnerely of a decorative character, but in many instances present us with elaborate compositions of figures, historical and mythological scenes, as well as representations of the ordinary life and manners of the people, which are full of interest to us, though often of inferior artistic execution. It has until lately been the practice to remove these to the museum at Naples; but the present tendency is to leave them (and even the movable objects found in the houses) in situ with all due precautions as to their preservation (as in the house of the Vettii, of the Silver Wedding, of the Golden Cupids, &c), which adds im- mensely to the interest of the houses; indeed, with the help of judicious restoration, their original condition is in large POMPEII 55 measure reproduced. 1 In some cases it has even been possible to recover the original arrangement of the garden beds, and to replant them accordingly, thus giving an appropriate frame- work to the statues, &c. with which the gardens were decorated, and which have been found in situ. The same character of elaborate decoration, guided almost uniformly by good taste and artistic feeling, is displayed in the mosaic pavements, which in all but the humbler class of houses frequently form the ornament of their floors. One of these, in the House of the Faun, well known as the battle of Alexander, presents us with the most striking specimen of artistic com- position that has been preserved to us from antiquity. The architecture of Pompeii must be regarded as presenting in general a transitional character from the pure Greek style to that of the Roman Empire. The temples (as already observed) have always the Roman peculiarity of being raised on a podium of considerable elevation; and the same characteristic is found in most of the other public buildings. All the three orders of Greek architecture — the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian— are found freely employed in the various edifices of the city, but rarely in strict accordance with the rules of art in their proportions and details; while the private houses naturally exhibit still more deviation and irregularity. In many of these indeed we find varieties in the ornamentation, and even in such leading features as the capitals of the columns, which remind one rather of the vagaries of medieval architecture than of the strict rules of Vitruvius or the regularity of Greek edifices. One practice which is especially prevalent, so as to strike every casual visitor, and dates from the early years of the empire, is that of filling up the flutings of the columns for about one-third of their height with a thick coat of stucco, so as to give them the appearance of being smooth columns without flutings below, and only fluted above. The unpleasing effect of this anomalous arrangement is greatly aggravated by the lower part of each column being almost always coloured with red or yellow ochre, so as to render the con- trast between the two portions still stronger. The architecture of Pompeii suffers also from the inferior quality of the materials generally employed. No good building stone was at hand; and the public as well as private edifices were constructed either of volcanic tufa, or lava, or Sarno limestone, or brick (the latter only used for the corners of walls). In the private houses even the columns are mostly of brick, covered merely with a coat of stucco. In a few instances only do we find them making use of a whitish limestone wrongly called travertine, which, though inferior to the similar material so largely employed at Rome, was better adapted than the ordinary tufa for purposes where great solidity was required. The portion of the portico sur- rounding the forum which was in the process of rebuilding at the time when the city was destroyed was constructed of this material, while the earlier portions, as well as the principal temples that adjoined it, were composed in the ordinary manner of volcanic tufa. Marble appears to have been scarce, and was sparingly employed. In some instances where it had been freely introduced, as in the great theatre, it would seem that the slabs must have been removed at a period subsequent to the entombment of the city. These materials are used in several different styles of con- struction belonging to the six different periods which Mau . traces in the architectural history of Pompeii. i. That of the Doric temple in the Foro Triangolare (6th century B.C.) and an old column built into a house in Region vi., Insula 5; also of the older parts of the city walls — date uncertain (Sarno limestone and grey tufa). 2. That of the limestone atriums (outer walls of the houses of ashlar-work of Sarno limestone, inner walls with framework of limestone blocks, filled in with small pieces of limestone). Date, before 200 b.c. 3. Grey tufa period ; ashlar masonry of tufa, coated with fine white stucco; rubble work of lava. The artistic character is still Greek, and the period coincides with the first (incrustation) style of mural decoration, which (probably origin ating in Alexandria) aimed at 1 The paintings of the house of the Vettn are perhaps the best-preserved in Pompeii, and extremely fine in conception and execution, especially the scenes in which Cupids take part. the imitation in stucco of the appearance of a wall veneered with coloured marbles. No wall paintings exist, but there are often fine floor mosaics. To this belong a number of private houses (e.g. the House of the Faun), and the colonnade round the forum, the basilica, the temples of Apollo and Jupiter, the large theatre with the colonnades of the Foro Triangolare, and the barracks of the gladiators, the Stabian baths, the Palaestra, the exterior of the Porta Marina, and the interior of the other gates — all the public buildings indeed (except the Doric temple mentioned under (1), which do not belong to the time of the Roman colony). Date, 2nd century B.C. 4. The " quasi-reticulate " period — walling faced with masonry not yet quite so regular as opus reticulatum, and with brick quoins, coinciding with the second period of decoration (the architectural, partly imitating marble like the first style, but without relief, and by colour only, and partly making use of architectural designs). It is represented by the small theatre and the amphitheatre, the baths near the forum, the temple of Zeus Milichius, the Comitium and the original temple of Isis, but only a few private houses. The ornamentation is much less rich and beautiful than that of the preceding period. Date, from 80 B.C. until nearly the end of the Republic. 5. The period from the last decades of the Republic to the earthquake of a.d. 63. No homogeneous series of buildings — we find various styles of construction (quasi-reticulate, opus reticulatum of tufa with stone quoins, of the time of Augustus, opus reticulatum with brick quoins or with mingled stone and brick quoins, a little later) ; and three styles of wall decoration fall within its limits. The second, already mentioned, the third or ornate, with its freer use of ornament and its introduction of designs which suggest an. Egyptian origin (originating in the time of Augustus), and the fourth or intricate, dating from about a.d. 50. Marble first appears as a building material in the temple of Fortuna Augusta (c. 3 B.C.). 6. The period from the earthquake of a.d. 63 to the final de- struction of the city, the buildings of which can easily be recognized. The only wholly new edifice of any importance is the central baths. Outside the Porta Ercolanese, or gate leading to Herculaneum, is found a house of a different character from all the others, which from its extent and arrangements was undoubtedly a suburban villa, belonging to a person of considerable fortune. It is called — as usual without any authority — the villa of Arrius Diomedes; but its remains are of peculiar interest to us, not only for comparison with the numerous ruins of similar buildings which occur else- where—often of greater extent, but in a much less perfect state of preservation — but as assisting us in understanding the description of ancient authors, such as Vitruvius and Pliny, of the numerous appurtenances frequently annexed to houses of this description. In the cellar of this villa were discovered no less than twenty skeletons of the unfortunate inhabitants, who had evidently fled thither for protection, and fourteen in other parts of the house. Almost all the skeletons and remains of bodies found in the city were discovered in similar situations, in cellars or underground apartments — those who had sought refuge in flight having appar- ently for the most part escaped from destruction, or having perished under circumstances where their bodies were easily recovered by the survivors. According to Cassius Dio, a large number of the inhabitants were assembled in the theatre at the time of the catas- trophe, but no bodies have been found there, and they were probably sought for and removed shortly afterwards. Of late years it has been found possible in many cases to take casts of the bodies found — a complete mould having been formed around them by the fine white ashes, partially consolidated by water. An interesting farm-house (few examples have been so far dis- covered in Italy) is that at Boscoreale excavated in 1 893-1 894, which contained the treasure of one hundred and three silver vases now at the Louvre. The villa of P. Fannius Synhistor, not far off, was excavated in 1900; it contained fine wall paintings, which, despite their importance, were allowed to be exported, and sold by auction in Paris (some now in the Louvre). (See F. Barnabei, La Villa pompeiana di P. Fannio Sinistore; Rome, 1901.) The road leading from the Porta Ercolanese towards Herculaneum is bordered on both sides for a considerable extent by rows of tombs, as was the case with all the great roads leading into Rome, and in- deed in all large Roman towns. These tombs are in many instances monuments of considerable pretension, and of a highly ornamental character, and naturally present in the highest degree the peculiar advantage common to all that remains of Pompeii, in their perfect preservation. Hardly any scene even in this extraordinary city is more striking than the coup d'ceil of this long street of tombs, preserving uninjured the records of successive generations eighteen centuries ago. Unfortunately the names are all otherwise unknown; but we learn from the inscriptions that they are for the most part those of local magistrates and municipal dignitaries of Pompeii. Most of them belong to the early empire. There appears to have been in the same quarter a considerable suburb, outside the gate, extending on each side of the road towards Herculaneum, apparently much resembling those which are now found throughout almost the whole distance from thence to Naples. It was known by the name of Pagus Augustus Felix 56 POMPEY Suburbanus. Other suburbs were situated at the harbour and at the saltworks (saiinae). No manuscripts have been discovered in Pompeii. Inscriptions have naturally been found in considerable numbers, and we are indebted to them for much information concerning the municipal arrangements of the town, as well as the construction of various edifices and other public works. The most interesting of these are such as are written in the Oscan dialect, which appears to have continued in official use down to the time when the Roman colony was introduced by Sulla. From that time the Latin language was certainly the only one officially employed, though Oscan may have still been spoken by a portion at least of the population. Still more curious, and almost peculiar to Pompeii, are the numerous writings painted upon the walls, which have generally a semi- pubiic character, such as recommendations of candidates for muni- cipal offices, advertisements, &c, and the scratched inscriptions (graffiti), which are generally the mere expression of individual impulse and feeling, frequently amatory, and not uncommonly conveyed in rude and imperfect verses. In one house also a whole box was found filled with written tablets — diptychs and triptychs — containing the record of the accounts of a banker named L. Caecilius Jucundus. See A. Mau, Pompeii: its Life and Art (trans, by F. W. Kelsey, 2nd ed., New York and London, 1902; 2nd revised edition of the German original, Pompeii in Leben und-Kunst, Leipzig, 1908), the best general account written by the greatest authority on the subject, to which our description owes much, with full references to other sources of information; and, for later excavations, Notizie degli Scavi and Romische Mitteilungen (in the latter, articles by Mau), passim. For the inscriptions on the tablets and on the walls, Corpus inscriptionum latinarum, vol. iv. (ed. Zangemeister and Mau). Recent works on the Pompeian frescoes are those of Berger, in Die Maltechnik des Alterthums, and A. P. Laurie, Greek and Roman Methods of Painting (1910). (E. H. ; B. ; T. As.) Oscan Inscriptions. — The surviving inscriptions which can be dated, mainly by the gradual changes in their alphabet, are of the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C., some certainly belonging to the Gracchan period. The oldest of the Latin inscriptions are C.I.L. x. 794, the record of the building of colonnades in the forum by the " quaestor " V. Popidius, and two or three election placards (C.I.L. iv. 29, 30, 36) of one R. Caecilius, a candidate for the same office. It cannot be an accident that the alphabet of these inscriptions belongs distinctly to Sullan or pre-Sullan times, while no such officer as a quaestor appears in any later documents {e.g. in C.I.L. x. 844, it is the duoviri who build the small theatre), but does appear in the Oscan inscrip- tions. Hence it has been inferred that these oldest Latin inscrip-- tions are also older than Sulla's colony; if so, Latin must have been in use, and in fairly common use (if the programmata were to be of any service), in Pompeii at that date. On the other hand, the good condition of many of the painted Oscan inscrip- tions at the times when they were first uncovered (1797 onwards) and their subsequent decay and the number of Oscan graffiti appear to make it probable that at the Christian era Oscan was still spoken in the town. The two languages undoubtedly existed side by side during the last century B.C., Latin being alone recognized officially and in society, while Oscan was preserved mainly by intercourse with the country folk who frequented the market. Thus beside many Latin programmata later than those just mentioned we have similar inscriptions in Oscan, addressed to Oscan-speaking voters, where Illlner. obviously relates to the quattuorvirate, a title characteristic of the Sullan and triumviral colonies. An interesting stone containing nine cavities for measures of capacity found in Pompeii and now preserved in the Naples Museum with Oscan inscriptions erased in antiquity shows that the Oscan system of measurement was modified so as to correspond more closely with the Roman, about 14 B.C., by the duoviri, who record their work in a Latin inscription (C.I.L. x. 793; for the Oscan see Ital. Dial. p. 67). See further Osca Lingua, and R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects, pp. 54 sqq.; Nissen, Pompeianische Studien; J. Beloch, Campanien, 2nd ed. (R. S. C.) POMPEY, the common English form of Pompeius, the name of a Roman plebeian family. 1. Gnaeus Pompeius (106-48 B.C.), the triumvir, the first of his family to assume the surname Magnus, was born on the 36th of September in the same year as Cicero. When only seventeen he fought together with his father in the Social War. He took the side of Sulla against Marius and Cinna, but for a time, in consequence of the success of the Marians, he kept in the background. On the return of Sulla from the Mithradatic War Pompey joined him with an army of three legions, which he had raised in Picenum. Thus early in life he connected himself with the cause of the aristocracy, and a decisive victory which he won in 83 over the Marian armies gained for him from Sulla the title of Imperator. He followed up his successes in Italy by defeating the Marians in Sicily and Africa, and on his return to Rome in 81, though he was still merely an eques and not legally qualified to celebrate a triumph, he was allowed by general consent to enjoy this distinction, while Sulla greeted him with the surname of Magnus, a title he always retained and handed down to his sons. Latterly, his relations with Sulla were somewhat strained, but after his death he resisted the attempt of the consul M. Aemilius Lepidus to repeal the constitution. In conjunction with A. Lutatius Catulus, the other consul, he defeated Lepidus when he tried to march upon Rome, and drove him out of Italy (77). With some fears and misgivings the senate permitted him to retain the command of his victorious army, and decided on sending him to Spain, where the Marian party, under Sertorius, was still formidable. Pompey was fighting in Spain from 76 to 71, and though at first he met with serious reverses he was ultimately successful. After Sertorius had fallen a victim to assassination, Pompey easily defeated his successor Perperna and put an end to the war. In 71 he won fresh glory by finally crushing the slave insurrection of Spartacus, That same year, amid great popular enthusiasm, but without the hearty concurrence of the senate, whom he had alarmed by talking of restoring the dreaded power of the tribunes, he was elected with M. Licinius Crassus to the consulship, and entered Rome in triumph (December 31) for his Spanish victories. He was legally ineligible for the consulship, having held none of the lower offices of state and being under age. The following year saw the work of Sulla undone; the tribunate was restored, and the administration of justice was no longer left exclusively to the senate, but was to be shared by it with the wealthier portion of the middle class, the equites (q.v.) and the tribuni aerarii} The change was really necessary, as the provincials could never get justice from a court composed of senators, and it was carried into effect by Pompey with Caesar's aid. Pompey rose still higher in popularity, and on the motion of the tribune Aulus Gabinius in 67 he was entrusted with an extraordinary command over the greater part of the empire, specially for the extermination of piracy in the Mediterranean, by which the corn supplies of Rome were seriously endangered, while the high prices of provisions caused great distress. He was completely successful; the price of corn fell immediately on his appointment, and in forty days the Mediterranean was cleared of the pirates. Next year, on the proposal of the tribune Manilius, his powers were still further extended, the care of all the provinces in the East being put under his control for three years together with the conduct of the war against Mithradates VI., who had recovered from the defeats he had sustained from Lucullus and regained his dominions. Both Caesar and Cicero supported the tribune's proposal, which was easily carried in spite of the interested opposition of the senate and the aristocracy, several of whom held provinces which would now be practically under Pompey's command. The result of Pompey's operations was eminently satisfactory. The wild tribes of the Caucasus were cowed by the Roman arms, and Mithradates himself fled across the Black Sea to Panticapaeum (modern Kertch). In the years 64 and 63 Syria and Palestine were annexed to Rome's empire. After the capture of Jerusalem Pompey is said to have entered the Temple, and even the Holy of Holies. Asia and the East generally were left under the subjection of petty kings who were mere vassals of Rome. Several cities had been founded which became centres of Greek life and civilization. Pompey, now in his forty-fifth year, returned to Italy in 61 to 1 Their history and political character is obscure; they were at any rate connected with the knights (see Aerarium). POMPEY 57 celebrate the most magnificent triumph which Rome had ever witnessed, as the conqueror of Spain, Africa, and Asia (see A. Holm, Hist, of Greece, Eng. trans., vol. iv.). This triumph marked the turning-point of his career. As a soldier everything had gone well with him; as a politician he was a failure. He found a great change in public opinion, and the people indifferent to his achievements abroad. The optimates resented the extra- ordinary powers that had been conferred upon him; Lucullus and Crassus considered that they had been robbed by him of the honour of concluding the war against Mithradates. The senate refused to ratify the. arrangements he made in Asia or to provide money and lands for distribution amongst his veterans. In these circumstances he drew closer to Caesar on his return from Spain, and became reconciled to Crassus. The result was the so-called first triumvirate (see Rome: History). The remainder of his life is inextricably interwoven with that of Caesar. He was married to Caesar's daughter Julia, and as yet the relations between the two had been friendly. On more than one occasion Caesar had supported Pompey's policy, which of late had been in a decidedly democratic direction. Pompey was now in fact ruler of the greater part of the empire, while Caesar had only the two provinces of Gaul. The control of the capital, the supreme command of the army in Italy and of the Mediterranean fleet, the governorship of the two Spains, the superintendence of the corn supplies, which were mainly drawn from Sicily and Africa, and on which the vast population of Rome was wholly dependent, were entirely in the hands of Pompey, who was gradually losing the confidence of all political parties in Rome. The senate and the aristocracy disliked and distrusted him, but they felt that, should things come to the worst, they might still find in him a champion of their cause. Hence the joint rule of Pompey and Caesar was not unwillingly accepted, and anything like a rupture between the two was greatly dreaded as the sure beginning of anarchy throughout the Roman world. With the deaths of Pompey's wife Julia (54) and of Crassus (53) the relations between him and Caesar became strained, and soon afterwards he drew closer to what we may call the old conservative party in the senate and aristocracy. The end was now near, and Pompey blundered into a false political position and an open quarrel with Caesar. In 50 the senate by a very large majority revoked the extraordinary powers conceded to Pompey and Caesar in Spain and Gaul respectively, and called upon them to disband their armies. Pompey's refusal to submit gave Caesar a good pretext for declaring war and marching at the head of his army into Italy. At the beginning of the contest the advantages were decidedly on the side of Pompey, but the superior political tact of his rival, combined with extraordinary promptitude and decision in following up his blows, soon turned the scale against him. Pompey's cause, with that of the senate and aristocracy, was finally ruined by his defeat in 48 in the neighbourhood of the Thessalian city Pharsalus. That same year he fled with the hope of finding a safe refuge in Egypt, but was treacherously murdered by one of his old centurions as he was landing. He was five times married, and three of his children survived him — Gnaeus, Sextus, and a daughter Pompeia. Pompey, though he had some great and good qualities, hardly deserved his surname of " the Great." He was certainly a very good soldier, and is said to have excelled in all athletic exercises, but he fell short of being a first-rate general. He won great successes in Spain and more espec'ally in the East, but for these he was no doubt partly indebted to what others had already done. Of the gifts which make a good statesman he had really none. As plainly appeared in the last years of his life, he was too weak and irresolute to choose a side and stand by it. But to his credit be it said that in a corrupt time he never used his opportunities for plunder and extortion, and his domestic life was pure and simple. Authorities. — Ancient: Plutarch, Pompey; Dio Cassius; Appian; Velleius Paterculus; Caesar, De bello civili; Strabo xii., 555-560; Cicero, passim; Lucan, Pharsalia. Modern: Histories of Rome in general (see Rome: Ancient Vistory, ad fin.) ; works quoted under Caesar and Cicero. Also G. Boissier, Cicero and His Friends (Eng. trans., A. D. Jones, 1897) ; J. L. Strachan- Davidson's Cicero (1894); Warde Fowler's Julius Caesar (1892); C. W. Oman, Seven Roman Statesmen of the Later Republic (1902); notes in Tyrrell and Purser's Correspondence of Cicero (see index in vii. 80). 2. Gnaeus Pompeius, surnamed Strabo (squint-eyed), Roman statesman, father of the triumvir. He was successively quaestor in Sardinia (103 B.C.), praetor (94), propraetor in Sicily (93) and consul (89). He fought with success in the Social War, and was awarded a triumph for his services. Probably towards the end of the same year he brought forward the law (lex Pompeia de Gallia Transpadana) , which conferred upon the inhabitants of that region the privileges granted to the Latin colonies. During the civil war between Marius and Sulla he seems to have shown no desire to attach himself definitely to either side. He certainly set out for Rome from the south of Italy (where he remained as proconsul) at the bidding of the aristocratic party, when the city was threatened by Marius and Cinna, but he displayed little enetgy, and the engage- ment which he fought before the Colline gate, although hotly contested, was indecisive. Soon afterwards he was killed by lightning (87). Although he possessed great military talents, Pompeius was the best-hated general of his time owing to his cruelty, avarice and perfidy. His body was dragged from the bier, while being conveyed to the funeral pile, and treated with the greatest indignity. See Plutarch, Pompey, 1; Appian, Bell. civ. i. 50, 52, 66-68, 80;, Veil. Pat. ii. 21 ; Livy, Epit. 74-79; Florus iii. 18. 3. Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (c. 75-45 B.C.), the elder son of the triumvir. In 48 B.C. during the civil war he commanded his father's fleet in the Adriatic. After the battle of Pharsalus he set out for Africa with the remainder of the Pompeian party, but, meeting with little success, crossed over to Spain. Having been joined by his brother Sextus, he collected a considerable army, the numbers of which were increased by the Pompeians who fled from Africa after the battle of Thapsus (46). Caesar, who regarded him as a formidable opponent, set out against him in person. A battle took place at Munda on the 17th of March 45, in which the brothers were defeated. Gnaeus managed to make his escape after the engagement, but was soon (April 12) captured and put to death. He was generally unpopular owing to his cruelty and violent temper. See Pseudo-Oppius, Bellum hispaniense, 1-39; Lucan, Pharsalia, ix. 120; Dio Cassius xliii. 28-40. 4. Sextus Pompeius Magnus (75-35 b.c), the younger son of the triumvir. After his father's death he continued the struggle against the new rulers of the Roman Empire. From Cyprus, where he had taken refuge, he made his way to Africa, and after the defeat of the Pompeians at Thapsus (46) crossed over to Spain. After Caesar's victory at the battle of Munda (45), in which he took no actual part, he abandoned Corduba (Cordova), though for a time he held his ground in the south, and defeated Asinius Pollio, the governor of the province. In 43, the year of the triumvirate of Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus, he was proscribed along with the murderers of Caesar, and, not daring to show himself in Italy, he put himself at the head of a fleet manned chiefly by slaves or proscribed persons, with which he made himself master of Sicily, and from thence ravaged the coasts of Italy. Rome was threatened with a famine, as the corn supplies from Egypt and Africa were cut off by his ships, and it was thought prudent to negotiate a peace with him at Misenum (39), which was to leave him in possession of Sicily, Sardinia and Achaea, provided he would allow Italy to be freely supplied with corn. But the arrangement could not be carried into effect, as Sextus renewed the war and gained some considerable successes at sea. However, in 36 his fleet was defeated and destroyed by Agrippa at Naulochus off the north coast of Sicily. After his defeat he fled to Mytilene, and from there to Asia Minor. In the attempt to make his way to Armenia he was taken prisoner by Antony's troops, and put to death at Miletus. Like his father, he was a brave soldier, but a man of little culture. 58 POMPIGNAN— POMPTINE MARSHES See Dio Cassius, xtvi-xlix. ; Appian, Bell. civ. iv. 84-117 v 2-143; Veil. Pat. ii. 73-87; Plutarch, Antony; Livy, Epit. \2\ 128, 129, 131; Cicero, Philippica, xiii., and many references in Letters to Atttcus. POMPIGNAN, JEAN JACQUES LEFRANC, Marquis de (1709- 1784), French poet, was born on the 17th of August 1709, at Montauban, where his father was president of the cour des aides, and the son, who also followed the profession of the law, suc- ceeded in 1745 to the same charge. The same year he was also appointed conseiller d'konneur of the parlement of Toulouse, but his courageous opposition to the abuses of the royal power^ especially in the matter of taxation, brought down upon him so much vexation that he resigned his positions almost immedi- ately, his marriage with a rich woman enabling him to devote himself to literature. His first play, Didon (1734), which owed much to Metastasio's opera on the same subject, gained a great success, and gave rise to expectations not fulfilled by the Adieux de Mars (1735) and some light operas that followed. His reputa- tion was made by Poesies sacr&es et philosophiques (1734), much mocked at by Voltaire who punned on the title: " S acres Us sont, car personne n'y louche." Lefranc's odes on profane sub- jects hardly reach the same level, with the exception of the ode on the death of J. B. Rousseau, which secured him entrance to the Academy (1760). On his reception he made an ill-con- sidered oration violently attacking the Encyclopaedists, many of whom were in his audience and had given him their votes. Lefranc soon had reason to repent of his rashness, for the epigrams and stories circulated by those whom he had attacked made it impossible for him to remain in Paris, and he took refuge in his native town, where he spent the rest of his life occupied in making numerous translations from the classics, none of great merit. La Harpe who is severe enough on Lefranc in his correspondence, does his abilities full justice in his Cours Utteraire, and ranks him next to J. B. Rousseau among French lyric poets. With those of other 18th-century poets his works may be studied in the Pelits poeles francais (1838) of M. Prosper Poitevin. His CEuvres com- pletes (4 vols.) were published in 1781, selections (2 vols.) in 1800, Iol^i Io22. His brother, Jean Georges Lefranc de Pompignan (1715- 1790), was the archbishop of Vienne against whose defence of the faith Voltaire launched the good-natured mockery of Les Lettres d'un Quaker. Elected to the Estates General, he passed over to the Liberal side, and led the 149 members of the clergy who united with the third estate to form the National Assembly. He was one of its first presidents, and was minister of public worship when the civil constitution was forced upon the clergy. POMPONAZZI, PIETRO (Petrus Pomponatius) (1462-1523), Italian philosopher, was born at Mantua on the 16th of Sep- tember 1462, and died at Bologna on the 18th of May 1525. His education, begun at Mantua, was completed at Padua, where he became doctor of medicine in 1487. In 1488 he was elected extraordinary professor of philosophy at Padua, where he was a colleague of Achillini, the Averroist. From about 1495 to 1500 he occupied the chair of natural philosophy until the closing of the schools of Padua, when he took a professorship at Ferrara where he lectured on the De anima. In 151 2 he was invited to Bologna where he remained till his death and where he produced. all his important works. The predominance of medical science at Padua had cramped his energies, but at Ferrara, and even more at Bologna, the study of psychology and theological speculation were more important. In 1516 he produced his great work De immortalitate animi, which gave rise to a storm of controversy between the orthodox Thomists of the Catholic Church, the Averroists headed by Agostino Nifo, and the so-called Alexandrist School. The treatise was burned at Venice, and Pomponazzi himself ran serious risk of death at the hands of the Catholics. Two pamphlets followed, the Apologia and the Defensorium, wherein he explained his paradoxical position as Catholic and philosophic materialist. His last two treatises, the De incantationibus and the De fato were posthumously published in an edition of his works printed at Basel. Pomponazzi is profoundly interesting as the herald of the Renaissance. He was born in the period of transition when scholastic formalism was losing its hold over men both in the Church and outside. Hitherto the dogma of the Church had been based on Aristotle as interpreted by Thomas Aquinas. So close was this identification that any attack on Aristotle, or even an attempt to reopen the old discussions on the Aristo- telian problems, was regarded as a dangerous heresy. Pom- ponazzi claimed the right to study Aristotle for himself, and devoted himself to the De anima with the view of showing that Thomas Aquinas had entirely misconceived the Aristotelian theory of the active and the passive intellect. The Averroists had to some extent anticipated this attitude by their contention that immortality does not imply the eternal separate existence of the individual soul, that the active principle which is common to all men alone survives. Pomponazzi's revolt went further than this. He held, with Alexander of Aprodisias, that, as the soul is the form of the body (as Aquinas also asserted), it must, by hypothesis, perish with the body; form apart from matter is unthinkable. The ethical consequence of such a view is important, and in radical contrast to the practice of the period. Virtue can -no longer be viewed solely in relation to reward and punishment in another existence. A new sanction is required. Pomponazzi found this criterion in rod koXou evena —virtue for its own sake. " Praemium essentiale virtutis est ipsamet virtus quae hominem felicem facit," he says in the De immortalitate. Consequently, whether or not the soul be im- mortal, the ethical criterion remains the same: " Neque aliquo pacta declinandum est a virtute quicquid accidat post mortem." In spite of this philosophical materialism, Pomponazzi declared his adherence to the Catholic faith, and thus established the principle that religion and philosophy, faith and knowledge, may be diametrically opposed and yet coexist for the same thinker. This curious paradox he exemplifies in the De incanla- tione, where in one breath he sums up against the existence of demons and spirits on the basis of the Aristotelian theory of the cosmos, and, as a believing Christian, asserts his faith in their existence. In this work he insists emphatically upon the orderly sequence of nature, cause and effect. Men grow to maturity and then decay; so religions have their day and succumb. Even Christianity, he added (with the usual proviso that he is speaking as a philosopher) was showing indications of decline. See A. H. Douglas, Philosophy and Psychology of Pietro Pompo- nazzi (1910); also Ritter, Geschichte der Philosophies J. A. Symonds, J he Renaissance in Italy; Windelband, History of Philosophy (trans, by James H. Tufts, pt. 4 , c. 1); J. Burckhardt, Die Kultur der Renaissance in Italien; L. Ferri, La Psicologia di P. Pom- ponazzi. (J_ M _ jy^y POMPONIUS, LUCIUS, called Bononiensis from his birthplace Bononia, Latin comic poet, flourished about 90 b.c. (or earlier). He was the first to give an artistic form to the Atellanae Fabulae by arranging beforehand the details of the plot which had hitherto been left to improvisation, and providing a written text. The fragments show fondness for alliteration and playing upon words, skill in the use of rustic and farcical language, and a considerable amount of obscenity. Fragments in O. Ribbeck, Scenicae romanorum poesis fratmenta (1897-1898); see Mommsen, Hist, of Rome (Eng. tr.), bk. iv. ch. 13; leuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. tr.), § 151. POMPOSA, an abbey of Emilia, Ttaly, in the province of Ferrara, 2 m. from Codigoro, which is 30 m. E. of Ferrara in the delta of the Po. The fine church, a work of the 10th (?) century, with interesting sculptures on the facade and a splendid Roma- nesque campanile, contains a good mosaic pavement, and interest- ing frescoes_ of the 14th century— a " Last Judgment " of the school of Giotto and others; and there are also paintings in the refectory. It was abandoned in 1550 on account of malaria.. See G. Agnelli, Ferrara e Pomposa (Bergamo, 1902). (T. As.) POMPTINE MARSHES, a low tract of land in the province of Rome, Italy, varying in breadth between the Volscian mountains and the sea from 10 to 16 m., and extending N.W. to S.E. from PONANI— PONCHIELLI 59 Velletri to Terracina (40 m.). In ancient days this low tract was fertile and well-cultivated, and contained several prosperous cities (Suessa Pometia, Ulubrae — perhaps the mod. Cisterna — &c), but, owing to the dying out of the small proprietors, it had already become unhealthy at the end of the Republican period. Attempts to drain the marshes were made by Appius Claudius in 312 B.C., when he constructed the Via Appia through them (the road having previously followed a devious course at the foot of the Volscian mountains), and at various times during the Roman period. A canal ran through them parallel to the road, and for some reason that is not altogether clear it was used in preference to the road during the Augustan period. Trajan repaired the road, and Theodoric did the same some four hundred years later. But in the middle ages it had fallen into disrepair. Popes Boniface VIII., Martin V., Sixtus V., and Pius VI. all attempted to solve the problem, the last-named reconstructing the road admirably. The difficulty arises from the lack of fall in the soil, some parts no less than 10 m. from the coast being barely above sea-level, while they are separated from the sea by a series of sand-hills now covered with forest, which rise at some points over 100 ft. above sea-level. Springs also rise in the district, and the problem is further complicated by the flood-water and solid matter brought down by the mountain torrents, which choke up the channels made. By a law passed in 1899, the proprietors are bound to arrange for . the safe outlet of the water from the mountains, keep the exist- ing canals open, and reclaim the district exposed to inundation, within a period of twenty-four years. The sum of £280,000 has been granted towards the expense by the government. See T. Berti, Paludi pontine (Rome, 1884); R. de la BlanchSre, Un Chapilre d'histoire pontine (Paris, 1889). (T. As.) PONANI, a seaport on the west coast of India, in Malabar district, Madras, at a mouth of a river of the same name. Pop. (1901), 10,562. It is the headquarters of the Moplah or Map- pilla community of Mahommedans, with a religious college and many mosques, one of which is said to date from 1510. There is a large export of coco-nut products. PONCA, a tribe of North-American Indians of Siouan stock. They were originally part of the Omaha tribe, with whom they lived near the Red River of the North. They were driven westward by the Dakotas, and halted on the Ponca river, Dakota. After a succession of treaties and removals they were placed on a reservation at the mouth of the Niobrara, where they were prospering, when their lands were forcibly taken from them, and they were removed to Indian Territory (Oklahoma). During the march thither and in their new quarters, the tribe's health suffered, so that in 1878 they revolted and made their way back to the Omahas. They were recaptured, but public attention having been drawn to their hard case they were liberated in 1880, after a long trial, which resulted in their being declared United States citizens. They number some 700, mostly in Oklahoma. PONCE, a seaport and the second largest city of Porto Rico, the seat of government of the Department of Ponce, on the south coast, about 50 m. (84 m. by the military road) S.W. of San Juan. Pop. (1899), 27,952, of whom 2554 were negroes and 9942 of mixed races; (1910), 35,027. It is served by the American Railroad of Porto Rico, by a railway to Guayama (1910), and by steamboats from numerous ports; an old military road connects it with San Juan. Ponce consists of two parts: Ponce, or the city proper, and Ponce Playa, or the seaport; they are separated by the Portuguese River and are connected by an electric street railway. Ponce Playa is on a spacious bay and is accessible to vessels drawing 25 ft. of water; Ponce is 2 m. inland at the interior margin of a beautiful plain, with hills in the rear rising to a height of 1000 to 2000 ft. The city is supplied with water • by an aqueduct about 2 m. long. There are two attractive public squares in the heart of the city: Plaza Principal and Plaza de las Delicias. Among prominent public buildings are the city hall, the custom-house, the Pearl theatre, several churches- Roman Catholic (including a finely decorated cathedral) and Protestant; St Luke's hospital and insane asylum, an asylum for the blind, a ladies' asylum, a home for the indigent and aged, and a military barracks. At the Quintana Baths near the city are thermal springs with medicinal properties. The surrounding country is devoted chiefly to the cultivation of sugar cane, tobacco, oranges and cacao, and to the grazing of cattle. Among the manufactures are sugar, molasses, rum, and ice, and prepared coffee for the market. Ponce, named in honour of Ponce de Leon, was founded in 1752 upon the site of a settlement which had been established in the preceding century, was incorporated as a town in 1848, and was made a city in 1878. PONCELET, JEAN VICTOR (1 788-1 867), French mathe- matician and engineer, was born at Metz on the 1st of July 1788. From 1808 to 1810 he attended the Ecole polytechnique, and afterwards, till 181 2, the licole d' application at Metz. He then became lieutenant of engineers, and took part in the Russian campaign, during which he was taken prisoner and was confined at Saratov on the Volga. It was during his imprison- ment here that, " prive de toute espece de livres et de secours, surtout distrait par les malheurs de ma patrie et les miens propres," as he himself puts it, he began his researches on pro- jective geometry which led to his great treatise on that subject. This work, the Traite des propriites projectives des figures, which was published in 1822 (2d ed., 2 vols. 1865-1866), is occupied with the investigation of the projective properties of figures (see Geometry). This work entitles Poncelet to rank as one of the greatest of those who took part in the development of the modern geometry of which G. Monge was the founder. From 1 81 5 to 1825 he was occupied with military engineering at Metz] and from 1825 to 1835 he was professor of mechanics at the Ecole d' application there. In 1826, in his M&moire sur les roues hydrauliques a aubes courbes, he brought forward im- provements in the construction of water-wheels, which more than doubled their efficiency. In 1834 he became a member of the Academie; from 1838 to 1848 he was professor to the faculty of sciences at Paris, and from 1848 to 1850 comman- dant of the Ecole polytechnique. At the London International Exhibition of 1851 he had charge of the department of machinery, and wrote a report on the machinery and tools on view at that exhibition. He died at Paris on the 23rd of December 1867. See J. Bertrand, Aloge historique de Poncelet (Paris, 1875). PONCHER, ETIENNE DE (1446-1524), French prelate and diplomatist. After studying law he was early provided with a prebend, and became councillor at the parlement of Paris in 1485 and president of the Chambre des Enquetes in 1498. Elected bishop of Paris in 1503 at the instance of Louis XII., he was entrusted by the king with diplomatic missions in Germany and Italy. After being appointed chancellor of the duchy of Milan, he became keeper of the seals of France in 151 2, and retained that post until the accession of Francis I., who employed him on various diplomatic missions. Poncher became archbishop of Sens in 1519. His valuable Constitutions synodales was published in 1514. PONCHIELLI, AMILCARE (1834-1886), Italian musical composer, was born near Cremona on the 1st of September 1834. He studied at the Milan Conservatoire. His first dramatic work, written in collaboration with two other composers, was II Sindaco Babbeo (185 1). After completing his studies at Milan he returned to Cremona, where his opera / Promessi sposi was produced in 1856. This was followed by La Savojarda (1861, produced in a revised version as Lina in 1877), Roderigo, re del Goti (1864), and La Stella del monte (1867). , A revised version of / Promessi sposi, which was produced at Milan in 1872, was his first genuine success. After this came a ballet, Le Due Gemelle (1873), and an opera, / Lituani (1874, produced in a revised version as Alduna in 1884). Ponchielli reached the zenith of his fame with La Gioconda (1876), written to a libretto founded by Arrigo Boito upon Victor Hugo's tragedy, Angelo, Tyran de Padoue. La Gioconda was followed by II Figliuol prodigo (1880) and Marion Delorme (1885). Among his less 6o PONCHO— PONI A RD important works are II Parlatore eterno, a musical farce (1873), and a ballet, Clarina (1873). In 1881 Ponchielli was made maestro di cappella of Piacenza Cathedral. His music shows the influence of Verdi, but at its best it has a distinct value of its own, and an inexhaustible flow of typically Italian melody. His fondness for fanciful figures in his accompaniments has been slavishly imitated by Mascagni, Leoncavallo, and many of their contemporaries. Ponchielli died at Milan on the 17 th of January 1886. PONCHO (a South American Spanish word, adopted from the Araucanian poncho or pontho in the 17th century), a form of cloak worn originally by the South American Indians, and afterwards adopted by the Spaniards living in South America. It is merely a long strip of cloth, doubled, with a hole for the head. POND, JOHN (c. 1767-1836), English astronomer-royal, was born about 1767 in London, where his father made a fortune in trade. He entered Trinity College, Cambridge, at the age of sixteen, but took no degree, his course being interrupted by severe pulmonary attacks which compelled a long residence abroad. In 1800 he settled at Westbury near Bristol, and began to determine star-places with a fine altitude and azimuth circle of 2^ ft. diameter by E. Troughton. His demonstration in 1806 (Phil. Trans, xcvi. 420) of a change of form in the, Greenwich mural quadrant led to the introduction of astro- nomical circles at the Royal Observatory, and to his own appoint- ment as its head. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society on the 26th of February 1807; he married and went to live in London in the same year, and in 181 1 succeeded Maskelyne as astronomer-royal. During an administration of nearly twenty-five years Pond effected a reform of practical astronomy in England comparable to that effected by Bessel in Germany. In 1821 he began to employ the method of observation by reflection; and in 1825 he devised means (see Mem. Roy. Astron. Soc. ii. 409) of Combin- ing two mural circles in the determination of the place of a single object, the one serving for direct and the other for reflected vision. Under his auspices the instrumental equipment at Greenwich was completely changed, and the number of assis- tants increased from one to six. The superior accuracy of his determinations was attested by S. C. Chandler's discussion of them in 1894, in the course of his researches into the variation of latitude {Astron. Journ. Nos. 313, 3.15)/ He persistently con- troverted (1810-1824) the reality of J. Brinkley's imaginary star-parallaxes (Phil. Trans, cviii. 477, cxiii. 53). Delicacy of health compelled his retirement in the autumn of 1835. He died at Blackheath on the 7th of September 1836, and was buried beside Halley in the churchyard of Lee. The Copley medal was conferred upon him in 1823, and the Lalande prize in 1817 by the Paris Academy, of which he was a corresponding member. He published eight folio volumes of Greenwich Observations, translated Laplace's Systbme du monde (in 2 vols. 8vo., 1809), and contributed thirty-one papers to scientific collections. His catalogue of n 12 stars (1833) was of great value. See Mem. Roy. Astron. Soc. x. 357; Proc. Roy. Soc. iii. 434; Penny Cyclopaedia (De Morgan); F. W. Bessel, Pop. Varlesungen, p. 543; Report Brit. Assoc, i. 128, 136 (Airy); Sir G. Airy's Autobiography, p. 127; Observatory, xiii. 204, xxii. 357; Annual Biography and Obituary (1837); R- Grant, Hist, of Phys. Astron. p. 491 ; Royal Society's Cat. Scient. Papers. POND, a small pool or body of standing water, a word often applied to one for which the bed has been artificially constructed. The word is a variant of " pound " (q.v.), an enclosure. PONDICHERRY, the capital of the French possessions in India, situated on the Coromandel or western coast, 122 m. by rail S. of Madras. The territory, which is entirely surrounded by the British district of South Arcot, has an area of 115 sq. m. with a population (1901) of 174,456. The chief crops are dry grains, rice, earth-nuts and a little indigo. The territory is traversed by a branch of the South Indian railway from Villa- puram. The town has a population of 27,448. It is well laid out with fine public buildings; the water-supply is derived from artesian wells. It has an open roadstead, with a small iron pier. The port is visited yearly by 500 vessels, and has trade of the value of about some £1,300,000. The principal imports are areca-nuts, wines and liqueurs, and the chief exports ground- nuts, oil, cotton fabrics and rice. Of the export trade more than one-half is with France, but of the import trade only one- fourth. The weaving of various fabrics forms the principal industry. Pondicherry was founded in 1683 by Francois Martin, on the site of a village given him by the governor of Gingee. In 1693 the Dutch took Pondicherry, but restored it, with the fortifica- tions greatly improved, in 1697, at the peace of Ryswick. In 1748 Admiral Boscawen laid siege to it without success, but in 1 76 1 it was taken by Colonel Coote from Lally. In 1763 it was restored to the French. In 1778 it was again taken by Sir Hector Munro, and its fortifications destroyed. In 1783 it was retransf erred to the French, and in 1793 recaptured by the English. The treaty of Amiens in 1802 restored it to the French, but it was retaken in 1803. In 1816 it was finally restored to the French. PONDO, a Kaffir people who have given their name to Pondo- land, the country comprising much of the seaboard of Kaffraria, Cape province, immediately to the south-west of Natal. The Pondo, who number about 200,000, are divided into several tribal groups, but the native government, since the annexation of the country to Cape Colony in 1894, has been subject to the control of the colonial authorities. (See Kaffirs.) PONDWEED, a popular name for Potamogeton natans, a cosmopolitan aquatic plant found in ponds, lakes and ditches, with broad, more or less oblong-ovate, olive-green, floating leaves: The name is also applied to other species of Potamo- geton, one of the characteristic genera of lakes, ponds and streams all over the world, but more abundant in temperate regions. It is the principal genus of the natural order of Monocotyledous Potamogetonaceae, and contains plants with slender branched stems, and submerged and translucent, or floating and opaque, alternate or opposite leaves, often with membranous united stipules. The small flowers are borne above the water in (After Wossidlo. From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Botanik.) Potamogeton natans. 1, Apex of flowering shoot. 3, Flower viewed from the side. 2, Flower viewed from above. 4, Diagram of flower. axillary or terminal spikes; they have four stamens, which bear at the back four small herbaceous petal-like structures, and four free carpels, which ripen to form four small green fleshy fruits, each containing one seed within a hard inner coat ; the seed contains a large hooked embryo. An allied genus Zannichellia (named after Zanichelli, a Venetian botanist), ' occurring in fresh and brackish ditches and pools in Britain, and also widely distributed in temperate and tropical regions, is known as horned pondweed, from the curved fruit. PONIARD, a dagger, particularly one of small size, used for stabbing at close quarters. The French word poignard, from PONIATOWSKI— PONS 61 which the English is a 16th-century adaptation, is formed from poing, fist, the clenched hand in which the weapon is grasped. (See Dagger.) PONIATOWSKI, the name of a Polish princely family of Italian origin, tracing descent from Giuseppe Torelli, who married about 1650 an heiress of the Lithuanian family of Poniator, whose name he assumed. The first of the Poniatowskis to distinguish himself was Stanislaus Poniatowski (1677-1762), who only belonged to the family by adoption, being the reputed son of Prince Sapieha and a Jewess. He was born at Dereczyn in Lithuania, and was adopted by Sapieha's intendant, Poniatowski. With his father he attached himself to the party of Stanislaus Leszczynski, and became major-general in the army of Charles XII. of Sweden. After the defeat of Pultowa he conveyed Charles XII. across the Dnieper, and remained with him at Bender. From there he was sent to Constantinople, where he extracted from the sultan Achmet III. a promise to march to Moscow. When the grand vizier, Baltagi Mehemet, permitted the tsar Peter I. to retreat unharmed from the banks of the Pruth, Poniatowski exposed his treason. He rejoined Leszczynski in the duchy of Zweibrucken, Bavaria, of which he became governor. After the death of Charles XII. in 1 718 he visited Sweden; and was subsequently reconciled with Leszczynski's rival on the throne of Poland, Augustus II., who made him grand treasurer of Lithuania in 1724. On the death of Augustus II. he tried to secure the reinstatement of Leszczynski, who then resumed his claims to the Polish crown. ' He was taken prisoner at Danzig by the Russians, and presently gave his allegiance to Augustus III., by whom he was made governor of Cracow. He died at Ryki on the 3rd of August 1762. His second son Stanislaus Augustus became king of Poland (see Stanislaus II.). Of the other sons, Casimir (1721-1780) was his brother's chancellor; Andrew (1 735-1773) entered the Austrian service, rising to the rank of feldzeugmeister; and Michael (1736-1794) became archbishop of Gnesen and primate of Poland. Joseph Anthony Poniatowski (q.v.), son of Andrew, became one of Napoleon's marshals. Stanislaus Poniatowski (1757-1833), son of Casimir, shared in the aggrandisement of the family during the reign of Stanislaus II., becoming grand treasurer of Lithuania, starost of Podolia and lieutenant-general of the royal army. In 1793 he settled in Vienna, and subsequently in Rome, where he made a magnificent collection of antique gems in his house on the Via Flaminia. This collection was sold at Christie's in London in May 1839. He died in Florence on the 13th of February 1833, and with him the Polish and Austrian honours became extinct. His natural, but recognized, son, Joseph Michael Xavier Francis John Poniatowski (1816-1873), was born at Rome and in 1847 was naturalized as a Tuscan subject. He received the title of prince in Tuscany (1847) and in Austria (1850). He had studied music under Ceccherini at Florence, and wrote numerous operas, in the first of which, Giovanni di Procida, he sang the title r61e himself at Lucca in 1838. He represented the court of Tuscany in Paris from 1848, and he was made a senator by Napoleon III., whom he followed to England in 1871. His last opera, Gelmina, was produced at Covent Garden in 1872. He died on the 3rd of July 1873, and was buried at Chislehurst. His son, Prince Stanislaus Augustus, married and settled in Paris. He was equerry to Napoleon III., and died in January 1908. PONIATOWSKI, JOSEPH ANTHONY (1 763-1813), Polish prince and marshal of France, son of Andrew Poniatowski and the countess Theresa Kinsky, was born at Warsaw in 1763. Adopt- ing a military career, he joined the Imperial army when Austria declared war against the Turks in 1788, and distinguished himself at the storming of Sabac on the 25th of April, where he was seriously wounded. Recalled by his uncle King Stanis- laus when the Polish army was reorganized, he received the rank of major-general, and subsequently that of lieutenant-general, and devoted himself zealously to the improvement of the national forces. In 1789, when Poland was threatened by the armed intervention of Russia, he was appointed commander of the Ukraine division at Braclaw on Bug. After the proclama- tion of the constitution of the 3rd of May 1791 he was appointed commander-in-chief, with instructions to guard the banks of the Dniester and Dnieper. On the outbreak of the war with Russia, Prince Joseph, aided by Kosciuszko, displayed great ability. Obliged constantly to retreat, but disputing every point of. vantage, he turned on the pursuer whenever he pressed too closely, and won several notable victories. At Polonna the Russians were repulsed with the loss of 3000 men; at Dubienka the line of the Bug was defended for five days against fourfold odds; at Zielence the Poles won a still more signal victory. Finally the Polish arms converged upon Warsaw, and were preparing for a general engagement when a courier from the capital informed the generals that the king had acceded to the confederation of Targowica (see Poland: History) and had at the same time guaranteed the adhesion of the army. All hostilities were therefore to be suspended. After an indig- nant but fruitless protest, Poniatowski and most of the other generals threw up their commissions and emigrated. During the Kosciuszko rising he again fought gallantly for his country under his former subordinate, and after the fall' of the republic resided as a private citizen at Warsaw for the next ten years. After Jena and the evacuation of the Polish provinces by Prussia, Poniatowski was offered the command of the National Guard; he set about reorganizing the Polish army, and on the creation of the grand duchy of Warsaw was nominated war minister. During the war of 1809, when an Austrian army corps under the archduke Ferdinand invaded the grand duchy, Poniatowski encountered them at the bloody battle of Radzyn, and though compelled to abandon Warsaw ultimately forced the enemy to evacuate the grand duchy, and captured Cracow. In Napoleon's campaign against Russia in 1812 Poniatowski commanded the fifth army corps; and after the disastrous retreat of the grand army, when many of the Poles began to waver in their allegiance to Napoleon, Poniatowski remained faithful and formed a new Polish army of 13,000 men with which he joined the emperor at Liitzen. In the campaign of 1813 he guarded the passes of the Bohemian mountains and defended the left bank of the Elbe. As a reward for his brilliant services at the three days' battle of Leipzig he was made a marshal of France and entrusted with the honourable but dangerous duty of covering the retreat of the army. Poniatowski heroically defended Leipzig, losing half his corps in the attempt, finally falling back slowly upon the bridge over the Elster which the French in the general confusion blew up before he reached it. Contesting every step with the overwhelming forces of the pursuers, he refused to surrender, and covered with wounds plunged into the river, where he flied fighting to the last. His relics were conveyed to Poland and buried in Cracow Cathedral, where he lies by the side of Tadeusz Kosciuszko and Jan Sobieski. Poniatowski's Mes souvenirs sur la campagne de 1792 (Lemberg, 1863) is a valuable historical document. See Stanislaw Kostka Boguslawski, Life of Prince Joseph Ponia- towski (Pol.; Warsaw, 1831); Franciszek Paszkowski, Prince Joseph Poniatowski (Pol.; Cracow, 1898); Correspondence of Poniatowski (ed. E. Raczynski, Posen, 1843); Bronislaw Dembinski, Stanislaus Augustus and Prince Joseph Poniatowski in the light of their Corre- spondence (Fr. ; Lemberg, 1904) ; Szymon Askenazy, Prince Joseph Poniatowski (Pol.; Warsaw, 1905). (R. N. B.) PONS, JEAN LOUIS (176-1-1831), French astronomer, was born at Peyres (Hautes Alpes) on the 24th of December 1761. He entered the Marseilles observatory in 1789, and in 1819 became the director of the new observatory at Marlia near Lucca, which he, left in 1825 for the observatory of the museum at Florence. Here he died on the 14th of October 1831. Between 1801 and 1827 Pons discovered thirty-seven comets, one of which (observed on the 26th of November 1818) was named after J. F. Encke, who determined its remarkably short period. See M. R. A. Henrion, Annuaire biographigue, i. 288 (Paris, 1834); Memoirs Roy. Astron. Soc. v. 410; R. Wolf, Geschichte der I Astronomie. p. 709; J. C. Poggendorff, Biog. lit. Handworterbuch. 62 PONSARD— PONTANUS PONSARD, FRANCOIS (1814-1867), French dramatist, was born at Vienne, department of Isere, on the 1st of June 1814. He was bred a lawyer ^ and his first performance in literature was a translation of Manfred (1837). His play Lucrece was represented at the Thtdtre Francais on the 1st of April 1843. This date is a kind of epoch in literature and dramatic history, because it marked a reaction against the romantic style of Dumas and Hugo. He received in 1845 the prize awarded by the Academy for a tragedy " to oppose a dike to the waves of romanticism." Ponsard adopted the liberty of the romantics with regard to the unities of time and place, but he reverted to the more sober style of earlier French drama. The tastes and capacities of the greatest tragic actress of the day, Rachel, suited his methods, and this contributed greatly to his own popularity. He followed up Lucrece with Agnes de Meranie (1846), Charlotte Corday (1850), and others. Ponsard accepted the empire, though with no very great enthusiasm, and received the post of librarian to the senate, which, however, he soon resigned, fighting a bloodless duel with a journalist on the subject. L'Honneur et I'argent, one of his most successful plays, was acted in 1853, and he became an Academician in 1855. For some years he did little, but in 1866 he obtained great success with Le Lion atnoureux, another play dealing with the revolutionary epoch. His GaliUe, which excited great opposition in the clerical camp, was produced early in 1867. He died in Paris on the 7th of July of the same year, soon after his nomination to the commandership of the Legion of Honour. Most of Ponsard's plays hold a certain steady level of literary and dramatic ability, but his popularity is in the main due to the fact that his appearance coincided with a certain public weariness of the extravagant and unequal style of 1830. His CEuvres completes were published in Paris (3 vols., 1865- 1876). See La Fin du thedtre romantique et Francois Ponsard d'apres des documents inedits (1899), by C. Latreille. PONSONBY, JOHN (1713-1789), Irish politician, second son of Brabazon Ponsonby, 1st earl of Bessborough, was born on the 29th of March 1713. In 1739 he entered the Irish parliament and in 1744 he became first commissioner of the revenue; in 1746 he was appointed a privy councillor, and in 1756 Speaker of the Irish House of Commons. Belonging to one of the great families which at this time monopolized the government of Ireland, Ponsonby was one of the principal " undertakers," men who controlled the whole of the king's business in Ireland, and he retained the chief authority until the marquess Townshend became lord-lieutenant in 1767. Then followed a struggle for supremacy between the Ponsonby faction and the party dependent on Townshend, one result of this being that Ponsonby resigned the speakership in 1771. He died on the 12th of December 1789. His wife was Elizabeth, daughter of William Cavendish, 3rd duke of Devonshire, a connexion which was of great importance to the Ponsonbys. Ponsonby's third son, George Ponsonby (1755-1817), lord chancellor of Ireland, was born on the 5th of March 1755 and was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. A barrister, he became a member of the Irish parliament in 1776 and was chancellor of the Irish exchequer in 1782, afterwards taking a prominent part in the debates on the question of Roman Catholic relief, and leading the opposition to the union of the parliaments. After 1800 Ponsonby represented Wicklow and then Tavistock in the united parliament; in 1806 he was lord chancellor of Ireland, and from 1808 to 1817 he was the official leader of the opposition in the House of Commons. He left an only daughter when he died in London on the 8th of July 181 7. George Ponsonby's elder brother, William Brabazon Ponsonby, 1st Baron Ponsonby (1 744-1806), was also a leading Whig politician, being a member of the Irish, and after 1800, of the British parliament. In 1806 shortly before his death he was created Baron Ponsonby of Imokilly. Three of his sons were men of note. The eldest was John (c. 17 70-1 8 5 5), who succeeded to the barony and was created a viscount in 1839; he was ambassador at Constantinople from 1832 to 1837 and at Vienna from 1846 to 1850. The second son was Major- General Sir William Ponsonby (1772-1815), who, after serving in the Peninsular War, was killed at the battle of Waterloo whilst leading a brigade of heavy cavalry. Another son was Richard Ponsonby (1772-1853), bishop of Derry. Sir William Ponsonby's posthumous son William (1816-1861) became 3rd Baron Ponsonby on the death of his uncle John, Viscount Ponsonby; he died childless and was succeeded by his cousin William Brabazon Ponsonby (1807-1866), only son of the bishop of Derry, on whose death the barony of Ponsonby became extinct. Among other members of this family may be mentioned Major- General Sir Frederick Cavendish Ponsonby (1783-1837), son of the 3rd earl of Bessborough, a soldier who distinguished himself at the battles of Talavera, Salamanca and Vittoria, in the Peninsular War, and was wounded at Waterloo; he was governor of Malta from 1826 to 1835. His eldest son, Sir Henry Frederick Ponsonby (1825-1895), a soldier who served in the Crimea, is best remembered as private secretary to Queen Victoria from 1870 until a few months before his death. PONSON DU TERRAIL [Pierre Alexis de Ponson], Vicomte de (1829-1871), French romance writer, was born at Montmaur (Isere) on the 8th of July 1829. He was a prolific novelist, producing in the space of two years some seventy- three volumes. Among his most successful productions were Les Coulisses du monde (1853), Exploits de Rocambole (1859), Les Drames de Paris (1865) and Le Forgeron de la Cour-Dieu (1869). He died at Bordeaux on the 20th of January 187 1. PONT (or Kylpont), ROBERT (1524-1606), Scottish reformer, was educated at St Andrews. In 1562 he was appointed minister at Dunblane and then at Dunkeld; in 1563, commis- sioner for Moray, Inverness and Banff. Then in succession he became minister of Birnie (1567), provost of Trinity College n»ar Edinburgh (i57i),a lord of session (1572), minister of St Cuthbert's, Edinburgh (1573) and at St Andrews (1581). Pont was a. strenuous champion of ecclesiastical independence, and for protesting against parliamentary interference in church government he was obliged to leave his country. From 1584 to 1586 he was in England, but returning north he resumed his prominence in church matters and kept it until his death in 1606. His elder son Timothy Pont (is6o?-i6i4?) was a good mathematician, surveyor, and " the first projector of a Scottish atlas." PONTA DEL6ADA, the capital of an administrative district, comprising the islands of St Michael's and St Mary in the Portuguese archipelago of the Azores. Pop. (1900), 17,620. Ponta Delgada is built on the south coast of St Michael's, in 37 40' N. and 25° 36' W. Its mild climate, and the fine scenery of its mountain background, render it very attractive to visitors; it is the commercial centre, and the most populous city of the archipelago. Besides the cathedral, it contains several inter- esting churches and monasteries, and an observatory. Formerly its natural inner harbour only admitted vessels of light draught, while larger ships were compelled to anchor in an open road- stead, which was inaccessible during the prevalence of southerly gales. But great improvements were effected after i860 by the construction of a breakwater 2800 ft. long. PONT-A-MOUSSON, a town of northern France in the depart- ment of Meurthe-et-Moselle, 17 m. N.N.W. of Nancy by rail. Pop. (1906), 12,282. The Moselle, which is canalized, divides the town into two quarters, united by a bridge of the late 16th century. The church of St Martin, dating from the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries, has a handsome facade with two towers, and in the interior a choir screen and Holy Sepulchre of the 1 5th century. The lower ecclesiastical seminary occupies the build- ing of an old Premonstratensian convent. There are several interesting old houses. The town has a communal college and engineering workshops, blast furnaces, and manufactures of lacquered ware, paper, cardboard, cables and iron-ware. Dating from the 9th or 10th century, Pont-a-Mousson constituted a lordship, which was made a marquisate in 1354. It was from 1572 to 1763 the seat of a well-known university. PONTANUS, JOVIANUS (1426-1503), Italian humanist and poet, was born in 1426 at Cerreto in the duchy of Spoleto, PONTARLIER— PONTECOULANT 63 where his father was murdered in one of the frequent civil brawls which then disturbed the peace of Italian towns. His mother escaped with the boy to Perugia, and it was here that Pontano received his first instruction in languages and literature. Failing to recover his patrimony, he abandoned Umbria, and at the age of twenty-two established himself at Naples, which continued to be his chief place of residence during a long and prosperous career. He here began a close friendship with the distinguished scholar, Antonio Beccadelli, through whose in- fluence he gained admission to the royal chancery of Alphonso the Magnanimous. Alphonso discerned the singular gifts of the young scholar, and made him tutor to his sons. Pontano's connexion with the Aragonese dynasty as political adviser, military secretary and chancellor was henceforth a close one; and the most doubtful passage in his diplomatic career is when he welcomed Charles VIII. of France upon the entry of that king into Naples in 1405, thus showing that he was too ready to abandon the princes upon whose generosity his fortunes had been raised. Pontano illustrates in a marked manner the position of power to which men of letters and learning had arrived in Italy. He entered Naples as a penniless scholar. He wasr almost immediately made the companion and trusted friend of its sovereign, loaded with honours, lodged in a fine house, enrolled among the nobles of the realm, enriched, and placed at the very height of social importance. Following the example of Pomponio Leto in Rome and of Cosimo de' Medici at Florence, Pontano founded an academy for the meetings of learned and distinguished men. This became the centre of fashion as well as of erudition in the southern capital, and subsisted long after its founder's death. In 1461 he married his first wife, Adriana Sassone, who bore him one son and three daughters before her death in 1491. Nothing distinguished Pontano more than the strength of his domestic feeling. He was passionately attached to his wife and children; and, while his friend Beccadelli signed the licentious verses of Hermaphroditus, his own Muse celebrated in liberal but loyal strains the pleasures of conjugal affection, the charm of infancy and the sorrows of a husband and a father in the loss of those he loved. Not long after the death of his first wife Pontano took in second marriage a beautiful girl of Ferrara, who is only known to us under the name of Stella. Although he was at least sixty-five years of age at this period, his poetic faculty displayed itself with more than usual warmth and lustre in the glowing series of elegies, styled Eridanus, which he poured forth to commemorate the rapture of this union. Stella's one child, Lucilio, survived his birth but fifty days; nor did his mother long remain to comfort the scholar's old age. Pontano had already lost his only son by the first marriage; therefore his declining years were solitary. He died in 1503 at Naples, where a remarkable group of terra-cotta figures, life-sized and painted, still adorns his tomb in the church of Monte Oliveto. He is there represented together with his patron Alphonso and his friend Sannazzaro in adoration before the dead Christ. As a diplomatist and state official Pontano played a part of some importance in the affairs of southern Italy and in the Barons' War, the wars with Rome, and the expulsion and restora- tion of the Aragonese dynasty. But his chief claim upon the attentions of posterity is as a scholar. His writings divide themselves into dissertations upon such topics as the " Liberality of Princes " or " Ferocity," composed in the rhetorical style of the day, and poems. He was distinguished for energy of Latin style, for vigorous intellectual powers, and for the faculty, rare among his contemporaries, of expressing the facts of modern life, the actualities of personal emotion, in language sufficiently classical yet always characteristic of the man. His prose treatises are more useful to students of manners than the similar lucubrations of Poggio. Yet it was principally as a Latin poet that he exhibited his full strength. An ambitious didactic composition in hexameters, entitled Urania, embodying the astronomical science of the age, and adorning this high theme with brilliant mythological episodes, won the admiration of Italy. It still remains a monument of fertile invention, exuberant facility and energetic handling of material. Not less excellent is the didactic poem on orange trees, De hortis Hesperi- dum. His most original compositions in verse, however, are elegiac and hendecasyllabic pieces on personal topics — the De conjugali amore, Eridanus, Tumuli, Naeniae, Baiae, &c. — in which he uttered his vehemently passionate emotions with a warmth of southern colouring, an evident sincerity, and a truth of painting from reality which excuse their erotic freedom. Pontano's prose and poems were printed by the Aldi at Venice. For his life see Ardito, Giovanni Pontano e i suoi tempi (Naples, 1871); for his place in the history of literature, Symonds, Renais- sance in Italy. (J. A. S.) PONTARLIER, a frontier town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Doubs, 36 m. S.E. of Besancon by road. Pop. (1906), 7896. It is situated 2750 ft. above sea-level on the Doubs, about four miles from the Swiss frontier, and forms an important strategic point at the mouth of the defile of La Cluse, one of the principal passes across the Jura. The pass is defended by the modern fort of Larmont, and by the Fort de Joux, which was originally built in the 10th century by the family of Joux and played a conspicuous part in the history of Franche-Comte. Pontarlier is the junction of railway lines to Neuchatel, Lausanne, Lons-le-Saunier, Dole and Besancon. A triumphal arch of the 18th century com- memorates the reconstruction of the town after the destructive fire of 1736. It was at Pontarlier that the French army of the East made its last stand against the Prussians in 187 1 before crossing the Swiss frontier. The distillation of herbs, extensively cultivated for the manufacture of absinthe, kirsch and other liqueurs, is the chief industry. The town is the seat of a sub- prefect and has a tribunal of first instance and a communal college. PONT AUDEMER, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Eure, 39 m. N.W. of Evreux, on the Risle, a left-bank affluent of the Seine, and on the railway from Evreux to Honfleur. Pop. (1906), 5700. The church of St Ouen, which has fine stained glass of the 1 6th century, combines the late Gothic and Renaissance styles; its choir is Romanesque. Local institutions are the sub-prefec- ture, a tribunal of first instance, a board of trade-arbitration, a chamber and tribunal of commerce. Manufacturing industry is active, and includes the founding of malleable metal, a spur factory, the manufacture of glue and paper, cotton-spinning and various branches of leather manufacture. There is trade in flax, wool, grain, cattle, cider, paper, iron, wood and coal. The port has a length of over half a mile on the Risle, which is navigable for small vessels from this point to its mouth (10 m.). The town owes its name to Audomar, a Frank lord, who in the 7th or 8th century built a bridge over the Risle at this point. It was the scene of several provincial ecclesiastical councils in the 1 2th and 13th centuries and of meetings of the estates of Normandy in the 13th century. PONTE (Ital. for " bridge "), a rough game peculiar to the city of Pisa, in which the players, divided into two sides and provided with padded costumes, contended for the possession of one of the bridges over the Arno. The weapon used, both for offence and defence, was a kind of shield which served as a club as well. A history and description of the game may be found in William Heywood's Polio and Ponte (London, 1904). PONTECORVO, a city of Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta, on the Garigliano, about 48 m. from Caserta and 3 m. from Aquino on the railway from Rome to Naples. Pop. (1901), 10,518 (town); 12,492 (commune). The town is approached by a triumphal arch adorned with a statue of Pius IX. The princi- pality of Pontecorvo (about 40 sq. m. in extent), once an indepen- dent state, belonged alternately to the Tomacelli and the abbots of Monte Cassino. Napoleon bestowed it on Bernadotte in i8o£, and in 1 8 10 it was incorporated with the French Empire. PONTECOULANT, LOUIS GUSTAVE LE DOULCET, Comte de (1764-1853), French politician, was born at Caen on the 17th of November 1764. He began a career in the army in 1778. 6 4 PONTEFRACT A moderate supporter of the revolution, he was returned to the Convention for the department of Calvados in 1792, and became commissary with the army of the North. He voted for the imprisonment of Louis XVI. during the war, and his banishment after tne peace. He then attached himself to the party of the Gironde, and in August 1793 was outlawed. He had refused to defend his compatriot Charlotte Corday, who wrote him a letter of reproach on her way to the scaffold. He returned to the Convention on the 8th of March 1795, and showed an unusual spirit of moderation by defending Prieur de la Marne and Robert Lindet. President of the Convention in July 1 795, he was for some months a member of the council of public safety. He was subsequently elected to the council of five hundred, but'was suspected of royalist leanings, and had to spend some time in retirement before the establishment of the consulate.. Becoming senator in 1805, and count of the empire in 1808, he organized the national guard in Franche Comte in 181 1, and the defence of the north-eastern frontier in 181 3. At the first restoration Louis XVIII. made him a peer of France, and although he received a similar honour from Napoleon during the Hundred Days, he sat in the upper house under the Second Restoration. He died in Paris on the 3rd of April 1853, leaving memoirs and correspondence from which were extracted four volumes (1861- 1865) of Souvenirs historiques et parlementaires 1764-1848. His son Louis Adolphe Le Doulcet, comte de Pontecoulant (1794-1882), served under Napoleon in 1812 and 1814, and then emigrated to Brazil, where he took part in the abortive insurrec- tion at Pernambuco in 181 7. He also organized a French volunteer contingent in the Belgian revolution of 1830, and was wounded at Louvain. The rest of his life was spent in Paris in the study of ancient music and acoustics. Among his works was one on the Musee instrumental du conservatoire de musique , (1864). A younger brother, Philippe Gustave Le Doulcet, comte de Pontecoulant (1795-1874), served in the army until 1849, when he retired to devote himself to mathematics and astronomy. His works include Thtorie analytique du systeme du monde (Paris, 1829-1846) and Traiti elementaire de physique celeste (2 vols., Paris, 1840). PONTEFRACT (pronounced and sometimes written " Pom- fret "), a market town and municipal and parliamentary borough in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 21 m. S.S.W. from York, served by the Midland, North-Eastern and Lancashire & Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1891), 9702; (1901), 13,427. It is well situated, mainly on an eminence, near the junction of the Aire and the Calder. The most important of the antiquarian remains are the ruins of the famous castle situated on a rocky height, originally covering with its precincts an area of over 8 acres, and containing in all eight round towers. The remains are principally of Norman date, and an unusual feature of the stronghold is the existence of various subterranean chambers in the rock. Below the castle is All Saints church, which suffered severely during the siege of the castle, but still retains some work of the 1 2th century. In 1837 the tower and transepts were fitted for divine service. The church of St Giles, formerly a chapel of ease to All Saints, but made parochial in the 18th century, is of Norman date, but most of the present structure is modern. The 17th-century spire was removed in 1707, and replaced by a square tower, which was rebuilt in 1797; the chan- cel was rebuilt in 1869. In Southgate is an ancient hermitage and oratory cut out of the solid rock, which dates from 1396. On St Thomas's Hill, where Thomas, earl of Lancaster, was beheaded in 1322, a chantry was erected in 1373, the site of which is now occupied by a windmill built of its stones. At Monkhill there are the remains of a Tudor building called the Old Hall, probably constructed out of the old priory of St John's. A grammar school of ancient foundation, renewed by Elizabeth and George III., occupies modern buildings. The town-hall was built at the close of the 18th century on the site of one erected in 1656, which succeeded the old moot-hall dating from Saxon times. Among other buildings are the court house, the market hall, the assembly rooms (a handsome building adjoining the town-hall), and large barracks. The foundation of the principal almshouse, that of St Nicholas, dates from before the Conquest. Trinity Hospital was founded by Sir Robert Knolles (d. 1407), an eminent military commander in the French wars of Edward III. At Ackworth, in the neighbourhood, there is a large school of the. Society of Friends or Quakers (1778), in the foundation of which Dr John Fothergill (17 12-1780) was a prime mover. There are extensive gardens and nurseries in the neighbourhood of Pontefract, and liquorice is largely grown for the manufacture of the celebrated Pomfret cakes. The town possesses ironfoundries, sack and matting manufactories, tanneries, breweries, corn mills and brick and terra-cotta works. The parliamentary borough, falling within the Osgoldcross division of the county, returns one member (before 1885 the number was, two). The town is governed by a mayor, six alder- men and 18 councillors. Area, 4078 acres. The, remains of a Roman camp have been discovered near Pontefract, but there is no trace of settlement in the town itself until after the Conquest. At the time of the Domesday Survey Tateshall (now Tanshelf, a suburb of the town) was the chief manor and contained 60 burgesses, while Kirkby, which after- awards became the borough of Pontefract, was one of its members, The change was probably owing to the fact that Ilbert de Lacy, to whom the Conqueror had granted the whole of the honour of Pontefract, founded a castle at Kirkby, on a site said to have been occupied by a fortification raised by Ailric, a Saxon thane. Several reasons are given for the change of name but none is at all satisfactory. One account says that it was caused by a broken bridge which delayed the Conqueror's advance to the north, but this is known to have been at Ferrybridge, three miles away; a second says that the new name was derived from a Norman town called Pontfrete, which, however, never existed; and a third that it was caused by the breaking of a bridge in 1 1 53 on the arrival of the archbishop of York, St William, when several people were miraculously preserved from drowning, although the town was already known as Pontefract in 1140 when Archbishop Thurstan died there. The manor remained in the Lacy family until it passed by marriage to Thomas, duke of Lancaster, who was beheaded on a hill outside the town after the battle of Boroughbridge. His estates were restored to his brother Henry, earl of Lancaster, on the accession of Edward III., and the manor has since then formed part of the duchy of Lancaster. The town took part in most of the rebellions in the north of England, and in 1399 Richard II. was imprisoned and secretly murdered in the castle. During the Wars of the Roses the town was loyal to Henry VI., and several of the Yorkist leaders were executed here after the battle of Wakefield. It was taken by Robert Aske, leader of the Pilgrimage of Grace, in 1536. In 1642 the castle was garrisoned for Charles I. and sustained four sieges, the second, in 1644, being successful, but two years later it was retaken by the royalists, who held it until after the execution of the king, when they surrendered to General Lambert and the castle was destroyed. Roger de Lacy in n 94 granted a charter to the burgesses confirming their liberties and right to be a free borough at a fee^farm of 1 2d. yearly for every toft, granting them the same privileges as the burgesses of Grimsby, and that their reeve should be chosen annually by the lord of the manor at his court leet, preference being given to the burgesses if they would pay as much as others for the office. Henry de Lacy cofirmed this charter in 1278 and in 1484 Richard III. incorporated the town under the title of mayor and burgesses and granted a gild merchant with a hanse. His charter was withdrawn on the accession of Henry VII. and a similar one was granted, while in 1489 the. king gave the burgesses licence to continue choosing a mayor as they had done in the time of Richard III. In 1606-1607 James I. confirmed the charter of Henry VII. and regulated the choice of the mayor by providing that he should be elected from among the chief burgesses by the burgesses themselves. The privilege of returning two members to parliament which had belonged to Pontefract at the end of the 13th century was revived in 1620-1621 on the grounds that the charter of 1606-1607 had restored all their privileges to the burgesses. Since the PONTEVEDRA— PONTIAC 65 Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885 one member only has been returned. Liquorice was largely grown as early as 1 700-1 701, when the corporation prohibited the sale of buds or sets of the plant. Richard III. by his incorporation charter granted the market rights in the borough to the burgesses, who still hold them under his charter. See Victoria County History: Yorkshire; Eighth Report of the Royal Commission on Historical Manuscripts ( 1 870- 1 80,7) ; Book of Entries of the Pontefract Corporation, 1653-1726 (ed. by Richard Holmes, 1882) ; Benjamin Boothroyd, The History of the Ancient Borough of Ponte- fract (1807); George Fox, The History of Pontefract (1827). PONTEVEDRA, a maritime province of north-western Spain, formed in 1833 of districts taken from Galicia, and bounded on the N. by Corunna, E. by Lugo and Orense, S. by Portugal and W. by the Atlantic. Pop. (1900), 457,262; area, 1695 sq. m. Pontevedra is the smallest of the provinces of Spain except the three Basque Provinces; its density of population, 269-8 inhabitants per square mile, is only excelled in the provinces of Barcelona and Biscay (Vizcaya). Both of these are mining and manufacturing districts, while Pontevedra is dependent on agriculture and fisheries. The surface is everywhere moun- tainous, and consists almost entirely of arable land, pasture or forest. The coast-line is deeply indented; navigation is rendered difficult by the prevalence of fogs in summer and storms in winter. The river Mino (Portuguese Minho) forms the southern frontier, and is navigable by small ships as far as Salvatierra; .and the province is watered by many smaller streams, all flowing, like the Mino, into the Atlantic. The largest of these are the Ulla, which separates Pontevedra from Corunna, the Umia and the Lerez. Pontevedra has a mild climate, a fertile soil and a very heavy rainfall. Large agricultural fairs are held in the chief towns, and there is a considerable export trade in cattle to Great Britain and Portugal, hams, salt meat and fish, eggs, breadstuffs, leather and wine. Vigo is the headquarters of shipping, and one of the chief ports of northern Spain. There are also good harbours at Bayona, Carril, Marin, Villagarcia and elsewhere among the deep estuaries of the coast. At Tuy the Spanish and Portuguese railways meet, and from this town one line goes up the Mino valley to Orense, and another northward along the coast to Santiago de Gompostela. PONTEVEDRA, the capital of the Spanish province of Ponte- vedra; on the Tuy-Corunna railway, and on the river Lerez, which here enters the Ria de Pontevedra, an inlet of the Atlantic. Pop. (1900), 22,330. The name of the town is derived from the ancient Roman bridge {pons vetus) of twelve arches, which spans the Lerez near its mouth. Pontevedra is a picturesque town, mainly built of granite, and still partly enclosed by medieval fortifications. It contains handsome provincial and municipal halls erected in the 19th century, and many convents, some of which have been converted into hospitals or schools. Marin and Sangenjo are ports on the Ria de Pontevedra, which is the seat of a thriving sardine fishery. There is an active trade in grain, wine and fruit; cloth, hats, leather and pottery are manufactured. PONTIAC (t. 1 7 20-1 769), Indian chief of the Ottawa and leader in the " Conspiracy of Pontiac " in 1763-64, was born between 1712 and 1720 probably on the Maumee river, near the mouth of the Auglaize. His father was an Ottawa, and his mother an Ojibwa. By 1755 he had become a chief of the Ottawa and a leader of the loose confederacy of the Ottawa, Potawatomi and Ojibwa. He was an ally of France and possibly commanded the Ottawa in the defeat (July 9, 1755) of General Edward Braddock. In November 1760 he met Major Robert Rogers, then on his way to occupy Michilimackinac and other forts surrendered by the French, and agreed to let the English troops pass unmolested on condition that he should be treated with respect by the British. Like other Indians he soon realized the difference between French and English rule — that the Indians were no longer welcomed at the forts and that they would ultimately be deprived of their hunting grounds by en- croaching English settlements. French hunters and traders encouraged Indian disaffection with vague promises of help from France; in 1762 an Indian "prophet" among the Delawares on the Muskingum preached a union of the Indians to expel the xxii. 3 English; and in that year (as in 1761) there were abortive con ■ spiracies to massacre the English garrisons of Detroit, Fort Niagara and Fort Pitt (now Pittsburg). Pontiac seems to have been chief of a magic association (the Metai), and he took advan- tage of the religious fervour and the general unrest among the Indians to organize in the winter of 1762-63 a simultaneous attack on the English forts to be made in May 1763 at a certain phase of the moon. On the 27th of April 1763, before a meeting near Detroit of delegates from most of the Algonquian tribes, he outlined his plans. On the 7th of May, with 60 warriors, he attempted unsuccessfully to gain admission to Detroit, which then had a garrison of about 160 under Major Henry Gladwin (1730-1791); and then besieged the fort from the 9th of May to the end of October. On the 28th of May reinforcements from Fort Niagara were ambuscaded near the mouth of the Detroit. In June the Wyandot and Potawatomi withdrew from the siege, but on the 29th of July they attacked reinforcements (280 men, including 20 of Rogers's rangers) from Fort Niagara under Captain James Dalyell (or Dalzell), who, however, gained the fort, and in spite of Gladwin's opposition on the 31st of July attacked Pontiac's camp, but was ambuscaded on Bloody Run and was killed, nearly 60 others being killed or wounded. On the 1 2th of October the Potawatomi, Ojibwa and Wyandot made peace with the English; with the Ottawa Pontiac continued the siege until the 30th of October, when he learned from Neyon de la Valliere, commandant of Fort Chartres (among the Illinois) that he would not be aided by the French. Pontiac then withdrew to the Maumee. Fort Pitt with a garrison of 330 men under Captain Simeon Eciiyer was attacked on the 22nd of June and was besieged from the 27th of July to the 1st of August, when the Indians withdrew to meet a relief expedition of 500 men, mostly High- landers, under Colonel Henry Bouquet (1719-1766), who had set out from Carlisle, Pennsylvania, on the 18th of July, and relieved Fort Ligonier (on the site of the borough of Ligonier, Westmoreland county, Penn.) on the 2nd of August, but was surprised on the 5th, and fought (5th and 6th) the battle of Bushy Run (25 m. S.E. of Fort Pitt), finally flanking and routing the Indians after tricking them by a feinted retreat of a part of his force. Bouquet reached Fort Pitt on the 10th of August. At Michilimackinac (Mackinac), Michigan, on the 4th of June, the Indians gained admission to the fort by a trick, killed nearly a score of the garrison and captured the remainder, including Captain George Etherington, the commander, besides several English traders, including Alexander Henry (1739-1824). 1 Some of the captives were seized by the Ottawa, who had taken no part in the attack; a part of these were released, and reached Montreal on the 13th of August. Seven of the prisoners kept by the Ojibwa were killed in cold blood by one of their chiefs. Fort Sandusky (on the site of Sandusky, Ohio) was taken on the 1 6th of May by Wyandot; and Fort St Joseph (on the site of the present Niles, Mich.) was captured on the 25th of May and n men (out of its garrison of 14) were massacred, the others with the commandant, Ensign Schlosser, being taken to Detroit and exchanged for Indian prisoners. On the 27th of May Fort Miami (on the site of Fort Wayne, Indiana) surrendered to the Indians after its commander, Ensign Holmes, had been treacher- ously killed. Fort Ouiatanon (about 5 m. south-west of the present Lafayette, Indiana) and Fort Presque Isle (on the site of Erie, Penn.) were taken by the Indians on the 1st and 16th of June respectively; and Fort Le Boeuf (on the site of Waterford, 1 Henry, a native of New Brunswick, N.J., had become a fur- trader at Fort Michilimackinac in 1761. He was rescued by Wawatam, an Ottawa, who had adopted him as a brother; in 1764 he took part in Colonel John Bradstreet's expedition; in 1770, with Sir William Johnson, the duke of Gloucester and others, formed a Company to mine copper in the Lake Superior region; was a fur- trader again until 1796; and then became a merchant in Montreal. His Travels and Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories between the Years 1760 and 1776 (1809; reprinted 1901) is a valuable account of the fur trade and of his adventures at Michilimackinac. He is not to be confused with his nephew of the same name, also a fur-trader, whose journal was published in 1897 in 3 vols., as New Light on the Early History of the Greater Northwest. 66 PONTIAC— -PONTIVY Penn.) was surprised on the 18th, but its garrison escaped, and seven (out of 13) got safely to Fort Pitt. Fort Venango (near the site of the present Venango, Penn.) was taken and burnt about the same time by some Senecas (the only Iroquois in the conspiracy), who massacred the garrison and later burned the commander, Lieut. Gordon. About 500 Senecas on the 14th of September surprised a wagon train, escorted by 24 soldiers, from Fort Schlosser (2 m. above Niagara Falls), drove most of them over the brink of the Devil's Hole (below the cataract), and then nearly annihilated a party from Fort Niagara sent to the rescue. In 1763, although the main attacks on Detroit and Fort Pitt had failed, nearly every minor fort attacked was captured, about 200 settlers and traders were killed, and in property destroyed or plundered the English lost about £100,000, the greatest loss in men and property being in western Pennsylvania. In June 1764 Colonel John Bradstreet (1711-1774) led about 1 200 men from Albany to Fort Niagara, where at a great gather- ing of the Indians several treaties were made in July; in August he made at Presque Isle a treaty (afterwards annulled by General Thomas Gage) with some Delaware and Shawnee chiefs; and in September made treaties (both unsatisfactory) with the Wyandot, Ottawa and Miami at Sandusky, and with various chiefs at Detroit. He sent Captain Howard to occupy the forts at Michilimackinac, Green Bay and Sault Ste Marie, and Captain Morris up the Maumee river, where he conferred with Pontiac, and then to Fort Miami, where he narrowly escaped death at the hands of the Miami; and with his men Bradstreet returned to Oswego in November, having accomplished little of value. An expedition of 1 500 men under Colonel Bouquet left Carlisle, Pennsylvania, in August, and near the site of the present Tuscarawas, Ohio, induced the Indians to release their prisoners and to stop fighting — the practical end of the conspiracy. Pontiac himself made submission to Sir William Johnson on the 25th of July 1766 at Oswego, New York. In April 1769 he was murdered, when drunk, at Cahokia (nearly opposite St Louis) by a Kaskaskia Indian bribed by an English trader; and he was buried near the St Louis Fort. His death occasioned a bitter war in which a remnant of the Illinois was practically annihilated in 1770 at Starved Rock (between the present Ottawa and La Salle), Illinois, by the Potawatomi, who had been followers of Pontiac. Pontiac was one of the most remarkable men of the Indian race in American history, and was notable in particular for his power (rare among the Indians) of organization. See Francis Parkman, The Conspiracy of Pontiac (2 vols., Boston, 1851; 10th ed., 1896). PONTIAC, a city and the county-seat of Oakland county, Michigan, U.S.A., on the Clinton river, about 26 m. N.W. of Detroit. Pop. (1890), 6200; (1900) 9769, of whom 2020 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 14,532. It is served by the Grand Trunk and the Pontiac, Oxford & Northern railways (being the southern terminus of the latter), and by the Detroit & Pontiac and the North-Western electric inter-urban lines. In the sur- rounding country there are many small, picturesque lakes (the largest being Orchard, about 6 m. south-east of Pontiac, Cass and Elizabeth lakes), and there is good hunting and fishing in the vicinity. In Pontiac is the Eastern Michigan Asylum for the insane (1878), -with grounds covering more than 500 acres. The city has various manufactures, and the value of the factory products increased from $2,470,887 in 1900 to $3,047,422 in 1904, or 23-3%. Agricultural products, fruit and wool from the surrounding country are shipped in considerable quantities. The municipality owns and operates its waterworks. Pontiac, named in honour of the famous Indian chief of that name, was laid out as a town in 1818, became the county-seat in 1820, was incorporated as a village in 1837, and was chartered in 1861. PONTIANUS, pope from 230 to 235. He was exiled by the emperor Maximinus to Sardinia, and in consequence of this sen- tence resigned (Sept. 28, 235). He was succeeded by Anteros. PONTIFEX. The collegium of the Pontifices was the most important priesthood of ancient Rome, being specially charged with the administration of the jus divinum, i.e. that part of the civil law which regulated the relations of the community with the deities recognized by the state officially, together with a general superintendence of the worship of gens and family. The name is clearly derived from pons and facere, but whether this should be taken as indicating any special connexion with the sacred bridge over the Tiber (Pons Sublicius) , or what the original meaning may have been, cannot now be determined. The college existed under the monarchy, when its members were probably three in number; they may safely be considered as legal advisers of the rex in all matters of religion. Under the republic they emerge into prominence under a pontifex maximus, who took over the king's duties as chief administrator of religious law, just as his chief sacrificial duties were taken by the rex sacrorum; his dwelling was the regia, " the house of the king." During the republican period the number of pontifices increased, probably by multiples of three, until after Sulla (82 B.C.) we find them fifteen; for the year 57 B.C. we have a complete list of them in Cicero (Harusp. resp. 6, 12). Included in the collegium were also the rex sacrorum, the flamines, three assistant pontifices (minores), and the vestal virgins, who were all chosen by the pontifex maximus. Vacancies in the body of pontifices were originally filled by co-optation; but from the second Punic War onwards the pontifex maximus was chosen by a peculiar form of popular election, and in the last age of the republic this held good for all the members. They all held office for life. The immense authority of the college centred in the pontifex maximus, the other pontifices forming his consilium or advising body. His functions were partly sacrificial or ritualistic, but these were the least important ; the real power lay in the adminis- tration of the jus divinum, the chief departments of which may briefly be described as follows: (1) the regulation of all expiatory ceremonials needed as the result of pestilence, lightning, &c. ; (2) the consecration of all temples and other sacred places and objects dedicated to the gods by the state through its magis- trates; (3) the regulation of the calendar both astronomically and in detailed application to the public life of the state; (4) the administration of the law relating to burials and burying-places, and the worship of the Manes, or dead ancestors; (5) the superin- tendence of all marriages by confarreatio, i.e. originally of all legal patrician marriages; (6) the administration of the law of adoption and of testamentary succession. They had also the care of the state archives, of the lists of magistrates, and kept records of their own decisions (commentarii) and of the chief events of each year (annales). It is obvious that a priesthood having such functions as these, and holding office for life, must have been a great power in the state, and for the first three centuries of the republic it is probable that the pontifex maximus was in fact its most powerful member. The office might be combined with a magistracy, and, though its powers were declaratory rather than executive, it may fairly be described as quasi-magisterial. Under the later republic it was coveted chiefly for the great dignity of the position; Julius Caesar held it for the last twenty years of his life, and Augustus took it after the death of Lepidus in 12 B.C., after which it became inseparable from the office of the reigning emperor. With the decay of the empire the title very naturally fell to the popes, whose functions as administrators of religious law closely resembled those of the ancient Roman priesthood, hence the modern use of " pontiff " and " pontifical." For further details consult Marquardt, Staatsverwaltung, iii. 2 35 se Q- ! Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Romer, 430 seq. ; Bouche-Leclercq, Les Pontifes, passim. (W. W. F.*) PONTIVY, a town of western France, chief town of an arron- dissement in the department of Morbihan, 46 m. N.N.W. of Vannes by rail. Pop. (1906), 6312 (town); 9506 (commune). The town, situated on the Blavet, at its confluence with the Nantes-Brest canal, comprises two distinct parts — the old town and that to the south known as Napoleonville. The latter, built by orderof Napoleon I., who desired to make it the military headquarters for Brittany, and consisting chiefly of barracks, subsequently gave its name to the whole town, but in 1871 the old name was resumed. The ancient castle (1485) of the dukes PONT-L'ABBE— PONTOON 67 of Rohan, whose capital the town was, is occupied by the Musee le Brigant of art and archaeology. A monument to commem- orate the Breton-Angevin Union, the deputies of which met at Pontivy in 1790, was erected in 1894, and there are statues of Dr Guepin, a democrat, and General de Lourmel (d. 1854). The town has a sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first instance, and a lycee for boys. Pontivy had its origin in a monastery founded in the 7th century by St Ivy, a monk of Lindisfarne. PONT-L'ABBfi, a town of western France in the department of Finistere, 13 m. S.W. of Quimper by rail. Pop. (1906), of the town 4485, of the commune 6432. The town is situated on the right bank of the estuary or river of Pont-PAbbe, 2 m. from the sea. Its port carries on fishing, imports timber, coal, &c, and exports mine-props and the cereals and vegetables of the neigh- bourhood. Of the old buildings of the town the chief is a church of the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, once attached to a Carmelite convent; an old castle is occupied by the h&tel de ville. The local costumes, trimmed with the bright-coloured embroideries for which the town is noted, are among the most striking in Brittany; the bigouden or head-dress of the women has given its name to the inhabitants. Pont-1'Abbe carries on flour-milling and the extraction of chemicals from seaweed. PONTMARTIN, ARMAND AUGUSTIN JOSEPH MARIE FERRARD, Comte de (1811-1890), French critic and man of letters, was born at Avignon (Vaucluse) on the 16th of July 181 1. Imbued by family tradition with legitimist sympathies, he began by attacking the followers of the encyclopaedists and their successors. In the Assemblee nationale he published his Causeries litUraires, a series of attacks on prominent Liberals, which created some sensation. Pontmartin was an indefatigable journalist, and most of his papers were eventually published in volume form: Contes et reveries d'un planteur de choux (1845); Causeries du samedi (1857-1860); Nouveaux samedis (1865-1881), &c. But the most famous of all his books is Les Jeudis de Mme. Charbonneau (1862), which under the form of a novel offered a series of malicious and witty portraits of contemporary writers. Pontmartin died at Avignon on the 29th of March 1890. See Hatzfeld and Meunier, Les Critiques littiraires du XIX" siecle (1894). PONTOISE, a town of northern France, capital of an arron- dissement of the department of Seine-et-Oise, 18 m. N.W. of Paris on the railway to Dieppe. Pop. (1906), 7963. Pontoise is picturesquely situated on the right bank of the Oise where it is joined by the Viosne. The traffic on the main river is large, and the tributary drives numerous mills. Of the many churches that used to exist in the town two only remain: St Maclou, a church of the 12 th century, altered and restored in the 15th and 1 6th centuries by Pierre Lemercier, the famous architect of St Eustache at Paris, and containing a fine holy sepulchre of the 1 6th century; and Notre-Dame, of the close of the 16th century, which contains the tomb of St Gautier, abbot of Meulan in the 1 2th century. At the top of the flight of steps by which St Maclou is approached is the statue of General Leclerc, a native of the town and husband of Pauline Bonaparte. Grain and flour are the principal staples of the trade; a well-known fair is held in November. The town has a sub-prefecture, tribunals of first instance and of commerce and a communal college. At Meriel, near Pontoise, there are interesting remains of the Cistercian abbey of Le Val. Pontoise existed in the time of the Gauls as Briva Isarae (Bridge of the Oise). It was destroyed by the Normans in the 9th century, united with Normandy in 1032, and acquired by Philip I. in 1064. Capital of the French Vexin, it possessed an important stronghold and played a conspicuous part in the wars between the French and the dukes of Normandy and in the Hundred Years' War. The English took it in 1419, and again in 1437. In 1441 Charles VII. took it by storm after a three months' siege. After belonging to the count of Charolais down to the treaty of Conflans, it was given as a dowry to Jeanne of France when she was divorced by Louis XII. The parlement of Paris several times met in the town; and in 1561 the states- general convoked at Orleans removed thither after the death of Francis II. During the Fronde it offered a refuge to Louis XIV. and Mazarin. Henry III. made it an apanage for his brother the duke of Anjou. At a later period it passed to the duke of Conti. Down to the Revolution it remained a monastic town. PONTOON (Fr. ponton, from Lat. pons, a bridge), a flat- bottomed boat, used as a ferry boat or lighter; especially a boat of particular design intended to form part of a military bridge. In modern hydraulic engineering the words ponton and pontoon are used to designate hollow water-tight structures which are secured to sunken wrecks and bring them up to the surface, and also the hollow chambers which serve as gates for docks and sluices, and are lowered and raised by the admission and pumping out of water. Military Pontoon Bridges. — From time immemorial floating bridges of vessels bearing a roadway of beams and planks have been employed to facilitate the passage of rivers and arms of the sea. Xerxes crossed the Hellespont on a double bridge, one line supported on three hundred and sixty, the other on three hundred and fourteen vessels, anchored head and stern with their keels in the direction of the current. Darius threw similar bridges across the Bosporus and the Danube in his war against the Scythians, and the Ten Thousand employed a bridge of boats to cross the river Tigris in their retreat from Persia. Floating bridges have been repeatedly constructed over rivers in Europe and Asia, not merely temporarily for the passage of an army, but permanently for the requirements of the country; and to this day many of the great rivers in India are crossed, on the lines of the principal roads, by floating bridges, which are for the most part supported on boats such as are employed for ordinary traffic on the river. But light vessels which can be taken out of the water and lifted on to carriages are required for transport with an army in the field. Alexander the Great occasionally carried with his army vessels divided into portions, which were put together on reaching the banks of a river, as in crossing the Hydaspes ; he is even said to have carried his army over the Oxus by means of rafts made of the hide tents of the soldiers stuffed with straw, when he found that all the river boats had been burnt. Cyrus crossed the Euphrates on stuffed skins. The practice of carrying about skins to be inflated when troops had to cross a river, which was adopted by both Greeks and Romans, still exists in the East. In the 4th century the emperor Julian crossed the Tigris, Euphrates and other rivers by bridges of boats made of skins stretched over osier frames. In the wars of the 17th century pontoons are found as regular components of the trains of armies, the Germans using a leather, the Dutch a tin and the French a copper " skin " over stout timber frames. Modern military pontoons have been made of two forms, open as an undecked boat, or closed as a decked canoe or cylinder. During the Peninsular War the English employed open bateaux; but the experience gained in that war induced them to introduce the closed form. General Colleton devised a buoy pontoon, cylindrical with conical ends and made of wooden staves like a cask. Then General Sir Charles Pasley introduced demi-pon- toons, like decked canoes with pointed bows and square sterns, a pair, attached sternwise, forming a single " pier " of support for the roadway; they were constructed of light timber frames covered with sheet copper and were decked with wood; each demi-pontoon was divided internally into separate compartments by partitions which were made as water-tight as possible, and also supplied with the means of pumping out water; when trans- ported overland with an army a pair of demi-pontoons and the superstructure of one bay formed the load for a single carriage weighing 27-75 cwt. when loaded. The Pasley was superseded by the Blanshard pontoon, a tin coated cylinder with hemis- pherical ends, for which great mobility was claimed, two pon- toons and two bays superstructure being carried on one waggon, giving a weight of about 45 cwt., which was intended to be drawn by four horses. The Blanshard pontoon was long used in the British army, but was ultimately discarded; and British engineers came to the conclusion that it was desirable to return to the form of the open bateau to which the engineers of all the 68 PONTOON. Continental armies had meanwhile constantly adhered. Captain Fowke, R.E., invented a folding open bateau, made of water- proof canvas attached to sliding ribs, so that for transport it could be collapsed like the bellows of an accordion and for use could be extended by a pair of stretchers. This was followed by the pontoon designed by Colonel Blood, R.E., an open bateau with decked ends and sides partly decked where the rowlock blocks were fixed. It consisted of six sets of framed ribs con- nected by a deep kelson, two side streaks, and three bottom streaks. The sides and bottom were of thin yellow pine with canvas secured to both surfaces by india-rubber solution, and coated outside with marine glue. The central interval between the pontoons in forming a bridge was invariably maintained at 15 ft.; for the support of the roadway five baulks were ordinarily employed, but nine for the passage of siege artillery and the heaviest loads; they fitted on to saddles resting on central saddle beams. The pontoons were not immersed to within 1 ft. of the tops of their " coamings " when carrying ordinary loads, as of infantry in marching order " in fours " crowded at a check, or the 16-pounder R.M.L. gun of position weighing 43 cwt.; nor were they immersed to within 6 in. when carrying extraordinary loads, such as disorganized infantry, or the 64-pounder R.M.L. guii weighing 98 cwt. In designing this pontoon the chief points attended to were — (1) improvement in power of support, (2) simplification in bridge construction, (3) reduction of weight in transport, and (4) adaptation for use singly as boats for ferrying purposes. One pontoon with the superstructure for a single bay constituted a load for one waggon, with a total weight behind horses of about 40 cwt. The following table (from Ency. Brit. 9th ed.) shows the powers of various pontoons in use by different nations in the past. Modern improvements are comparatively few. The " working power of support " has been calculated in most instances by deducting from the " available buoyancy " one-fourth for open and one-tenth for closed vessels: — In the English and French equipment the pontoons were originally made of two sizes, the smaller and lighter for the " advanced guard," the larger and heavier for the "reserve;" in both equipments the same size pontoon is now adopted for general requirements, the superstructure being strengthened when necessary for very heavy weights. The German army has an undivided galvanized iron pon- toon, 24 ft. 6 in. long, handy as a boat, but of inadequate buoyancy for heavy traffic, with the result that the span has to be diminished and ipso facto the waterway obstructed. The Austrian and Italian pontoons are made in three pieces, two with bows and a middle piece without ; not less than two pieces are ordinarily employed, and the third is introduced when great supporting power is required, but in all cases a constant interval is maintained between the pontoons. On the other hand, in the greater number of pontoon equipments greater supporting power is obtained not by increasing the number of supports but by diminishing the central interval between the pontoons, Within certain limits it does not matter whether the buoyancy is made up of a large number of small or a small number of large vessels, so long as the waterway is not unduly contracted and the obstruction offered to a swift current dangerously increased; but it is to, be remembered that pontoon bridges have failed as frequently from being washed away. as from insufficient buoyancy. In Austria efforts have been made to diminish the weight of the Birago equipment by the substitution of steel for iron. The present pontoon, in three pieces, is of steel, and 39 ft. 4 in. long, like the old pattern. In the British army Colonel Blood's equipment was later modified by. the introduction of a bipartite pontoon designed in 1889 by Lieut. Clauson, R.E. Each pontoon is carried on one waggon with a bay of superstructure, and consists of two sections, a bow-piece and a stern-piece, connected together by easily manipulated couplings of phosphor bronze. Decks and " coamings " are dispensed with, and the rowlock holes are sunk in a strong gunwale. The detach- able saddle-beam, which receives the load on the centre of the thwarts, is made in sections, so as to form a continuous saddle of any length required. The baulks (or road-bearers) and chesses ■ (or planks) remain unaltered, but chess-holders and chess-bearers are added for use in constructing light bridges for infantry in file. In this kind of bridge each pontoon section is used separately, with a roadway of chesses placed longitudinally four abreast. In the normal or medium bridge two sections, and in heavy bridge three sections are joined together. The chief advantages of the Pontoon. d O Tt£. a a Cm t! «- cj o 3 ■ e 2 « ^ * op; i- •53 c a n. •^. O G 3 > 3 co i u a) e >- jj o >. O. o rf « .3.1 OSS. "I? II" 3 -i i 8 S.-S Gribeauval: open bateau, oak Austrian: open, wooden, 1799 Aust. -Birago: open, wooden; two pieces ,, ,, ,, three ,, ,, „ iron; two pieces ,, ,, ,, three ,, French: open, wooden ; reserve ,, ,, ,, advanced guard ,, ,, ,, general . Prussian: open, wooden; open order ,, ,, ,, close order ,, ,, iron; open order ,. ,, „■ ' close order Italian : open wooden ; one piece ,, ,, „ two pieces ,, modified; one piece ,, ,, two pieces Russian \ °P en - canvas on ( open order ( wooden framework ; \ close order Belgian: open, iron; one piece ,, ,, ,, two pieces American \ india-rubber, three; ) open order ( cylinders connected ; \ close order English Pontoons. Peninsular ( open, tin; reserve equipment? ,, ,, advanced guard Pasley : closed demi-canoe ; copper Blanshard: cylinder, tin; open order . ,, ,, ,, close order . .. ., ,, light pattern Fowke: open, collapsible, canvas; open order Forbes: closed, spherangular, tin; open order Blood : open, wooden ; general .... Ft. 36-3 27-0 28-0 39-4 28-0 39-4 3Q-9 19-7 3°-9 23-7 23-7 247 24-7 19-6 39-2 24-6 49-2 210 21-0 24-8 49-2 20-0 20-0 18-9 151 25-0 22-5 22-5 15-5 22-0 24-2 21-6 Cub. Ft. 593 354 303 445 353 : 530 325 156 321 164 164 214 214 283 565 325 649 209 209 297 595 130 130 209 120 141 109 109 26 134 128 280 tb 45,044 22,123 18,907 27,791 22,090 33,135 20,286 9,734 20,065 10,226 10,226 13,385 13,385 17,660 35,320 20,290 40,580 13,042 13,042 18,584 37,168 8,125 8,125 13,092 7,520 8,781 6,785 6,785 1,640 8,460 7,977 17,500 lb 8,044 3,332 3,249 3,884 3,698 4,5oi 3,668 1,506 3,153 2,393 2,213 2,209 2,029 3,582 4,572 3,401 4,489 2,355 2,083 3-336 4,548 1,980 1,824 2,374 1,654 2,103 1,600 1,408 340 1,246 1,689 2,300 lb 37,000 18,791 15,658 23,907 18,392 28,634 16,678 8,228 16,912 7,833 8,013 11,176 n,356 14,078 30,748 16,889 36,091 10,687 10,959 15,248 32,620 6,H5 6,301 10,718 5,866 6,678 5,i85 5,377 1,300 7,2H 6,288 15,200 lb 27,750 14,093 ii,744 17,930 ,13,794 21,476 12,509 6,171 12,684 5,875 6,010 8,382 8,517 io,559 23,061 12,669 27,068 8,015 8,219 ii,436 24,465 5,530 5,76i 8,039 16-8 4,400 14-0 6,010 12-5 4,667 12-5 4,839 8-3 1,170 5-3 5,4U 10-0 5,659 II-O 13,350 15-0 Ft. 22-8 16-6 21-7 21-7 21-7 21-7 19-7 16-4 19-7 15-3 1 1 -2 15-3 II-2 26-3 26-3 23-0 23-0 16-6 u-7 19-7 19-7 18-0 14-7 lb [,215 849 542 827 636 991 635 376 644 384 535 56i 759 402 878 55i 1,178 493 705 580 1-244 307 393 477 314 481 373 58i 220 54i 5H 890 lb, 840 560 56o 560 560 560 56o 560 560 560 560 560 560 560 56o 560 560 560 560 56o 56o 580 560 560 560 560 560 560 280 56o 560 560 Ft. 15-6 114 93 9-3 9-3 9-3 10-5 9-3 9-8 9.9 9-9 9.9 9-9 9-8 9-8 9-8 9-8 10-4 10-4 9-5 9-5 II-O II-O io-o 9-0 lO-O 10-0 10-0 7-0 IO-O 10-0 10-0 lb 35,568 18,924 20,181 20,181 20,181 20,181 20,685 15,252 19,306 15,147 11,088 15,147 11,088 25,774 25,774 22,540 22,540 17,264 12,168 18,715 18,715 19,800 18,370 800 600 500 ,500 ,300 ,710 ,000 ,000 ,000 . PONTOPPIDAN, E.— rPONTORMO 69 equipment are (1) the buoyancy of the piers can be proportioned to the weight of traffic and to the roughness of the water; (2) owing to the special design of the bows, boats and rafts are easy to row, while the pontoons in bridge oppose little resistance to the current, and so require less anchor power; (3) transport rafts, pier- heads and flying bridges can be constructed with great ease, owing to the flush gunwales on which baulks can rest if necessary ; (4) the pontoon sections are convenient to handle, easy to ship or to transport by rail, and can readily be replaced singly if damaged in bridge. A canoe pontoon and superstructure adapted for pack transport has also been adopted from designs by Colonel (Sir) Elliott Wood, C.B., R.E. The pontoon consists of four sections laced together, each section being a framework of wood covered with waterproof sheeting. Three pontoons and eight composite planks form a " unit," from which can be constructed 48 ft. of bridge for infantry in file, 84 ft. for infantry in single file, or a raft to carry 15 men or an empty wagon. For the British army in India the standard pontoon for many years was the Pasley; it was seldom used, however, for boats could almost always be procured on the spot in sufficient numbers where- ever a floating bridge had to be constructed. Later an equipment was prepared for the Indian army of demi-pontoons, similar to the Blood pontoon cut in half, and therefore more mobile ; each has a bow and a square stern, and they are joined at the sterns when required to form a " pier " ; they are fitted with movable covers and can therefore be used in much rougher water than pontoons of the home pattern, and their power of support and breadth of roadway are the same. The Chitral Relief Expedition of 1895, however, revealed certain defects. The shape of the bow was unsuited to rapid currents; the balance was not satisfactory, and the copper sheathing cracked. Experiments were then undertaken with the bipartite pontoon. The india-rubber pontoon does not appear to have been generally employed even in America, where it was invented. The engineer officers with the army of the Potomac, after full experience of the india-rubber pontoon and countless other inventions of American genius, adopted the French equipment, which they found " most excellent, useful and reliable for all military purposes." The Russians, in crossing the Danube in their war with Turkey in 1878, employed the Austrian equipment. Aluminium pontoons have been tried in Germany, but have not been adopted. For light bridging work the Berthon and other collapsible boats have been adopted in Germany and Great Britain, especially for cavalry work in advance of the army. The German folding boat is made of wood framework and canvas skin; two boats are easily carried on one " folding-boat wagon." The total length of the three sections together is 21 ft. 6 in. The British field troop R.E., attached to cavalry, carries two collapsible boats 18 ft. 6 in. long. The methods of constructing pontoon bridges have been simpli- fied of late years in most armies, and are usually restricted to (1) adding pontoons one by one to the head of the bridge; (2) con- necting rafts of two or more pontoons into bridge by intermediate bays of superstructure; and (3) swinging across the river a bridge previously prepared alongside the shore. The formation of a bridge from rafts touching one another consumes an excessive amount of equipment, and opposes unnecessary resistance to the stream; it is therefore being discarded in most armies. " Booming out " the bridge bay by bay from the shore until the head teaches the opposite bank is unsuited for rapid currents, and is almost obsolete except for light infantry bridges. In every army the pontoon service is in the hands of technical specialists. 1 But there are many other forms of military bridging, in which the specialist only supervises the work of the ordinary soldier, or indeed, takes no part whatever. Troops of all arms are expected to be familiar with certain methods of rough temporary bridging. In the British service the forms of temporary timber bridge usually employed are called trestle, lock and floating. The trestle bridge in its Various forms Con- sists of a series of two-legged or three-legged trestles carrying the road-bearers and chesses which form the roadway. Trestles can be improvised, but some are carried, ready for use, by mobile engineer units and they are frequently combined with pontoon bridges at the shore ends, where holding ground for the feet of the trestles is found. Lock bridges never touch water, forming single spans over a chasm. These consist of spars made into frames of which the feet rest in the banks of the river and the heads are interlocked, the whole being securely lashed. Another type of frame-bridge is the cantilever, which has been used in Indian frontier expeditions to bridge swift 1 In Germany, however, as mentioned below, light bridging material has been placed in the hands of the cavalry. This tendency, in accordance with the needs of modern armies, will probably become more pronounced in the future. It began with the pro- vision of demolition equipment for the cavalry pioneers. steep-banked streams. Improvised suspension bridges are also used. Floating bridges are made not only of pontoons but also of boats of all sorts, casks lashed together, and rafts. They are almost always combined with one or two bays of trestle bridging at the shore ends. The organization of bridging personnel in different armies shows as much divergence of opinion as the design of pontoon equipment. In Great Britain, since the divisional reorganization, the bridging trains have been assigned to the " army troops," which include two_ " bridging trains," totalling 14 officers and 454 men with 92 vehicles, most of them six-horsed. Each train carries 32 pontoons and 3? bays of superstructure, as well as 16 trestles and 8 bays of the appropriate superstructure, and can construct 200 yds. of medium bridge in all. Besides these trains the divisional engineer units (2 field companies per division) bear with them in all 4 pontoons and 4 trestles, with the necessary bays of superstructure, their total bridging capacity being about 40 yds. of medium bridge. In France each army corps has a bridging train which admits of the construction of bridges to the extent of about 120 yds. of medium and 140 yds. of light bridging and bears besides 2 " advanced guard " trains which can provide 33 yds. of medium bridging each. Besides the corps trains there are also " army " trains, five in all, which can furnish 280 yds. of medium bridging apiece. These would be allotted in accordance with the requirements of particular campaigns. In Germany the increasing importance attached to independent cavalry operations has led to the assignment of a folding-boat wagon to every cavalry regiment. . The regimental equipment provides for a ferry, capable of taking 25 to 30 infantrymen, one artillery vehicle or four horses at one journey, a foot-bridge 22 to 35 yds. in length, or a light bridge of 8 to 13 yds. By assembling the material of a whole cavalry division of 6 regiments, a foot-bridge of no to 210 yds. or a light bridge of 57 to 70 yds. can be constructed. The corps bridging train of a German army corps can construct 140 yds. of medium or 170 yds. of light bridging, and each of the two divisional trains, 40 yds. of medium and 48 yds. of light bridging. PONTOPPIDAN, ERIK (1698-1764), Danish author, was born at Aarhus on the 24th of August 1698. He studied divinity at the university of Copenhagen, and for some time acted as a travelling tutor. In 173 s he became one of the chaplains of the king. In 1738 he was made professor extra- ordinary of theology at Copenhagen, and in 1745 bishop of Bergen, Norway, where he died on the 20th of December 1764. His principal works are: Theatrum Daniae veteris et modernae (4to, 1730), a description of the geography, natural history, an- tiquities, &c, of Denmark; Gesta et vestigia danorum extra Daniam (3 vols. 8vo, 1740), a laborious but uncritical work; Annates ecclesiae danicae. (3 vols., 1741-1747); Marmora danica selectiora (2 vols, fol., 1739-1741); Glossarium norvegicum (1749); Det forste forsog Norges naturlige hislorie (4to, 1 752-1 754); Eng. trans., Natural History of Norway (2 vols., 1755), containing curious accounts, often referred to, of the Kraaken, sea-serpent, and the like; Origines hafnienses (1760); Menoza (3 vols., 1742-1743), a religious novel. His Danske Atlas (7 vols. 4to), an historical and topographical account of Denmark, was mostly posthumous. See an article by S. M. Gjellerup in Danish Biografisk Lexikon (vol. xiii., 1899), PONTOPPIDAN, HENRIK (1857- ), Danish author, son of a pastor, was born at Fredericia on the 24th of July 1857. He studied physics and, mathematics at the university of Copen- hagen, and when he was eighteen he travelled on foot through Germany and Switzerland. His novels show an intimate acquaintance with peasant life and character, the earlier ones showing clear evidence of the influence of Kjelland. An excellent example of his work is in the trilogy dealing with the history of Emanuel Hansted, a theorizing radical parson who marries a peasant wife. These three stories, Muld (" Soil," 1891), Det Forjaettede Land ("The Promised Land," 1892), and Dommens Dag (1895) are marked by fine discrimination and great narrative power. Among his other works are Fra Hytterne (1887), Folkelivsskildringer (2 parts, 1888-1890), and Skyer (1890). He began in 1898 a new series in Lykke Per, the story of a typical Jutlander. See an article of Niels Moller in Dansk Biografisk Lexikon (vol. xiii., 1899). PQNTORMO, JACOPO DA (1494-1557), whose family name was Carucci, Italian painter of the Florentine school, was born at Pantormo in 1494, son of a painter of ordinary ability, was apprenticed to Leonardo da Vinci, and afterwards took lessons I from Piero di Cosimo. At the age of eighteen he became a PONTREMOLI— PONTUS 70 journeyman to Andrea del Sarto, and was remarked as a young man of exceptional accomplishment and promise. Later on, but still in early youth, he executed, in continuation of Andrea's labours, the " Visitation," in the cloister of the Servi in Florence — one of the principal surviving evidences of his powers. The most extensive series of works which he ever undertook was a set of frescoes in the church of S. Lorenzo, Florence, from the " Creation of Man to the Deluge," closing with the " Last Judgment." By this time, towards 1546, he had fallen under the dangerous spell of Michelangelo's colossal genius and super- human style; and Pontormo, after working on at the frescoes for eleven years, left them incomplete, and the object of general disappointment and disparagement. They were finished by Angelo Bronzino, but have long since vanished under whitewash. Among the best works of Pontormo are his portraits, which include the likenesses of various members of the Medici family ; they are vigorous, animated and highly finished. He was fond of new and odd experiments both in style of art and in method of painting. From Da Vinci he caught one of the marked physio- gnomic traits of his visages, smiles and dimples. At one time he took to direct imitation or reproduction of Albert Diirer, and executed a series of paintings founded on the Passion subjects of the German master, not only in composition, but even in such peculiarities as the treatment of draperies, &c. Pontormo died of dropsy on the 2nd of January 1557, mortified at the ill success of his frescoes in S. Lorenzo; he was buried below his work in the Servi. PONTREMOLI, a town and bishop's see of the province of Massa and Carrara, Tuscany, Italy, in the upper valley of the Magra, 25 m. N. by E. of Spezia by rail and 49 m. S.S.W. of Parma, 843 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1001), 4107 (town); 14,570 (commune). It has a 17th-century cathedral. The church of the Annunziata with its Augustinian monastery is interesting. There are also mineral springs. The town, which is well situated among the mountains, was an independent republic in the 12th and 13th centuries, and in 1495 was sacked by the troops of Charles VIII. of France. It was much damaged by an earthquake in 1834. PONTUS, a name applied in ancient times to extensive tracts of country in the north-east of Asia Minor bordering on the Euxine (Black Sea), which was often called simply Pontos (the Main), by the Greeks. The exact signification of this purely territorial name varied greatly at different times. The Greeks used it loosely of various parts of the shores of the Euxine, and the term did not get a definite connotation till after the establishment of the kingdom founded beyond the Halys during the troubled period following the death of Alexander the Great, about 301 B.C., by Mithradates I., Ktistes, son of a Persian satrap in the service of Antigonus, one of Alexander's successors, and ruled by a succession of kings, mostly bearing the same name, till 64 B.C. As the greater part of this kingdom lay within the immense region of Cappadocia, which in early ages extended from the borders of Cilicia to the Euxine, the kingdom as a whole was at first called " Cappadocia towards the Pontus " (Trpos to) ILWcp), but afterwards simply " Pontus," the name Cappadocia being henceforth restricted to the southern half of the region previously included under that title. Under the last king, Mithradates Eupator, commonly called the Great, the realm of Pontus included not only Pontic Cappadocia but also the seaboard from the Bithynian frontier to Colchis, part of inland Paphlagonia, and Lesser Armenia (see under Mithra- dates). With the destruction of this kingdom by Pompey in 64 B.C., the meaning of the name Pontus underwent a change. Part of the kingdom was now annexed to the Roman Empire, being united with Bithynia in a double province called " Pontus and Bithynia " : this part included (possibly from the first, but certainly from about 40 B.C. onwards) only the seaboard between Heracleia (Eregli) and Amisus (Samsun), the ora Pontica. Hereafter the simple name Pontus without qualification was regularly employed to denote the half of this dual province, especially by Romans and people speaking from the Roman point of view; it is so used almost always in the New Testament. But it was also frequently used to denote (in whole or part) that portion of the old Mithradatic kingdom which lay between the Halys (roughly) and the borders of Colchis, Lesser Armenia, Cappadocia and Galatia — the region properly designated by the title " Cappadocia towards the Pontus," which was always the nucleus of the Pontic kingdom. This region is regarded by the geographer Strabo (a.d. 19-20), himself a native of the country, as Pontus in the strict sense of the term (Geogr. p. 678). Its native population was of the same stock as that of Cappadocia, of which it had formed a part, an Oriental race often called by the Greeks Leucosyri or White Syrians, as distinguished from the southern Syrians, who were of a darker complexion, but their precise ethnological relations are uncertain. Geographically it is a table-land, forming the north-east corner of the great plateau of Asia Minor, edged on the north by a lofty mountain rim, along the foot of which runs a fringe of coast-land. The table-land consists of a series of fertile plains, of varying size and elevation separated from each other by upland tracts or mountains, and it is drained almost entirely by the river Iris (Yeshil Irmak) and its numerous tributaries, the largest of which are the Scylax {Tchekerek Irmak) with many affluents and the Lycus (Kalkid Irmak), all three rising in the highlands near, or on, the frontier of Armenia Minor and flowing first in a westerly and then in a north-westerly direction to merge their waters in a joint stream, which (under the name of the Iris) pierces the mountain-wall and emerges on the east of Amisus (Samsun). Between the Halys and the Iris the mountain rim is comparatively low and broken, but east of the Iris it is a continuous lofty ridge (called by the ancients Pary- adres and Scydises), whose rugged northern slopes are furrowed by torrent beds, down which a host of small streams (among them the Thermodon, famed in Amazon story) tumble to the sea. These inaccessible slopes were inhabited even in Strabo's time by wild, half-barbarous tribes, of whose ethnical relations we are ignorant — the Chalybes (identified by the Greeks with Homer's Chalybes), Tibareni, Mosynoeci and Macrones, on whose manners and condition some light is thrown by Xenophon (Anab. V). But the fringe of coast-land from Trebizond westward is one of the most beautiful parts of Asia Minor and is justly extolled by Strabo for its wonderful productiveness. The sea-coast, like the rest of the south shore of the Euxine, was studded with Greek colonies founded from the 6th century onwards: Amisus, a colony of Miletus, which in the 5th century received a body of Athenian settlers, now the port of Samsun; Cotyora, now Ordu; Cerasus, the later Pharnacia, now Kerasund; and Trapezus (Trebizond), a famous city from Xenophon's time till the end of the middle ages. The last three were colonies of Sinope, itself a Milesian colony. The chief towns in the interior were Amasia, on the Iris, the birthplace of Strabo, the capital of Mithradates the Great, and the burial-place of the earlier kings, whose tombs still exist; Comana, higher up the river, a famous centre of the worship of the goddess Ma (or Cybele); Zela, another great religious centre, refounded by Pompey, now Zlleh; Eupatoria, refounded by Pompey as Magnopolis at the junction of the Lycus and Iris; Cabira, Pompey's Diospolis, afterwards Neocaesarea, now Niksar; Sebastopolis on the Scylax, now Sulu Serai; Sebasteia, now Sivas; and Megalopolis, a foundation of Pompey, somewhere in the same district. The history of this region is the history of the advance of the Roman Empire towards the Euphrates. Its political position between 64 and 41 B.C., when Mark Antony became master of the East, is not quite certain. Part of it was handed over by Pompey to client princes: the coast-land east of the Halys (except the territory of Amisus) and the hill-tribes of Paryadres were given, with Lesser Armenia, to the Galatian chief Deiotarus, with the title of king; Comana was left under the rule of its high-priest. The rest of the interior was parti- tioned by Pompey amongst the inland cities, almost all of which were founded by him, and, according to one view, was included together with the seaboard west of Amisus and the corner of north- east Paphlagonia possessed by Mithradates in his new province PONTUS DE TYARD— PONTYPRIDD 7 1 Pontus-Bithynia. Others maintain that only the seaboard was included in the province, the inland cities being constituted self-governing, " protected " communities. The latter view is more in conformity with Roman policy in the East, which did not usually annex countries till they reached (under the rule of client princes) a certain level of civilization and order, but it is difficult to reconcile with Strabo's statements (p. 541 sqq.). In any case, during the years following 40 B.C. all inland Pontus was handed over, like north-east Paphlagonia, to native dynasts. The Pontic possessions of Deiotarus (d. 40 B.C.) were given with additions (e.g. Cabira) in 39 B.C. to Darius, son of Pharnaces, and in 36 B.C. to Polemon, son of a rhetorician of Laodicea on the Lycus. The high-priest of Comana, Lycomedes, received an accession of territory and the royal title. The territories of Zela and Megalopolis were divided between Lyco- medes, the high-priest of Zela and Ateporix, who ruled the principality of Carana (later Sebastopolis). Amasia and Amisus were also given to native princes. After the battle of Actium (31 B.C.) Augustus restored Amisus as a " free city " to the province of Bithynia-Pontus, but made no other serious change. Polemon retained his king- dom till his death in 8 B.C., when it passed to his widow Pytho- doris. But presently the process of annexation began and the Pontic districts were gradually incorporated in the empire, each being attached to the province of Galatia, then the centre of Roman forward policy. (1) The western district was an- nexed in two sections, Sebastopolis and Amasia in 3-2 B.C., and Comana in a.d. 34-35. To distinguish this district from the province Pontus and Polemon's Pontus, it" was henceforth' called Pontus galaticus (as being the first part attached to Galatia). (2) Polemon's kingdom, ruled since a.d. 38 by Pole- mon II., grandson of the former king, was annexed by Nero in a.d. 64-65, and distinguished by the title of Pontus polemoniacus, which survived for centuries. [But the simple name Pontus, hitherto commonly used to designate Polemon's realm, is still employed to denote this district by itself or in conjunction with Pontus Galaticus, where the context makes the meaning clear {e.g. in inscriptions and on coins).] Polemoniacus included the sea-coast from the Thermodon to Cotyora and the inland cities Zela, Magnopolis, Megalopolis, Neocaesarea and Sebasteia (according to Ptolemy, but apparently annexed since 2 B.C., according to its coins). (3) Finally, at the same time (a.d. 64) was annexed the remaining eastern part of Pontus, which formed part of Polemon's realm but was attached to the province Cappadocia and distinguished by the epithet cappadocicus. These three districts formed distinct adminis- trative divisions within the provinces to which they were attached, with separate capitals Amasia, Neocaesarea and Trapezus; but the first two were afterwards merged in one, sometimes called Pontus mediterraneus, with Neocaesarea as capital, probably when they were definitively transferred (about a.d. 114) to Cappadocia, then the great frontier military province. With the reorganization of the provincial system under Diocletian (about a.d. 295), the Pontic districts were divided up between four provinces of the dioecesis pontica: (1) Paphla- gonia, to which was attached most of the old province Pontus; (2) Diospontus, re-named Helenopontus by Constantine, con- taining the rest of the province Pontus and the adjoining dis- trict, eight cities in all (including Sinope, Amisus and Zela) with Amasia as capital; (3) Pontus Polemoniacus, containing Comana, Polemonium, Cerasus and Trapezus with Neocaesarea as capital; and (4) Armenia Minor, five cities, with Sebasteia, as capital. This rearrangement gave place in turn to the Byzantine system of military districts {themes). Christianity was introduced into the province Pontus (the Or a pontica) by way of the sea in the 1st century after Christ and was deeply rooted when Pliny governed the province (a.d. 111-113). But the Christianization of the inland Pontic districts began only about the middle of the 3rd century and was largely due to the missionary zeal of Gregory Thaumaturgus, bishop of Neocaesarea. See Ramsay, Histor. Geogr. of Asia Minor (1890); Anderson and Cumont, Studia pontica (1903 et seq.) ; Babelon and Reinach, Recueil des monnaies d'Asie min., t. i. (1904) ; H. Gregoire, " Voyage dans le Pont " &c. in Bull, de cones, hell. (1909). (J. G. C. A.) PONTUS DE TYARD (c. 1521-1605), French poet and member of the Pleiade (see Daurat), was seigneur of Bissy in Burgundy, where he was born in or about 1521. He was a friend of Antoine Heroet and Maurice Sceve, and to a certain extent anticipated Ronsard and Joachim Du Bellay. His Erreurs amoureuses, originally published in 1549, was augmented with other poems in successive editions till 1573. On the whole his poetry is inferior to that of his companions, but he was one of the first to write sonnets in French (the actual priority belongs to Melin de St Gelais). It is also said that he introduced the sestine into France, or rather reintroduced it, for it was originally a Provencal invention. In his later years he gave himself up to the study of mathematics and philosophy. He became bishop of Chalons-sur-Saone in 1578, and in 1587 appeared his Discours philosophiques. He was a zealous defender of the cause of Henry III. against the pretensions of the Guises. This attitude brought down on him the vengeance of the league; he was driven from Chalons and his chateau at Bissy was plundered. He survived all the members of the Pleiade and lived to see the onslaught made on their doctrines by Malherbe. Pontus resigned his bishopric in 1594, and retired to the chateau de Bragny, where he died on the 23rd of September 1605. His Oeuvres poetiques may be found in the Pleiade francaise (^875) of M. Ch. Marty-Laveaux.. PONTYPOOL, a market town in the northern parliamentary division of Monmouthshire, England, 8 m. N. of Newport, served by the Great Western, London & North- Western, and Rhymney railways. Pop. of urban district (1901), 6126. It is beautifully situated on an acclivity above the Afon Lwyd, a tributary of the Usk. Its prosperity is due to its situation on the edge of the great coal- and iron-field of Monmouthshire and Glamorganshire. The earliest record of trade in iron is in 1588, but it was developed chiefly in the beginning of the 18th century by the family of Hanbury, the proprietors of Pontypool Park. Pontypool was formerly famed for its japanned goods, invented by Thomas Allwood, a native of Northampton, who settled in the town in the reign of Charles II., but the manu- facture has long been transferred elsewhere. The town and neighbourhood contain large forges and iron mills for the manu- facture of iron-work and tin-plate. Water communication is afforded with Newport by the Monmouthshire Canal. On the south-east of Pontypool is the urban district of Panteg, including Griffithstown, with a population (1901) of 7484. PONTYPRIDD, a parish, market town, and urban district, in the eastern parliamentary division of Glamorganshire, Wales, situated on the Taff at its junction with the Rhondda, on the Taff Vale railway, and on the Glamorganshire Canal, 12 m. N.N.W. from Cardiff, 12 S. from Merthyr-Tydfil, and 169 by rail from London. It is also connected with Newport by a Great Western line i8i m. long. Pop. (1901), 32,316. It receives its name from a remarkable bridge of one arch spanning the Taff, erected in 1755 by William Edwards, a self-taught mason. The bridge is a perfect segment of a circle, the chord being 140 ft., and the height at low water 36 ft. A three-arched bridge was erected close to it in 1857. The town is built at the junc- tion of the three parishes of Llanwonno, Llantwit Fardre and Eglwysilan, out of portions of which Glyntaff was formed into an ecclesiastical parish in 1848, and from this Pontypridd was carved in 1884. The urban district was constituted into a civil parish in 1894. The church of St Catherine, built in 1868, enlarged in 1885, is in early Decorated style; other places of worship are the Baptist, Calvinistic Methodist, Congrega- tional, and Wesleyan chapels. The principal secular buildings are a masonic hall, town-hall built above the market, free library (1890), county intermediate school (1895) and court-house. Near the town is a far-famed rocking-stone 95 tons in weight, known as the Maen Chwyf, round which a circle of small stones was set up in the middle of the 19th century under the direction 72 PONY— POOLE, R. S. of Myvyr Morganwg, who used to style himself archdruid of Wales. The place became, for a time, famous as a meeting place for neo-Druidic gatherings. Pontypridd was an insig- nificant village till the opening of the Taff Vale railway into the town in 1840, and it owed its progress chiefly to the de- velopment of the coal areas of the Rhondda Valley, for which district it serves as the market town and chief business centre. It also possesses anchor, chain, and cable works, chemical works, and iron and brass foundries. Pontypridd has, jointly with Rhondda, a stipendiary magistrate since 1872. PONY (from the Lowland Scots powney, probably from O. Fr. pouleriet, diminutive of poulain, a colt or foal; Late Lat. pullanus, Lat. pullus, a young animal), a horse of a small breed, sometimes confined to such as do not exceed 13 hands in height, but generally applied to any horse under 14 hands (see Horse). The word is of frequent use as a slang term— e.g. for a sum of £25; for a liquor measure or glass containing less than a half-pint; and in America for a literal translation of a foreign or classical author, a " crib." PONZA (anc. Pontiae), the principal of a small group of islands belonging to Italy. Pop. (1901), 4621. The group is of volcanic origin, and includes Palmarola (anc. Palmaria),,Zannone (Sinonia), Ventotene (Pandateria, pop. in 1901, 1986) and San Stefano. It is situated about 20 m. S. of Monte Circeo and 70 m. W. of Naples, and belongs partly to the province of Caserta and partly to that of Naples (Ventotene). There is regular communication with Naples by steamer, and in summer with Anzio. The islands rise to a height of about 70 ft. above sea- level. They are now penal settlements, and their isolated character led to their being similarly used in ancient times. A colony with Latin rights was founded on Pontiae in 313 b.c. Nero, Germanicus's eldest son, and the sisters of Caligula, were confined upon it; while Pandateria was the place of banishment of Julia, daughter of Augustus, of her daughter Agrippina the elder, and of Octavia, the divorced wife of Nero. POOD, a Russian weight, equivalent to 40 lb Russian and about 36 lb avoirdupois. A little more than 62 poods go to the ton. The word is an adaptation of the Low German or Norse pund, pound. POOL. (1) A pond, or a small body of still water; also a place in a river or stream where the water is deep and still,, so applied in the Thames to that part of the river known as The Pool, which reaches from below London Bridge to Limehouse. The word in Old English was p6l, which may be related to pull or pyll, and the similar Celtic words, e.g. Cornish pal, a creek, common on the Bristol Channel and estuary of the Severn, on the English side in the form " pill." A further connexion has been suggested with Lat. palus, marsh; Gr. tt?X<4s, mud. (2) A name for the stakes, penalties, &c, in various card and other games when collected together to be paid out to the winners; also the name of a variety of games of billiards (q.v.). This word has a curious history. It is certainly adapted from Fr. poule, hen, chicken, apparently a slang term for the stakes in a game, possibly, as the New English Dictionary suggests, used as a synonym for plunder, booty. " Chicken-hazard " might be cited as a parallel, though that has been taken to be a cor- ruption of " chequeen," a form of the Turkish coin, a sequin. When the word came into use in English at the end of the 17th century, it seems to have been at once identified with " pool," pond, as Fr. fiche (ficher, to fix), a counter, was with "fish," counters in card games often taking the form of " fish " made of mother-of-pearl, &c. " Pool," in the sense of a common fund, has been adopted as a commercial term for a combination for the purpose of speculating in stocks and shares, the several owners of securities " pooling" them and placing them under a single control, and sharing all losses and profits. Similarly the name is given to a form of trade combination, especially in railway or shipping companies, by which the receipts or profits are divided on a certain agreed-upon basis, for the purpose of avoiding competition (see Trusts). POOLE, MATTHEW (1624-1679), English Nonconformist theologian, was born at York, educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and from 1649 till the passing of the Act of Unifor- mity (1662) held the rectory of St Michael le Querne, London. Subsequent troubles led to his withdrawal to Holland, and he died at Amsterdam in 1679. The work with which his name is principally associated is the Synopsis criticorum biblicorum (5 vols, fol., 1669-1676), in which he summarizes the views of one hundred and fifty biblical critics. He also wrote English Anno- tations on the Holy Bible, as far as Isa. lviii.- — a work which was completed by several of his Nonconformist brethren, and published in 2 vols. fol. in 1683. POOLE, PAUL FALCONER (1806-1879), English painter, was born at Bristol in 1806. Though self-taught his fine feeling for colour, poetic sympathy and dramatic power gained for him a high position among British artists. He exhibited his first work in the Royal Academy at the age of twenty-five, the sub- ject being " The Well," a scene in Naples. There was an interval of seven years before he next exhibited his " Farewell, Farewell " in 1837, which was followed by the " Emigrant's Departure," " Hermann and Dorothea " and " By the Waters of Babylon." In 1843 his position was made secure by his " Solomon Eagle," and by his success in the Cartoon Exhibition, in which he received from the Fine Art Commissioners a prize of £300 sterling. After his exhibition of the " Surrender of Syon House " he was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1846, and was made an academician in 1861. He died in 1879. Poole's subjects divide themselves into two orders — one idyllic, the other dramatic. Of the former his " May Day " (1852) is a typical example. Of both styles there were excellent examples to be seen in the small collection of his works shown at Burlington House in the Winter Exhibition of 1883-1884. Among his early dramatic pictures was " Solomon Eagle ex- horting the People to Repentance during the Plague of 1665," painted in 1843. To this class belongs also the " Messenger announcing to Job the Irruption of the Sabeans and the Slaughter of the Servants " (exhibited in 1850), and " Robert, Duke of Normandy *ind Arietta" (1848). Finer examples of his more mature power in this direction are to be found in his " Prodigal Son," painted in 1869; the " Escape of Glaucusand lone with the blind girl Nydia from Pompeii" (i860); and " Cunstaunce sent adrift by the Constable of Alia, King of Northumberland," painted in 1868. More peaceful than these are the " Song of Troubadours " (painted in 1854) and the " Goths in Italy" (1851), the latter an important historical work of great, power and beauty. Of a less lofty strain, but still more beautiful in its workmanship, is the " Seventh Day of the Decameron," painted in 1857. In this picture Poole rises to his full height as a colourist. In his pastorals he is soft and tender, as in the " Mountain Path " (1853), the " Water-cress Gatherers " (1870), the " Shepston Maiden " (1872). But when he turns to the grander and more sublime views of nature his work is bold and vigorous. Fine examples of this style may be seen in the " Vision of Ezekiel " of the National Gallery, "Solitude" (1876), the " Entrance to the Cave of Mammon " (1875), the " Dragon's Cavern " (1877), and perhaps best of all in the " Lion in the Path " (1873), a great representation of mountain and cloud form. POOLE, REGINALD STUART (1832-1895), English archae- ologist and orientalist, was born in London on the 27th of January 1832. His father was the Rev. Edward Poole, a well- known bibliophile. His mother, Sopha, authoress of The Englishwoman in Egypt (1844), was the sister of E. W. Lane, the Arabic scholar, with whom R. S. Poole lived in Cairo from 1842 to 1849, thus imbibing an early taste for Egyptian antiquities. In 1852 he became an assistant in the British Museum, and was assigned to the department of coins and medals, of .which in 1870 he became keeper. In that capacity he did work of the highest value, alike as a writer, teacher and administrator. In 1882 he was largely responsible for founding the Egypt Exploration Fund, and in 1884 for starting the Society of English Medallists. He retired in 1893, and died on the 8th of February 1895. Some of Poole's best work was done in his articles for the Ency. Brit. (9th ed.) on Egypt, Hieroglyphics POOLE— POOP 73 and Numismatics, and considerable portions have been retained in the present edition, even though later research has been active in his sphere of work; he also wrote for Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, and published several volumes dealing with his special subjects. He was for some time professor of archae- ology at University College, London; and also lecturer at the Royal Academy. His elder brother, Edward Stanley Poole (1830-1867), who was chief clerk in the science and art department at South Kensington, was an Arabic scholar, whose early death cut short a promising career. His two sons, Stanley Lane-Toole (b. 1854), professor of Arabic in Trinity College, Dublin, and Reginald Lane-Poole (b. 1857), keeper of the archives at Oxford, lecturer in diplomatic, and author 'of various historical works, carried on the family tradition of scholarship. POOLE, a municipal borough, county in itself, market town and seaport in the eastern parliamentary division of Dor- setshire, England, 113I m. S.W. by W. from London by the London & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901), 19,463. It is picturesquely situated on a peninsula between Holes Bay and the shallow irregular inlet of Poole Harbour. There are several modern churches, a guildhall, public library and school of art. Poole Harbour, extending inland 6 m., with a general breadth of 4 m., has a very narrow entrance, and is studded with low islands, on the largest of which, Brownsea or Branksea, is a castle, transformed into a residence, erected as a defence of the harbour in Tudor times, and strengthened by Charles I. Potters' clay is worked here. At low water the harbour is entirely emptied except a narrow channel, when there is a depth of 8| ft. There are some valuable oyster beds. There is a considerable general coasting trade, and clay is exported to the Staffordshire potteries. Some shipbuilding is carried on, and there are manufacturers of cordage, netting and sail- cloth. The town also possesses potteries, decorative tileworks, iron foundries, agricultural implement works and flour-mills. Poole Park, containing 40 acres of land and 62 acres of water, was acquired in 1887 and 1889, and Branksome Park, of 40 acres, in 1895. The borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 5333 acres. Although the neighbourhood abounds in British earth- works and barrows, and there are traces of a Roman road lead- ing from Poole to Wimborne, Poole (La Pole) is not mentioned by the early chroniclers or in Domesday Book- The manor, part of that of Canford, belonged in 1086 to Edward of Salis- bury, and passed by marriage to William Longespee, earl of Salisbury, thence to Edmund de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, and with his heiress to Thomas, earl of Lancaster; and so to the Crown. Poole is first mentioned in a writ of 1224, addressed to the bailiffs and good men of La Pole, ordering them to retain all ships within their port. Entries in the Patent Rolls show that Poole had considerable trade before William de Longespee, earl of Salis- bury, granted the burgesses a charter about 1248 assuring to them all liberties and free customs within his borough. The bailiff was to be chosen by the lord from six men elected by the burgesses, and was to hold pleas for breach of measures and assizes. It is uncertain when the burgesses obtained their town at the fee-farm rent of £8, 13s. 4d. mentioned in 1312. The mayor, bailiffs and good men are first mentioned in 1311 and were required to provide two ships for service against Robert de Brus. In 1372 the burgesses obtained assize of bread and ale, and right to hold the courts of the lord of the manor, the prepositus being styled his mayor. The burgesses were licensed in 1433 t0 fortify the town; this was renewed in 1462, when the mayor was given cognisance of the staple. Elizabeth incorporated Poole in 1569 and made it a separate county; Charles II. gave a charter in 1667. The corporation was suspended after a writ of quo warranto in 1686, the town being governed by the commission of the peace until the charters were renewed in 1688. Poole returned two members to parliament in 1362 and 1368, and regularly from 1452 to 1867, when the representation was reduced, ceasing in 1885. It is uncertain when the Thursday market was granted, but the present fairs on the Feasts of SS Philip and James and All Saints were granted in 1453. Poole, as the headquarters of the Parliamentary forces in Dorset during the Civil War, escaped the siege that crippled so many of its neighbours. When Charles II. visited the town in 1665 a large trade was carried on in stockings, though the prosperity of Poole still depended on its usefulness as a port. POONA, or Puna, a city and district of British India, in the Central division of Bombay. The city is at the confluence of the Mutha and Mula rivers, 1850 ft. above sea-level and 119 m. S.E. from Bombay on the Great Indian Peninsula railway. Municipal area, about 4 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 153,320. It is pleasantly situated amid extensive gardens, with a large num- ber of modern public buildings, and also many temples and palaces dating from the 16th to the 19th century. The palace of the peshwas is a ruin, having been destroyed by fire in 1827. From its healthy situation Poona has been chosen not only as the headquarters of the 6th division of the Southern army, but also as the residence of the governor of Bombay during' the raihy season, from June to September. The native town, along the river bank, is somewhat poorly built. The European quarter, including the cantonment, extends north-west towards Kirkee. The waterworks were constructed mainly by the munificence of Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy. Poona was never a great centre of trade or manufacture though still noted for brass-work, jewelry and other articles of luxury. Cotton-mills, paper- mills, a brewery (at Dapuri), flour-mills, factories of ice and mineral waters, and dairy farms furnish the chief industries. Educational institutions are numerous. They include the government Deccan College, with a law class; the aided Fer- gusson college; the government colleges of science and agricul- ture; high schools; training schools for masters and mistresses; medical school; and municipal technical school. The recent history of Poona has been painfully associated with the plague. During 1897, when the city was first attacked, the death-rate rose to 93 per 1000 in Poona city, 71 per 1000 in the canton- ment, and 93 per 1000 in Kirkee. The District op Poona has an area of 5349 sq. m. Popula- tion (1901), 995,330, showing an increase of 18% after the dis- astrous famine of 1876-1877, but a decrease of 7% in the last decade. Towards the west the country is undulating, and nuftierous spurs from the Western Ghats enter the district; to the east it opens out into plains. It is watered by many streams which, rising in the ghats, flow eastwards until they join the Bhima, a river which intersects' the district from north to south. The principal crops are millets, pulses, oil-seeds, wheat, rice, sugar- cane, vegetables and fruit (including grapes). The two most important irrigation works in the Deccan are the Mutha canal, with which the Poona waterworks are connected, and the Nira canal. There are manufactures of cotton, silk and blankets. The district is traversed by the Great Indian Peninsula railway, and also by the Southern Mahratta line, which starts from Poona city towards Satara. It is liable to drought, from which it suffered severely in 1866-1867, 1876-1877, and again in 1896-1897. In the 17th century the district formed part of the Mahom- medan kingdom of Ahmadnagar. Sivaji was born within its boundaries at Junriar in 1627, and he was brought up at Poona town as the headquarters of the hereditary fief of his father. The district thus was the early centre of the Mahratta power; and when Satara became first the capital and later the prison of the descendants of Sivaji, Poona continued to be the seat of government under their hereditary ministers, with the title of peshwa. Many stirring scenes in Mahratta history were enacted here. Holkar defeated the last peshwa under its walls, and his flight to Bassein led to the treaty by which he put himself under British protection. He was reinstated in 1802, but, unable to maintain friendly relations, he attacked the British at Kirkee in 181 7, and his kingdom passed from him. POOP (Lat. puppis, stern), the stern or after-part of a ship; in the 16th and 1 7th centuries a lofty and castellated deck. The verb " to poop " is used of a wave breaking over the stern of a vessel. 74 POORE— POOR LAW POORE (or Poor), RICHARD (d. 1237), English bishop, was a son of Richard of Ilchester, bishop of Winchester. About 1 197 he was chosen dean of Sarum and, after being an un- successful candidate for the bishoprics of Winchester and of Durham, he became bishop of Chichester in 1214. In 1217 he was translated to Salisbury, where he succeeded his elder brother, Herbert Poore, and in 1228 to Durham. He died at Tarrant Monkton, Dorset, said by some to be his birthplace, on the 15th of April 1237. Poore took some part in public affairs, under Henry III., but the great work of his life was done at Salisbury. Having in 1219 removed his see from Old to New Sarum, or Salisbury, he began the building of the magnificent cathedral there; he laid the foundation stone in April 1220, and during his episcopate he found money and forwarded the work in other ways. For the city the bishop secured a charter from Henry III. and he was responsible for the plan on which it was built, a plan which to someextent it still retains. He had something to do with drawing up some statutes for his cathedral; he is said to be responsible for the final form of the " use of Sarum," and he was probably the author of the Ancren Riwle, a valuable " picture of contemporary life, manners and feeling " written in Middle English. His supposed identity with the jurist, Ricardus Anglicus, is more doubtful. POOR LAW. The phrase "poor law" in English usage denotes the legislation embodying the measures taken by the state for the relief of paupers and its administration. The history of the subject and its problems generally are dealt with in the article Charity and Charities, and other information will be found in Unemployment and Vagrancy. This article will deal only with the practice in the United Kingdom as adopted after the reform of the poor law in 1834 and amended by subsequent acts. This reform was brought about mainly by the rapid increase of the poor rate at the beginning of the 19th century, showing that a change was necessary either in the poor law as it then existed or in the mode of its adminis- tration. A commission was appointed in 1832 "to make diligent and full inquiry into the practical operation of the laws for the relief of the poor in England and Wales, and into the manner in which those laws were administered, and to report their opinion as to what beneficial alterations could be made." The com- missioners reported " fully on the great abuse of the legislative provision for the poor as directed to be employed by the! statute of Elizabeth," finding "that the great source of abuse was the outdoor relief afforded to the able-bodied on their own account or on that of their families, given either in kind or in money." They also reported that " great maladministration existed in the workhouses." To remedy the evils they proposed con- siderable alterations in the law, and the principal portion of their suggestions was embodied in the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834. By virtue of this act three commissioners were appointed (originally for five years, but subsequently con- tinued from time to time), styled "the poor law commissioners for England and Wales," sitting as a board, and appointing assistant commissioners and other officers. The administration of relief according to the existing laws was subject to their direction and control, and to their orders and regulations for the government of workhouses and the guidance and control of guardians and vestries and the keeping and allowing of accounts and contracts, without interfering with ordinary relief in individual cases. The whole of England and Wales was divided into twenty-one districts, to each of which an assistant commissioner was appointed. The commissioners under their powers formed poor law unions by uniting parishes for general administration, and building workhouses, guardians elected by the ratepayers (or ex officio) having the general government and administration of relief. The expense was apportioned to each parish on settled principles and rules, with power, however, to treat the united parishes as one for certain purposes. Out- door relief might be given, on the order of two justices, to poor persons wholly unable to work from old age or infirmity. The obstacles which the act had to contend with in London chiefly arose from the confusion and perplexity of jurisdiction which existed in the one hundred and seventy parishes com- prised within the city of London and the metropolitan district, some of these containing governing bodies of their own ; in some the parish business was professedly managed by open vestries, in others by select vestries, and in addition to these there were elective vestries, while the majority of the large parishes were managed under local acts by boards of directors, governors and trustees. These governing bodies executed a great variety of functions besides regulating the management of the poor. The power, patronage and the indirect advantages which arose from the administration of the local funds were so great that much opposition took place when it was proposed to interfere by constituting a board to be annually chosen and freely elected by the ratepayers, on which the duty of regulating the expen- diture for the relief of the poor was to depend. The general management of the poor was, however, on a somewhat better footing in London than in the country. The act of 1834 was rather to restore the scope and intention of the statute of Elizabeth by placing its administration in the hands of responsible persons chosen by the ratepayers, and themselves controlled by the orders of a central body, than to create a new system of poor laws. The agents and instruments by which the administration of relief is afforded are the fol- lowing. The description applies to the year 1010, but, as noticed below, the question of further reform was already to the fore, and the precise direction in which changes should go was a highly controversial matter. The guardians of the poor regulate the cases and description of relief within the union; a certain number of guardians are elected from time to time by the ratepayers. The number was formerly determined by the central board, 1 by whom full directions as to the mode of election were given. In addition to those elected there were ex officio guardians, principally local magistrates. However, both these and nominated guardians were done away with by the Local Government Act 1894. The plural vote (which gave to the votes of the larger ratepayers a higher value) was also abolished; and in place of the old property qualification for the office of guardian a ratepaying or residential qualification was sub- stituted. In urban districts the act in other respects left the board of guardians untouched, but in rural districts it inaugu- rated a policy of consolidating l6cal authorities. In the rural districts the district council is practically amalgamated with the guardians, for, though each body retains a separate corporate existence, the district councillors are the guardians, and guar- dians as such are no longer elected. These electoral changes, extremely democratic in their character, brought about no marked general change in poor law administration. Here and there abrupt changes of policy were made, but the difficulty of bringing general principles to bear on the administration of the law remained much as before. The guardians hold their meetings frequently, according to the exigencies of the union. Individual cases are brought to their notice— most cases of resident poor by the relieving officer of the union; the case of casual paupers by him or by the work- house officers by whom they were admitted in the first instance. The resident poor frequently appear in person before the guar- dians. The mode of voting which the guardians follow in respect to any matter they differ on is minutely regulated, and all their proceedings, as well as those of their officers, are entered in pre- scribed books and forms. They have a clerk, generally a local solicitor of experience, who has a variety of responsible duties in advising, conducting correspondence and keeping books of 1 After an intermediate transfer in 1847 of the powers of the poor law commissioners, and the constitution of a fresh board styled " commissioners for administering the laws for relief of the poor in England," it was found expedient to concentrate in one department of the government the supervision of the laws relating to the public health, the relief of the poor and local government; and this concentration was in 1 87 1 carried out by the establishment (by Act of Parliament 34 & 35 Vict. c. 70) of the local government board. POOR LAW 75 accounts, and carrying out the directions of the guardians, who in their turn are subject to the general or special regulations of the local government board. It may be mentioned here that the chief difficulty in under- standing the English poor law arises from the fact that there are three authorities, each of them able to alter its administration fundamentally. The poor law is not only the creation of statutes passed by parliament; it is also controlled by the subordinate jurisdiction of the local government board, which in virtue of various acts has the power to issue orders. In a single year the local government board may issue nearly two thousand orders, over a thousand of them having special reference to the poor law. It is not possible therefore even to summarize the mass of subordinate legislation. A third source of authority is the local board of guardians, which, within the discretion allowed to it by statutes and orders, can so variously administer the law that it is difficult to understand how procedure so fundamentally different can be based on one and the same law. This elasticity, admirable or mischievous, as we choose to regard it, is the most characteristic feature of the English poor law system. The various officers of the union, from the medical officers to workhouse porters, including masters and matrons of workhouses, are generally appointed by the guardians, and the areas, duties and salaries of all the paid officers may be prescribed by the local government board. Among a multitude of miscellaneous duties and powers of the guardians, apart from the ordinary duties of ordering 'or refusing relief in individual cases and superintending the officers of the union, the duties devolve on them of considering the adjustment of contributions to the common fund whether of divided or added parishes, and matters affecting other unions, the building of workhouses and raising of money for that and other purposes, the taking of land on lease, the hiring of buildings, special provisions as to superannuation and allowances to officers, the maintenance and orders as to lunatics apart from individual instances, and the consideration of questions of settlement and removal. A paramount obligation rests on the guardians to attend to the actual visitation of workhouses, schools and other institutions and places in which the poor are interested, and to call attention to and report on any irregularity or neglect of duty. Guardians may charge the rates with the expenses of attending conferences for the discussion of matters con- nected with their duties (Poor Law Conferences Act 1883). In relation to expenditure the guardians have very considerable but restricted powers. Their accounts are audited by district auditors appointed by the local government board. Overseers of the poor are still appointed under the statute of Elizabeth, and the guardians cannot interfere with the ap- _ pointment. As, however, the relief of the poor is administered by boards of guardians, the principal duties of overseers relate to the making and collection of rates and payments. The guardians, by order of the local govern- ment board, may appoint assistant overseers and collectors. The conditions of persons entitled to relief are indicated by the terms of the statute of Elizabeth. If they fall within the definitions there given they have right to relief. of Relief. A fundamental principle with respect to legal relief of the poor is that the condition of the pauper ought to be, on the whole, less eligible than that of the independent labourer. The pauper has no just ground for complaint, if, while his physical wants are adequately provided for, his condition is less eligible than that of the poorest class of those who contribute to his support. If a state of destitution exists, the failure of third persons to perform their duty, as a husband, or relative mentioned in the statute of Elizabeth, neglecting those he is under a legal obligation to support, is no answer to the application. The relief should be afforded, and is often a condition precedent to the right of parish officers to take proceedings against the relatives or to apply to other poor unions. The duty to give immediate relief must, however, vary with the circumstances. The case of wanderers under circumstances not admitting of delay may be different from that of persons resident on the spot where inquiry as to all the circumstances is practicable. The statute of Elizabeth con- templated that the relief was to be afforded to the poor resi- dent in the parish, but it is contrary to the spirit of the law that any person shall be permitted to perish from starvation or want of medical assistance. Whoever is by sudden emergency or urgent distress deprived of the ordinary means of subsistence has a right to apply for immediate relief where he may happen to be. Persons comprehended within this class are called " casual poor," although the term " casuals " is generally used in reference to vagrants who take refuge for a short time in the " casual wards " of workhouses. Various tests are applied to ascertain whether applicants are really destitute. Labour tests are applied to the able-bodied, and workhouse tests are applied to those to whom entering a workhouse is made a condition of relief. As to the nature and kind of relief given under the poor laws the great distinction restored rather than introduced by the amendment of the poor law system in 1834 was Nature and giving all relief to able-bodied persons of their Kind of families in well-regulated workhouses (that is to * e/fc/ - say, places where they may be set to work according to the spirit and intention of the statute of Elizabeth), and confining outdoor relief to the impotent — that is, all except the able- bodied and their families. Although workhouses formed a conspicuous feature in legislation for the poor from an early period, the erection of those buildings for unions throughout the country where not already provided followed immediately on the amendment of the system in 1834. Since that time there has been a constant struggle between the pauper class and the administrators of the law, the former naturally wishing to be relieved at their own homes, and in many instances choosing rather to go without aid than to remove within the walls of the workhouse. Relief given in a workhouse is termed " in (or indoor) maintenance " relief, and when given at the homes of the paupers is termed " outdoor relief." Admission to a workhouse may be by a written order of the board of guardians, or by the master or matron (or in their absence by the porter) without an order in any case of sudden ' or urgent necessity, or provisionally by a relieving Workhouse officer, or overseer or churchwarden. Any person who Ku ' es * is brought by a policeman as having been found wandering in a state of destitution may be admitted. It is to be observed generally, with respect to all persons who may apply for admission into the workhouse under circumstances of urgent necessity, that their destitution, coupled with the fact of being within the union or parish, entitles them to relief, altogether independently of their settlement, if they have one, which is a matter for subsequent inquiry. The regulations for the government of workhouses fall under two classes: (1) those which are necessary for the maintenance of good order in any building in which considerable numbers of persons of both sexes and of different ages reside; (2) those which are necessary in order that these establishments may not be alms- houses, but workhouses in the proper meaning of the term. The inmates of a workhouse are necessarily separated into certain classes. In no well-managed institution o£ this sort, in any country, are males and females, the old and the young, the healthy and the sick, indiscriminately mixed together. Guardians are required to divide the paupers into certain classes, and to subdivide any one or more of these classes in any manner which may be advisable, and which the internal arrangements of the workhouse admit; and the guardians are required from time to time, after consulting the medical officer, to make necessary arrangements with regard to per- sons labouring under any disease of body or mind, and, so far as cir- cumstances permit, to subdivide any of the enumerated classes with reference to the moral character or behaviour or the previous habits of the inmates, or to such other grounds as may seem expedient. The separation of married couples was long a vexed question, the evils on the one hand arising from the former unrestricted practice being very great, while on the other hand the separation of old couples was felt as a great hardship, and by express statutory pro- vision in 1847 husband and wife, both being above the age of sixty, received into a workhouse cannot be compelled to live separate and apart from each other (10 & 11 Vict. c. 109, § 23). This exemption was carried somewhat further by contemporaneous orders of the board, under which guardians were not compelled to separate infirm couples, provided they had a sleeping apartment separate from that of other paupers; and in 1876 guardians were empowered, at their discretion, to permit husband and wife where either of them is 7 6 POOR LAW infirm, sick or disabled by any injury, or above sixty years of age to live together, but every such case must be reported to the local government board (39 & 40 Vict. c. 61, § 10). The classification of children apart from adult paupers is per- emptory. Even in those unions where what is called a workhouse school is maintained the children are kept in detached parts of the building, and do not associate with the adult paupers. The separate school is built on a separate and often distant site. Some- times the separate school is one building, sometimes detached " blocks," and sometimes a group of cottage homes. There still remain ten district schools. In some places an experiment which is called the scattered homes system has been adopted. This consists in lodging-homes for the children placed in different parts of the town, from which the children attend the local public ele- mentary schools. In the rural districts and in less populous unions the children generally attend the local public elementary school. To these expedients boarding-out must be added. The above refers of course only to those children who as inmates are under the charge of the guardians. Outdoor paupers are responsible for the education of their children, but guardians cannot legally continue outdoor relief if the children are not sent regularly to school. The tendency too has been to improve administrative methods with reference to children. Two important orders on the subject of the boarding-out of poor- law children were issued in 1889. By the Boarding of Children in Unions Order, orphan and deserted children can be boarded out with suitable foster-parents in the union by all boards of guardians except those in the metropolis. This can be done either through a voluntary committee or directly. By the Boarding Out Order, orphan and deserted children may be boarded out by all boards of guardians without the limits of their own unions, but in all cases this must be done through the offices of properly constituted local boarding-out committees. The sum payable to the foster-parents is not to exceed 4s. per week for each child. The local committee require to be approved by the Local Government Board. The question of the education of poor law children was much discussed in later years. During the early years of the central authority, it was the object of the commissioners to induce boards of guardians to unite in districts for educational purposes. This was advocated on grounds of efficiency and economy. It was very unpopular with the local authorities, and the number of such districts has never exceeded a dozen. In London, where this aggregation was certainly less desirable than in rural unions, several districts were formed and large district schools were built. Adverse criticism, by Mrs Nassau Senior in 1874, and by a department committee appointed twenty years later, was directed against these large, or, as they are invidiously called, barrack schools. The justice of this condemnation has been disputed, but it seems probable that some of these schools had grown too large. Many of these have been dissolved by order of the local government board on the application of the unions concerned. This con- demnation of some schools has in certain quarters been extended to all schools, and is construed by others as an unqualified recommendation of boarding out, a method of bringing up poor law children obviously requiring even more careful supervision than is needed in the publicity of a school. Other acts to be noted are the Poor Law Act 1889 and the Custody of Children Act 1 891, § 3. The evil of allowing children who have been reputably brought up in poor law schools to relapse into vicious habits on return to the custody of unworthy parents has been the subject of frequent remark. By the act of 1889, guardians are authorized to detain children who are under their charge, as having been deserted by their parents, up to the age of 16 if boys and of 18 if girls. By the Poor Law Act 1899 the principle is extended to orphans and the children of bad parents chargeable to the rates. The act of 1 89 1 goes further, and enacts that where a parent has (a) abandoned or deserted his child, or (6) allowed his child to be brought up by another person at that person's expense, or by the guardians of a poor law union for such a length of time and in such circumstances as to satisfy the court that the parent was unmindful of his parental duties, the court shall not make an order for the delivery of the child to the parent unless the parent has satisfied the court that, having regard to the welfare of the child, he is a fit person to have the custody of the child. Casual and poor wayfarers admitted by the master and matron are kept in a separate ward and dieted and set to work in such manner as the guardians by resolution direct; and whenever any vagrants or mendicants are received into a workhouse they are usually (as a precaution necessary for preventing the introduction of infectious or contagious diseases) kept entirely separate from the other inmates, unless their stay exceeds a single night. For the guidance of guardians an important circular was issued from the local government board on the 15th of March 1886. It stated that while " the board have no doubt that the powers which the guardians possess are fully sufficient to enable them to deal with ordinary pauperism, and to meet the demand for relief from the classes who usually seek it," yet " these provisions do not in all cases meet the emergency. What is required to relieve artisans and others who have hitherto avoided poor law assistance, and who are temporarily deprived of employment, is — (1) Work which will not involve the stigma of pauperism; (2) work which all can per- form, whatever may have been their previous occupations; (3) work which does not compete with that of other labourers at present in employment; and lastly, work which is not likely to interfere with the resumption of regular employment in their own trades by those who seek it." The circular went on to recommend that guardians should confer with the local authorities, " and endeavour to arrange with the latter for the execution of works on. which unskilled labour may be immediately employed." The conditions of such work were (1) the men to be employed must be recommended by the guardians; (2) the wages must be less than the wages ordinarily paid for such work. The circular was widely distributed. Many boards that were inclined in that direction regarded it as an encouragement to open or to promote the opening of relief works. Others, again, looked closely at the conditions, and declared roundly that it was impos- sible to fulfil them. A poor law authority, they said, cannot give relief which will not subject the recipients to the legal (if any) and economic disabilities attaching to the receipt of poor law relief. Work which all can perform can only be found in the shape of task-work under adequate supervision. If the work is of a useful and necessary character, it must compete with the labour of others belonging to the trades affected. If the relief works are opened by authorities other than the poor law guardians, the conditions that the men were only to be employed when recommended by the guardians, and then paid less than the current rate of wages, were calculated, it was urged, to secure bad work, discontent, and all the " stigma of pauperism." The ambiguity of the circular indeed was such, that both action and inaction seem amply justified by it. In the administration of medical relief to the sick, the objects kept in view are: (1) to provide medical aid for persons who are really destitute, and (2) to prevent medical relief from „ generating or encouraging pauperism, and with this Relief view to withdraw from the labouring classes, as well as from the administrators of relief and the medical officers, all motives for applying for or administering medical relief, unless where the circumstances render it absolutely necessary. Unions are formed into medical districts limited in area and population, to which a paid medical officer is appointed, who is furnished with a list of all such aged and infirm persons and persons permanently sick or disabled as are actually receiving relief and residing within the medical officer's district. Every person named in the list receives a ticket, and on exhibiting it to the medical officer is entitled to advice, attendance and medicine as his case may require. Medical outdoor relief in connexion with dispen- saries is regulated in asylum districts of the metropolis by the Metropolitan Poor Act 1867 (30 & 31 Vict. c. 6). In connexion with medical relief must be noted the Medical Relief Disqualifica- tion Removal Act 1885. This act relieved voters from disquali- fication which would otherwise attach in consequence of the receipt by them or their families of medical or surgical assistance, or of medicine, at the expense of the poor rate. This does not apply to guardian elections, and it does not include persons who, in addition to medical relief, receive nourishment or other relief from the poor rate. The provisions which require the removal of the names of paupers from the electoral roll are, it is understood, very perfunctorily carried out. The Outdoor Relief Friendly Societies Act 1894 authorized guardians, in calculating the proper allowance to be made, to disregard an income derived from a friendly society, and to give relief as if the applicant in receipt of such an allowance was wholly destitute. This act is a curious illustration of the English poor law system. In earlier years, notably in what is known as Paget's letter (22nd Rep. Poor Law Board, p. 108), the central board, had, in answer to inquiry, pointed out that such preferential treatment given to men receiving benefit, insufficient to maintain them, from a friendly society, could not in equity be withheld from persons in receipt of an adequate benefit, or from those whose savings took the form of a deposit in a bank, of a share in a co-operative society, or of cottage property; and further, that an engagement on the part of guardians to supplement insufficient allowance from a friendly society was a bounty on inadequate and insolvent friendly society finance. The central board went so far as to say that relief given in such disregard of the pauper's income was illegal. They had, however, issued no peremptory order on the subject, nor had guardians been surcharged for neglect of the rule. The local authorities followed their own discretion, and a very general practice was to reckon friendly society allowances at half their value. The above act set aside the central board's earlier interpretation of the law. It -made, however, no attempt to enforce its procedure on the numerous boards of guardians who regard the course thereby authorized as contrary to public policy. A lunatic asylum is required to be provided by a county or borough for the reception of pauper lunatics, with a committee of visitors who, among other duties, fix a weekly sum to , ana tics be charged for the lodging, maintenance, medicine and clothing of each pauper lunatic confined in such asylum. Several acts were passed. The Lunacy Act 1890 consolidated the acts affecting lunatics. It was further amended by the Lunacy Act 1891. POOR LAW 77 An explanatory letter issued by the local government board will be found in the 20th Annual Report, p. 23. The tendency of this and of all recent legislation for an afflicted class has been to increase the care and the safeguards for their proper treatment. A settlement is the right acquired in any one of the modes pointed out by the poor laws to become a recipient of the benefit of those laws in that parish or place where the right has been last acquired. No relief is given from the poor rates of a parish to any person who does not reside within the union, except where such person The Ques- being casually within a parish becomes destitute by tioa ot sudden distress, or where such person is entitled to •'Settle' receive relief from any parish where non-resident meat." under justice's order (applicable to persons under orders of removal and to non-resident lunatics), and except to widows and legitimate children where the widow was resident with her husband at the time of his death out of the union in which she was not settled, or where a child under sixteen is maintained in a workhouse or establishment for the education of pauper children not situate in the union, and in some other exceptional cases. Immediately before the passing of the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 settlements were acquired by birth, hiring and service, apprenticeship, renting a tenement, estate, office or payment of rates. In addition to these an acknowledgment (by certificate), by relief or acts of acquiescence) has practically the effect of a settle- ment, for, if unexplained, such an acknowledgment stops the parish from disputing a settlement in the parish acknowledging. The Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 abolished settlement by hiring and service (or by residence under it) and by serving an office, and by apprenticeship in the sea service. Moreover the guardians of a union might agree (subject to the approval of the commissioners) that all the parishes forming it should for the purposes of settle- ment be considered as one parish. It is to be observed that, for the purposes of relief, settlement and removal and burial, the workhouse of any parish is considered as situated in the parish to which each poor person is chargeable. There may be a settlement by parentage, for legitimate children take the settlement of their father, or if he has no settlement they are entitled to the settlement of their mother; and it is only when both these sources fail discovery that their right of settlement by birth accrues; for until the settlement of the father or mother has been ascertained the settlement of a legitimate child, like that of a bastard, is in the place where the birth took place. A settlement attaches to those persons who have a settlement of some kind. Foreigners born out of the country and not acquiring any in one of the modes pointed out must be provided for, if requiring relief, where they happen to be. As the burden of maintaining the poor is thrown on the parish of settlement, when the necessity for immediate relief arises in another parish, the important question arises whether the pauper can be removed ; for, although the parish where the pauper happens to be must afford immediate relief without waiting for removal, the parish of settlement cannot in general be charged with the cost unless the pauper is capable of being removed. The question of removability is distinct from settlement. A pauper often acquires a status or irremovability without gaining a settlement. Irremovability is a principle of great public importance quite irrespective of the incident of cost as between one parish or another. Before the introduction of a status of irremovability removal might take place (subject to powers of suspension in case of sickness and otherwise) after any interval during which no legal settlement was obtained ; mere length of residence without concurrent cir- cumstances involving the acquisition of a settlement on obtaining relief gave no right to a person to remain in the parish where he resided. In 1846 it was enacted that no person should be removed nor any warrant granted for the removal of any person from any parish in which such persons had resided for five years (9 & 10 Vict. c. 66). In 1861 three years was submitted for five (24 & 25 Vict. c. 55); and only four years later one year was substituted for three (28 & 29 Vict. c. 79). Apart from these reductions of time in giving the status of irremovability, actual removals to the parish of settle-, ment were narrowed by provisions giving to residence in any part of a union the same effect as a residence in any parish of that union (24 & 25 Vict. c. 55). On the other hand the time during which parish relief is received, or during which the person is in any poorhouse or hospital or in a prison, is excluded from the computa- tion of time (9 & 10 Vict. c. 66). The removability as well as the settlement of the family, i.e. of the wife and unemancipated children, are practically subject to one and the same general rule. Wherever any person has a wife or children having another settlement, they are removable where he is removable, and are not removable from any parish or place from which he is not removable (n & 12 Vict. c. 211). It is to be borne in mind that no person exempted from liability to be removed acquires, by reason of such exemption, any settle- ment in any parish ; but a residence for three years gives a qualified settlement (39 & 40 Vict. C. 61). The cost of relief of paupers rendered irremovable is borne by the common fund of the union (11 & 12 Vict. c. no, § 3) as union expenses (§ 6), and any question arising in the union with reference to the charging relief may be referred to and decided by the local govern- ment board (§4). The poor rate is the fund from which the cost of relief is princi- pally derived. The statute of Elizabeth (extended in some respects as to places by 13 & 14 Charles II. c. 12) embraced „ „ . two classes of persons subject to taxation — occupiers oor ^ e - of real property and inhabitants in respect of personal property, although the rateability under the latter head was reluctantly conceded by the courts of law, and was in practice only partially acted upon. As regards occupiers of land and houses, the correct principles as to the persons liable to be rated were, after many erroneous views and decisions, established by the House of Lords in 1865 in the case of the Mersey docks. The only occupier exempt from the operation of the act of Elizabeth is the Crown, on the general prin- ciple that such liabilities are not imposed on the sovereign unless expressly mentioned, and that principle applies to the direct and immediate servants of the Crown, whose occupation is the occupa- tion of the Crown itself. If there is a personal private beneficial occupation, so that the occupation is by the subject, that occupa- tion is rateable. Thus for apartments in a royal palace, gratui- tously assigned to a subject, who occupies them by permission of the sovereign but for the subject's benefit, the latter is rateable; on the other hand, where a lease of private property is taken in the name of a subject, but the occupation is by the sovereign or his subjects on his behalf, no rate can be imposed. So far the ground of exemption is perfectly intelligible, but it has been carried a good deal further, and applied to many cases in which it can scarcely be said naturally, but only theoretically, that the sovereign or the servants of the sovereign are in occupation. A long series of cases have established that when property is occu- pied for the purposes of the government of the country, including under that head the police, and the administration of justice, no one is rateable in respect of such occupation. And this applies not only to property occupied for such purposes by the servants of the great departments of state and the post office, the Horse Guards, and the Admiralty, in all which cases the occupiers might strictly be called the servants of the Crown, but to county buildings occupied for the assizes and for the judge's lodgings, to stations for the local constabulary, to jails and to county courts where undertakings are carried out by or for the government and the government is in occupation; the same principles of exemption have been applied to property held by the office of works. When the property is not de facto occupied by the Crown or for the Crown, it is rateable; and, although formerly the uses of property for public purposes, even where the Crown was not constructively interested in the way above pointed out, was treated as a ground for exemption, it is now settled that trustees who are in law the tenants and occupiers of valuable property in trust for public and even charitable purposes, such as hospitals or lunatic asylums, are in principle rateable notwithstanding that the buildings are actually occupied by paupers who are sick or insane, and that the notion that persons in the legal occupation of valuable property are not rateable if they occupy in a merely fiduciary character cannot be sustained. With respect to the particular person to be rated where there is a rateable occupation, it is to be observed that the tenant, as dis- tinguished from the landlord, is the person to be rated under the statute of Elizabeth ; but occupiers of tenements let for short terms may deduct the poor rate paid by them from their rents, or the vestries may order such owners to be rated instead of the occupiers ; such payments or deductions do not affect qualification and fran- chises depending on rating (Poor Rate Assessment and Collection Act 1869 and Amendment Act 1882). To be rated the occupation must be such as to be of value, and in this sense the word beneficial occupation has been used in many cases. But it is not necessary that the occupation should be bene- ficial to the occupier; for, if that were necessary, trustees occupying for various purposes, having no beneficial occupation, would not be liable, and their general liability has been established as indicated in the examples just given. As to the mode and amount of rating it is no exaggeration to say that the application of a landlord-and-tenant valuation in the terms already given in the Parochial Assessment Act, with the deductions there mentioned, has given rise to litigation on which millions of pounds have been spent with respect to the rating of railways alone, although the established principle applied to them, after much consideration, is to calculate the value of the land as increased by the line. The Parochial Assessment Act referred to (6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 96), comprising various provisions as to the mode of assessing the rate so far as it authorized the making of a valuation, was repealed in 1869, in relation to the metropolis, and other provisions made for securing uniformity of the assessment of rateable property there (32 & 33 Vict. c. 67). The mode in which a rate is made and recovered may be concisely stated thus. The guardians appoint an assessment committee of their body for the investigation and supervision of valuations, which are made out in the first instance by the overseers according to specific regulations and in a form showing among other headings the gross 7 8 POOR LAW estimated rental of all property and the names of occupiers and owners, and the rateable value after the deductions specified in the Assessment Act already mentioned, and as prescribed by the central board. This valuation list, made and signed by the overseers, is published, and all persons assessed or liable to be assessed, and other interested parties, may, including the officers of other parishes, inspect and take copies of and extracts from that list. A multitude of provisions exist in relation to the valuation and supplemental valuation lists. Objections on the ground of unfairness or incorrect- ness are dealt with by the committee, who hold meetings to hear and determine such objections. The valuation list, where approved by the committee, is delivered to the overseers, who proceed to make the rate in accordance with the valuation lists and in a prescribed form of rate book. The parish officers certify to the examination and comparison of the rate book with the assessments, and obtain the consent of justices as required by the statute of Elizabeth. This consent or allowance of the rate is merely a ministerial act, and if the rate is good on the face of it the justices cannot inquire into its validity. The rate is then published and open to inspection. Appeals may be made to special or quarter sessions against the rate, subject to the restriction that, if the objection were such that it might have been dealt with on the valuation lists, no appeal to sessions is permitted unless the valuation list has been duly objected to and the objector had failed to obtain such relief in the matter as he deemed to be just. In the metropolis a common basis of value for the purposes of government and local taxation is provided, including the promotion of uniformity in the assessment of rateable property. Provision is made for the appointment of an assessment committee by guardians or vestries, and for the preparation of valuation lists, and the deposit and distribution of valuation lists, and for the periodical revision of valuation lists. Many endeavours have been made to readjust the burden of local expenditure. The system of making grants from the national taxes in aid of local rates has been extended. The principle of the metropolitan common poor fund, a device for giving metropolitan grants assessed on the whole of London in aid of the London local poor law authorities, has been followed, mutatis mutandis, in the relations between the national and the local exchequers. At the time of the repeal of the corn laws, Sir Robert Peel expressed an opinion that this fiscal change necessitated some readjustment of local rates. In that year, 1846, a beginning of grants from the national exchequer in aid of local expenditure was made. The salaries of poor-law teachers, medical officers and auditors were provided from the larger area of taxation, and in 1867 the salaries of public vaccinators were added to the list. In 1874 a grant of 4s. per head per week was made for each pauper lunatic passed by the guardians to the care of a lunatic asylum. By the Local Government Act 1888, supplemented by the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act 1890, this principle was more widely extended. The various grants in aid were abolished, and in substitution the proceeds of certain specified taxes were set aside for local purposes. From this source, the gross amount of which of course varies, there are now distributed to local poor-law authori- ties some 4s. a week for lunatics in asylums, and allowances based on their average expenditure in previous years in salaries of officials and other specified charges. In London, in order not to conflict with the operation of the common poor fund, which had already spread these charges over a wide area, the grant takes the form of a sum equivalent to about 4d. per diem for each indoor pauper. The number on which this calculation is based is not, however, to be the actual number, but the average of the last five years previous to the passing of the act. By this legislation something like one- quarter of the total expenditure on* poor law relief is obtained from national taxes as opposed to local rates. By the Agricultural Rates Act 1896 the occupier of agricultural land was excused one-half of certain rates, including the poor rate. The deficiency is supplied by a contribution from the national exchequer. Meanwhile, the spending authority continue to be elected by the local ratepayers. In this connexion two further anomalies deserve notice. By the Poor Rate Assessment and Collection Act 1869 owners who compound to pay the- rates in respect of tenement property are entitled to certain deductions by way of commission. Such payments by the owner are constructively payments by the occupier, who thereby is to be deemed duly rated for any qualifi- cation or franchise. Under these arrangements a large number of electors do not contribute directly to the rate. A converse process is also going on, whereby the ownership of an important and increasing body of property is practically unrepresented. This is due to the great growth of property in the hands of railway companies, docks and limited liability companies generally. The railways alone are said to pay considerably over 13% of the local taxation of the country, and they have no local representation. There is, in fact, in local administration a divorce between repre- sentation and taxation to a greater extent than is generally supposed, and it is impossible not to connect the fact with the rapid growth of local expenditure and indebtedness. Royal Commission of iqos-iqoq. — The main points of the system of English poor relief, as still in force in 1910, are as outlined above. That it has been inadequate in dealing with the various problems of unemployment and pauperism, which the constantly changing conditions of the industrial world necessarily evolve had however been long acknowledged. Accordingly in 1905 a royal commission was appointed to inquire into the working of the law relating to the relief of poor persons, and into the various means adopted outside of the poor laws for meeting distress arising from want of employment, particularly during the periods of severe industrial depression. The commis- sion took voluminous evidence 1 and its report was issued in 1 The appendix volumes to the Report of the Royal Commission number thirty-four. Their contents are as follows- vol. i. English Official Evidence, minutes of evidence mainly of the officers of the Local Government Board for England and Wales; vol. ii. London Evidence, minutes of evidence mainly of London witnesses; vol. iii. Associations and Critics, minutes of evidence mainly of critics of the Poor Law and of witnesses representing Poor Law and Charitable Associations; vol. iv Urban Centres, minutes of evidence containing the oral and written evidence of the British Medical Association and of witnesses from the following provincial urban centres — Liverpool and Manchester districts, West Yorkshire, Midland Towns; vol. v. Minutes of Evidence containing the oral and written evidence of witnesses from urban centres in the following districts — South Wales and North Eastern Counties; vol. vi. Minutes of Evidence relating to Scotland; vol. vii. Minutes of Evidence containing the oral and written evidence of witnesses from various rural centres in the South Western, Western and Eastern Counties, from the parish of Poplar Borough and from the National Con- ference of Friendly Societies; vol. viii. Minutes of Evidence con- taining the oral and written evidence of witnesses relating chiefly to the subject of " unemployment "; vol. ix. Evidence of further witnesses on the subject of unemployment; vol. x. Minutes of Evidence relating to Ireland ; vol. xi. Miscellaneous Papers. Com- munications from Boards of Guardians and others, &c, vol. xii. Reports, Memoranda and Tables prepared by certain of the Commissioners; vol. xiii. Diocesan Reports on the Methods of administering charitable assistance and the extent and intensity of poverty in England and Wales; vol. xiv. Report on the Methods and Results of the present system of administering indoor and outdoor poor law medical relief in certain unions in England and Wales, by Dr J. C. McVail; vol. xv. Report on the Administrative Relation of Charity and the Poor Law, and the extent and the actual and potential utility of Endowed and Voluntary Charities in England and Scotland, by A. C. Kay and H. V. Toynbee; vol. xvi. Reports on the Relation of Industrial and Sanitary Conditions to Pauperism, by Steel Maitland and Miss R. E. Squire; vol. xvii. Reports on the effect of Outdoor Relief on Wages and the Conditions of Employment, by Thomas Jones and Miss Williams; vol. xviii. Report on the Condition of the Children who are in receipt of the various forms of Poor Law Relief in certain Unions in London and in the Provinces, by Dr Ethel Williams and Miss Longman and Miss Phillips; vol. xix. Reports on the Effects of Employment or Assistance given to the Unemployed since 1886 as a means of relieving distress outside the Poor Law in London, and generally throughout England and Wales, and in Scotland and Ireland, by Cyril Jackson and Rev. J. C. Pringle; vol. xx. Report on Boy Labour in London and certain other typical towns, by Cyril Jackson, with a Memorandum from the General Post Office on the Conditions of Employment of Telegraph Messengers; vol. xxi. Reports on the Effect of the Refusal of Out-Relief on the Applicants for such Relief, by Miss G. Harlock; vol. xxii. Report on the Overlapping of the work of the Voluntary General Hospitals with that of Poor Law Medical Relief in certain districts of London, by Miss M. B. Roberts; vol. xxii;. Report on the Condition of the Children who are in receipt of the various forms of Poor Law Relief in certain parishes in Scotland, by Dr C. T. Parsons and Miss Longman and Miss Phillips; vol. xxiv. Report on a Comparison of the Physical Condition of " Ordinary " Paupers in certain Scottish Poorhouses with that of the Able-bodied Paupers in certain English Workhouses and Labour Yards, by Dr C. T. Parsons; vol. xxv. Statistical Memoranda and Tables relating to England and Wales, prepared by the Staff of the Commission and by Government Departments and others, and Actuarial Reports; vol. xxvi. Documents relating more especially to the administration of charities; vol. xxvii. Replies by Distress Committees in England and Wales to Questions circulated on the subject of the Unemployed Workmen Act 1905 ; vol. xxviii. Reports of Visits to Poor Law and Charitable Institutions and to Meetings of Local Authorities in the United Kingdom; vol. xxix. Report on the Methods of Administering Charitable Assistance and the extent and intensity of Poverty in Scotland, prepared by the Committee on Church Interests appointed by the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland ; vol. xxx. Documents relating especially to Scotland ; vol. xxxi. Statistical Memoranda and Tables relating to Ireland, &c. ; vol. xxxii. Report on Visits paid by the Foreign Labour Colonies Committee of the Commis- sion to certain Institutions in Holland, Belgium, Germany and Switzerland; vol. xxxiii. Foreign and Colonial Systems of Poor POOR LAW 79 1909. It consists jf a majority report, signed by the chairman and 13 other members, and a minority report signed by 4 dis- sentient members. To this report and its appendices those who wish to obtain an exhaustive account of the working of the English poor law must necessarily have recourse. The " majority " report opens with a statistical survey of poor law problems, gives an historical sketch of the poor laws Majority down to 1834, and proceeds to deal in detail with Report. thg historical development and present condition of the various branches of the poor law under their appro- priate headings: (a) the central authority; (b) the local authority; (c) the officers of the local authority; (d) areas of administration; (e) indoor relief; (/) outdoor relief; (g) the aged; ih) the children; (i) the able-bodied under the poor law and (7) the causes of pauperism. Other portions of the report deal with medical relief, distress due to unemployment, and charities and the relief of distress. In reviewing these various subjects the commission lay bare the main defects of the present system, which they briefly summarize as follows: — i. The inadequacy of existing poor law areas to meet the growing needs of administration. ii. The excessive size of many boards of guardians. iii. The absence of any general interest in poor law work and poor law elections, due in great part to the fact that poor lav/ stands in no organic relation to the rest of local govern- ment. iv. The lack of intelligent uniformity in the application of principles and in general administration. v. The want of proper investigation and discrimination in dealing with applicants. vi. The tendency in many boards of guardians to give out- door relief without plan or purpose. vii. The unsuitability of the general workhouse as a test or deterrent for the able-bodied; the aggregation in it of all classes without sufficient classification; and the absence of any system of friendly and restorative help. viii. The lack of co-operation between poor law and charity. ix. The tendency of candidates to make lavish promises of out-relief and of guardians to favour their constituents in its distribution. x. General failure to attract capable social workers and leading citizens. xi. The general rise in expenditure, not always accompanied by an increase of efficiency in administration. xii. The want of sufficient control and continuity of policy on the part of the central authority. The commission stated that these defects have produced a want of confidence in the local administration of the poor law, and that they have been mainly the cause of the introduction of other forms of relief from public funds which are unaccom- panied by such conditions as are imperatively necessary as safeguards. The commission proceed to formulate a scheme of reform, the main features of which are summarized below: — Public Assistance. — The commissioners state that the name " poor law " has gathered about it associations of harshness, and still more of hopelessness, which might seriously obstruct the reforms they recommend, and they suggest that the title " public assistance " better expresses the system of help outlined in their report. They propose the abolition of the existing boards of guardians, the separation of their duties into two categories, and the calling into existence of two bodies for the discharge of the two sets of functions, viz. a local authority, known as the public assistance authority, with an area conterminous with the area of the county or county borough, for central administration and control; and local committees in existing union area.- for dealing with applications, investigating and supervising cases and under- taking such other duties as may be delegated by the public assistance authority. They recommend that the public assistance authority should be a statutory committee of the County Council, with one-half of its members appointed by the council from persons who are members of the council, and the other half of its members appointed by the council from outside their number, and to consist of persons experienced in the local administration of public assistance or Relief, with a memorandum on the Relief of Famines in India; vol. xxxiv. Alphabetical Lists of Oral and Non-oral Witnesses. other cognate work, women to be eligible for appointment in either case. Working in co-operation with the public assistance authorities are to be voluntary aid councils and committees (the former super- vising, the latter executive) for aiding persons in distress whose cases do not appear to be suitable for treatment by the public assistance committee. The commission epitomize what they consider to be the main principles of a reformed poor law. They are (1) that the treatment of the poor who apply for public assistance should be adapted to the needs of the individual, and, if institutional, should be governed by classification; (2) that the public adminis- tration established for the assistance of the poor should work in co-operation with the local and private charities of the district; (3) that the system of public assistance thus established should include processes of help which would be preventive, curative, and restorative, and (4) that every effort should be made to foster the instincts of independence and self-maintenance amongst those assisted. They proceed to recommend : — Indoor or " Institutional " Relief. — That general workhouses should be abolished. That indoor relief should be given in separate institutions appropriate to the following classes of applicants, viz. (a) children, (b) aged and infirm, (c) sick, (d) able-bodied men, (e) able-bodied women, (/) vagrants, and (g) feeble-minded and epileptics. Powers of removal to and detention in institutions should be given, with proper safeguards, to the public assistance authority. The treatment of inmates should be made as far as possible curative and restorative. Outdoor Relief or " Home Assistance." — This should be given only after thorough inquiry, except in cases of sudden and urgent necessity; it should be adequate to meet the needs of those to whom it is given; persons so assisted should be subject to supervision; that Such supervision should include in its purview the conditions, moral and sanitary, under which the recipient is living; that voluntary agencies should be utilized as far as possible for the personal care of individual cases, and that there should be one uniform order governing outdoor relief or home assistance. Children. — Effective steps should be taken to secure that the maintenance of children in the workhouse be no longer recognized as a legitimate way of dealing with them. Boarding-out might and should be greatly extended. Power to adopt children of vicious parents should be more frequently exercised and accom- panied by a strict dealing with the parent, and the public assistance authorities should retain supervision of adopted children up to the age of twenty-one. A local government board circular of June 1910 to boards of guardians embodied many of the recommenda- tions of the commission. Some recommendations, of course, the guardians are not empowered, under existing legislation, to carry out. The Aged. — As regards institutional relief, the aged should . have accommodation and treatment apart from the able-bodied, and be housed on a separate site, and be further subdivided into classes as far as practicable with reference to their physical condition and their moral character. As regards outdoor relief, greater care should be taken to ensure adequacy of relief. Medical Relief or Assistance. — A general system of provident dispensaries should be established, of which existing voluntary outdoor medical organizations should be invited to form an integral part, and every inducement should be offered to the working classes below a certain wage to become, or continue to be, members of a provident dispensary. Unemployment. — The commission review the social and industrial developments since 1834, deal with the new problems, criticize the existing methods of relief, and on their summing up of the new factors and developments, arrive at the conclusions: (a) that there is an increasing aggregation of unskilled labour at the great ports and in certain populous districts ; (6) that this aggregation of low-grade labour is so much in excess of the normal local wants as to promote and perpetuate under-employment, and (c) that this normal condition of under-employment, when aggravated by periodic contraction of trade or by inevitable changes in methods of pro- duction, assumes such dimensions as to require special machinery and organization for its relief and treatment. The commission proceed to make the following recommendations : — Labour Exchanges. — A national system of labour exchanges should be established and worked by the board of trade for the general purpose of assisting the mobility of labour and of collecting accurate information as to unemployment. (These were established by the Labour Exchanges Act 1909; see Unemployment.) Education and Training of the Young for Industrial Life. — The education in the public elementary schools should be much less literary and more practical, and better calculated than at present to adapt the child to its future occupation. Boys should be kept at school until the age of fifteen; exemption below fifteen should be granted only for boys leaving to learn a skilled trade, and there should be school supervision till sixteen and replacing in school if not properly employed. Regularization of Employment. — Government departments and local and public authorities should be enjoined to regularize their Work as far as possible, and to endeavour, as far as possible, to undertake their irregular work when the general demand for labour is slack. 8o POPAYAN Unemployment Insurance. — The establishment and promotion of unemployment insurance, especially amongst unskilled and unorganized labour, is of paramount importance in averting distress arising from unemployment, and is of such national im- portance as to justify, under specified conditions, contributions from public funds towards its furtherance. The commission further state that this insurance can best be promoted by utilizing the agency of existing trade organizations, or of organizations of a similar character. They are of opinion that no scheme of unemployment insurance, either foreign or British, which has been brought before them, is so free from objections as to justify them in recommending it for general adoption. Labour Colonies. — The commission recommend their establish- ment and use. (For these see Vagrancy.) Four out of the seventeen members of the commission, being unable to agree with their colleagues, issued a separate report, which is very nearly as voluminous as that of the Report! majority. Their recommendations were more drastic than those of the majority, and had for their aim not a reform of the poor law as it exists, but its entire break- up. The minority agree with the majority in recommending the abolition of workhouses, but instead of setting up new authorities, they consider that the duties of the guardians should be transferred to the county authorities, with an appropriate distribution among four existing committees of the county council. They recommend that the education committee become responsible for the entire care of children of school age. That the health committee should care for the sick and permanently incapacitated, infants under school age, and the aged requiring institutional care. The asylums committee should have charge of the mentally defective and the pension committee of the aged to whom pensions are awarded. The minority consider there should be some systematic co- ordination, within each local area, of all forms of public assis- tance and, if possible, of all assistance dispensed by voluntary agencies, and they recommend the appointment, by the county or county borough council, of one or more responsible officers, called " registrars of public assistance." Their duties would be to keep a register of all persons receiving any form of public assistance within their districts; they would assess the charge to be made on individuals liable to pay any part of the cost of the service rendered to them or their dependants, and re- cover the amount thus due. They would also have to consider the proposals of the various committees of the council for the payment of out-relief, or, as the minority prefer to term it, " home aliment." Other various duties are allotted to them in the report. The subject of unemployment was considered by the minority and they made the following recommendations: — Ministry of Labour. — The duty of organizing the national labour market should be placed upon a minister responsible to parliament. The ministry of labour should have six distinct and separately organized divisions; viz. the national labour exchange; the trade insurance division; the maintenance and training division; the industrial regulation division; the emigration and immigration division, and the statistical division. National Labour Exchange. — The function of the national labour exchange should be, not only, (a) to ascertain and report the surplus or shortage of labour of particular kinds, at particular places; and (6) to diminish the time and energy now spent in looking for work, and the consequent leaking between jobs; but also (c) so to dovetail casual and seasonal employments as to arrange for practical con- tinuity of work for those now chronically unemployed. Absorption of Surplus Labour. — To reduce the surplus of labour the minority recommend (a) that no child should be employed, in any occupation whatsoever, below the age of fifteen; no young person under eighteen for more than thirty hours per week, and all so employed should be required to attend some suitable public institution for not less than thirty hours per week for physical training and technical education; (6) the hours of labour of railway, omnibus and tramway employees should be reduced to a maximum of sixty, if not of forty-eight in any one week; and (c) wage-earning mothers of young children should be withdrawn from the industrial world by giving them sufficient public assistance for the support of their families. Regularization of the National Demand for Labour. — In order to meet the periodically recurrent general depressions of trade the government should take advantage of there being at these periods as much unemployment of capital as there is unemployment of labour; that it should definitely undertake, as far as practicable, the regularization of the national demand for labour; and that it should, for this purpose, and to the extent of at least £4,000,000 a year, arrange a portion of the ordinary work required by each department on a ten years' programme ; £40,000,000 worth of work for the decade being then put in hand, not by equal annual instal- ments, but exclusively in the lean years of the trade cycle ; being paid for out of loans for short terms raised as they are required, and being executed with the best available labour, at standard rates, engaged in the ordinary way. That in this ten years' programme there should be included works of afforestation, coast protection and land reclamation; to be carried out by the board of agriculture exclusively in the lean years of the trade cycle; by the most suitable labour obtainable, taken on in the ordinary way at the rates locally current for the work, and paid for out of loans raised as required. Trade Union Insurance.— -In view of its probable adverse effect on trade union membership and organization the minority com- missioners cannot recommend the establishment of any plan of government or compulsory insurance against unemployment. They recommend, however, a government subvention not exceeding one half of the sum actually paid in the last preceding year as out- of-work benefit should be offered to trade unions or other societies providing such benefit. Maintenance and Training. — For the ultimate residuum of men in distress from want of employment the minority recommend that maintenance should be freely provided, without disfranchise- ment, on condition that they submit themselves to the physical and mental training that they may prove to require. Suitable day training depots or residential farm colonies should be estab- lished, where the men's whole working time would be absorbed in such varied beneficial training of body and mind as they proved capable of; their wives and families being, meanwhile, provided with adequate home aliment. Authorities. — The Report and Evidence of the Royal Com- mission of 1905-1909 is a library in itself on the subject of pauperism. The contents of the various volumes are given supra. Other im- portant publications are Report and Evidence of Royal Commission on Aged Poor (1895) ; Report and Evidence of Select Committee of House of Commons on Distress from Want of Employment (1895); Report of Departmental Committee on Vag r ancy (1906). See also the references in the bibliography to Charity and Charities; and Sir G. Nicholls and T. Mackay, A History of the English Poor Law (3 vols., 1899) ; the publications of the Charity Organization Society; Reports of Poor Law Conferences. For list of subjects discussed, see index to Report of Central Conferences. POPAYAN, a city of Colombia, capital of the department of Cauca, about 240 m. S.W. of Bogota, on the old trade route between that city and Quito, in 2° 26' N., 76 49' W. Pop. (1870), 8485; (1906, estimate), 10,000. Popayan is built on a great plain sloping N.W. from the foot of the volcano Purace, near the source of the Cauca and on one of its small tribu- taries, 5712 ft. above the sea. Its situation is singularly pic- turesque, the Purace rising to an elevation of 15,420 ft. about 20 m. south-east of the city, the Sotara volcano to approxi- mately the same height about the same distance south by east, and behind these at a greater distance the Pan de Azucar, 15,978 ft. high. The ridge forming the water-parting between the basins of the Cauca and Patia rivers crosses between the Central and Western Cordilleras at this point and culminates a few miles to the south. Popayan is the seat of a bishopric dating from 1547, whose cathedral was built by the Jesuits; and in the days of its prosperity it possessed a university of considerable reputation. It has several old churches, a college, two seminaries founded about 1870 by the French Lazarists, who have restored and occupy the old Jesuit convent, and a mint established in 1749. The city was at one time an important commercial and mining centre, but much of its importance was lost through the transfer of trade to Cali and Pasto, through the decay of neighbouring mining industries, and through political disturbances. Earth- quakes have also caused much damage to Popayan, especially those of 1827 and 1834. The modern city has some small manufacturing industries, including woollen fabrics for cloth- ing, but its trade is much restricted, and its importance is political rather than commercial. Popayan was founded by Sebastian Benalcazar in 1538 on the site of an Indian settlement, whose chief, Payan, had the un- usual honour of having his name given to the usurping town. In 1558 it received a coat of arms and the title of " Muy noble y muy leal " from the king of Spain — a distinction of great POPE 81 significance in that disturbed period of colonial history. It I is noted also as the birthplace of Caldas, the Colombian naturalist, and of Mosquera, the geographer. There are hot sulphurous springs near by on the flanks of the volcano Purace, especially at Coconuco, which are much frequented by Colombians. POPE (Gr. voLTTras, post-classical Lat. papa, father), an ecclesiastical title now used exclusively to designate the head of the Roman Catholic Church. In the 4th and 5th Titles. centuries it was frequently used in the West of any bishop (Du Cange, s.v.); but it gradually came to be reserved to the bishop of Rome, becoming his official title. In the East, on the other hand, only the bishop of Alexandria seems to have used it as a title; but as a popular term it was applied to priests, and at the present day, in the Greek. Church and in Russia, all the priests are called pappas, which is also translated " pope." Even in the case of the sovereign pontiff the word pope is officially only used as a less solemn style: though the ordinary signature and heading of briefs is, e.g. " Pius P.P.X.," the signature of bulls is " Pius episcopus ecclesiae catholicae," and the heading, " Pius epi- scopus, servus servorum Dei," this latter formula going back to the time of St Gregory the Great. Other styles met with in official documents are Pontifex, Summus pontifex, Romanus pontifex, Sanctissimus, Sanctissimus pater, Sanctissimus domi- nus nosier, Sanctitas sua, Beatissimus pater, Beatitudo sua; while the pope is addressed in speaking as " Sanctitas vestra," or " Beatissime pater." In the middle ages is also found " Dominus apostolicus " (cf. still, in the litanies of the saints), or simply " Apostolicus." The pope is pre-eminently, as successor of St Peter, bishop of Rome. Writers are fond of viewing him as representing Various an tne degrees of the ecclesiastical hierarchy; they Degrees say that he is bishop of Rome, metropolitan of the of Juris- Roman province, primate of Italy, patriarch of the western Church and head of the universal Church. This is strictly correct, but, with the exception of the first and last, these titles are seldom to be found in documents. And if these terms were intended to indicate so many degrees in the exercise of jurisdiction they would not be correct. As a matter of fact, from the earliest centuries (cf. can. 6 of Nicaea, in 325), we see that the popes exercised a special metropolitan juris- diction not only over the bishops nearest to Rome, the future cardinal bishops, but also over all those of central and southern Italy, including Sicily (cf. Duchesne, Origines du culte, ch. 1), all of whom received their ordination at his hands. Northern Italy and the rest of the western Church, still more the eastern Church, did not depend upon him so closely for their administra- tion. His influence was exercised, however, not only in dogmatic questions but in matters of discipline, by means of appeals, petitions and consultations, not to mention spon- taneous intervention. This state of affairs was defined and developed in the course of centuries, till it produced the present state of centralization, according to a law which can equally be observed in other societies. In practice the different degrees of jurisdiction, as represented in the pope, are of no importance: he is bishop of Rome and governs his diocese by direct episcopal authority; he is also the head of the Church, and in this capacity governs all the dioceses, though the regular authority of each bishop in his own diocese is also ordinary and immediate, i.e. he is not a mere vicar of the pope. But the mode of exercise of a power and its intensity are subject to variation, while the power remains essentially the same. This is the case with the power of the pope and his primacy, the exercise and manifestation of which have been continually developing. This primacy, a primacy of honour and jurisdiction, involving the plenitude of power over the teaching, the worship, the discipline and administration of the Church, is received by the pope as part of the succession of St Peter, together with the episcopate of Rome. The whole episcopal body, with the pope at its head, should be considered as succeeding to the apostolic college, presided over by St Peter; and the head of it, now as then, as personally invested with all the powers enjoyed by the whole body, including the head. Hence the pope, as supreme in mat- ters of doctrine, possesses the same authority and the same in- fallibility as the whole Church; as legislator and judge he pos- sesses the same power as the episcopal body gathered around and with him in oecumenical council. Such are the two essential prerogatives of the papal primacy: infallibility in his supreme pronouncements in matters of doctrine (see Infallibility); and immediate and sovereign jurisdiction, under all its aspects, over all the pastors and the faithful. These two privileges, having been claimed and enjoyed by the popes in the course of centuries, were solemnly defined at the Vatican Council by the constitution " Pastor aeternus " of the 18th of July 1870. The two principal passages in it are the following. (1) In the matter of jurisdiction: " If any one say that the Roman Pontiff has an office merely of inspection and direction, and not the full and supreme power of jurisdiction over the whole Church, not only in matters of faith and morals, but also as regards discipline and the government of the Church scattered through- out the whole world; or that he has only the principal portion and not the plenitude of that supreme power; or that his power is not ordinary and immediate, as much over each and every church as over each and every pastor and believer: anathema sit." (2) In the matter of infallibility: " We decree that when the Roman Pontiff speaks ex cathedra, that is to say, when, in his capacity as Pastor and Doctor of all Christians he defines, in virtue of his supreme apostolic authority, a certain doctrine concerning faith or morals to be held by the whole Church, he enjoys, by the divine assistance promised to him in the Blessed Peter, that infallibility with which the divine Redeemer has thought good to endow His Church in order to define its doctrine in matters of faith and morals; consequently, these definitions of the Roman Pontiff are irreformable in themselves and not in consequence of the consent of the Church." For the history of the papacy, and associated questions, see Papacy, Conclave, Curia Romana, Cardinal, &c. The ordinary costume of the pope is similar to that of the other clergy and bishops, but white in colour; his shoes alone are different, being low open shoes, red in colour, with a cross embroidered on the front; these are what are called the " mules," a substitute for the compagi of ancient times, formerly reserved to the pope and his clergy (cf. Duchesne, op. cit. ch. n, 6). Over this costume the pope wears, on less solemn occasions, the lace rochet and the red mozetta, bordered with ermine, or the camauro, similar to the mozetta, but with the addition of a hood, and over all the stole embroidered with his arms. The pope's liturgical costume consists, in the first place, of all the elements comprising that of the bishops: stockings and sandals, amice, alb, cincture, tunicle and dalmatic, stole, ring, gloves, chasuble or cope, the latter, however, with a morse ornamented with precious stones, and for head-dress the mitre (see Vestments). The tiara (q.v.), the pontifical head-dress, is not used strictly speaking in the course of the liturgical functions, but only for processions. To these vestments or insignia the pope adds: the falda, a kind of long skirt trailing on the ground all round, which the chaplains hold up while he is walking. Over the chasuble he wears the fanone (see Amice) ; and after that the pallium (q.v.). He is preceded by the papal cross, carried with the crucifix turned towards him. When going to solemn ceremonies he is carried on the sedia, a portable chair of red velvet with a high back, and escorted by two flabelli of peacock feathers. The papal mass, now rarely celebrated, has preserved more faithfully the ancient liturgical usages of the 8th and 9th centuries. Bibliography. — Bellarmine, Be romano pontifice; Wilmers, De christi ecclesia (Regensburg, 1897) ; Turmel, Histoire de la iheo- logie positive, vol. ii. (Paris, 1906) ; Hinschius, Kirchenrecht, vol. i. (Berlin, 1869); Rudolph Sohm, Kirchenrecht (1892); Duchesne, Les Origines du culte Chretien (4th ed., Paris, 1908); Bouix, De papa (Paris, 1869) ; Vacant, Etudes theologiques sur les constitutions du concile du Vatican (Paris, 1895); Barbier de Montault, Le Costume el les usages ecclesiastiques (Paris, 1897). (A. Bo.*) 82 POPE, ALEXANDER POPE, ALEXANDER (1688-1744), English poet, was born in Lombard Street, London, on the 21st of May 1688. His father, Alexander Pope, a Roman Catholic, was a linen-draper who afterwards retired from business with a small fortune, and fixed his residence about 1700 at Binfield in Windsor Forest. Pope's education was desultory. His father's religion would have excluded him from the public schools, even had there been no other impediment to his being sent there. Before he was twelve he had obtained a smattering of Latin and Greek from various masters, from a priest in Hampshire, from a schoolmaster at Twyford near Winchester, from Thomas Deane, who kept a school in Marylebone and afterwards at Hyde Park Corner, and finally from another priest at home. Between his twelfth and his seventeenth years excessive application to study under- mined his health, and he developed the personal deformity which was in so many ways to distort his view of life. He thought himself dying, but through a friend, Thomas (after- wards the abbe) Southcote, he obtained the advice of the famous physician John Radcliffe, who prescribed diet and exercise. Under this treatment the boy recovered his strength and spirits. " He thought himself the better," Spence says, " in some respects for not having had a regular education. He (as he observed in particular) read originally for the sense, whereas we are taught for so many years to read only lor words." He afterwards learnt French and Italian, probably in a similar way. He read translations of the Greek, Latin, French and Italian poets, and by the age of twelve, when he was finally settled at home and left to himself, he was not only a confirmed reader, but an eager aspirant to the highest honours in poetry. There is a story, which chronological considerations make extremely improbable, that in London he had crept into Will's coffee-house to look at Dryden, and a further tale that the old poet had given him a shilling for a translation of the story of Pyramus and Thisbe; he had lampooned his schoolmaster; he had made a play out of John Ogilby's Iliad for his school- fellows; and before he was fifteen he had written an epic, his hero being Alcander, a prince of Rhodes, or, as he states else- where, Deucalion. There were, among the Roman Catholic families near Bin- field, men capable of giving a direction to his eager ambition, men of literary tastes, and connexions with the literary world. These held together as members of persecuted communities always do, and were kept in touch with one another by the family priests. Pope was thus brought under the notice of Sir William Trumbull, a retired diplomatist living at Easthamp- stead, within a few miles of Binfield. Thomas Dancastle, lord of the manor of Binfield, took an active interest in his writings, and at Whiteknights, near Reading, lived another Roman Catholic, Anthony Englefield, " a great lover of poets and poetry." Through him Pope made the acquaintance of Wycherley and of Henry Cromwell, who was a distant cousin of the Protector, a gay man about town, and something of a pedant. Wycherley introduced him to William Walsh, then of great renown as a critic. 1 Before the poet was seventeen he was admitted in this way to the society of London " wits " and men of fashion, and was cordially encouraged as a prodigy. Wycherley's correspondence with Pope was skilfully manipu- lated by the younger man to represent Wycherley as sub- mitting, at first humbly and then with an ill-grace, to Pope's criticisms. The publication (Elwin and Courthope, vol. v.) of the originals of Wycherley's letters from MSS. at Longleat showed how seriously the relations between the two friends, which ceased in 17 10, had been misrepresented in the version of the correspondence which Pope chose to submit to the public. Walsh's contribution to his development was the advice to study " correctness." " About fifteen," he says, " I got acquainted with Mr. Walsh. He used to encourage me much, and used to tell me that there was one way left of excelling; 1 The dates of Pope's correspondence with Wycherley are 1704- 1710; with Walsh, 1705-1707, and with Cromwell, 1708-1727; with John Caryll (1666-1736) and his son, also neighbours, 1710- 1735- for, though we had several great poets, we never had any one great poet that was correct, and he desired me to make that my study and aim " (Spence, p. 280). Trumbull turned Pope's attention to the French critics, out of the study of whom grew the Essay on Criticism; he suggested the subject of Windsor Forest, and he started the idea of translating Homer. It says something for Pope's docility at this stage that he recognized so soon that a long course of preparation was needed for such a magnum opus, and began steadily and patiently to discipline himself. The epic was put aside and afterwards burnt; versification was industriously practised in short "essays"; and an elaborate study was made of accepted critics and models. He learnt most, as he acknowledged, from Dryden, but the harmony of his verse also owed something to an earlier writer, George Sandys, the translator of Ovid. At the beginning of the 18th century Dryden's success had given great vogue to translations and modernizations. The air was full of theories as to the best way of doing such things. What Dryden had touched Pope did not presume to meddle with — Dryden was his hero and master; but there was much more of the same kind to be done. Dryden had rewritten three of the Canterbury tales; Pope tried his hand at the Merchant's Tale, and the Prologue to the Wife of Bath's Tale, and produced also an imitation of the House of Fame. Dryden had translated Virgil; Pope experimented on the Thebais of Statius, Ovid's Heroides and Metamorphoses, and the Odyssey. He knew little Latin and less Greek, but there were older versions in English which helped him to the sense; and, when the correspondents to whom he submitted his versions pointed out mistranslations, he could answer that he had always agreed with them, but that he had deferred to the older translators against his own judgment. It was one of Pope's little vanities to try to give the impression that his metrical skill was more precocious even than it was, and we cannot accept his published versions of Statius and Chaucer (published in " miscellanies " at intervals between 1709 and 17 14) as incontrovertible evidence of his pro- ficiency at the age of sixteen or seventeen, the date, according to his own assertion, of their composition. But it is indisputable that at the age of seventeen his skill in verse astonished a veteran critic like Walsh, and some of his pastorals were in the hands of Sir George Granville (afterwards Lord Lansdowne) before 1706. His metrical letter to Cromwell, which Elwin dates in 1707, when Pope was nineteen, is a brilliant feat of versification, and has turns of wit in it as easy and spirited as any to be found in his mature satires. Pope was twenty-one when he sent the " Ode on Solitude " to Cromwell, and said it was written before he was twelve years old. Precocious Pope was, but he was also industrious; and he spent some eight or nine years in arduous and enthusiastic discipline, reading, studying, experimenting, taking the advice of some and laughing in his sleeve at the advice of others, " poetry his only business," he said, " and idleness his only pleasure," before anything of his appeared in print. In these preliminary studies he seems to have guided himself by the maxim formulated in a letter to Walsh (dated July 2, 1706) that " it seems not so much the perfection of sense to say things that had never been said before, as to express those best that have been said oftenest." His first publication was his " Pastorals. " Jacob Tonson, the bookseller, had seen these pastorals in the hands of Walsh and Congreve, and sent a polite note (April 20, 1706) to Pope asking that he might have them for one of his miscellanies. They appeared accordingly in May 1709 at the end of the sixth volume of Tonson's Poetical Miscellanies, containing contributions from Ambrose Philips, Sheffield, Garth and Rowe, with " January and May," Pope's version of Chaucer's " Merchant's Tale." Pope's next publication was the Essay on Criticism (1711), written two years earlier, and printed without the author's name. " In every work regard the writer's end " (1. 255) is one of its sensible precepts, and one that is often neglected by critics of the essay, who comment upon it as if Pope's end had been to produce an original and profound treatise on first principles. POPE, ALEXANDER 83 His aim was simply to condense, methodize, and give as perfect and novel expression as he could to floating opinions about the poet's aims and methods, and the critic's duties, to " what oft was thought, but ne'er so well expressed " (1. 298). " The town " was interested in belles leltres, and given to conversing on the subject; Pope's essay was simply a brilliant contribution to the fashionable conversation. The youthful author said that he did not expect the sale to be quick because " not one gentleman in sixty, even of liberal education, could understand it." The sales were slow until Pope caused copies to be sent to Lord Lansdowne and others, but its success was none the less brilliant for the delay. The town was fairly- dazzled by the young poet's learning, judgment, and felicity of expression. Many of the admirers of the poem doubtless would have thought less of it if they had not believed all the maxims to be original. " I admired," said Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, " Mr Pope's Essay on Criticism at first very much, because I had not then read any of the ancient critics, and did not know that it was all stolen." Pope gained credit for much that might have been found, where he found it, in the Institutes of Quintilian, in the numerous critical writings of Rene Rapin, and in Rene le Bossu's treatise on epic poetry. Addison has been made responsible for the exaggerated value once set on the essay, but Addison's paper (Spectator, No. 253) was not unmixed praise. He deprecated the attacks made by Pope on contemporary literary reputations, although he did full justice to the poet's metrical skill. Addison and Pope became acquainted with one another, and Pope's sacred eclogue, " Messiah," was printed as No. 378 of the Spectator. In the Essay on Criticism Pope provoked one bitter personal enemy, in John Dennis, the critic, by a description of him as Appius, who " stares, tremendous, with a threat'ning eye." Dennis retorted in Reflections . . upon a late Rhapsody . . (17 11), abusing Pope among other things for his personal deformity. Pope never forgot this brutal attack, which he described in a note inserted after Dennis's death, as late as 1743, as written " in a manner perfectly lunatic." The Rape of the Lock in its first form appeared in 17 12 in Linlot's Miscellanies; the " machinery " of sylphs and gnomes was an afterthought, and the poem was republished as we now have it early in 17 14. William, 4th Baron Petre, had surrep- titiously cut off a lock of Miss Arabella Fermor's hair, and the liberty had been resented; Pope heard the story from his friend John Caryll, who suggested that the breach between the families might be healed by making the incident the subject of a mock-heroic poem like Boileau's Lutrin. Pope caught at the hint; the mock-heroic treatment of the pretty frivolities of fashionable life just suited his freakish sprightliness of wit, and his studies of the grand epic at the time put him in excellent vein. The Rape of the Lock is admitted to be a masterpiece of airiness, ingenuity, and exquisite finish. But the poem struck Taine as a piece of harsh, scornful, indelicate buffoonery, a mere succession of oddities and contrasts, of expressive figures un- expected and grinning, an example of English insensibility to French sweetness and refinement. Sir Leslie Stephen objected on somewhat different grounds to the poet's tone towards women. His. laughter at Pope's raillery was checked by the fact that women are spoken of in the poem as if they were all like Belinda. The poem shows the hand of the satirist who was later to assert that " every woman is at heart a rake," in the epistle addressed to Martha Blount. Windsor Forest, modelled on Sir John Denham's Cooper's Hill, had been begun, according to Pope's account, when he was sixteen or seventeen. It was published in March 17 13 with a flattering dedication to the secretary for war, George Granville, Lord Lansdowne, and an opportune allusion to the peace of Utrecht. This was a nearer approach to taking a political side I han Pope had yet made. His principle had been to keep clear of politics, and not to attach himself to anv of the sets into which literary men were divided by parcy. Although inclined to the Jacobites by his religion, he never took any part in the plots for the restoration of the Stuarts, and he was on friendly terms with the Whig coterie, being a frequent guest at the coffee-house kept by Daniel Button, where Addison held his " little senate." He had contributed his poem, " The Messiah " to the Spectator; he had written an article or two in the Guardian, and he wrote a prologue for Addison's Cato. Nevertheless he induced Lintot the bookseller to obtain from John Dennis a criti- cism of Cato. On the publication of Dennis's remarks, the violence of which had, as Pope hoped, made their author ridicu- lous, Pope produced an anonymous pamphlet, The Narrative of Dr Robert Norris concerning the . . . Frenzy of Mr John Dennis (1713), which, though nominally in defence of Addison, had for its main purpose the gratification of Pope's own hostility to Dennis. Addison disavowed any connivance in this coarse attack in a letter written on his behalf by Steele to Lintot, saying that if he noticed Dennis's attack at all it would be in such a way as to allow him no just cause of complaint. Coolness between Addison and Pope naturally followed this episode. When the Rape of the Lock was published, Addison, who is said to have praised the poem highly to Pope in private, dismissed it in the Spectator with two sentences of patronizing faint praise to the young poet, and, coupling it with Tickell's " Ode on the Prospect of Peace," devoted the rest of the article to an elaborate puff of " the pastorals of Mr Philips." When Pope showed a leaning to the Tories in Windsor Forest, the members of Addison's coterie made insidious war on him. Within a few weeks of the publication of the poem, and when it was the talk of the town, there began to appear in the Guardian (Nos. 22, 23, 28, 30, 32) a series of articles on " Pastorals." Not a word was said about Windsor Forest, but everybody knew to what the general principles referred. Modern pastoral poets were ridiculed for introducing Greek moral deities, Greek flowers and fruits, Greek names of shepherds, Greek sports and customs and religious rites. They ought to make use of English rural mythology — hobthrushes, fairies, goblins and witches; they should give English names to their shepherds; they should mention flowers indigenous to English climate and soil; and they should introduce English proverbial sayings, dress, and customs. All excellent principles, and all neglected by Pope in Windsor Forest. The poem was fairly open to criticism in these points; there are many beautiful passages in it, show- ing close though somewhat professional observation of nature, but the mixture of heathen deities and conventional archaic fancies with modern realities is incongruous, and the com- parison of Queen Anne to Diana was ludicrous. But the sting of the articles did not lie in the truth of the oblique criticisms. The pastorals of Ambrose Philips, published four years before, were again trotted out. Here was a true pastoral poet, the eldest born of Spenser, the worthy successor of Theocritus and Virgil! Pope took an amusing revenge, which turned the laugh against his assailants. He sent Steele an anonymous paper in continuation of the articles in the Guardian on pastoral poetry, reviewing the poems of Mr Pope by the light of the principles laid down. Ostensibly Pope was censured for breaking the rules, and Philips praised for conforming to them, quotations being given from both. The quotations were sufficient to dispose of the pretensions of poor Philips, and Pope did not choose his own worst passages, accusing himself of actually deviating sometimes into poetry. Although the Guardian's principles were also brought into ridicule by bur- lesque exemplifications of them after the manner of Gay's Shepherd's Week, Steele, misled by the opening sentences, was at first unwilling to print what appeared to be a direct attack on Pope, and is said to have asked Pope's consent to the publication, which was graciously granted. The links that attached Pope to the Tory party were strength- ened by a new friendship. His first letter to Swift, who became warmlv attached to him, is dated the 8th of December 1713. Swift had been a leading member of the Brothers' Club, from which the famous Scriblerus Club seems to have been an offshoot. The leading members of this informal 8 4 POPE, ALEXANDER literary society were Swift, Arbuthnot, Congreve, Bishop Atterbury, Pope, Gay and Thomas Parnell. Their chief object was a general war against the dunces, waged with great spirit by Arbuthnot, Swift and Pope. The estrangement from Addison was completed in connexion with Pope's translation of Homer. This enterprise was definitely undertaken in 17 13. The work was to be published by subscription, as Dryden's Virgil had been. Men of all parties subscribed, their unanimity being a striking proof of the position Pope had attained at the age of twenty-five. It was as if he had received a national commission as by general consent the first poet of his time. But the unanimity was broken by a discordant note. A member of fhe Addison clique, Tickell, attempted to run a rival version. Pope suspected Addison's instigation; Tickell had at least Addison's encourage- ment. Pope's famous character of Addison as " Atticus " in the Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot (ii. 193-215) was, however, in- spired by resentment at insults that existed chiefly in his own imagination, though Addison was certainly not among his warmest admirers. Pope afterwards claimed to have been magnanimous, but he spoiled his case by the petty inventions of his account of the quarrel. The translation of Homer was Pope's chief employment for twelve years. The new pieces in the miscellanies published in 1717, his " Elegy on an Unfortunate Lady," and his " Eloisa to Abelard," were probably written some years before their publication. His " Eloisa to Abelard " was based on an English translation by John Hughes of a French version of the Letters, which differed very considerably from the original Latin. The Iliad was delivered to the subscribers in instal- ments in 1715, 1717, 1718 and 1720. Pope's own defective scholarship made help necessary. William Broome and John Jortin supplied the bulk of the notes, and Thomas Parnell the preface. For the translation of the Odyssey he took Elijah Fen ton and Broome as coadjutors, who between them trans- lated twelve out of the twenty-four books. 1 It was completed in 1725. The profitableness of t the work was Pope's chief temptation to undertake it. His receipts for his earlier poems had totalled about £150, but he cleared more than £8000 by the two translations, after deducting all payments to coadjutors — a much larger sum than had ever been received by an English author before. The translation of Homer had established Pope's reputation with his contemporaries, and has endangered it ever since it was challenged. Opinions have varied on the purely literary merits of the poem, but with regard to it as a translation few have differed from Bentley's criticism, " A fine poem, Mr Pope, but you must not call it Homer." His collaboration with Broome (q.v.) and Fenton (q.v.) 2 involved him in a series of recriminations. Broome was weak enough to sign a note at the end of the work understating the extent of Fenton's assist- ance as well as his own, and ascribing the merit of their trans- lation, reduced to less than half its real proportions, to a regular revision and correction — mostly imaginary — at Pope's hands. These falsehoods were deemed necessary by Pope to protect himself against possible protests from the subscribers. In 1722 he edited the poems of Thomas Parnell, and in 1725 made a considerable sum by an unsatisfactory edition of Shake- speare, in which he had the assistance of Fenton and Gay. Pope, with his economical habits, was rendered independent by the pecuniary success of his Homer, and enabled to live near London. The estate at Binfield was sold, and he removed with his parents to Mawson's Buildings, Chiswick, in 1716, and in 1719 to Twickenham, to the house with which his name is associated. Here he practised elaborate landscape gardening on a small scale, and built his famous grotto, which was really a tunnel under the road connecting the garden with the lawn on the Thames. He was constantly visited at Twickenham by his intimates, Dr John Arbuthnot, John Gay, Bolingbroke 1 I, 4, 19 and 20 are by Fenton; 2, 6, 8, 11, 12, 16, 18, 23, with notes to all the books, by Broome. 2 The correspondence with them is given in vol. viii. of Elwin and Courthope's edition. (after his return in 1723), and Swift (during his brief visits to England in 1726 and 1727), and by many other friends of the Tory party. With Atterbury, bishop of Rochester, he was on terms of affectionate intimacy, but he blundered in his evidence when he was called as a witness on his behalf in 1723. In 1 71 7 his father died, and he appears to have turned to the Blounts for sympathy in what was to him a very serious bereavement. He had early made the acquaintance of Martha and Teresa Blount, both of them intimately connected with his domestic history. Their home was at Mapledurham, near Reading, but Pope probably first met them at the house of his neighbour, Mr Englefield of Whiteknights, who was their grandfather. He begun to correspond with Martha Blount in 1712, and after 17 17 the letters are much more serious in tone. He quarrelled with Teresa, who had apparently injured or prevented his suit to her sister; and although, after her father's death in 1718, he paid her an annuity, he seems to have regarded her as one of his most dangerous enemies. His friendship with Martha lasted all his life. So long as his mother lived he was unwearying in his attendance on her, but after her death in 1733 his association with Martha Blount was more constant. In defiance of the scandal-mongers, they paid visits together at the houses of common friends, and at Twickenham she spent part of each day with him. His earlier attachment to Lady Mary Wortley Montagu was apparently a more or less literary passion, which perished under Lady Mary's ridicule. The year 1725 may be taken as the beginning of the third period of Pope's career, when he made his fame as a moralist and a satirist. It may be doubted whether Pope had the stay- ing power necessary for the composition of a great imaginative work, whether his crazy constitution would have held together through the strain. He toyed with the idea of writing a grand epic. He told Spence that he had it all in his head, and gave him a vague (and it must be admitted not very promising) sketch of the subject and plan of it. But he never put any of it on paper. He shrank as with instinctive repulsion from the stress and strain of complicated designs. Even his prolonged task of translating weighed heavily on his spirits, and this was a much less formidable effort than creating an epic. He turned rather to designs that could be accomplished in detail, works of which the parts could be separately laboured at and put together with patient care, into which happy thoughts could be fitted that had been struck out at odd moments and in ordinary levels of feeling. Edward Young's satire, The Universal Passion, had just appeared, and been received with more enthusiasm than any thing published since Pope's own early successes. This alone would have been powerful inducement to Pope's emulous tem- per. Swift was finishing Gulliver's Travels, and came over to England in 1726. The survivors of the Scriblerus Club — Swift, Pope, Arbuthnot, and Gay — resumed their old amusement of parodying and otherwise ridiculing bad writers, especially bad writers in the Whig interest. Two volumes of their Mis- cellanies in Prose and Verse were published in 1727. A third volume appeared in 1728, and a fourth was added in 1732. According to Pope's own history of the Dunciad, an Heroic Poem in Three Books, which first appeared on the 28th of May 1728, the idea of it grew out of this. Among the Miscellanies was a " Treatise of the Bathos or the Art of Sinking in Poetry," in which poets were classified, with illustrations, according to their eminence in the various arts of debasing instead of elevating their subject. No names were mentioned, but the specimens of bathos were assigned to various letters of the alphabet, which, the authors boldly asserted, were taken at random. But no sooner was the treatise published than the scribblers proceeded to take the letters to themselves, and in revenge to fill the news- papers with the most abusive falsehoods and scurrilities they could devise. This gave Pope the opportunity he had hoped for, and provided him with an excuse for the personalities of the Dunciad, which had been in his mind as early as 1720. Among the most prominent objects of his satire were Lewis POPE, ALEXANDER 85 Theobald, Colley Cibber, John Dennis, Richard Bentley, Aaron Hill and Bernard Lintot, who, in spite of his former relations with Pope, was now classed with the piratical Edmund Curll. The book was published with the greatest precautions. It was anonymous, and professed to be a reprint of a Dublin edition. When the success of the poem was assured, it was republished in 1729, and a copy was presented to the king by Sir Robert Walpole. Names took the place of initials, and a defence of the satire, written by Pope himself, but signed by his friend William Cleland, was printed as " A letter to the Publisher." Various indexes, notes and particulars of the attacks on Pope made by the different authors satirized were added. To avoid any danger of prosecution, the copyright was assigned to Lord Oxford, Lord Bathurst and Lord Burlington, whose position rendered them practically unassailable. We may admit that personal spite influenced Pope at least as much as disinte- rested zeal for the honour of literature, but in the dispute as to the comparative strength of these motives, a third is apt to be overlooked that was probably stronger than either. This was an unscrupulous elfish love of fun, and delight in the creations of a humorous imagination. Certainly to represent the Dun- ciad as the outcome of mere personal spite is to give an exag- gerated idea of the malignity of Pope's disposition, and an utterly wrong impression of the character of his satire. He was not, except in rare cases, a morose, savage, indignant satirist, but airy and graceful in his malice, revengeful perhaps and excessively sensitive, but restored to good humour as he thought over his wrongs by the ludicrous conceptions with which he invested his adversaries. The most unprovoked assault was on Richard Bentley, whom he satirized in the reconstruction and enlargement of the Dunciad made in the last years of his life at the instigation, it is said, of William Warburton. In the earlier editions the place of hero had been occupied by Lewis Theobald, who had ventured to criticize Pope's Shake- speare. In the edition which appeared in Pope's Works (1742), he was dethroned in favour of Colley Cibber, who had just written his Letter from Mr Cibber to Mr Pope inquiring into the motives that might induce him hi his satyrical writings to be so frequently fond of Mr Cibber's name (1742). Warburton's name is attached to many new notes, and one of the preliminary dissertations by Ricardus Aristarchus on the hero of the poem seems to be by him. The four epistles of the Essay on Man (1733) were also intimately connected with passing controversies. They belong to the same intellectual movement with Butler's Analogy— the effort of the 18th century to put religion on a rational basis. But Pope was not a thinker like Butler. The subject was suggested to him by Henry St John, Lord Bolingbroke, who had returned from exile in 1723, and was a fellow-member of the Scriblerus Club. Bolingbroke is said — and the statement is supported by the contents of his posthumous works — to have furnished most of the arguments. Pope's contribution t.o the controversy consisted in brilliant epigram and illustra- tion. In this didactic work, as in his Essay on Criticism, he put together on a sufficiently simple plan a series of happy sayings, separately elaborated, picking up the thoughts as he found them in miscellaneous reading and conversation, and trying only to fit them with perfect expression. His readers were too dazzled by the verse to be severely critical of the sense. Pope himself had not comprehended the drift of the arguments he had adopted from Bolingbroke, and was alarmed when he found that his poem was generally interpreted as an apology for the free-thinkers. Warburton is said to have qualified its doctrines as " rank atheism, " and asserted that it was put together from the " worst passages of the worst authors." The essay was soon translated into the chief European languages, and in 1737 its orthodoxy was assailed by a Swiss professor, Jean Pierre de Crousaz, in an Examen de Pessay de M. Pope sur rhomme. Warburton now saw fit to revise his opinion of Pope's abilities and principles — for what reason does not appear. In any case he now became as enthusiastic in his praise of Pope's orthodoxy and his genius as he had before been scornful, and proceeded to employ his unrivalled powers of sophistry in a defence of the orthodoxy of the conflicting and inconsequent positions adopted in the Essay on Man. Pope was wise enough to accept with all gratitude an ally who was so useful a friend and so dangerous an enemy, and from that time onward Warburton was the authorized commentator of his works. The Essay on Man was to have formed part of a series of philosophic poems on a systematic plan. The other pieces were to treat of human reason, of the use of learning, wit, education and riches, of civil and ecclesiastical polity, of the character of women, &c. Of the ten epistles of the Moral Essays, the first four, written between 1731 and 1735, are connected with this scheme, which was never executed. There was much bitter, and sometimes unjust, satire in the Moral Essays and the Imitations of Horace. In these epistles and satires, which appeared at intervals, he was often the mouth- piece of his political friends, who were all of them in opposition to Walpole, then at the height of his power, and Pope chose the object of his attacks from among the minister's adherents. Epistle III., " Of the Use of Riches," addressed to Allen Bath- urst, Lord Bathurst, in 1732, is a direct attack on Walpole's methods of corruption, and on his financial policy in general; and the two dialogues (1738) known as the "Epilogue to the Satires," professedly a defence of satire, form an eloquent attack on the court. Pope was attached to the prince of Wales's party, and he did not forget to insinuate, what was indeed the truth, that the queen had refused the prince her pardon on her deathbed. The " Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot " contains a de- scription of his personal attitude towards the scribblers and is made to serve as a " prologue to the satires." The gross and unpardonable insults bestowed on Lord Hervey and on Lady Mary Wortley Montagu in the first satire " to Mr Fortescue " provoked angry retaliation from both. The description of Timon's ostentatious villa in Epistle IV., addressed to the earl of Burlington, was generally taken as a picture of Canons, the seat of John Brydges, duke of Chandos, one of Pope's patrons, and caused a great outcry, though in this case Pope seems to have been innocent of express allusion. Epistle II., addressed to Martha Blount, contained the picture of Atossa, which was taken to be a portrait of Sarah Jennings, duchess of Marlborough. One of the worst imputations on Pope's character was that he left this passage to be published when he had in effect received a bribe of £1000 from the duchess of Marl- borough for its suppression through the agency of Nathanael Hooke (d. 1763). As the passage eventually stood, it might be applied to Katherine, duchess of Buckingham, a natural daughter of James II. Pope may have altered it with the intention of diverting the satire from the original object. He was scrupulously honest in money matters, and always in- dependent in matters of patronage; but there is some evidence for this discreditable story beyond the gossip of Horace Wal- pole (Works, ed. P. Cunningham, i. cxliv.), though not suffi- cient to justify the acceptance it received by some of Pope's biographers. To appreciate fully the point of his allusions requires an intimate acquaintance with the political and social gossip of the time. But apart from their value as a brilliant strongly-coloured picture of the time Pope's satires have a permanent value as literature. It is justly remarked by Mark Pattison 1 that "these Imitations are among the most original of his writings." The vigour and terseness of the diction i» still unsurpassed in English verse. Pope had gained complete mastery over his medium, the heroic couplet, before he used it to express his hatred of the political and social evils which he satirized. The elaborate periphrases and superfluous orna- ments of his earlier manner, as exemplified in the Pastorals and the Homer, disappeared; he turned to the uses of verse the ordinary language of conversation, differing from everyday speech only in its exceptional brilliance and point. It is in these satires that his best work must be sought, and by them that his position among English poets must be fixed. It was 1 In his edition of the Satires and Epistles (1866). 86 POPE, ALEXANDER the Homer chiefly that Wordsworth and Coleridge had in their eye when they began the polemic against the " poetic diction " of the 18th century, and struck at Pope as the arch-corrupter. They were historically unjust to Pope, who did not originate this diction, but only furnished the most finished examples of it. At the beginning of the 19th century Pope still had an ardent admirer in Byron, whose first satires are written in Pope's couplet. The much abused pseudo-poetic diction in substance consisted in an ambition to " rise above the vulgar style," to dress nature to advantage — a natural ambition when the arbiters of literature were people of fashion. If one com- pares Pope's " Messiah " or " Eloisa to Abelard," or an im- passioned passage from the Iliad, with the originals that he paraphrased, one gets a more vivid idea of the consistence of pseudo-poetic diction than could be furnished by pages of an- alysis. But Pope merely made masterly use of the established diction of his time, which he eventually forsook for a far more direct and vigorous style. A passage from the Guardian, in which Philips was commended as against him, runs: "It is a nice piece of art to raise a proverb above the vulgar style and still keep it easy and unaffected. Thus the old wish, ' God rest his soul,' is very finely turned: — " ' Then gentle Sidney liv'd, the shepherd's friend, Eternal blessings on his shade attend ! ' " Pope would have despised so easy a metamorphosis as this at any period in his career, and the work of his coadjutors in the Odyssey may be distinguished by this comparative cheapness of material. Broome's description of the clothes-washing by Nausicaa and her maidens in the sixth book may be compared with the original as a luminous specimen. Pope's wit had won for him the friendship of many distin- guished men, and his small fortune enabled him to meet them on a footing of independence. He paid long visits at many great houses, especially at Stanton Harcourt, the home of his friend Lord Chancellor Harcourt; at Oakley, the seat of Lord Bathurst; and at Prior Park, Bath, where his host was Ralph Allen. With the last named he had a temporary disagree- ment owing to some slight shown to Martha Blount, but he was reconciled to him before his death. He died on the 30th of May 1744, and he was buried in the parish church of Twickenham. He left the income from his property to Martha Blount till her death, after which it was to go to his half-sister Magdalen Rackett and her children. His unpublished MSS. were left at the discretion of Lord Boling- broke, and his copyrights to Warburton. If we are to judge Pope, whether as a man or as a poet, with human fairness, and not merely by comparison with standards of abstract perfection, there are two features of his times that must be kept steadily in view — the character of political strife in those days and the political relations of men of letters. As long as the succession to the Crown was doubtful, and political failure might mean loss of property, banishment or death, politicians, playing for higher stakes, played more fiercely and unscrupulously than in modern days, and there was no con- trolling force of public opinion to keep them within the bounds of common honesty. Hence the age of Queen Anne is pre- eminently an age of intrigue. The government was almost as unsettled as in the early days of personal monarchy, and there was this difference — that it was policy rather than force upon which men depended for keeping their position. Secondly, men of letters were admitted to the inner circles of intrigue as they had never been before and as they have never been since. A generation later Walpole defied them, and paid the rougher instruments that he considered sufficient for his purpose in solid coin of the realm; but Queen Anne's statesmen, whether from difference of tastes or difference of policy, paid their prin- cipal literary champions with social privileges and honourable public appointments. Hence men of letters were directly in- fected by the low political morality of the unsettled time. And the character of their poetry also suffered. The most promi- nent defects of the age — the lack of high and sustained imagination, the genteel liking for " nature to advantage dressed," the incessant striving after wit — were fostered, if not generated, by the social atmosphere. Pope's own ruling passion was the love of fame, and he had no scruples where this was concerned. His vanity and his childish love of intrigue are seen at their worst in his petty manoeuvres to secure the publication of his letters during his lifetime. These intricate proceedings were unravelled with great patience and ingenuity by Charles Wentworth Dilke, when the false picture of his relations with his contemporaries which Pope had imposed on the public had been practically accepted for a century. Elizabeth Thomas, the mistress of Henry Cromwell, had sold Pope's early letters to Henry Cromwell to the bookseller Curll for ten guineas. These were published in Curll's Miscellanea in 1726 (dated 1727), and had considerable success. This surreptitious publication seems to have suggested to Pope the desirability of publishing his own correspondence, which he immediately began to collect from various friends on the plea of preventing a similar clandestine transaction. The publication by Wycherley's executors of a posthumous volume of the dramatist's prose and verse fur- nished Pope with an excuse for the appearance of his own correspondence with Wycherley, which was accompanied by a series of unnecessary deceptions. After manipulating his cor- respondence so as to place his own character in the best light, he deposited a copy in the library of Edward, second earl of Oxford, and then he had it printed. The sheets were offered to Curll by a person calling himself P.T., who professed a desire to injure Pope, but was no other than Pope himself. The copy was delivered to Curll in 1735 after long negotiations by an agent who called himself R. Smythe, with a few originals to vouch for their authenticity. P. T. had drawn up an adver- tisement stating that the book was to contain answers from various peers. Curll was summoned before the House of Lords for breach of privilege, but was acquitted, as the letters from peers were not in fact forthcoming. Difficulties then arose between Curll and P. T., and Pope induced a bookseller named Cooper to publish a Narrative of the Method by which Mr Pope's Private Letters were procured by Edmund Curll, Book- seller (1735). These preliminaries cleared the way for a show of indignation against piratical publishers and a " genuine " edition of the Letters of Mr Alexander Pope (1737, fol. and 4to). Unhappily for Pope's reputation, his friend Caryll, who died before the publication, had taken a copy of Pope's letters before returning them. This letter-book came to light in the middle of the 19th century, and showed the freedom which Pope permitted himself in editing. The correspondence with Lord Oxford, preserved at Longleat, afforded further evidence of his tortuous dealings. The methods he employed to secure his correspondence with Swift were even more discreditable. The proceedings can only be explained as the measures of a desperate man whose maladies seem to have engendered a p'assion for trickery. They are related in detail by Elwin in the introduction to vol. i. of Pope's Works. A man who is said to have " played the politician about cabbages and turnips," and who " hardly drank tea without a stratagem," was not likely to be straightforward in a matter in which his ruling passion was concerned. Against Pope's petulance and " general love of secrecy and cunning " have to be set, in any fair judg- ment of his character, his exemplary conduct as a son, the affection with which he was regarded in his own circle of intimates, and many well-authenticated instances of genuine and continued kindliness to persons in distress. Bibliography. — Various collected editions of Pope's Works appeared during his lifetime, and in 1751 an edition in nine volumes was published by a syndicate of booksellers " with the commentaries of Mr Warburton." Warburton interpreted his editorial rights very liberally. By his notes_ he wilfully misrepresented the meaning of the allusions in the satires, and made them more agreeable to his friends and to the court, while he made opportunities for the gratifi- cation of his own spite against various individuals. Joseph Warton's edition in 1797 added to the mass of, commentary without giving much new elucidation to the allusions of the text, which even Swiit, with his exceptional facilities, had found obscure. In 1 769-1 807 an I edition was issued which included Owen Ruffhead's Life of Alexander POPE, A.— POPE, SIR T. 87 Pope (1769), inspired by Warburton. The notes of many com- mentators, with some letters and a memoir, were included in the Works of Alexander Pope, edited by W. L. Bowles (10 vols., 1806). His Poetical Works were edited by Alexander Dyce (1856); by R. Carruthers (1858) for Bohn's Library; by A. W. Ward (Globe Edition, 1869), &c. Materials for a definitive edition were collected by John Wilson Croker, and formed the basis of what has become the standard version, The. Works of Alexander Pope (10 vols., 1871-1898), including unpublished letters and other new material, with introduction and notes by W. Elwin and W. J. Courthope. The life of Pope in vol. v. was contributed by Professor Courthope. The chief original authority besides Pope's correspondence and Ruffhead's Life is Joseph Spence's Anecdotes, published by S. W. Singer in 1820. Samuel Johnson gives a good estimate of Pope in his Lives of the Poets. The best modern lives are that by Professor Courthope, already mentioned; and Alexander Pope, by Sir L. Stephen, in the English Men of Letters series (1880). See also George Paston, Mr Pope: His Life and Times (1909). The first check to the admiration that prevailed during Pope's lifetime was given by the publication of Joseph Warton's Essay on the Writings and Genius of Pope (vol. i., 1757; vol. ii., 1782). Warton had a sincere appreciation of Pope's work, but he began the reaction which culminated with the romantic writers of the beginning of the 19th century, and set the fashion of an undue disparagement of Pope's genius as a poet with enduring effects on popular opinion. Thomas Campbell's criticism in his Specimens of the British Poets provoked a controversy to which William Hazlitt, Byron and W. L. Bowles contributed. For a discussion of Pope's position as one of the great men of letters in the 1 8th century who emancipated themselves from patronage, see A. Beljame, Le Public et les hommes de lettres en Angleterre au dix- huitieme siecle (1881); a section of Isaac D'Israeli's Quarrels of Authors is devoted to Pope's literary animosities; and most impor- tant contributions to many vexed questions in the biography of Pope, especially the publication of his letters, were made by C. W. Dilke in Notes and Queries and the Athenaeum. These articles were reprinted by his grandson, Sir Charles Dilke, in 1875, as The Papers of a Critic. (W. M.; M. Br.) POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835), Irish actor and painter, was born in Cork, and was educated to follow his father's profession of miniature painting. He continued to paint miniatures and exhibit them at the Royal Academy as late as 1821; but at an early date he took the stage, first appearing in London as Oroonoko in 1785 at Covent Garden. He remained at this theatre almost continuously for nearly twenty years, then at the Haymarket until his retirement, playing leading parts, chiefly tragic. He was particularly esteemed as Othello and Henry VIII. He died on the 22nd of March 1835. Pope was thrice married. His first wife, Elizabeth Pope (c. 1744- 1797), a favourite English actress of great versatility, was billed before her marriage as Miss Younge. His second wife, Maria Ann Pope (1775-1803), also a popular actress, was a member of an Irish family named Campion. His third wife, Clara Maria Pope (d. 1838), was the widow of the artist Francis Wheatley, and herself a skilful painter of figures and of flowers. POPE, JANE (1742-1818), English actress, daughter of a London theattical wig-maker, who began playing in a Lilli- putian company for Garrick in 1756. From this she speedily developed into soubrette roles. She was Mrs Candour in The School for Scandal at its first presentation (1777), and thereafter she had many important parts confided to her. She was the life-long friend of Mrs Clive, and erected the monument at Twickenham to the latter's memory. She was not only an admirable actress, but a woman of blameless life, and was praised by all the literary critics of her day — unused to such a combination. She died on the 30th of July 1818. POPE, JOHN (1822-1892), American soldier, was the son of Nathaniel Pope (1784-1850), U.S. judge for the district of Illinois, and was born at Louisville, Kentucky, on the 16th of March 1822. He graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1842 and was assigned to the engineers. He served in the Mexican War, receiving the brevets of 1st lieutenant and captain for his conduct at Monterey and Buena Vista. Sub- sequently he was engaged in engineering and exploring work, mainly in New Mexico, and in surveying the route for a Pacific railroad. He was commissioned captain in 1856. He was actively opposed to the Buchanan administration, and a speech which he made in connexion with the presidential campaign of i860 caused him to be summoned before a court-martial. Early in the Civil War he was placed, as a brigadier-general U.S. V., in charge of the district of Missouri, which by vigorous campaigning against /guerrilla bands and severe administration of the civil population he quickly reduced to order. In 1862, along with the gunboat flotilla (commanded by Commodore A. H. Foote) on the Mississippi, Pope obtained a great success by the capture of the defences of New Madrid and Island No. 10, with nearly 7000 prisoners. Pope subsequently joined Halleck, and in command of the Army of the Mississippi took part in the siege of Corinth. He was now a major-general U.S.V. The repu- tation he had thus gained as an energetic leader quickly placed him in a high command, to which he proved to be quite unequal. The " Army of Virginia," as his new forces were styled, had but a brief career. At the very outset of his Virginian campaign Pope, by a most ill-advised order, in which he con- trasted the performances of the Western troops with the failures of the troops in Virginia, forfeited the confidence of his officers and men. The feeling of the Army of the Potomac (which was ordered to his support) was equally hostile, and the short opera- tions culminated in the disastrous defeat of the second battle of Bull Run. Pope was still sanguine and ready for another trial of strength, but he was soon compelled to realize the impossibility of retrieving his position, and resigned the command. Bitter controversy arose over these events. Halleck, the general-in- chief, was by no means free from blame, but the public odium chiefly fell upon generals McClellan and Fitz-John Porter, against whom Pope, while admitting his own mistakes, made grave charges. Pope was not again employed in the Civil War, but in command of the Department of the North- West he showed his former skill and vigour in dealing with Indian risings. In 1865 he was made brevet major-general U.S.A. (having become brigadier-general on his appointment to the Army of Virginia), and he subsequently was in charge of various military districts and departments until his retirement in 1886. In 1882 he was promoted to the full rank of major-general U.S.A. General Pope died at Sandusky, Ohio, on the 23rd of September 1892. He was the author of various works and papers, including railway reports (Pacific Railroad Reports vol. iii.) and The Campaign of Virginia (Washington, 1865). POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559), founder of Trinity College, Oxford, was born at Deddington, near Banbury, Oxfordshire, probably in 1507, for he was about sixteen years old when his father, a yeoman farmer, died in 1523. He was educated at Banbury school and Eton College, and entered the court of chancery. He there found a friend and patron in the lord- chancellor Thomas Audley. As clerk of briefs in the star chamber, warden of the mint (1534-1536), clerk of the Crown in chancery (1537), and second officer and treasurer of the court for the settlement of the confiscated property of the smaller religious foundations, he obtained wealth and influence. In this last office he was superseded in 1541, but from 1547 to 1553 he was again employed as fourth officer. He himself won by grarit or purchase a considerable share in the spoils, for nearly thirty manors, which came sooner or later into his possession, were originally church property. " He could have rode," said Aubrey, " in his owne lands from Cogges (by Witney) to Banbury, about 18 miles." In 1537 he was knighted. The religious changes made by Edward VI. were repugnant to him, but at the beginning of Mary's reign he became a member of the privy council. In 1556 he was sent to reside as guardian in Elizabeth's house. As early as 1555 he had begun to arrange for the endowment of a college at Oxford, for which he bought the site and buildings of Durham College, the Oxford house of the abbey of Durham, from Dr George Owen and William Martyn. He received a royal charter for the establishment and endowment of a college of the " Holy and Undivided Trinity " on the 8th of March 1 556. The foundation provided for a president, twelve fellows and eight scholars, with a schoolhouse at Hooknorton. The number of scholars was subsequently increased to twelve, the schoolhouse being given up. On the 28th of March the members of the college were put in possession of the site, and they were formally admitted on the 29th of May 1556. Pope died at Clerkenwell on the 29th of January 1559, and was buried at St Stephen's, 88 POPE-JOAN— POPILIA, VIA VValbrook; but his remains were subsequently removed to Trinity College, where his widow erected a semi-Gothic alabaster monument to his memory. He was three times married, but left no children. Much of his property was left to charitable and religious foundations, and the bulk of his Oxfordshire estates passed to the family of his brother, John Pope of Wroxton, and his descendants, the viscounts Dillon and the earls of Guilford and barons North. The life, by H. E. D. Blakiston, in the Diet. Nat. Biog., corrects many errors in Thomas Warton's Life of Sir Thomas Pope (1772). Further notices by the same authority are in his Trinity College (1898), in the " College Histories " Series, and in the English Historical Review (April, 1896). POPE-JOAN, a round game of cards, named after a legendary female Pope of the 9th century. An ordinary pack is used, from which the eight of diamonds has been iemoved, and a special round board in the form of eight compartments, named respec- tively Pope- Joan, Matrimony, Intrigue, Ace, King, Queen, Knave and Game (King, Queen and Knave are sometimes omitted). Each player — any number can play — contributes a stake, of which one counter is put into the divisions Ace, King, Queen, Knave and Game, two into Matrimony and Intrigue, and the rest into Pope- Joan. This is called " dressing the board." The cards are dealt round, with an extra hand for " stops," i.e. cards which stop, by their absence, the completion of a suit; thus the absence of the nine of spades stops the playing of the ten. The last card is turned up for trumps. Cards in excess may be dealt to " stops," or an agreed number may be left for the purpose, so that all players may have an equal number of cards. If an honour or " Pope " (nine of diamonds) is turned up, the dealer takes the counters in the compartment so marked. Sometimes the turning-up of Pope settles the hand, the dealer taking the whole pool. The Ace is the lowest card, the King the highest. The player on the dealer's left plays a card and names it; the player who has the next highest then plays it, till a stop is played, i.e. a card of which no one holds the next highest. All Kings are of course stops, also the seven of diamonds; also the cards next below the dealt stops, and the cards next below the played cards. After a stop the played cards are turned over, and the player of the stop (the card last played) leads again. The player who gets rid of all his cards first takes the counters in " Game," and receives a counter from each player for every card left in his hand, except from the player who may hold Pope but has not played it. The player of Ace, King, Queen or Knave of trumps takes the counters from that compartment. If King and Queen of trumps are in one hand, the holder takes the counters in " Matrimony "; if a Queen and Knave, those in " Intrigue "; if all three, those in the two compartments ; if they are in different hands these counters are sometimes divided. Unclaimed stakes are left for the next pool. Pope is sometimes considered a universal " stop." POPERINGHE, an ancient town of West Flanders, 12 m. W. of Ypres. Pop. (1904), 11,680. It contains a fine church of the nth century, dedicated to St Betin. In the 14th century it promised to become one of the principal communes in Flanders; but having incurred the resentment of Ypres on a matter of trade rivalry it was attacked and captured by the citizens of that place, who reduced it to a very subordinate position. There are extensive hop gardens, bleaching grounds and tanneries in the neighbourhood of the town. POPHAM, SIR HOME RIGGS (1762-1820), British admiral, was the son of Stephen Popham, consul at Tetuan, and was his mother's twenty-first child. He entered the navy in 1778, and served with the flag of Rodney till the end of the war. In 1783 he was promoted lieutenant, and was for a time engaged on survey service on the coast of Africa. Between 1787 and 1793 he was engaged in a curious series of adventures of a commercial nature in the Eastern Sea — sailing first for the Imperial Ostend Company, and then in a vessel which he purchased and in part loaded himself. During this time he took several surveys and rendered some services to the East India Company, which were officially acknowledged; but in 1793 his ship was seized, partly on the ground that he was carrying contraband and partly because he was infringing the East India Company's monopoly. His loss was put at £70,000, and he was entangled in litigation. In 1805 he obtained compensation to the amount of £25,000. The case was a hard one, for he was undoubtedly sailing with the knowledge of officials in India. While this dispute was going on Popham had resumed his career as a naval officer. He served with the army under the duke of York in Flanders as " superintendent of Inland Navigation " and won his confidence. The protection of the duke was exercised with so much effect that Popham was promoted commander in 1794 and post captain in 1795. He was now engaged for years in co-operating in a naval capacity with the troops of Great Britain and her allies. In the Red Sea he was engaged in transporting the Indian troops em- ployed in the expulsion of the French from Egypt. His bills for the repair of his ship at Calcutta were made the excuse for an attack on him and for charging him with the amount. It was just the time of the general reform of the dockyards, and there was much suspicion in the air. It was also the case that St Vincent did not like Popham, and that Benjamin Tucker (1762-1829), secretary to the admiralty, who had been the admiral's secretary, was his creature and sycophant. Popham was not the man to be snuffed out without an effort. He brought his case before Parliament, and was able to prove that there had been, if not deliberate dishonesty, at least the very grossest carelessness on the part of his assailants. In 1806 he co-operated with Sir David Baird in the occupation of the Cape. He then persuaded the authorities that, as the Spanish Colonies were discontented, it would be easy to promote a rising in Buenos Ayres. The attempt was made with Popham's squadron and 1400 soldiers; but the Spanish colonists, though discontented, were not disposed to accept British help, which would in all probability have been made an excuse for establishing dominion. They rose on the soldiers who landed, and took them prisoners. Popham was recalled, and censured by a court martial for leaving his station; but the City of London presented him with a sword of honour for his endeavours to " open new markets," and the sentence did him no harm. He held other commands in con- nexion with the movements of troops, was promoted rear admiral in 1 8 14, and made K.C.B. in 1815. He died at Cheltenham on the 10th of September 1820, leaving a large family. Popham was one of the most scientific seamen of his time. He did much useful, survey work, and was the author of the code of signals adopted by the admiralty in 1803 and used for many years. POPHAM, SIR JOHN (c. 1531-1607), English judge, was born at Huntworth, in Somerset, about 1531. He was educated at Balliol College,Oxford, and called to the bar at the Middle Temple. Concerning his early life little is known, but he was probably a member of the parliament of 1558. He was recorder of Bristol, and represented that city in parliament in 1571 and from 1572 to 1583. He was elected Speaker in 1580, and in 1581 became attorney-general, a post which he occupied until his appoint- ment as lord chief justice in 1592. He presided at the trials of Sir Walter Raleigh and Guy Fawkes. Towards the end of his life Popham took a great interest in colonization, and was instrumental in procuring patents for the London and Plymouth companies for the colonization of Virginia. Popham was an advocate, too, of transportation abroad as a means of punishing rogues and vagabonds. His experiment in that direction, the Popham colony, an expedition under the leadership of his brother George (c. 1550-1608), had, however, but a brief career in its settlement (1607) on the Kennebec river. Popham died on the 10th of June 1607, and was buried at Wellington, Somerset. See Foss, Lives of the Judges; J. Winsor, History of America, vol. iii. POPILIA (or Popiixia), VIA, the name of two ancient roads in Italy. (1) A highroad running from the Via Appia at Capua to Regium, a distance of 321 m. right along the length of the peninsula, and the main road through the interior of the country, not along the coast. It was built in 159 B.C. by the censor M. Popilius Laenias or in 132 B.C. by the consul P. Popilius. (2) A POPINJAY— POPLAR 89 highroad from Ariminum to Aquileia along the Adriatic coast. It no doubt originally came into use when Aquileia was founded as a frontier fortress of Italy in 181 B.C., and Polybius gives the distance correctly as 178 m. In 132 it was reconstructed (munita) by the consul P. Popilius, one of whose milestones has been found near Atria. It ran along the shore strip (Lido) from Ari- minum to Ravenna {33 m.), where it was usual in imperial times for travellers to take ship and go by canal to Altinum (q.v.), and there resume their journey by road, though we find the stations right through on the Tabula Peutingeriana, and Narses marched in 552 from Aquileia to Ravenna. (T. As.) POPINJAY (O. Fr. papegai, or popingay, onomatopoeic, original), an old name for a parrot. Except in its transferred sense of a dressed-up, vain or conceited, empty-headed person, the word is now only used historically of a representation or image of a parrot swinging from a high pole and used as a mark for archery or shooting matches. This shooting at the popinjay (see Archery) was formerly a favourite sport. " Popinjay " is still the proper heraldic term for a parrot as a bearing or charge. POPLAR, an eastern metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded N. by Hackney, S. by the river Thames, and W. by Stepney and Bethnal Green, and extending E. to the boundary of the county of London. Pop. (1001), 168,822. The river Lea, which the eastern boundary generally follows, is believed to have been crossed towards the north of the modern borough by a Roman road, the existence of which is recalled by the district-name of Old Ford; while Bow (formerly Stratford- le-Bow or Stratford-atte-Bowe) was so named from the " bow " or arched bridge which took the place of the ford in the time of Henry II. South of these districts lies Bromley; in the south- east the borough includes Blackwall; and a deep southward bend of the Thames here embraces the Isle of Dogs. Poplar falls within the great area commonly associated with a poor and densely crowded population under the name of the " East End." It is a district of narrow, squalid streets and mean houses, among which, however, the march of modern improvement may be seen in the erection of model dwellings, mission houses and churches, and various public buildings. In the north a part of Victoria Park is included. In Blackwall and the Isle of Dogs streets give place to the extensive East and West India Docks (opened in 1806) and Millwall Dock, with shipbuilding, engineering, chemical and other works along the river. Blackwall has been a shipping centre from early times. From the south of the Isle of Dogs (the portion called Cubitt Town) a tunnel for foot- passengers (1902) connects with Greenwich on the opposite shore of the Thames, and lower down the river is the fine Black- wall tunnel, carrying a wide roadway, completed by the London County Council in 1897 at a cost, inclusive of incidental expenses, 01 £ I .383,502. Among institutions the Poplar Accidents Hospital may be mentioned. Near the East India Docks is the settlement of St Frideswide, supported by Christ Church, Oxford. In Canning Town, which continues this district of poverty across the Lea, and so outside the county of London, are Mansfield House, founded from Mansfield College, Oxford; and a Women's Settlement, especially notable for its medical work. The metropolitan borough of Poplar includes the Bow and Bromley and the Poplar divisions of the Tower Hamlets parliamentary borough, each returning one member. The borough council consists of a mayor, 7 aldermen and 42 councillors. Area, 2327-7 acres. POPLAR (Lat. Populus), the name of a small group of catkin- bearing trees belonging to the order Salicaceae. The catkins of the poplars differ from those of the nearly allied willows in the presence of a rudimentary perianth, of obliquely cup-shaped form, within the toothed bracteal scales; the male flowers contain from eight to thirty stamens; the fertile bear a one- celled (nearly divided) ovary, surmounted by the deeply cleft stigmas; the two-valved capsule contains several seeds, each furnished with a long tuft of silky or cotton-like hairs. The leaves are broader than in most willows, and are generally either deltoid or ovate in shape, often cordate at the base, and frequently with slender petioles vertically flattened. Many of the species attain a large size, and all are of very rapid growth. The poplars are almost entirely confined to the north temperate zone, but a few approach or even pass its northern limit, and they are widely distributed within that area; they show, like the willows, a partiality for moist ground and often line the river-sides in otherwise treeless districts. There are about twenty species, but the number cannot be very accurately defined — several, usually regarded as distinct, being probably merely variable forms of the same type, and the ease with which the trees inter- cross has led to the appearance of many hybrids. All yield a soft, easily-worked timber, which, though very perishable when exposed to weather, possesses sufficient durability when kept dry to give the trees a certain economic value. Many of the species are used for paper-making. Of the European kinds one of the most important and best marked forms is the white poplar or abele, P. alba, a tree of large size, with rounded spreading head and curved branches, which, like the trunk, are covered with a greyish white bark, becoming much furrowed on old stems. The leaves are ovate or nearly round in general outline, but with deeply waved, more or less lobed and indented margins and cordate base; the upper side is of a dark green tint, but the lower surface is clothed with a dense white down, which likewise covers the young shoots — giving, with the bark, a hoary aspect to the whole tree. As in all poplars, the catkins expand in early spring, long before the leaves unfold; the ovaries bear four linear stigma lobes; the capsules ripen in May. A nearly related form, which may be regarded as a sub-species, canescens, the grey poplar of the nurseryman, is distinguished from the true abele by its smaller, less deeply cut leaves, which are grey on the upper side, but not so hoary beneath as those of P. alba; the pistil has eight stigma lobes. Both trees occasionally attain a height of 90 ft. or more, but rarely continue to form sound timber beyond the first half- century of growth, though the trunk will sometimes endure for a hundred and fifty years. The wood is very white, and, from its soft and even grain, is employed by turners and toy-makers, while, being tough and little liable to split, it is also serviceable for the construction of packing cases, the lining of carts and waggons, and many similar purposes; when thoroughly seasoned it makes good flooring planks, but shrinks much in drying, weighing about 58 lb per cubic foot when green, but only 335 lb when dry. The white poplar is an ornamental tree, from its graceful though somewhat irregular growth and its dense hoary foliage; it has, however, the disadvantage of throwing up numerous suckers for some yards around the trunk. The grey and white poplars are usually multiplied by long cuttings; the growth is so rapid in a moist loamy soil that, according to Loudon, cuttings 9 ft. in length, planted beside a stream, formed in twelve years trunks 10 in. in diameter. Both these allied forms occur throughout central and southern Europe, but, though now abundant in England, it is doubtful whether they are there indigenous. P. alba suffers much from the ravages of wood-eating larvae, and also from fungoid growths, especially where the branches have been removed by pruning or accident. P. nigra, the black poplar, is a tree of large growth, with dark, deeply-furrowed bark on the trunk, and ash-coloured branches; the smooth deltoid leaves, serrated regularly on the margin, are of the deep green tint which has given name to the tree; the petioles, slightly compressed, are only about half the length of the leaves. The black poplar is common in central and southern Europe and in some of the adjacent parts of Asia, but, though abundantly planted in Britain, is not there indigenous. The wood is of a yellowish tint. In former days this was the preva- lent poplar in Britain, and the timber was employed for the purposes to which that of other species is applied, but has been superseded by P. monilifera and its varieties; it probably fur- nished the poplar wood of the Romans, which, from its lightness and soft tough grain, was in esteem for shield-making; in con- tinental Europe it is still in some request; the bark, in Russia, is used for tanning leather, while in Kamchatka it is sometimes 9° POPLIN— POPOCATEPETL ground up and mixed with meal; the gum secreted by the buds was employed by the old herbalists for various medicinal purposes, but is probably nearly inert; the cotton-like down of the seed has been converted into a kind of vegetable felt, and has also been used in paper-making. A closely related form is the well-known Lombardy poplar, P. fastigiata, remarkable for its tall, cypress-like shape, caused by the nearly vertical growth of the branches. Probably a mere variety of the black poplar, its native land appears to have been Persia or some neighbouring country; it was unknown in Italy in the days of Pliny, while from remote times it has been an inhabitant of Kashmir, the Punjab, and Persia, wheie it is often planted along roadsides for the purpose of shade; it was probably brought from these countries to southern Europe, and derives its popular name from its abundance along the banks of the Po and other rivers of Lombardy, where it is said now to spring up naturally from seed, like the indigenous black poplar. It was introduced into France in 1749, and appears to have been grown in Germany and Britain soon after the middle of the last century, if not earlier. The Lombardy poplar is valuable chiefly as an orna- mental tree, its timber being of very inferior quality; its tall, erect growth renders it useful to the landscape-gardener as a relief to the rounded forms of other trees, or in contrast to the horizontal lines of the lake or river-bank where it delights to grow. In Lombardy and France tall hedges are sometimes formed of this poplar for shelter or shade, while in the suburban parks of Britain it is serviceable as a screen for hiding buildings or other unsightly objects from view; its growth is extremely rapid, and it often attains a height of 100 ft. and upwards, while from 70 to 80 ft. is an ordinary size in favourable situa- tions. P. canadensis, the " cotton-wood " of the western prairies, and its varieties are perhaps the most useful trees of the genus, often forming almost the only arborescent vegetation on the great American plains. It is a tree of rather large growth, sometimes 100 ft. high, with rugged grey trunk 7 or 8 ft. in diameter, and with the shoots or young branches more or less angular; the glossy deltoid leaves are sharply pointed, somewhat cordate at the base, and with flattened petioles; the fertile catkins ripen about the middle of June, when their opening capsules discharge the cottony seeds which have given the tree its common western name; in New England it is sometimes'' called the " river poplar." The cotton-wood timber, though soft and perishable, is of value in its prairie habitats, where it is frequently the only available wood either for carpentry or fuel ; it has been planted to a considerable extent in some parts of Europe, but in England a form of this species known as P. monilifera is generally preferred from its larger and more rapid growth. In this well-known variety the young shoots are but slightly angled, and the branches in the second year become round; the deltoid short-pointed leaves are usually straight or even rounded at the base, but sometimes are slightly cordate; the capsules ripen in Britain about the middle of May. This tree is of extremely rapid growth, and has been known to attain a height of 70 ft. in sixteen years; it succeeds best in deep loamy soil, but will flourish in nearly any moist but well-drained situation. The timber is much used in some rural districts for flooring, and is durable for indoor purposes when protected from dry-rot ; it has, like most poplar woods, the property of resisting fire better than other timber. The native country of this form has been much disputed; but, though still known in many British nurseries as the " black Italian poplar," it is now well ascer- tained to be an indigenous tree in many parts of Canada and the States, and is a mere variety of P. canadensis; it seems to have been first brought to England from Canada in 1772. In America it seldom attains the large size it often acquires in England, and it is there of less rapid growth than the prevailing form of the western plains; the name of " cotton-wood " is locally given to other species. P. macrophylla or candicans, commonly known as the Ontario poplar, is_ remarkable for its very large heart-shaped leaves, some- times 10 in. long;_it is found in New England and the milder parts of Canada, and is frequently planted in Britain; its growth is extremely rapid in moist land ; the buds are covered with a balsamic secretion. The true balsam poplar, or tacamahac, P. balsamifera, abundant in most parts of Canada and the northern States, is a tree of rather large growth, often of somewhat fastigiate habit, with round shoots and oblong-ovate sharp- pointed leaves, the base never cordate, the petioles round, and the disk deep glossy green above but somewhat downy below. This tree, the " Hard " of the Canadian voyageur, abounds on many of the river sides of the north- western plains; it occurs in the neighbourhood of the Great Slave Lake and along the Mackenzie River, and forms much of the drift- wood of the Arctic coast. In these northern habitats it attains a large size; the wood is very soft; the buds yield a gum-like balsam, from which the common name is derived ; considered valuable as an antiscorbutic, this is said also to have diuretic properties; it was formerly imported into Europe in small quantities under the name of " baume focot," being scraped off in the spring and put into shells. This balsam gives the tree a fragrant odour when the leaves are unfolding. The tree grows well in Britain, and acquires occasionally a considerable size. Its fragrant shoots and the fine yellow green of the young leaves recommend it to the ornamental planter. It is said by Aiton to have been introduced into Britain about the end of the 17th century. P. euphratica, believed to be the weeping willow of the Scriptures, is a large tree remarkable for the variability in the shape of its leaves, which are linear in young trees and vigorous shoots, and broad and ovate on older branches. It is a native of North Africa and Western and Central Asia, including North-West India. With the date palm it is believed to have furnished the rafters for the buildings of Nineveh. POPLIN, or Tabinet, a mixed textile fabric consisting of a silk warp with a weft of worsted yarn. As the weft is in the form of a stout cord the fabric has a ridged structure, like rep, which gives depth and softness to the lustre of the silky surface. Poplins are used for dress purposes, and for rich upholstery work. The manufacture is of French origin; but it was brought to England by the Huguenots, and has long been specially associated with Ireland. The French manufacturers distinguish between popelines unies or plain poplins and popelines a dis- positions or £cossaises, equivalent to Scotch tartans, in both of which a large trade is done with the United States from Lyons. POPOCATEPETL (Aztec popoca " to smoke," tepetl " moun- tain "), a dormant volcano in Mexico in lat. 18 59' 47" N., long. 98 33' 1" W., which with the neighbouring Ixtaccihuatl (Aztec " white woman ") forms the south-eastern limit of the great basin known as the " Valley of Mexico." As it lies in the state of Puebla and is the dominating feature in the views from the city of that name, it is sometimes called the Puebla volcano. It is the second highest summit in Mexico, its shapely, snow-covered cone rising to a height of 17,876 ft., or 438 ft. short of that of Orizaba. This elevation was reported by the Mexican geological survey in 1895, and as the Mexican Geo- graphical Society calculated the elevation at 17,888 ft., it may be accepted as nearly correct. The bulk of the mountain con- sists of andesite, but porphyry, obsidian, trachyte, basalt, and other similar rocks are also represented. It has a stratified cone showing a long period of activity. At the foot of the eastern slope stretches a vast lava field— the " malpays " (malapais) of Atlachayacatl — which, according to Humboldt, lies 60 to 80 ft. above the plain and extends 18,000 ft. east to west with a breadth of 6000 ft. Its formation must be of great antiquity. The ascent of Popocatepetl is made on the north- eastern slope, where rough roads are kept open by sulphur carriers and timber cutters. Describing his ascent in 1904, Hans Gadow states that the forested region begins in the foot- hills a little above 8000 ft., and continues up the slope to an elevation of over 13,000 ft. On the lower slopes the forest is composed in great part of the long-leaved Pinus liophylla, accompanied by deciduous oaks and a variety of other trees and shrubs. From about 9500 ft. to 11,500 ft. the Mexican " oyamel," or fir {Abies religiosa) becomes the principal species, interspersed with evergreen oak, arbutus and elder. Above this belt the firs gradually disappear and are succeeded by the short- leaved Pinus montezumae, or Mexican " ocote " — one of the largest species of pine in the republic. These continue to the upper tree-line, accompanied by red and purple Penlslemon and light blue lupins in the open spaces, some ferns, and occasional masses of alpine flowers. Above the tree line the vegetation continues only a comparatively short distance, consisting chiefly of tussocks of coarse grass, and occasional flowering plants, the highest noted being a little Draba. At about 14,500 ft. horses are left behind, though they could be forced farther up through the loose lava and ashes. On the snow-covered cone the heat of the sun is intense, though the thermometer recorded a temperature of 34 in September. The reflection of light from the snow is blinding. The rim of the crater is reached at an elevation of about 17,500 ft. Another descrip- tion places the snow-line at 14,268 ft., and the upper tree-line POPPER— POPPY OIL a thousand feet lower. A detailed description of the volcano was published by the Mexican geological survey in 1895 accord- ing to which the crater is elliptical in form, 2008 by 131 2 ft., and has a depth of 1657 ft. below the summit of the highest pinnacle and 673 ft. below the lowest part of the rim, which is very irregular in height. The steep, ragged walls of the crater show a great variety of colours, intensified by the light from the deep blue sky above. Huge patches of sulphur, some still smouldering, are everywhere visible, intermingled with the white streaks of snow and ice that fill the crevices and cover the ledges of the black rocks. The water from the melted snow forms a small lake at the bottom of the crater, from which it filters through fissures to the heated rocks below and thence escapes as steam or through other fissures to the mineral springs at the moun- tain's base. The Indian sulphur miners go down by means of ladders, or are lowered by rope and windlass, and the mineral is sent down the mountain side in a chute 2000 to 3000 ft. Some observers report that steam is to be seen rising from fissures in the bottom of the crater, and all are united in speaking of the fumes of burning sulphur that rise from its depths. That volcanic influences are still present may be inferred from the circumstance that the snow cap on Popocatepetl disappeared just before the remarkable series of earthquakes that shook the whole of central Mexico on the 30th and 31st of July 1909. It is believed that Diego de Ordaz was the first European to reach the summit of Popocatepetl, though no proof of this remains further than that Cortes sent a party of ten men in 15 19 to ascend a burning mountain. In 1522 Francisco Montano made the ascent and had himself let down into the crater a depth of 400 or 500 ft. No second ascent is recorded until April and November 1827 (see Brantz Mayer, Mexico, vol. ii.). Other ascents were made in 1834, 1848 and subsequent years, members of the Mexican geological survey spending two days on the summit in 189.V POPPER, DAVID (1846- ), Bohemian violoncellist, was born at Prague, and educated musically at the conservatorium there, adopting the 'cello as his professional instrument. He was soon recognized, largely through von Btilow, as one of the finest soloists of the time, and played on tours throughout the European capitals. In 1872 he married the pianist Sophi Menter, from whom he was separated in 1886. In 1896 he became professor at the Royal Conservatoire at Budapest. He published various works, mainly compositions for the 'cello, together with four volumes of studies arranged as a violoncello school. POPPO, ERNST FRIEDRICH (1794-1866), German classical scholar and schoolmaster, was born at Guben in Brandenburg on the 13th of August, 1794. In 1818 he was appointed director of the gymnasium at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, where he died on the 6th of November 1866, having resigned his post three years before. Poppo was an extremely successful teacher and organizer, and in a few years doubled the number of pupils at the gymnasium. He is chiefly known, however, for his exhaustive and complete edition of Thucydides in four parts (11 vols., 1821-1840), containing (i.) prolegomena on Thucydides as an historian and on his language and style (Eng. trans, by G. Burges, 1837), accompanied by historical and geographical essays; (ii.) text with scholia and critical notes; (iii.) commentary on the text and scholia; (iv.) indices and appendices. For the ordinary student a smaller edition (1843-1850) was prepared, revised after the author's death by J. M. Stahl (1875-1889). See R. Schwarze in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie and authorities there referred to. POPPY, in botany, a genus of plants known botanically as papaver, the type of the family or natural order Papaveraceae. They are annual and perennial erect herbs containing a milky juice, with lobed or cut leaves and generally long-stalked regular showy flowers, which are nodding in the bud stage. The sepals, very rarely three, which are two in number, fall off as the flower opens, the four (very rarely five or six) petals, which are crumpled in the bud stage, also fall readily. The numerous stamens surround the ovary, which is composed of 4 to 16 carpels and is surmounted by a flat or convex rayed disk bearing the stigmas. The ovary is incompletely divided into many chambers by the ingrowth of the placentas which bear numerous ovules and form in the fruit a many-seeded short capsule opening by small valves below the upper edge. The valves are hydroscopic, responding to increase in the amount of moisture in the atmo- sphere by closing the apertures. In dry weather the valves open, and the small seeds are ejected through the pores when the capsule is shaken by the wind on its long stiff slender stalk: The flowers contain no honey and are visited by pollen-seeking insects, which alight on the broad stigmatic surface. The genus contains about 40 species, mostly natives of central and south Europe and temperate Asia. Five species are British; P. Rhoeas is the common scarlet poppy found in cornfields and waste places. Cultivated forms of this, with exquisite shades of colour and without any blotch at the base of the petals, are known as Shirley poppies. P. somniferum, the opium poppy, with large white or blue-purple flowers, is widely cultivated (see Opium). The Oriental poppy (P. orientate) and its several varieties are fine garden plants, having huge bright crimson flowers with black blotches at the base. Many hybrid forms of varying shades of colour have been raised of late years. The Iceland poppy (P. undicaule), is one of the showiest species, having grey-green pinnate leaves and flowers varying in colour from pure white to deep orange-yellow, orange-scarlet, &c. Specially fine varieties with stalks 18-24 m - high are cultivated on a large scale by some growers for market. The Welsh poppy belongs to an allied genus, Meconopsis; it is a perennial herb with a yellow juice and pale yellow poppy-like flowers. It is native in the south-west and north of England, and in Wales; also in Ireland. The prickly poppy (Argemone grandiflora) is a fine Mexican perennial with large white flowers. To the same family belongs the horned poppy, Glaucium luteum, found in sandy sea-shores and characterized by the waxy bloom of its leaves and large golden-yellow short-stalked flowers. Another member of the family is Eschscholtzia cali- fornica, a native of western North America, and well-known in gardens, with orange-coloured flowers and a long two-valved fruit pod. The plume poppy {Bocconia cordate and B. microcarpa) are ornamental foliage plants of great beauty. The cyclamen poppy (Eomecon chionantha) is a pretty Chinese perennial, having roundish slightly lobed leaves and pure white flowers about 2 in. across. The tree poppy (Dendromecon rigidum) is a Californian shrub about 3 ft. high, having golden-yellow flowers about 2 in. across. The Californian poppy (Platystemon cali- fornicus) is a pretty annual about a foot high, having yellow flowers with 3 sepals and 6 petals; and the white bush poppy (Romneya Coulteri) is a very attractive perennial and semi- shrubby plant 2-8 ft. high, with pinnatifid leaves and large sweet scented white flowers often 6 in. across. POPPY HEADS, a term, in architecture, given to the finials or other ornaments which terminate the tops of bench ends, either to pews or stalls. They are sometimes small human heads, sometimes richly carved images, knots of foliages or finials, and sometimes fleurs-de-lis simply cut out of the thickness of the bench end and chamfered. The term is probably derived from the French poupie, doll, puppet, used also in this sense, or from the flower, from a resemblance in shape. POPPY OIL {Oleum papaveris), a vegetable oil obtained by pressure from the minute seeds of the garden or opium poppy, Papaver somniferum. The white-seeded and black-seeded varieties are both used for oil-pressing; but, when the production of oil is the principal object of the culture, the black seed is usually preferred. The qualities of the oil yielded by both varieties and the proportion they contain (from 50 to 60%) are the same. By cold pressing seeds of fine quality yield from 30 to 40% of virgin or white oil (huile blanche), a transparent limpid fluid with a slight yellowish tinge, bland and pleasant to taste, and with almost no perceptible smell. On second pressure with the aid of heat an additional 20 to 25% of inferior oil {huile de fabrique or huile russe) is obtained, reddish in colour, possessed 9 2 POPULATION of a biting taste, and a linseed-like smell. The oil belongs to the linoleic or drying series, having as its principal constituent linolein; and it possesses greater drying power than raw linseed oil. Its specific gravity at 15° C. is 0-925. Poppy oil is a valu- able and much used medium for artistic oil painting. The fine qualities are largely used in the north of France (huile d' ceillette) and in Germany as a salad oil, and are less liable than olive oil to rancidity. The absence of taste and characteristic smell in poppy oil also leads to its being much used for adulterating olive oil. The inferior qualities are principally consumed in soap- making and varnish-making, and for burning in lamps. The oil is very extensively used in the valley of the Ganges and other opium regions for food and domestic purposes. By native methods in India about 30% of oil is extracted, and the remain- ing oleaginous cake is used as food by the poor. Ordinary poppy-oil cake is a valuable feeding material, rich in nitrogenous constituents, with an ash showing an unusually large proportion of phosphoric acid. The seed of the yellow horned poppy, Glaucium luteum, yields from 30 to 35% of an oil having the same drying and other properties as poppy oil; and from the Mexican poppy, Argemone mexicana, is obtained a non-drying oil used as a lubricant and for burning. POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate), a term used in two different significations, (1) for the total number of human beings existing within certain area at a given time, and (2) for the " peopling " of the area, or the influence of the various forces of which that number is the result. The popu- lation ota country, in the former sense of the word, is ascertained by means of a census (q.v.), which periodically records the number of people found in it on a certain date. Where, as is generally the case, detail of sex, age, conjugal condition and birthplace is included in the return, the census results can be co-ordinated with those of the parallel registration of marriages, births, deaths and migration, thus forming the basis of what are summarily termed vital statistics, the source of our information regarding the nature and causes of the process of " peopling," i.e. the movement of the population between one census and another. Neither of these two operations has yet reached perfection, either in scope or accuracy, though the census, being the subject of special and concentrated effort, is generally found the superior in the latter respect, and is in many cases taken in countries where registration has not yet been introduced. The countries where neither is in force aie still, unfortunately, very numerous. The Population of the World, and its Geographical Distribution. — Man is the only animal which has proved able to pass from dependence upon its environment to a greater or less control over it. He alone, accordingly, has spread over every quarter of the globe. The area and population of the world, as a whole, have been the subject of many estimates in scientific works for the last three centuries and are still to a considerable extent matters of rough approximation. Every decade, however, brings a diminution of the field of conjecture, as some form of civilized administration is extended over the more backward tracts, and is followed, in due course, by a survey and a census. It is not necessary, therefore, to cite the estimates framed before 1882, when a carefully revised summary was published by Boehm and H. Wagner. Since then the laborious investigations of P. F. Levasseur and L. Bodio have been completed in the case of Europe and America, and, for the rest of the world, the figures annually brought up to date in the Statesman's Year Book may be taken to be the best avail- able. From these sources the abstract at foot of page has been derived. The principal tracts still un- measured and unenumerated (in any strict sense) in the Old World are the Turkish Empire, Persia, Afghanistan, China and the Indo-Chinese peninsula and nearly nine-tenths of Africa. In the same category must be placed a considerable proportion of central, southern and Polar America (see Census). There is little of the world which is entirely uninhabited; still less permanently uninhabitable and unlikely to be required to support a population in the course of the expansion of the race beyond its present abodes. Probably the polar regions alone do not fall within the category of the poten- tially productive, as even sandy and alkaline desert is rendered habitable where irrigation can be introduced; and vast tracts of fertile soil adapted for immediate exploitation, especially in the temperate zones, both north and south, only remain unpeopled because they are not yet wanted for colonization. The geographical distribution of the population of the world is therefore extremely irregular, and, omitting from consideration areas but recently colonized, the density is regulated by the means of subsistence within reach. " La population," says G. de Molinari, " a tendance de se proportionner a son debouche." These, in their turn, depend mainly upon the character of the people who inhabit the country. Even amongst savages there are few communities, and those but sparse, which subsist entirely upon what is directly provided by nature. As human intelli- gence and industry come into play the means of livelihood are proportionately extended; population multiplies, and with this multiplication production increases. Thus, the higher densities are found in the eastern hemisphere, within the zone in which arose the great civilizations of the world, or, roughly speaking, between north parallels 25 and 40 towards the east, and 25 and 55 in the west. Here large areas with a mean density of over 500 to the sq. m. may be found either supported by the food directly produced by themselves, as in the great agricultural plains of the middle kingdom of China and the Ganges valley and delta; or else, as in western Europe, relying largely upon food from abroad, purchased by the products of manufacturing industry. In the one class the density is mainly rural, in the other it is chiefly due to the concentration of the population into large urban aggregates. It is chiefly from the populations of the south-west of Europe that the New World is being colo- nized; but the territories over which the settlers and their recruits from abroad are able to scatter are so extensive that even the lower densities of the Old World have not yet been attained, except in a few tracts along the eastern coasts of Australia and North America. Details of area and population are given under the headings of the respective countries, and the only general point in connexion with the relation between these two facts which may be mentioned here is the need to bear in mind that the larger the territory the less likely is its mean density-figure to be typical or really representative. Even in the case of small and comparatively homogeneous countries such as Holland, Belgium or Saxony there is considerable deviation from the mean in the density of the respective component subdivisions, a difference which when extended over more numerous aggre- gates often renders the general mean misleading or of little value. Distribution of Population by Sex. — After geographical dis- persion, the most general feature amongst the human race is its division by sex. The number of speculations as to the nature of this distinction has been, it is said, well-nigh doubled since Drelincourt, in the 18th century, brought together 262 " ground- less hypotheses," and propounded on his own part a theory Table I. Continent. Sq. m. in thousands (1907). Population, in thousands. Population per sq. m. (1907). Unascertained Percentage of : 1882. 1907. Area un- surveyed. Population Unenumerated. Europe . Asia . Africa . . America . Oceania . 3,828* 15.773 n.507 17,208* 3.448 327.743 795.591 205,823 100,415 4.232 405.759 918,324 126,734 149,944 5,881 I06f 58 11 9t i-7 2-5* 43-2 90-1 50-0* 5-4 1-3 59-4 77-4 9-1 19-6 Total . . 51.764 1,433,804 1,606,542 3i-7t 50-4* 41-4 + Including Polar regions. t Excluding Polar regions. POPULATION 93 which has since been held to be the 263rd in the series. It is not proposed to deal here with incidents appertaining to the " ante-natal gloom," and we are concerned only with human beings when once they have been born. In regard to the division of these into male and female, the first point to be noted is that, in all communities of western civilization, more boys are born than girls. The excess ranges from 20 to 60 per thousand. In Greece and Rumania it is exceptionally high, and in some Oriental or semi-Oriental countries it is said to give place to a deficit, though in the latter case the returns are probably not trustworthy. From the more accurate statistics available it appears that the excess of male births varies amongst different races and also at different times in the same community. It is high in new colonies and amongst the Latin races, with the exception of the French. These, with the English, show a much smaller excess of boy-births than the average of western Europe, and the proportion, moreover, seems to be somewhat declining in both these countries and in Belgium, from causes which have not yet been ascertained. As the mortality amongst boys, especially during the first year, is considerably above that of the other sex, numerical equilibrium between the two .is estab- lished in early youth, and in most cases girls outnumber boys, except for a few years between twelve and sixteen. Then follows the chequered period of the prime of life and middle age, during which the liability of men to industrial accidents, war and other causes of special mortality, irrespective of their greater incli- nation to emigrate, is generally sufficient to outweigh the dangers of childbirth or premature decay among the women, who tend, accordingly, to predominate in number at this stage. In old age, again, their vitality rises superior to that of the men, and they continue to form the majority of the community. The general results are an excess of females over males throughout western Europe: but though the relative proportions vary from time to time, remaining always in favour of what is conventionally called the weaker sex, it is impossible, owing to disturbing factors like war and migration, to ascertain whether there is any general tendency for the proportion of females to increase or not. In comparatively new settlements, largely fed by immigration, the number of males is obviously likely to be greater than that of females, but in the case of countries in Asia and eastern Europe in which also a considerable deficiency of the latter sex is indi- cated by the returns, it is probable that the strict seclusion imposed by convention on women and the consequent reticence regarding them on the part of the householders answering the official inquiry tend towards a short count. On the other hand, the lower position there assigned to women and the very considerable amount of hard work exacted from them, may cause them to wear out earlier than under higher conditions, though not to the extent implied in the statistics. In the Table II. JH s e- 1 Mi e . 2$. ga J5J5 a a j,i Country. — bo Country. — ■5,8 © .*. "8 8 ^ is i s " i 2 f Sweden 1049 946 ' Galicia . 1019 941 J Norway 1064 944 Hungary 1009 949 ] Finland 1022 948 Rumania 964 902 I Denmark 1053 950 , Greece . 921 879 f England 1069 966 Servia . 946 945 ■i Scotland 1057 956 Bulgaria 959 927 ( Ireland 1028 946 Russia . ("Holland 1025 950 1 (Europe) IOII 948 J Belgium 1013 956 C Russia (Asia) . J Japan . . . 893 J Germany 1029 950 983 — (.Austria . 1042 947 | India I Egypt . . . 9 6 3 — f France . 1033 960 967 — J Italy . IOII 947 'United States . ' 958 — 1 Spain 1049 938 Canada 952 — t Portugal 1093 899 J Argentine . 893 — I Cape Colony . 977 — 1 Australia 906 950 I ^ New Zealand . 900 following table the latest available information on this head is given for representative countries of western and eastern Europe, the East and the New World. Distribution by Age. — Few facts are more uncertain about an individual than the number of years he will live. Few, on the contrary, as was pointed out by C. Babbage, are less subject to fluctuation than the duration of life amongst people taken in large aggregates. The age-constitution of a community does indeed vary, and to a considerable extent, in course of time, but the changes are usually gradual, and often spread over a genera- tion or more. At the same time, it must be admitted that those which have recently taken place amongst most of the communities of western Europe are remarkable for both their rapidity and their extent; and are probably attributable, in part at least, to influences which were almost inoperative at the time when Babbage wrote. The distribution of a population amongst the different periods of life is regulated, in normal circumstances, by the birth-rate, and, as the mortality at some of the periods is far greater than at others, the death-rate falls indirectly under the same influence. The statistics of age, there- fore, may be said to form a link between those of the population, considered as a fixed quantity, as at a census, and those which record its movement from year to year. To the correct interpre- tation of the latter, indeed, they are essential, as will appear below. Unfortunately, the return of age is amongst the less satisfactory results of a general enumeration, though its inaccu- racy, when spread over millions of persons, is susceptible of correction mathematically, to an extent to make it serve its purpose in the directions above indicated. The error in the original return generally arises from ignorance. An illiterate population is very prone to state its age in even multiples of five, and even where education is widely spread this tendency is not altogether absent, as may be seen from the examples given in Table III. Number returned at each age per 10,000 of Population. United States, Russia , 1897. Age. Germany, 1900. India, 1891 Native Asia, Females. Whites. Negroes. Europe. Females. 19 180 196 204 166 112 64 20 182 200 252 223 385 505 21 181 191 204 143 113 54 29 130 146 119 92 60 42 30 149 170 218 269 456 624 31 145 125 76 74 74 30 49 88 72 62 45 38 12 50 94 84 156 196 257 386 51 89 61 38 35 34 12 59 62 43 30 25 18 10 60 70 49 105 163 179 281 61 60 33 15 22 25 11 Table III. Deliberate mis-statements, too, are not unknown, especially amongst women. This has been repeatedly illustrated in the English census reports. Irrespective of the wish of women between 25 and 40 to return themselves as under 25, there appears to be the more practical motive of obtaining better terms in industrial insurance, whilst an overstatement of age often has, it is said, the object of getting better wages in domestic service, or better dietary in the workhouse! In all countries, moreover, there seems to be an inclination to exaggerate longevity after the three score years and ten have been passed. In order to minimize the results of such inaccuracy, the return of ages is compiled in aggregates of five or ten years and then redistributed over single years by the method of differences. The present purpose being merely to illustrate the variation of distribution amongst a few representative countries, it is unnecessary to enter into more detail than such as will serve to distinguish the proportions of the population in main divisions of life. Thus it may be said that in the west of Europe about one-third of the people, roughly speaking, are under fifteen; about one-half, between that age and fifty, and the remaining sixth older than fifty. The middle period 94 POPULATION may conveniently be extended to sixty and subdivided at forty, as is done in Table IV. The differences between the several countries in their age-constitution can best be appreciated by reference to some recognized general standard. The one here adopted is the result of the co-ordination of a long series of enumerations taken in Sweden during the last century and a half, prepared by Dr G. Sundbarg of Stockholm. It is true that for practical use in connexion with vital statistics for a given period, the aggregate age-distribution of the countries concerned would be a more accurate basis of comparison, but the wide period covered by the Swedish observations has the advantage of eliminating temporary disturbances of the balance of ages, and may thus be held to compensate for the compara- tively narrow geographical extent of the field to which it relates. Table IV. Country. Census Year. Per 1000 of Population. Under 15. 15-40. 40-60. Over 60. Standard . Sweden . Norway . Finland . Denmark F.ngland . Scotland . Ireland . Holland . . . Belgium . Germany Austria . France Italy . . . Portugal . Galicia Hungary Servia Bulgaria Greece Russia (Furope) India (males) Japan . . . United States Canada . Australasia . Cape Colony 1900 1901 1899 1900 1901 1900 1S89 1897 1891 1898 1900 1901 1904 336 324 354 345 339 324 334 304 348 317 348 344 261 34i 338 377 356 419 414 393' 35o 39i 335 334 346 349 415 389 366 36i 386 376 423 416 407 384 404 395 402 389 366 375 399 379 395 322 400 385 399 384 422 409 431 409 192 191 176 187 186 179 173 180 175 184 179 182 226 196 191 178 189 142 172 155 180 163 193 169 168 157 129 83 119 109 82 99 74 77 109 93 95 78 72 124 97 96 46 76 44 92 52 85 47 88 75 77 63 47 As regards correspondence with the standard distribution, it will be noted that Finland, the next country to Sweden geo- graphically, comes after Japan, far detached from northern Europe by both race and distance, and is followed by Portugal, where the conditions are also very dissimilar. The other Scandinavian countries, Norway and Denmark, appear, like Sweden itself in the present day, to bear in their age-distribution distinct marks of the emigration of adults, or, at least, the temporary absence from home of this class at the time of enume- ration. The same can be said of Italy in its later returns and of Germany in those before 1895. On the contrary, the effect of the inflow of adult migrants is very marked, as is to be expected, in the returns for the new countries, such as the United States, Canada and Australasia. In the case of the Old World, the divergence from the standard which most deserves notice is the remarkable preponderance of the young in all the countries of eastern Europe, as well as in India, accompanied by an equally notable deficiency of the older elements in the population. Again, there are in the west two well-known instances of deficient reinforcement of the young, France and Ireland, in which countries the proportion of those under 15 falls respectively 75 and 32 per miile below the standard; throwing those over 60 up to 41 and 26 per mille above it. The table does not in- clude figures for earlier enumerations, but one general character- istic in them should be mentioned, viz. the far higher proportion borne in them of the young, as compared with the more recent returns. In England, for instance, those under. 1 5 amounted to 360 per mille in 1841, against 324 sixty years later. In Ireland the corresponding fall has been still more marked, from 382 to 304. The ratio in France was low throughout the 19th century, and during the last half fell only from 273 to 261, raising the proportion of the old above that resulting in northern Europe and Italy from emigration. It is remarkable that the same tendency for the proportion of the young to fall off is perceptible in new countries as well as in the older civilizations, setting aside the influence of immigration at the prime of life in depressing the proportion of children. The possible causes of this wide- spread tendency of the mean age of a western community to increase appertain to the subject of the movement of the population, which is dealt with below. The Movement of Population. — " The true greatness of a State " says Bacon, " consisteth essentially in population and breed of men " ; and an increasing population is one of the most certain signs of the well-being of a community. Successive accretions, however, being spread over so long a term as that of human life, it does not follow that the population at any given time is necessarily the result of contemporary prosperity. Con- versely, the traces left by a casual set-back, such as famine, war, or an epidemic disease, remain long after it has been succeeded by a period of recuperation, and are to be found in the age- constitution and the current vital statistics. Population is continually in a state of motion, and in large aggregates the direction is invariably towards increase. The forces underlying the movement may differ from time to time in their respective intensity, and, in highly exceptional cases, may approach equilibrium, their natural tendencies being interrupted by special causes, but the instances of general decline are confined to wild and comparatively small communities brought into contact with alien and more civilized races. The factors upon which the growth of a population depend are internal, operating within the community, or external, arising out of the relations of the community with other countries. In the latter case, population already in existence is transferred from one territory to another by migration, a subject which will be referred to later. Far more important is the vegetative, or " natural " increase, through the excess of births over deaths. The principal influences upon this, in civilized life, are the number of the married, the age at which they marry or bear children, the fertility of marriages and the duration of life, each of which is in some way or other connected with the others. Marriage.— la every country a small and generally diminish- ing proportion of the children is born out of wedlock, but the primary regulator of the native growth of a community is the institution of marriage. Wherever, it has been said, there, is room for two to live up to the conventional standard of comfort, a marriage takes place. So close, indeed, up to recent times, was the connexion held to be between the prosperity of the country and the number of marriages, that Dr W. Farr used to call the latter the barometer of the former. The experience of the present generation, however, both in England and other countries, seems to justify some relaxation of that view, as will appear below. The tendency of a community towards matri- mony, or its " nuptiality," as it is. sometimes termed, is usually indicated by the ratio to the total population of the persons married each year. For the purpose of comparing the circum- stances of the same community at successive periods this method is fairly trustworthy, assuming that there has been no material shifting of the age-proportions during the intervals. It is not a safe guide, however, when applied to the comparison of different communities, the age-composition of which is probably by no means identical, but in consideration of its familiarity it has been adopted in the first section of Table V. below, at three periods for each of the countries selected as representative. One of the features which is prominent throughout the return is that in every country except Belgium the rate per mille attained a maximum in the early seventies, and has since shown POPULATION 95 a descending tendency, notwithstanding the fact, noted in the preceding paragraph, that the youthful population, which, of course, weighs down the rate, has also been relatively decreasing. Countries of Oriental and semi-Oriental habits have not been shown, owing to the difference in their marriage system from that of western Europe. It may be mentioned, however, in passing, that their marriage rate is generally considerably higher than that here indicated, as may be seen from the example of Galicia, which is here shown separately from cis-Leithian Austria. years of age and decreases rapidly as that period is left behind. A Swedish return of 1806-1900 shows that the annual births per thousand wives of 20-25 are fewer by nearly 17% than those of wives under 20. Between 25 and 30 the number falls off by one-fifth, and after 40 by about 44%. In the countries mentioned in Table V. the average proportion borne by wive? under 30 to the total under 45 is just over one-third. That proportion is exceeded in southern Europe, where women develop earlier, and in Galicia. In England and France it stands at Table V. Country. Per 1000 of Population. Persons Married Yearly. 1861-1870. 1871-1875. 1895-1904 Women, 15 to 45 (1900). Total. Married. Unmarried. Men, 20-50. Unmarried. Sweden . Norway . Finland . Denmark England . Scotland . Ireland . Holland . . Germany Belgium . Austria (W.) France Italy . Galicia I3-I 13-3 15-5 149 16-7 14-0 io-S 16-4 17-0 15-0 161 15-6 15-2 19-7 14-0 14-6 17-9 15-9 17-1 14-9 10-7 16-6 18-9 177 16-9 15-6 19-7 12-0 13-2 14-1 14-6 15-8 14-3 IO-I 14-9 16-4 16-4 15-7 15-2 14-4 17-6 215 218 219 221 250 242 235 218 226 230 227 228 214 225 91 103 104 117 102 76 96 114 108 106 120 116 125 123 102 "5 in 127 135 153 118 107 117 115 100 92 94 83 7i 70 81 77 90 125 82 76 85 85 82 71 67 In the opposite direction will be noted the case of Ireland, where the rate is abnormally low; and returns more recent than those included in the table show that of late the rates in Sweden and Norway have also fallen to but little above 11 per mille. In regard to the necessity of taking into consideration the factor of age in the return of marriage-rates, an example may be here given from the data for England. The rate taken upon the total population was 16-7 per mille in 1870-1871 and 15-3 in 1905; by excluding the population under fifteen the corre- sponding figures are 57-2 and 46-6 per mille. Thus the decline, which by the first method is only 8%, becomes, by the second, 19%; and if the age-distribution of 1905 were reduced to that of the earlier period, the difference would increase to 22%, the most accurate figure of the three. For the present purpose it is sufficient to connect the rate of marriage with that of births by using as a basis for the former the number of women of conceptive age, or between 15 and 45 years old. The propor- tion of these is given in the latter portion of the table. Again taking England as an example, the women of the above ages bore the proportion to the total population of 23% in 1871 and had risen to 25% in 1901; but at the former time, 49-6% were married, whilst thirty years later, only 46-8 were thus situated. The table also shows that the proportion of the women of the ages in question who were married exceeds half only in Italy, France and Germany, not to mention Galicia. In other countries the average proportion is about 45%. In Sweden and Norway it is only 41 and in Ireland less than a third. In Scandinavia, and perhaps in Italy, the rate may be affected by the emigration of adult males, but the later columns of the table indicate that this is not the cause of the low rate in Ireland, which appears to be mainly due to abstinence from marriage at the ages specified. Next to the proportion of the married to the total marriageable the most important factor connected with the natural increase of the population is the age at which marriage takes place. Where the proportion of the married is high, the average age of the wives is low, and early marriage is conducive to relatively rapid increase. In the first place, the interval between genera- tions is shortened, and the elder is contemporaneous with the younger for a longer period. Then, again, the fecundity of women amongst western peoples is at its maximum between 18 and 25 36. In Ireland and Sweden it is only 28, and in Denmark, Holland and Norway, too, it is below the average. The registrar- general of England has pointed out a marked tendency towards the postponement of marriage in that country. Between 1876 and 1905, for instance, the proportion of minors married receded by 43% in the case of men and 32% amongst women. The mean age of husbands married in 1873 was 25-6 years and of wives 24-2, whereas thirty years later the corresponding ages were 28-6 and 26-4. The general results of the decline of the marriage-rate and the postponement of marriage upon the natural growth of population will be discussed in connection with the birth-rate, though the statistics available do not permit of the accurate measurement of the respective influence of these factors, and there are others, too, which have to be taken into consideration, as will appear below. Births.-*- Apart from the information which the statistics of birth furnish as to the growth of population, they have, like those of marriage, and perhaps to even a greater extent, a special social interest from their bearings upon the moral con- ditions of the community to which they relate. It is in their former capacity, however, that they enter into the present sub- ject. A birth-rate, taken as it usually is upon the total popu- lation, old and young, is open to the objections made above respecting the marriage-rate, and with even more force, as the basis is itself largely the product of the fact which is being measured by it. The internal variations of the rate in a single community, however, can be fairly indicated in this way, as is done in Table VI., which, it is to be noted, refers to those born alive only and excludes the still-born, statistics regarding whom are incomplete. The crude birth-rate, it will be noted, is in general harmony with that of marriage. In the countries where the former is high the rate of marriage is also above the average. In eastern Europe, so far as the figures can be trusted, this is markedly the case, and the birth-rates range between 39 per mille in Hungary and 49 in Russia, where the tradition of encouraging prolificity amongst the peasantry has not been effaced. Among the lower rates which prevail in western Europe, however, the connexion is not so direct, and a low birth-rate is some- times found with a relatively higher marriage rate and vice versa, a deviation from the natural course of events which will 9 6 POPULATION be discussed presently. The birth-rate, like the marriage-rate, seems to have reached its acme in the seventies, except in the three southern countries, France, Italy and Spain. The decline since the above period is very marked and exceeds that noted in the case of the rate of marriage. It is worth noting, too, that the fall in the crude birth-rate is not confined to the Old World, but has attracted special attention in Australia and New Zealand, where a rate of 40 per mille in the period 1861-1870 has now given place to one of 26. In Massachusetts and other of the older settlements of the United States, moreover, the same feature has been the subject of investigation. other than abstinence from marriage, at all events at the princi- pal reproductive period; and perhaps to a decrease in marriage or remarriage after middle life, a period of which the weight in the age-distribution has been increasing of late. On the other hand, the postponement of marriage in the case of women of conceptive ages is a tendency which seems to be growing in other countries as well as in England and undoubtedly has a depressing effect upon the rate of births. It would conduce, therefore, to further accuracy in the comparison of the rates of different countries if the latter were to be correlated with greater subdivision of the ages amongst wives between 15 and 45. The proportion of wives below 30 to the total of that group was Table VI. Country. (A) Born alive, per 1000 of Total Population. (B) Legitimate Births, per 1000 Wives, 1 5 to 45 years old. (C) Illegitimate Births, per 1000 Unmarried and Widowed Women, 15 to 45. 1841-1850. 1861-1870. 1871-1875. 1900-1905. 1880-1882. 1890-1892. 1 900- 1 902. 1896-1900. Sweden Norway Finland Denmark . England . Scotland . Ireland Holland . . . Belgium . Germany Austria (W.) . France Italy . . . . Spain . . . . 3i-i 30-7 35-5 30-5 34-6 33-0 30-5 36-1 35-9 27-3 31-4 309 34-7 31-0 36-0 34-8 26-1 35-3 31-6 37-2 35-7 26-3 37-5 37-8 30-7 3o-3 37-o 30-8 360 35-o 26-4 36-1 32-4 38-9 37-2 25-5 369 36-5 26-7 29-7 32-2 29-7 29-0 29-7 23-2 32-1 28-5 35-5 34-2 21-7 33-5 34-8 293 3H 309 287 286 3il 283 347 313 310 281 196 276 258 280 307 301 278 264 296 288 339 285 301 292 173 283 264 269 303 259 235 272 289 315 251 284 284 157 269 259 234 16-9 18-0 236 8-8 14-1 3 9 9-0 18-9 27-7 41-7 18-1 2I-I The crude rates which have been discussed above afford no explanation of this change, nor do they always illustrate its full extent. It is necessary, therefore, to eliminate the difference in the age-constitution of the countries in question by excluding from the field of observation, as before, all except possible mothers, basing the rate upon the respective numbers of women of the conceptive age, that is between 15 and 45. The pro- portion borne by this group to the total population is in most cases fairly up to that set forth by Dr Sundbarg in his standard. It is well above it in all three parts of the United Kingdom and falls materially below it only in Scandinavia and Italy. Indeed, during the last generation, this proportion has been in most cases slightly increased, in consequence of the fall of the birth-rate which set in anterior to this period. The stock, then, from which wives are drawn is ample. The question remains, how far advantage is taken of it. According to the Sundbarg standard the percentage married is 48. As has been shown in the preceding paragraph, this is surpassed in Italy, France and Germany, and approached in most of the rest, with the exception of Sweden, Norway and Scotland, which are six or seven points below it, and Ireland, where less than a third are married. The proportion married, moreover, has slightly increased since 1880, except in the United Kingdom. In England the marriage-rate (on the age basis) fell off by 4-6% and in Scotland by 2%, whilst the crude birth-rate declined by 15 and n % respectively. In Ireland the case was different, as the marriage-rate declined by 1 2 % and the birth-rate by no more than 5-7%. In New South Wales and New Zealand, too, the marriage-rates fell off in the same period by 11 and 28% respectively, whilst the decline in the birth-rates amounted to 35 and 31 %. In the above countries, therefore, abstinence from matrimony may be said to have been a factor of some importance in the decline. On the continent of Europe, however, looking at the divergence in direction between the crude marriage-rate and that corrected to an age-basis, it is not improbable that the decline in the former may be attributable to some cause mentioned in connexion with the marriage-rate, and in the figures relating to some 30 years back some traces can be found of a connexion between a high birth-rate and a high proportion of young wives. In the present day, however, these indications do not appear, so it would seem that the tendency in question had been interrupted by some other influence, a point to which reference will be made below. If abstinence from marriage and the curtailment of the reproductive period by postponement of marriage be insufficient to account for the material change which has taken place in the birth-rate within the last few decades, it is clear that the latter must be attributable to the diminished fertility of those who are married. On this question the figures in the second portion of Table VI. throws some light. Here the annual number of legitimate births is shown in its proportion to the mean number of married women of conceptive age at each of the three latest enumerations. The rate, it will be seen, has fallen in all the countries specified, except for a slight increase of 2 % in Ireland and an almost stationary condition in Austria and Spain. The decline in Italy and Norway is small, but in France, where for a long time the fertility of the population has been very much below that of any other European country, the birth-rate thus calculated fell by nearly 20%, the same figure' being approached in Belgium, where however, the fertility of married women is considerably greater. The case of England is remarkable. In the earlier period its crude birth and marriage-rates were above the average and its proportion of young wives well up to it. Its fertility-rate, however, which was by no means high in 1880, fell by nearly 18% by 1901, and since that date a further fall is reported by the registrar-general, to 24%, leaving the rate below that of all the other European countries except France. The States of Australasia, again, have experienced a decline even more marked. In 1880-1882 their fertility-rate ranged from 300 to 338, a low proportion for a new country, but nearly up to the European standard. By 1900-1902, however, the rate had fallen in all the larger States by from 23 to 31% and the POPULATION 97 highest rate recorded, 253 per thousand conceptive wives, was ' lower than that of any European country except France and Belgium. The cessation of assisted immigration early in the life of the present generation is alleged to have had considerable influence upon the rate, in Victoria, at least, owing to the curtail- ment of the supply of adult women of the more conceptive ages and the ageing of those who had reached the country at an earlier date. But neither this nor the diminution of the marriage- rate amongst women of those ages suffices to account for more than a fraction of the decline. The same tendency, moreover, is traceable in the New England States of America, so far as statistics are available. It has been held by some that a phenomenon so widely diffused over the western world must be attributable to physio- logical causes, such as alcoholism, syphilis, the abuse of narcotics and so on. Herbert Spencer, again, before the decline in question set in, put forward the hypothesis that " the ability to maintain individual life and the ability to multiply vary in- versely "; in other words, the strain upon the nervous system involved in the struggle for life under the conditions of modern civilization, by reacting on the reproductive powers, tends towards comparative sterility. These theories, however, being supported, according to the authorities of to-day, by no evidence, statistical or other, need not be here considered. Nor, again, can the decline in fertility be connected with any diminution of material prosperity. On the contrary, the fertility-rate appears to be best maintained in countries by no means distinguished for their high standard of living, such as Spain, Italy, Ireland, and, perhaps, Austria. In this respect Holland stands by itself; but in the others mentioned, with the exception of Ireland, both marriage and birth-rates are high and there has been a comparatively insignificant fall in prolifi- city. The decline has been greatest where the standard of comfort is notoriously high, as in the United States, England and Australasia; also in France, where the general wellbeing reaches probably a lower depth in the community than in any other part of Europe. The comparison of the rates in France with those of Ireland is an instructive illustration of the point under consideration. In France more than half the women of conceptive age are married: in Ireland less than a third, and the proportion of youthful wives in the latter is 28 % below that in France. In both the crude birth-rate is far below that of any other European country. But the fertility of the Irish wife exceeded that of her French compeer by 44% in 1880 and by no less than 84% twenty years later. So steady, indeed, has been the prolificity of Ireland, that from being ninth on the list at the earlier period mentioned, it is now inferior only to Holland and perhaps Finland in this respect. It need not be assumed, however, that because these rates cannot be associated with the comparative degree of prosperity attained by the individual community they are altogether inde- pendent of the economic factors mainly contributing to that condition, such as trade, employment and prices. It is difficult, indeed, if not impracticable, to disentangle the effects which should be respectively attributed to influences so closely related to each other; but, of the three, prices alone tend to sufficient uniformity in their course in different countries to justify a supposition that they are in some way connected with a phenom- enon so widely diffused as that of the decline in marriage and fertility. It is not improbable, therefore, that the fall in whole- sale prices which, with temporary interruptions, persisted between 1870 and 1900, in general harmony with the other movement, may have conduced to reluctance on the part of those who have enlarged their notions of the standard of comfort to en- danger their prospects of enjoying it by incurring the additional expenses of family life. Matrimony may be postponed, or, when entered upon, may be rendered a lighter burden upon the bread- winner. The economic element in the situation, which is imposed upon the individual by circumstances, is thus modified voluntarily into a moral or prudential consideration. In this case diminished prolificity where unaccompanied by a decrease in the number of marriages at reproductive ages, is attributable xxii- 4 to the voluntary restriction of child-bearing on the part of the married. This explanation of the decline is supported by the almost unanimous opinion of the medical profession in the countries in question, and substantial evidence can be found everywhere of the extensive prevalence of the doctrine and practice of what has been termed, in further derogation of the repute of the " much misrepresented Malthus," Neomal- thusianism. Preventive measures of this kind have long been in use in France, with the result shown in Tables V. and VI., and from that country they have spread, mostly since 1870, nearly all over western Europe, as well as to the Anglo- Saxon world beyond the seas; but are scarcely apparent in countries where the Roman church has a strong hold on the people. It is generally held that the practice of thus limiting families usually prevails, in the first instance, among the better- off classes, and in time niters down, as " the gospel of comfort " is accepted by those of less resources, until the prolificity of the whole community is more or less affected by it. The registrar general for England, indeed, has stated that whilst no more than about 17% of the decline in the birth-rate can be attributed to abstinence or postponement of marriage, nearly 70% should be ascribed to voluntary restriction. The question of illegitimate births is the last to be here mentioned. It appears to be connected to a considerable extent with the subject dealt with above. In nearly every country the rate of these births has of late years shown a marked fall, which is by some ascribed to the adoption of the same expedients in illicit intercourse as are becoming conventional amongst the married. The rates given at the end of Table VI. are calculated upon the number of women most likely to produce them, that is, the spinsters, widows and divorced of conceptive age. In comparing the different countries, it may be noted that in some parts of Europe the rate is raised by the inclusion of the off- spring of marriages not registered as demanded by law, though duly performed in church. Then, again, the possibility of legitimization by subsequent marriage tends to raise the rate. Italy and Scotland may be taken as examples of these two influences, and in Germany, too, the rates in Saxony and Bavaria, which are among the highest in Europe, are in part due to the non-registration of marriages sanctioned by religious ceremony only. The low rates in Ireland, Holland and England are especially noticeable, and in the last named, the decrease between 1870 and 1905 amounted to more ttian 50%, not, however, entirely due, it is said, to improved morality. Deaths. — The forces tending towards the natural growth of population, which have been described above, differ from that which acts in the opposite direction in two material features. Marriage and child-bearing, in the first place, are operative amongst a fraction of the population only — those of conceptive age; whereas to the Urn of Death, as Dr Farr expressed it, all ages are called upon to contribute in their differing degrees. Then, again, the former are voluntary acts, entirely under the control of the individual; but mortality, though not beyond human regulation, is far less subject to it, and in order to have sub- stantial results the control must be the outcome of collective rather than individual co-operation. The course of the marriage and birth-rates, set forth above, affords evidence that the control over both has been exercised of recent years to an un- precedented extent, and it will appear from what is stated below, that partly owing to this cause, partly, also, to improved hygienic conditions in western life, there has been an even more pronounced decline in the rate of mortality. The general results of both upon the natural increase of population in the countries selected for illustration of this subject will be found at the end of this paragraph. For the purpose of showing this, the crude death-rate, taken, like that of births, upon the whole population, without distinction of age or sex, will suffice. Where, however, the tendency to mortality, not its results, is in question, both the above factors must be taken into account, as they have been above in distinguishing the rate of fertility from that of births. The process of correcting the mere numbers of annual deaths per thousand of population into a form which renders 11 9 8 POPULATION the return comparable with those for communities differently constituted is somewhat complicated, but it is amply justified by its necessity in adapting the figures to the important services they perform in actuarial and sanitary science. This subject can only be dealt with here in outline. In the first place, sex must be distinguished, because, from infancy upwards, except between the ages of 10 and 20, the mortality amongst females is considerably less than amongst the other sex, and appears, too, to be declining more rapidly. So far as adult life is con- cerned this superior vitality is no doubt attributable to com- parative immunity from the risks and hardships to which men are exposed, as, also, to the weaker inclination of women towards intemperance of different kinds. Thus, though the generally higher proportion of females in the community may seldom be enough to depress more than slightly the death-rate as a whole, it has a substantial effect upon it at the ages where women are in more marked numerical predominance, as in later life, and in places where the number of domestic servants is unusually great. Age is a factor still more important than sex in a return intended to serve as an index of mortality. The liability to death is extremely high amongst infants, decreasing with every month of life during the first year, but continuing above the mean rate until about the age of five. From the latter period until the fifteenth or sixteenth year vitality is at its best. The death-rate then gradually rises, slowly till 25, more rapidly later, when, from about 45 onward deterioration asserts itself more pronouncedly, and by three score years and ten the rate begins to exceed that of childhood. Thus, all other considera- tions being set aside, mortality tends to vary inversely with the proportion of the population at the healthy period 5 to 23. As the replenishment of this group depends upon the conditions prevailing at the earlier ages, it is to the mortality in childhood that most weight, from the standpoint of hygiene, must be attached. In most European countries not much less than half the annual deaths take place amongst children below five years of age, upon the total number of whom the incidence falls to the extent of from 40 to 1 20 per mille. The greater part of this is debitable, as just pointed out, to the first year, in which the mortality, calculated upon the number of births, ranged, in the decennium 1895-1904, between 70 per mille, in the exceptionally favourable circumstances of the Australasian States, to nearly 270 in European Russia. It should be remarked, in passing, that thesje rates are enormously higher amongst illegitimate children than amongst those born in wedlock, and that the proportion of still-born amongst the former is also in excess of that amongst the latter by some 50%. Infantile mortality is higher, too, in urban tracts, especially those associated with manufacturing industries. In Table VII. below, in which the crude rate alone is dealt with, evidence will be found of the general decline which has taken place in the mortality, thus expressed in different countries. The difference in the rates for the various countries must not be taken as a measure of difference in mortality, since, as accord- ing to the table, much of it is ascribable to difference in age- constitution. At the same time, where the range is very wide, as between the rates in Scandinavia and Australia, and those in southern and eastern Europe, the variation, to a great extent, cannot be accounted for otherwise than by difference in hygienic conditions, more especially in the light thrown by the figures of infantile mortality in the second part of the table. The variations from period to period in the same country are more instructive. They show that in the 35 years covered the death- rate has generally declined by over 20%. The exceptional cases are, first, Ireland and Norway, with their emigrating tendencies; then Spain, where the returns have probably to be discounted for improved registration, and France, where the population is all but stationary. In Finland the death-rate at the earlier period taken for the comparison was abnormally swollen by epidemic disease, and if it be set on one side the decline appears to have been in harmony with that in its Scan- dinavian neighbours. The decline in mortality has been much greater than that in the crude birth-rate everywhere except in France, Australia, and, of course, Ireland; and it is only in the two former that it has been exceeded by that in the fertility- rate. The standard mortality of each community is deduced from a life-table, representing a "generation" of people assumed to be born at the same moment and followed throughout their hypothetical life, in the light of the distribution by age ascertained Table VII. Country. (A) Death per 1000 of Total Population. (B) Deaths under one year per 1000 Births. (C) Decline per cent. 1 Probable Lifetime. 1861-1870 to 1895-1904. Fertility- rate. 1841-1850. 1861-1870. 1895-1904. 1874-1883. 1895-1*904. Death- rate. Birth- rate. 1 880-1 882 to 1900-1902. Years. Sweden .... Norway . . . . Finland . . . . Denmark 20-6 l8-2 23-5 205 20-2 18-0 32-6 198 15-8 187 15-8 128 104 164 141 98 90 134 127 21-7 10-5 42-6 2 20-6 15-0 3-9 7.2 4-2 8-2 3-5 9-3 52-3 52-2 42-8 47-8 England . . . . Scotland . ' . Ireland . 23-7 24-0 21-8 166 17-2 17-3 18-0 149 122 96 150 126 103 28-3 20-6 +8-4 19-4 147 ii-i 17-8 12-5 +2-r 45-9 46-2 Holland . . . . Belgium . . . . Germany Austria (W) . . 26-2 24-4 26-8 298 25-4 23-8 26-9 29-1 17-0 17-8 20-8 24-0 204 148 208 3 255 147 156 198 a 224 33 -o 25-2 22-6 i7'5 90 9.8 4-6 4-2 9-2 19-8 8-4 27-8 45-1 407 France . . . . Italy Spain . . . . 232 23-6 30-9 30-6 20-4 22-7 27-8 165 208 153 170 182 13-5 26-5 9-r 17-5 107 8-o 19-8 2-5 47-4 43-0 Hungary Galicia . . . . Servia . . . . Russia (Eur.) — 33-0 33-5 30-9 37-1 27-4 27-8 23-6 31-2 267 216 154 268 17-0 17-0 23-6 15-9 6-2 2-3 9.9 2-2 — 40-1 N. S. Wales . . Victoria . . . . J New Zealand — l6-2 167 1 I3"2 117 13-3 9-8 | "7 108 105 79 27-7 20-4 257 32-2 37-2 35-i 307 24-1 24-5 51-2 | 55-4 1 Mean after lifetime at birth. 2 Finland from 1850-1891, decrease 20-4. 3 Prussia only; Saxony, 284 and 272; Bavaria, 308 257. POPULATION 99 through the census and the number of deaths at each age observed for as many years, generally from 10 to 20, as suffice to furnish a trustworthy average. The population thus dealt with is supposed to be stationary, that is, the loss by death at each age is at once made good by the addition of an equal number of the same age, whilst the survivors pass on to the age above. Of the many calculations set forth in these valuable tables there is only room here to refer to the " afterlifetime " for such countries as it is available, which is quoted in the last column of Table VII. It shows the average number of years which persons of a given age, or, as here, of all ages, will live, on the assumption that they are subject to the calculated probabilities of survival. It is sometimes known as the " expectation of life," a term, however, which involves a mathematical hypothesis now discarded. The relation between the birth and the death rates has been the subject of much analysis and controversy. Observation has demonstrated that the two rates are generally found to move along parallel lines. A high birth-rate is accompanied by high mortality; conversely, when one is low, so is the other. A birth- rate continuously in excess of the death-rate tends to lower the latter through the supply it affords of people annually reaching the more healthy ages. If the supply be diminished, the narrower field open to the risks of infancy has the immediate effect of further decreasing the mortality. In course of time, however, Table VIII. Country. 1 Serial order according to formula b ' Per 1000 of Population. Annual ex- cess of Births over Deaths. Total annual increase. Approximate loss by emigration. 1895-1904. 1861- 1871. 1895- 1904. 1861- 1871. 1891- 1901. 1861- 1871. 1891- 1901. Sweden . Norway . Finland . 7 4 10 1 1 -2 12-9 2-1 10-9 146 13-5 7-7 7-9 i-3 7-i n-3 ii-i 3-7 1-0 3-7 2-7 2-3 Denmark. 5 II-I 13-9 10-4 n-5 o-3 i-3 England . Scotland . Ireland . 8 9 13 13-6 13-0 9-6 u-8 119 5-2 12-5 9-3 -6- 9 "•5 io-6 -5-4 i-i 3-6 15-0 0-2 1-2 IO-7 Holland . . . Belgium . Germany. Austria (W.). . 6 11 12 16 9.9 7-8 10-3 7-9 151 10-7 14-7 IO-2 8-4 7-4 7-8 5-6 12-7 9-8 132 o-5 2-0 II 2-5 o-8 i-5 O-I 0-7 o-5 France Italy .... Spain. 18 15 19 2-7 6-5 • 7-7 1-3 io-8 7-0 2-8 6-o 5-1 1-6 6-2 4.9 + 0-2 0-9 2-1 + 1-0 4.6 0-4 Russia Hungary. Servia Galicia 20 18 17 12-7 8-5 136 10-9 17-5 u-5 16-5 156 n-7 8-2 10-9 13-5 9-8 14-4 10-4 0-7 0-4 O-I 1-6 09 o-6 4-1 New South Wales Victoria . New Zealand 2 3 1 .. 24-8 247 27-0 16-1 12-7 16-3 36-9 30-8 63-0 18-4 5-2 19-0 + I2-I + 6-i +36-0 + 2-3 7-5 + 2-7 under the same influence, those passing from their prime into the second period of danger acquire a numerical preponderance which throws its weight upon the general death-rate and tends to raise it. It is assumed that throughout the above course the hygienic conditions of life remain unchanged. If, however, they undergo marked improvement, the duration of life is extended and both birth and death-rates, being spread over a wider field of the living, tend to decrease. On the other hand, an accidental set-back to population, such as that caused by famine or a disastrous war, leaves room which an increasing birth-rate hastens to occupy. A similar result follows in a lesser degree a wave of emigration. Examples of all the above tendencies may be gleaned from the returns of the countries named in the table, though space does not admit of their exhibtion. In both France and Germany, for instance, the process of replenish- ment after a great war can be traced both early and late in the 19th century. In England, the decrease in "natality" is in itself enough to account for the decline in the death-rate, apart from any considerations of improved hygiene. In France, on the contrary, the low natality having been so long continued, has raised the death-rate, by reason of the balance of propor- tion having been shifted by it from youth and the prime of life to old age. It may be inferred from the above that a high birth- rate does not imply a high rate of increase of population, any more than does a decreasing mortality, but the two rates must be considered in their relations to each other. The death-rate, however, is often taken by itself as the measure of the relatively favourable conditions or otherwise of the different countries; but it indicates at best the maintaining power of the community, whereas the increasing power, as manifested in the birth-rate, has also to be taken into account. Here, again, it is not sufficient to rely upon the mere rate of natural growth, or the difference between the two rates, since this may be the same in a community where both the rates are very high as in one where they are relatively low, a distinction of considerable importance. It has been suggested by Dr Rubin of Copenhagen, that if the death rate (d) be squared and divided by the birth-rate (6), due influence is allowed to each rate respectively, as well as to the difference in the height of the rates in different countries (Journ. R. Statist. Soc, London, 1897, p. 154). The quotient thus obtained decreases as the conditions are more favourable, and, on the whole, it seems to form a good index to the merit of the respective countries from the standpoint of vital forces. The first column of Table VIII. shows the order in which the countries mentioned are found to stand according to the above test. The three Australasian states head the list in virtue of their remarkably low death-rate, which outweighs the relative paucity of their births. The next countries in order all belong to north-western Europe, and their index-quotients are all very close to each other. Sweden falls below its geographical neighbours owing to its low birth-rate, and Finland because of its higher mortality. England and Scotland, in spite of their higher birth-rates, are kept below Scandinavia by the higher death-rate, but their birth-rate places them above Belgium. Ireland and France are pulled down by their low natality. The latter, with the same mortality as Germany, stands far below it for the above reason, as Ireland is raised by its lower death- rate above the prolific countries of eastern Europe. The rate of natural growth is given in the second part of the table. In the case of two of the Australasian states, of Holland, Finland, Spain and Italy, the order is in accord with that given by the test applied above, and the difference between the two in Austria, Ireland and France is not large. The great difference between the serial rank occupied in the respective lists by Russia, Servia and Galicia, with remarkably high rates of natural growth, as well as that found in the case of most of the other countries in question, shows that this factor is by no means a trustworthy guide in the estimate of hygienic balance. Migration. — Passing from the internal factors in the move- ment of population, the influence has to be taken into account of the interchange of population between different countries. The net results of such exchange can be roughly estimated by comparing the rate of natural growth with that of the total increase of the community between one census and another, as set forth in Table VIII., in the last section of which the approxi- mate loss by emigration, as calculated by Dr Sundbarg, is given. It will be seen that the only European country which gains by the exchange is France, and there the accretion is almost insig- nificant. Between many of the countries there is a good deal of migration which is only seasonal or temporary, according to the demand for labour. From Russia, too, there is a stream of colonization across the Urals into western Siberia, and amongst the western Mediterranean populations there is constant IOO POPULONIUM— PORCH migration to North Africa The greatest drain from Europe, however, has been across the sea to the United States, Canada and Australasia, especially to the first-named. Dr Sundbarg's returns give about 28 millions as the number which left Europe by sea during the 19th century, of whom all but 4 millions emigrated during the last half of that period. Between 1821 and 1904, about 22 millions landed from Europe in the United States; about 25 millions in Canada; 2 millions in Australia, besides a good number in Brazil, the Argentine and South Africa. The return of birthplace which usually forms part of the census inquiry, affords supplementary information on the subject of immigration. In Canada, for instance, those born abroad numbered 17 % of the population in 1871, and about 13 % thirty years later. In New South Wales, the correspond- ing figures were 41 and 28 %, and in Victoria 55 and 27. In New Zealand the consequences of the cessation of special encourage- ment to emigration were still more marked, the foreign-born declining in proportion from 63 to 33 %. On the other hand, in the United States, from 9-7 % in 1850 the proportion rose to 13-7 in 1900, and has since reached still higher figures, as has been the case recently in Canada also. Up to the early 'nineties the greater part of the immigrants into America were furnished by Germany, Ireland and Great Britain, but for the next fifteen years the place of those countries was taken by Italy and eastern Europe. The general results of the two movements in Europe have been thus summarised by Dr Sundbarg: — Table IX. Annual rate per 1000 of population. 1801-1850. 1850-1900. Births. Deaths. Births above Deaths. Census Increase. Births. Deaths. Births above Deaths. Census Increase. Europe, N.W. S.W. E. . Total Europe 35-4 33-6 45-9 26-5 28-3 38-1 8-9 5'3 7-8 8-i 34-4 5-2 3i-4 7-7 j 46-2 23-4 26-3 34-7 II-O 5-i "•5 8-6 4-3 IO-6 38-6 31-2 7-4 7-1 J 38-0 28-4 9-6 8-2 United States Canada . Australasia . — — ■ — 29-9 — 38-7 — 85-9 — — — 24-0 16-2 48-2 Differences tend to be smoothened out, of course, in dealing with a population so large and varied as that of a continent, but the figures suffice to show the contrast between the early part of the century and the period following the great migratory movements to the new goldfields. In the countries receiving the stream of newcomers, the intercensal rate of increase was obviously very different from those of the older countries, though it seems to have largely spent itself or been counteracted by other influences. The latest rates, for instance, were only 18 per mille per annum in Australia; 11 in Canada and 19 in the United States. Bibliography. — A very full bibliography up to 1899 is appended to von Fircke's Bevolkerungslehre und Bevblkerungspolitik. Reference may also be made to Matthews Duncan, Fecundity, Fertility and Sterility (ed. 1871); Newsholme, Elements of Vital Statistics (ed. 1899), and his paper on birth-rates, Journ. R. Statist. Soc. (1906); W. Farr, Vital Statistics (1885) ; Coghlan, Report on Decline in Birth- rate, New South Wales (1903), and report of Royal Commission on that decline (1904); Bonar, Malthus and his Work (1885); Bertillon, Elements de dtmographie; Gamier, Du Principe de population; de Molinari, Ralentissement du mouvement de la population; Bertheau, Essai sur les lots de la population; Starkenburg, Die Bevblkerungs- Wissenschaft; Stieda, Das sexual Verhdltniss der Ceborenen; Rubin and Westergaard, Statistik der Ehen; Westergaard, Die Lehre von der Mortalitdt und Morbilitat, and Die Grundziige der Theorie der Statistik ; Gonnard, V Emigration europeenne. (J. A. B.) POPULONIUM (Etruscan Pupluna), an ancient seaport town of Etruria, Italy, at the north end of the peninsular of Monte Massoncello, at the south end of which is situated the town of Piombino (q.v.). The place, almost the only Etruscan town built directly on the sea, was situated on a lofty hill 1 now crowned by a conspicuous medieval castle and a poor modern village (Populonia). Considerable remains of its town walls, of large irregular, roughly rectangular blocks (the form is that of the natural splitting of the schistose sandstone), still exist, enclosing a circuit of about ij m. The remains existing within them are entirely Roman — a row of vaulted substructions, a water reservoir and a mosaic with representations of fishes. Strabo mentions the existence here of a look-out tower for the shoals of tunny-fish. There are some tombs outside the town, some of which, ranging from the Villanova period (9th century B.C.) to the middle of the 3rd century B.C., were explored in 1908. In one, a large circular tomb, were found three sepulchral couches in stone, carved in imitation of wood, and a fine statuette in bronze of Ajax committing suicide. Close by was found a horse collar with 14 bronze bells. The remains of a temple, devastated in ancient times (possibly by Dionysius of Syracuse in 384 B.C.), were also discovered, with fragments of Attic vases of the 5th century B.C., which had served as ex votos in it. Coins of the town have also been found in silver and copper. The iron mines of Elba, and the tin and copper of the mainland, were owned and smelted by the people of Populonia; hot springs too lay some 6 m. to the E. (Aquae Populaniae) on the high road — Via Aurelia — along the coast. At this point a road branched off to Saena (Siena). According to Virgil the town sent a contingent to the help of Aeneas, and it furnished Scipio with iron in 205 B.C. It offered considerable resistance to Sulla, who took it by siege; and from this dates its decline, which Strabo, who describes it well (v. 2, 6, p. 223), already notes as beginning, while four centuries later Rutilius describes it as in ruins. The harbour, however, continued to be of some importance, and the place was still an episcopal see in the time of Gregory the Great. See G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883, ii. 212 sqq.) ; I. Falchi in Notizie degli Scavi (1 903-1 904) ; L. A. Milani, ibid. (1908), 199 sqq. PORBANDAR, a native state of India, in the Kathiawar political agency, Bombay, extending along the S.W. coast of the peninsula of Kathiawar. Area, 636 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 82,640, showing a decrease of 4 % in the decade. Estimated gross revenue, £65,000; tribute, £3,233. The chief, whose title is rana, is a Jethwa Rajput. Limestone is largely exported to Bombay. This limestone is used for buildings in Porbandar without mortar, and is said to coalesce into a solid block under the influence of moisture. The town of Porbandar is the maritime terminus of the Kathiawar railway system. Pop. (1901), 24,620. A large trade is conducted in native boats as far as the east coast of Africa. PORCELAIN, the name of that kind of ceramic ware which is characterized by a translucent body, also loosely used for the finer kinds of ware generally, popularly known as " china " (see Ceramics). The French porcelaine, from which the word comes into English, is an adaptation of the Italian porcellana, a cowrie-shell, the beautifully polished surface of which caused the name to be applied to the ware. The Italian word is generally taken to be from porcella, diminutive of porco, pig, from a sup- posed resemblance of the shell to a pig's back. PORCH (through the Fr. porche, from Lat. porticus; the Ital. equivalent is portico, corresponding to the Gr. vapd-ql-; Ger. Vorhalle), a covered erection forming a shelter to the entrance door of a large building. The earliest known are the two porches of the Tower of the Winds at Athens; there would seem to have been one in front of the entrance door of the villa of Diomede outside the gate at Pompeii; in Rome they were 1 It commands a fine view, and Corsica Is sometimes visible, though not Sardinia, as Strabo (and following him, Lord Macaulay) erro- neously state. PORCUPINE- -PORDENONE, IL 101 probably not allowed, but on either side of the entrance door of a mansion, porticoes set back behind the line of frontage were provided, according to F. Mazois, as shelters from sun and rain for those who paid early visits before the doors were opened. In front of the early Christian basilicas was a long arcaded porch called " narthex " (q.v.) In later times porches assume two forms — one the projecting erection covering the entrance at the west front of cathedrals, and divided into three or more doorways, &c, and the other a kind of covered chamber open at the ends, and having small windows at the sides as a protection from rain. These generally stand on the north or south sides of churches, though in Kent there are a few instances (as Snodland and Boxley) where they are at the west ends. Those of the Nor- man period generally have little projection, and are sometimes so flat as to be little more than outer dressings and hood- moulds to the inner door. They are often richly ornamented, and, as at Southwell in England and Kelso in Scotland, have rooms over, which have been erroneously called parvises. Early English porches are much longer, and in larger buildings fre- quently have rooms above; the gables are generally bold and high pitched. In larger buildings also, as at Wells, St Albans, &c, the interiors are as rich in design as the exteriors. Decorated and Perpendicular porches partake of much the same character- istics, the pitch of roof, mouldings, copings, battlements, &c, being, of course, influenced by the taste of the time. The later porches have rooms over them more frequently than in earlier times; these are often approached from the lower storey by small winding stairs, and sometimes have fire-places, and are supposed to have served as vestries; and sometimes there are the remains of a piscina, and relics of altars, as if they had been used as chantry chapels. It is probable there were wooden porches at all periods,' particularly in those places where stone was scarce ; but, as may be expected from their exposed position, the earliest have decayed. At Cobham, Surrey, there was one that had ranges of semicircular arches in oak at the sides, of strong Norman character. It is said there are several in which portions of Early English work are traceable, as at Chevington in Suffolk. In the Decorated and later periods, however, wooden porches are common, some plain, others with rich tracery and large boards; these frequently stand on a sort of half storey of stone work or bahut. The entrance porches at the west end of cathe- drals are generally called portals, and where they assume the character of separate buildings, are designated galilees; e.g. the porticoes on the west side of the south transept of Lincoln Cathedral, and at the west end of the nave of Ely Cathedral, and the chapel at the west end of Durham Cathedral. The finest example in England of an open projected porch is that of Peterborough Cathedral, attached to the Early Norman nave. The term " porch " is also given to the magnificent portals of the French cathedrals, where the doors are so deeply recessed as to become porches, such as those of Reims, Amiens, Chartres, Troyes, Rouen, Bourges, Paris, and Beauvais cathedrals, St Ouen, Rouen, and earlier Romanesque churches, as in St Trophime, Aries and St Gilles. Many, however, have detached porches in front of the portals, as in Notre Dame at Avigon, Chartres (north and south), Noyon, Bourges (north and south), St Vincent at Rouen, Notre Dame de Louviers, the cathedrals of Albi and Le Puy, and in Germany those of Spires and Regens- burg, and the churches of St Laurence and St Sebald at Nuremberg. (R. P. S.) PORCUPINE (Fr., pore-epic, " spiny pig "), the name of the largest European representative of the terrestrial rodent mammals, distinguished by the spiny covering from which it takes its name. The European porcupine (Hystrix cristata) is the typical representative of a family of Old World rodents, the Hystricidae., all the members of which have the same protective covering. These rodents are characterized by the imperfectly rooted cheek-teeth, imperfect clavicles or collar-bones, cleft upper lip, rudimentary first front-toes, smooth soles, six teats and many cranial characters. They range over the south of Europe, the whole of Africa, India and the Malay Archipelago as far eaet as Borneo. They are all stout, heavily-built animals, with blunt rounded heads, fleshy mobile snouts, and coats of thick cylindrical or flattened spines, which form the whole covering of their body, and are not intermingled with ordinary hairs. Their habits are strictly terrestrial. Of the three genera Hystrix is characterized by the inflated skull, in which the nasal chamber is often considerably larger than the brain-case, and The Porcupine {Hystrix cristata). the short tail, tipped with numerous slender-stalked open quills, which make a loud rattling noise whenever the animal moves. The common porcupine (H. cristata), which occurs throughout the south of Europe and North and West Africa, is replaced in South Africa by H. africaeaustralis and in India by the hairy- nosed porcupine (H. leucura). Besides these large crested species, there are several smaller species without crests in north-east India, and the Malay region from Nepal to Borneo. The genus Atherura includes the brush-tailed porcupines which are much smaller animals, with long tails tipped with bundles of flattened spines. Two species are found in the Malay region and one in West Africa. Trichys, the last genus, contains two species, T. fasciculata of Borneo and T. macrotis of Sumatra, both externally very like Atherura, but differing from the members of that genus in many cranial characteristics. In the New World the porcupines are represented by the members of the family Erethizontidae, or Coendidae, which have rooted molars, complete collar-bones, entire upper lips, tuberculated soles, no trace of a first front-toe, and four teats. The spines are mixed with long soft hairs. They are less strictly nocturnal in their habits; and with one exception live entirely in trees, having in correspondence with this long and power- ful prehensile tails. They include three genera, of which the first is represented by the Canadian porcupine (Erethizon dorsatus), a stout, heavily-built animal, with long hairs almost or quite hiding its spines, four front- and five hind-toes, and a short, stumpy tail. It is a native of the greater part of Canada and the United States, wherever there is any remnant of the original forest left. Synelheres, or Coendu, contains some eight or ten species, known as tree-porcu- pines, found throughout tropical South America, with one extending into Mexico. They are of a lighter build than the ground-porcupines, with short, close, many-coloured spines, often mixed with hairs, and prehensile tails. The hind-feet have only four toes, owing to the suppression of the first, in place of which they have a fleshy pad on the inner side of the foot, between which and the toes boughs and other objects can be firmly grasped as with a hand. Chaetomys, distinguished by the shape of its skull and the greater complexity of its teeth, contains C. subspinosus, a native of the hottest parts of Brazil. (W. H. F.; R. L.*) PORDENONE, IL (1483-1530), an eminent painter of the Vene- tian school, whose correct name was Giovanni Antonio Licinio, or Licino. He was commonly named II Pordenone from having been born in 1483 at Corticelli, a village near Pordenone (q.v.) in Italy. He ultimately dropped the name of Licinio, having quarrelled with his brothers, one of whom had wounded him in the hand; he then called himself Regillo, or De Regillo. His signature runs " Antonius Portunaensis," or " De Portunaonis." He was created a cavaliere by Charles V. As a painter Licinio w'as a scholar of Pellegrino da S. Daniele, but the leading influence which governed his style was that of Giorgione; the popular story that he was a fellow-pupil with Titian under Giovanni Bellini is incorrect. The district 102 PORDENONE— PORISM about Pordenone had been somewhat fertile in capable painters; but Licinio excelled them all in invention and design, and more especially in the powers of a vigorous chiaroscurist and flesh painter. Indeed, so far as mere flesh-painting is concerned he was barely inferior to Titian in breadth, pulpiness and tone; and he was for a while the rival of that great painter in public regard. The two were open enemies, and Licinio would sometimes affect to wear arms while he was painting. He excelled Giorgione in light and shade and in the effect of relief, and was distinguished in perspective and in portraits; he was equally at home in fresco and in oil-colour. He executed many works in Pordenone and elsewhere in Friuli, and in Cremona and Venice; at one time he settled in Piacenza, where is one of his most celebrated church pictures, " St Catherine disputing with the Doctors in Alexandria"; the figure of St Paul in connexion with this picture is bis own portrait. He was formally invited by Duke Hercules II. of Ferrara to that court; here soon after- wards, in 1539, he died, not without suspicion of poison. His latest works are comparatively careless and superficial; and generally he is better in male figures than in female — the latter being somewhat too sturdy — and the composition of his subject- pictures is scarcely on a level with their other merits. Pordenone appears to have been a vehement self-asserting man, to which his style as a painter corresponds, and his morals were not unexceptionable. Three of his principal scholars were Bernar- dino Licinio, named II Sacchiense, his son-in-law Porhponio Amalteo, and Giovanni Maria Calderari. The following may be named among Pordenone's works: the picture of " S Luigi Giustiniani and other Saints," originally in S Maria dell' Orto, Venice; a " Madonna and Saints " (both of these in the Venice academy) ; the " Woman taken in Adul- tery," in the Berlin museum; trie " Annunciation," at TJdine, regarded by Vasari as the artist's masterpiece, now damaged by restoration. In Hampton Court is a duplicate work, the " Painter and his Family "; and in Burghley House are two fine pictures now assigned to Pordenone — the " Finding of Moses " and the " Adoration of the Kings." These used to be attributed to Titian and to Bassano respectively. PORDENONE, a town of the province • of Udine, Venetia, Italy, 30 m. W. by S. of Udine on the railway to Treviso. Pop. (1901), 8425 (town); 12,409 (commune). It was the birthplace of the painter generally known as II Pordenone (q.v.). Paintings from his brush adorn the cathedral (which has a fine brick campanile), and others are preserved in the gallery of the town hall. Cotton industries are active, and silk and pottery are manufactured. PORE, a small opening or orifice, particularly used of the open- ings of the ducts of the sweat-glands in the skin or of the stomata in the epidermis of plants or those through which the pollen or seed are discharged from anthers or seed capsules. The word is an adaptation through the French from Lat. porus, Gr. iropos, passage. In the sense of to look closely at, to read with persistent or close attention, " pore " is of obscure origin. It would seem to be connected with " peer," to look closely into, and would point to an 0. Eng. purian or pyrian. There is no similar word in Old French. PORFIRIUS, PUBLILIUS OPTATIANUS, Latin poet, possibly a native of Africa, flourished during the 4th century A;D. He has been identified with Publilius Optatianus, who was prae- f edits urbi (329 and 333), and is by some authorities included amongst the Christian poets. For some reason he had been banished, but having addressed a panegyric to the Emperor Constantine the Great, he was allowed to return. Twenty- eight poems are extant under his name, of which twenty were included in the panegyric. They have no value except as curiosities and specimens of perverted ingenuity. Some of them are squares (the number of letters in each line being equal), certain letters being rubricated so as to form a pattern or figure, and at the same time special verses or maxims; others represent various objects (a syrinx, an organ, an altar); others have special peculiarities in each line (number of words or letters) ; while the 28th poem (the versus anacyclici) may be read back- wards without any effect upon sense or metre. A complimentary letter from the emperor and letter of thanks from the author are also extant. The best edition of the poem is by L. Muller (1877). See also O. Seeck, " Das Leben des Dichters Porphyrius " in Rheinisches Museum (1908), lxiii. 267. PORISM. The subject of porisms is perplexed by the multitude of different views which have been held by geometers as to what a porism really was and is. The treatise which has given rise to the controversies on this subject is the Porisms of Euclid, the author of the Elements. For as much as we know of this lost treatise we are indebted to the Collection of Pappus of Alexandria, who mentions it along with other geometrical treatises, and gives a number of lemmas necessary for under- standing it. Pappus states that the porisms of Euclid are neither theorems nor problems, but are in some sort intermediate, so that they may be presented either as theorems or as problems; and they were regarded accordingly by many geometers, who looked merely at the form of the enunciation, as being actually theorems or problems, though the definitions given by the older writers showed that they better understood the distinction between the three classes of propositions. The older geometers regarded a theorem as directed to proving what is proposed, a problem as directed to constructing what is proposed, and finally a porism as directed to finding what is proposed («« iropi.criJ.6v avTov rod TrpoTHvofievov) . Pappus goes on to say that this last definition was changed by certain later geometers, who defined a porism on the ground of an accidental characteristic as to Xetroc vKodkau totlkov decoprifiaros, that which falls short of a locus-theorem by a (or in its) hypothesis. Proclus points out that the word was used in two senses. One sense is that of " corollary," as a result unsought, as it were, but seen to follow from a theorem. On the " porism " in the other sense he adds nothing to the definition of " the older geometers " except to say (what does not really help) that the finding of the center of a circle and the finding of the greatest common measure are porisms (Proclus, ed. Friedlein, p.-30i). Pappus gives a complete enunciation of a porism derived from Euclid, and an extension of it to a more general case. This porism, expressed in modern language, asserts that — given four straight lines of which three turn about the points in which they meet the fourth, if two of the points of intersection of these lines lie each on a fixed straight line, the remaining point of inter- section will also lie on another straight line. The general enuncia- tion applies to any number of straight lines, say («+i), of which n can turn about as many points fixed on the (»+i)th. These n straight lines cut, two and two, in \n {n-i) points, \n {n-i) being a triangular number whose side is (n-i). If, then, they are made to turn about the n fixed points so that any {n-i) of their \n (n-i) points of intersection, chosen subject to a certain limitation, lie on {n-i) given fixed straight lines, then each of the remaining points of intersection, § {n-i) {n-2) in number, describes a straight line. Pappus gives also a complete enuncia- tion of one porism of the first book of Euclid's treatise. This may be expressed thus : If about two fixed points P, Q we make turn two straight lines meeting on a given straight line L, and if one of them cut off a segment AM from a fixed straight line AX, given in position, we can determine another fixed straight line BY, and a point B fixed on it, such that the segment BM' made by the second moving line on this second fixed line measured from B has a given ratio X to the first segment AM. The rest of the enunciations given by Pappus are incomplete, and he merely says that he gives thirty-eight lemmas for the three books of porisms; and these include 171 theorems. The lemmas which Pappus gives in connexion with the porisms are interesting historically, because he gives (1) the fundamental theorem that the cross or an harmonic ratio of a pencil of four straight lines meeting in a point is constant for all transversals; (2) the proof of the harmonic properties of a com- plete quadrilateral; (3) the theorem that, if the six vertices of a hexagon lie three and three on two straight lines, the three points of concourse of opposite sides lie on a straight line. POROS— PORPHYRY 103 During the last three centuries this subject seems to have had great fascination for mathematicians, and many geometers have attempted to restore the lost porisms. Thus Albert Girard says in his Traite de trigonomUrie (1626) that he hopes to publish a restora- tion. About the same time P. de Fermat wrote a short work under the title Porismatum euclidaeorum renovata doctrina et sub forma isagoges recentioribus geometris exhibita (see Oeuvres de Fermat, i., Paris, 1891) ; but two at least of the five examples of porisms which he gives do not fall within the classes indicated by Pappus. Robert Simson was the first to throw real light upon the subject. He first succeeded in explaining the only three propositions which Pappus indicates with any completeness. This explanation was published in the Philosophical Transactions in 1723. Later he investigated the subject of porisms generally in a work entitled De porismatibus tractatus; quo doctrinam porismatum satis explicatam, et in posterum ab oblivione tutam fore spiral auctor, and published after his death in a volume, Roberti Simson opera quaedam reliqua (Glasgow, 1776). Simson's treatise, De porismatibus , begins with definitions of theorem, problem, datum, porism and locus. Respecting the porism Simson says that Pappus's definition is too general, and therefore he will substitute for it the following: " Porisma est propositio in qua proponitur demonstrare rem aliquam vel plures datas esse, cui vel quibus, ut et cuilibet ex rebus innumeris non quidem datis, sed quae ad ea quae data sunt eandem habent relationem, convenire ostendendum est affectionem quandam communem in propositione descriptam. Porisma etiam in forma problematis enuntiari potest, si nimirum ex quibus data demonstranda sunt, invenienda proponan- tur." A locus (says Simson) is a species of porism. Then follows a Latin translation of Pappus's note on the porisms, and the proposi- tions which form the bulk of the treatise. These are Pappus's thirty-eight lemmas relating to the porisms, ten cases of the proposi- tion concerning four straight lines, twenty-nine porisms, two pro- blems in illustration and some preliminary lemmas. John Play- fair's memoir (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1794, vol. hi.), a sort of sequel to Simson's treatise, had for its special object the inquiry into the probable origin of porisms — that is, into the steps which led the ancient geometers to the discovery of them. Playfair remarked that the careful investigation of all possible particular cases of a proposi- tion would show that (1) under certain conditions a problem becomes impossible; (2) under certain other conditions, indeterminate or capable of an infinite number of solutions. These cases could be enunciated separately, were in a manner intermediate between theorems and problems, and were called " porisms." Playfair accordingly defined a porism thus: "A proposition affirming the possibility of finding such conditions as will render a certain problem indeterminate or capable of innumerable solutions." Though this definition of a porism appears to be most favoured in England, Simson's view has been most generally accepted abroad, and has the support of the great authority of Michael Chasles. However, in Liouville's Journal de mathematiques pures et appliquees (vol. xx., July, 1855), P. Breton published Recherches nouvelles sur les porismes d'Euclide, in which he gave a new translation of the text of Pappus, and sought to base thereon a view of the nature of a porism more closely conforming to the definitions in Pappus. This was followed in the same journal and in La Science by a controversy between Breton and A. J. H. Vincent, who disputed the interpretation given by the former of the text of Pappus, and declared himself in favour of the idea of Schooten, put forward in his Mathematicae exercita- tiones (1657), in which he gives the name of " porism" to one section. According to F. van Schooten, if the various relations between straight lines in a figure are written down in the form of equations or proportions, then the combination of these equations in all possible ways, and of new equations thus derived from them leads to the discovery of innumerable new properties of the figure, and here we have " porisms." The discussions, however, between Breton and Vincent, in which C. Housel also joined, did not carry forward the work of restoring Euclid's Porisms, which was left for Chasles. His work {Les Trois livres de porismes d'Euclide, Paris, i860) makes full use of all the material found in Pappus. But we may doubt its being a successful reproduction of Euclid's actual work. Thus, in view of the ancillary relation in which Pappus's lemmas generally stand to the works to which they refer, it seems incredible that the first seven out of thirty-eight lemmas should be really equivalent (as Chasles makes them) to Euclid's first seven Porisms. Again, Chasles seems to have been wrong in making the ten cases of the four-line Porism begin the book, instead of the intercept-Porism fully enunciated by Pappus, to which the " lemma to the first Porism " relates intelligibly, being a particular case of it. An'inter- esting hypothesis as to the Porisms was put forward by H. G. Zeuthen (Die Lehre von den Kegelschnitten imAltertum, 1886, ch. viii.). Observing, e.g., that the intercept-Porism is still true if the two fixed points are points on a conic, and the straight lines drawn through them intersect on the conic instead of on a fixed straight line, Zeuthen conjectures that the Porisms were a by-product of a fully developed projective geometry of conies. It is a fact that Lemma 31 (though it makes no mention of a conic) corresponds exactly to Apollonius's method of determining the foci of a central conic (Conies, iii. 45-47 with 42). The three porisms stated by Diophantus in his Arithmetica are propositions in the theory of numbers which can all be enunciated in the form " we can find numbers satisfying such and such condi- tions "; they are sufficiently analogous therefore to the geometrical porism as defined in Pappus and Produs. A valuable chapter on porisms (from a philological standpoint) is included in J. L. Heiberg's Litterargeschichtliche Studien uber Euklid (Leipzig, 1882) ; and the following books or tracts may also be mentioned: Aug. Richter, Porismen nach Simson bearbeitet (Elbing, 1837); M. Cantor, " Ueber die Porismen des Euklid und deren Divinatoren," in Schlomilch's Zeitsch. f. Math. u. Phy. (1857), and Literaturzeitung (1861), p. 3 seq.; Th. Leidenfrost, Die Porismen des Euklid (Programm der Realschule zu Weimar, 1863) ; Fr. Buch- binder, Euclids Porismen und Data (Programm der kgl. Landesschule Pforta, 1866). (T. L. H.) POROS, or Poeo (" the Ford "), an island off the east coast of the Morea, separated at its western extremity by only a narrow channel from the mainland at Troezen, and consisting of a mass of limestone rock and of a mass of trachyte connected by a slight sandy isthmus. The town looks down on the beautiful harbour between the island and the mainland on the south. The ancient Calauria, with which Poros is identified, was given, according to the myth, by Apollo to Poseidon in exchange for Delos; and it became in historic times famous for a temple of the sea-god, which formed the centre of an amphictyony of seven maritime states — Hermione, Epidaurus, Aegina, Athens, Prasiae, Na.uplia, and Orchomenus. Here Demosthenes took sanctuary with " gracious Poseidon," and, when this threatened to fail him, sought death. The building was of Doric architecture and lay on a ridge of the hill commanding a fine view of Athens and the Saronic Gulf, near the middle of the limestone part of the island. The site was. excavated in 1894, and traces of a sacred agora with porticoes and other buildings, as well as the temple, have been found. In the neighbourhood of Poros-Calauria are two small islands, the more westerly of which contains the ruins of a small temple, and is probably the ancient Sphaeria or Hiera mentioned by Pausanias as the seat of a temple of Athena Apaturia. The English, French, and Russian plenipotentiaries met at Poros in 1828 to discuss the basis of the Greek government. See Chandler, Travels; Leake, Morea; Le Bas, Voyage archS- ologique; Curtius, Peloponnesos; Pouillon-Boblaye, Recherches; Bursian, Geographie von Criechenland; Rangabe " Ein Ausflug nach Poros," in Deutsche Revue (1883) ; and S. Wide, in Mitteilungen d. deutsch. Inst. Aihen. (1895), vol. xx. PORPHYRIO, POMPONIUS, Latin grammarian and com- mentator on Horace, possibly a native of Africa, flourished during the 2nd century a.d. (according to others, much later). His scholia on Horace, which are still extant, mainly consist of rhetorical and grammatical explanations. It is not probable that we possess the original work, which must, have suffered from alterations and interpolations at the hands of the copyists of the middle ages, but on the whole the scholia form a valuable aid to the student of Horace. Ed. W. Meyer (1874); A. Holder (1894); see also C. F. Urba, Melelemata porphyrionea (1885) ;R.Schweikert, DePorphyrionis. . . scholiis Horatianis (1865) ; F. Pauly, Quaestiones criticae de . . . Por- phyrionis commentariis Horatianis (1858). PORPHYRY (IIopc£i>pios) (a.d. 233-c. 304), Greek scholar, historian, and Neoplatonist, was born at Tyre, or Batanaea in Syria. He studied grammar and rhetoric under Cassius Long- inus (q.v.). His original name was Malchus (king), which was changed by his tutor into Porphyrius (clad in purple), a jesting allusion to the colour of the imperial robes (cf. porphyro- genitus, born in the purple). In 262 he went to Rom« attracted by the reputation of Plotinus, and for six years devoted himself to the study of Neoplatonism. Having injured his health by overwork, he went to live in Sicily for five years. On his return to Rome, he lectured on philosophy and endea- voured to render the obscure doctrines of Plotinus (who had died in the meantime) intelligible to the ordinary understanding. His most distinguished pupil was Iamblichus. When advanced in years he married Marcella, a widow with seven children and an enthusiastic student of philosophy. Nothing more is known of his life, and the date of his death is uncertain. Of his numerous works on a great variety of subjects the following are extant : Life of Plotinus and an exposition of his teaching in the 104 PORPHYRY 'A<2>opjuai irpos t& vo-i\to. (Sententiae ad intelligimtia ducentes, Aids to the study of the Intelligibles). The Life of Pythagoras, which is incomplete, probably formed part of a larger history of philosophy ((t>i\6croos laropia, in four books) down to Plato. His work on Aristotle is represented by the Introduction (tiaaywyo) to and Commentary (i£iiyi)tns, in the form of questions and answers) on the Categories. The first, translated into Latin by Boetius, was extensively used in the middle ages as a compendium of Aristotelian logic; of the second only fragments have been preserved. His Xpovuca, a chronological work, extended from the taking of Troy down to a.d. 270; to it Eusebius is indebted for his list of the Macedonian kings. The treatise i\o\oyos laropia is called an &/tp6ox<*i> (De abstinentia) , on abstinence from animal food, is especially valuable as having preserved numerous original statements of the old philosophers and the substance of Theophrastus's ILepi tivtPtias (On Piety). It also contains a long fragment from the Cretans of Euripides. The IIpAs MapKtXKav is an exhortation to his wife Marcella to practise virtue and self-restraint and to study philosophy. The letter to the Egyptian priest Anebo, dealing with religious questions, was answered by a member of the school of Iamblichus, who called himself Abammon, in the De mysteriis. It is frequently referred to by Eusebius, Cyril and Augustine. Eusebius preserved fragments of the Ilepl ttjs he \oyiwv (£iXoa mori), 1649, a vindication of the JZ'lkwv /3acn\iKrj, has been attributed with some reason to Porter. Authorities. — Life and Letters of Endymion Porter, by D. Towns- hend (1897); article in the Diet, of Nat. Biog., by C. H. Firth and authorities there cited; Memoires, by D. Lloyd (1668), p.657; Burton's Hist, of Scotland (1873), vi. 346-347; Eng. Hist. Rev. ii. 531, 692; Gardiner's Hist, of England; Lives of the Lords Strangford (1877), by E. B. de Fonblanque (Life and Letters) ; Wood, Athenae Oxonienses; Clarendon's History of the Rebellion; State Papers and Calendar of State Papers ; Calendar of State Papers: Dom. and of Committee for Compounding; The Chester s of Chichele, by Waters, i. 144-149; Eikon Basilike, by Ed. Almack, p. 94. There are also various references, &c, to Endymion Porter in Additional Charters, British Museum, 6223, 1633, '6225; Add. MSS. 15,858; 33, 374; and Egerton 2550, 2533; in the Hist. MSS. Comm. Series; MSS. of Duke of Portland, &c, and in Notes and Queries; also Thomason Tracts, Brit. Mus., E 118 (13). PORTER, FITZ-JOHN (1822-1901), American soldier, was born at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on the 31st of August 1822. He was the son of a naval officer, and nephew of David Porter of the frigate " Essex." He graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1845 an d wa s assigned to the artillery. In the Mexican War he won two brevets for gallantry — that of captain for Molino del Rey and that of major for Chapultepec. He served at West Point as instructor and adjutant (1849-1855), and he took part in the Utah expedition. At the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 he was employed on staff duties in the eastern states, and rendered great assistance in the organization of Pennsylvanian volunteers. In the absence of higher authority Porter sanctioned on his own responsibility the request of Missouri Unionists for permission to raise troops, a step which had an important influence upon the struggle for the possession of the state. He became colonel of a new regiment of regulars on the 14th of May, and soon afterwards brigadier-general of volunteers. Under McClellan he commanded a division of infantry in the Peninsular campaign, and directed the Union siege operations against Yorktown, and he was soon afterwards placed in com- mand of the V. army corps. When the Seven Days' battle (q.v.) began Porter's corps had to sustain alone the full weight of the Confederate attack, and though defeated in the desperately fought battle of Gaines's Mill (June 27, 1862) the steadiness of his defence was so conspicuous that he was immediately promoted major-general of volunteers and brevet brigadier- general U.S.A. His corps, moreover, had the greatest share in the successful battles of Glendale and Malvern Hill. Soon after- wards, with other units of the Army of the Potomac, the V. corps was sent to reinforce Pope in central Virginia. Its inaction on the first day of the disastrous second battle of Bull Run (q.v.) led to the general's subsequent disgrace; but it made a splendid fight on the second day to save the army from complete rout, and subsequently shared in the Antietam campaign. On the same day on which McClellan was relieved from his command, Porter, his warm friend and supporter, was suspended. A few days later he was tried by court-martial on charges brought against him by Pope, and on the 21st of January 1863 was sentenced to be cashiered " and for ever disqualified from holding any office of trust under the government of the United States." After many years Porter's friends succeeded (1878) in procuring a revision of the case by a board of distinguished general officers. This board reported strongly in Porter's favour, but at the time the remission of the disqualifying penalty was all that was obtained in the way of redress. General Grant had now taken Porter's part, and wrote an article in vol. 135 of the North American Review entitled " An Undeserved Stigma." Against much opposition, partly political (1879-1886) andavetoon a legal point from President Arthur, a relief bill finally passed Congress, and Porter was on the 5th of August 1886 restored to the United States army as colonel and placed on the retired list, no provision, however, being made for compensation. After the Civil War General Porter was engaged in business in New York, and later held successively many important municipal offices. In 1869 he declined the offer made by the khedive of the chief command of the Egyptian army. He died on the 21st of May 1901, at Morristown, New Jersey. See, besides General Grant's article, Cox, The Second Battle of Bull Run as connected with the Porter Case (Cincinnati, 1882); Lord, A Summary of the Case of F. J. Porter (1883), an d papers in vol. ii. of the publications of the Military Historical Society of Massachusetts. PORTER, HENRY (fl. 1596-1599), English dramatist, author of The Two Angry Women of Abingdon, may probably be identified with the Henry Porter who matriculated at Brasenose College, Oxford, on the 19th of June 1389, and is described as aged sixteen and the son of a gentleman of London. From 1596 to 1599 he was engaged in writing plays for Henslowe for the admiral's men, and his closest associate seems to have been Henry Chettle. The earlier entries in Henslowe's Diary are respectful in tone, and the considerable sums paid to " Mr Porter " prove that his plays were popular. Henslowe secured in February 1599 the sole rights of any play in which Porter had a hand, the consideration being an advance of forty shillings. As time goes on he is familiarly referred to as "Harry Porter"; his borrowings become more frequent, and the sums less, until on the 16th of April 1599 he obtained a loan of twelve pence in exchange for a bond to pay all he owed to Henslowe— twenty- five shillings — on pain of forfeiting ten pounds. Whether he paid or not does not appear, but his last loan is recorded on the 26th of May 1599, after which nothing further is known of him. It seems in the highest degree unlikely that he is the Henry Porter who took his degree as Mus. Bac. at Christ Church in 1600 after twelve years' study, and whose skill in sacred music is cele- brated in an epigram by John Weever. The entries in Henslowe's Diary indicate that he wrote a play called Love Prevented (1598), Hot Anger soon Cold, with Chettle and Ben Jonson (1598), the second part of The Two Angry Women of Abingdon (-1598), The Four Merry Women of Abingdon (1599), and The Spencers (1599), with Chettle. None of these are extant, unless, as has been suggested, Love Prevented is another name for The Pleasant History of the two angry women of Abingdon. With the humorous mirth of Dick Coomes and Nicholas Proverbes, two serving men (1599), the importance of which is well described by Professor Gayley: " As a comedy of unadulterated native flavour, breath- ing rural life and manners and the modem spirit, constructed with knowledge of the stage, and without affectation or n6 PORTER, HORACE— PORTER, N. constraint, it has no foregoing analogue except perhaps The Pinner of Wakefield. No play preceding or contemporary yields an easier conversational prose, not even the Merry Wives." Alexander Dyce edited the Angry Women for the Percy Society in 1841 ; and it is included in W. C. Hazlitt's edition of Dodsley's Old Plays (1874). It was edited by Havelock Ellis in Nero and other plays (1888, " Mermaid Series,") and in Representative English Comedies (1903), with an introduction by the general editor, Professor CM. Gayley. PORTER, HORACE (1837- ), American diplomatist and soldier, was born in Huntingdon, Pennsylvania, on the 15th of April 1837; son of David Rittenhouse Porter (1788-1867), governor of Pennsylvania in 1830-1845, and grandson of Andrew Porter (1743-1813), an officer in the Continental Army during the War of Independence, and surveyor-general of Pennsylvania from 1809 until his death. Horace Porter studied for a year (1854) at the Lawrence scientific school of Harvard University, and then entered the United States Military Academy, where he graduated in i860, third in his class. During the Civil War he was chief of ordnance at the capture of Fort Pulaski; then served in the Army of the Potomac until after Antietamjwas transferred to the west, where he took part in the battles of Chickamauga (for gallantry in which he received a congressional medal of honour in June 1902) and Chattanooga; and in April 1864 became aide-de-camp to General Grant, in which position he served until March 1869. He earned the brevet of captain at Fort Pulaski, that of major at the battle of the Wilderness, and that of lieutenant-colonel at New Market Heights, and in March 1865 was breveted colonel and brigadier-general. From August 1867 to January 1868, while General Grant was secretary of war ad interim, Porter was an assistant secretary, and from March 1869 to January 1873, when Grant was president, Porter was his executive secretary. He resigned from the army in December 1873, when he became vice-president of the Pullman Palace Car Company and held other business positions. From March 1897 to May 1905 he was United States ambassador to France. At his personal expense he conducted (1899-1905) a successful search for the body of John Paul Jones, 1 who had died in Paris in 1792. For this he received (May 9, 1906) a unanimous vote of thanks of both Houses of Congress, and the privileges of the floor for life. In 1907 he was a member of the American delegation to the Hague Peace Conference. General Porter became well-known as a public speaker, and delivered orations at the dedication of General Grant's tomb in New York, at the centennial of the founding of West Point, and at the re-interment of the body of John Paul Jones at Annapolis. His publications include West Point Life (1866) and Campaigning with Grant (1897). PORTER, JANE (1776-1850), British novelist, daughter of an army surgeon, was born at Durham in 1776. Her life and reputation are closely linked with those of her sister, Anna Maria Porter (1780-1832), novelist, and her brother, Sir Robert Ker Porter (17 7 5-1842), painter and traveller. After their father's death, in 1779, the mother removed from Durham, their birth- place, to Edinburgh, where the children's love of romance was stimulated by their association with Flora Macdonald and the young Walter Scott. Mrs Porter moved to London, so that her son might study art, and the sisters subsequently resided at Thames Ditton and at Esher with their mother until her death in 1831. Anna Maria Porter published Artless Tales in 1793- 1795, the first of along series of works of which the more note- worthy are Walsh Colville (1797), Octavia (1798), The Lake of Killarney (1804), A Sailor's Friendship and a Soldier' s Love (1805) , The Hungarian Brothers (1807), Don Sebastian (1809), Ballads, Romances and other Poems (1811), The Recluse of Norway (1814), The Knight of St John (1817), The Fast of St Magdalen (1818), The Village of Mariendorpt (1821), Roche Blanche (1822), Honor O'Hara (1826) and Barony (1830). Jane Porter— whose intel- lectual power, though slower in development and in expression, was greater than her sister's — had in the meantime gained imme- diate popularity by her first work, Thaddeus of Warsaw (1803), 1 See Jones, John Paul, and an article by General Porter, " The Recovery of the Body of John Paul Jones," in the Century Magazine, (1905), lxx. 927 sqq. which was translated into several languages and procured her election as canoness of the Teutonic order of St Joachim. In 18 10, four years before the appearance of Waverley, she attempted national romance in her Scottish Chiefs. The story of Wallace had been a favourite one in her childhood, and she was probably well acquainted with the poem of Blind Harry (Henry the Minstrel). Although the book lacked historical accuracy, and the figure of Wallace is a sentimental conception of the least convincing kind, the picturesque power of narration displayed by Miss Porter has saved the story from the oblivion which has overtaken the works of most of Scott's predecessors in historical fiction. Her later works included The Pastor's Fireside (1815), Duke Christian of Liineburg (1824), Coming Out (1828) and The Field of Forty Footsteps (1828). In conjunction with her sister she published in 1826 the Tales round a Winter Hearth. She also wiote some plays, and frequent contributions to current periodical literature. Sir Edward Seaward' s Diary (183 1) was asserted by Miss Porter to be founded on documents placed in her hands by the author's family, but is generally regarded as pure fiction. The claim of her eldest brother, Dr William Ogilvie Porter, to its authorship rests on a memorial inscription in Bristol Cathedral, written by Jane. On the 21st of September 1832 Anna Maria died, and for the next ten years Jane became " a wanderer " amongst her relations and friends. Robert Ker Porter had in his own way been scarcely less successful than his sisters. After two years of study at the Royal Academy he had gained reputation as a painter of altar- pieces and battle-scenes of imposing magnitude. He went to Russia as historical painter to the emperor in 1804, travelled in Finland and Sweden, where he received knighthood from Gustavus IV. in 1806, and accompanied Sir John Moore to Spain in 1808. In 1811 he returned to Russia and married a Russian princess. He was knighted by the Prince Regent in 1813. Ini8i7he travelled to Persia by way of St Petersburg and the Caucasus, returning through Bagdad and western Asia Minor. He examined the ruins of Persepolis, making many valuable drawings and copying cuneiform inscriptions. In 1826 he became British consul in Venezuela. His services there were recognized by a knight commandership of the Order of Hanover. Accounts of his wanderings are to be found in his Travelling Sketches in Russia and Sweden (1808), Letters from Portugal and Spain (1809), Narrative of the late Campaign in Russia (1813), and Travels in Georgia, Persia, Armenia, Ancient Babylonia &°c, during the years 1817-1820 (1821-1822). After leaving Venezuela (1841) he again visited St Petersburg, and died there suddenly on the 4th of May 1842. Jane Porter, who had joined him in Russia, then returned to England and took up her residence with her eldest brother at Bristol, where she died on the 24th of May 1850. PORTER, MARY (d. 1765), English actress, was brought to the attention of Betterton by Mrs Barry, who had seen her play the Fairy Queen at Bartholomew Fair. In his company she made her first appearance in 1699, in tragedy, in which she was at her best, although she also played a long list of comedy parts. When her friends, Mrs Barry, Mrs Bracegirdle and Mrs Oldfield, had retired from the stage, she was left its undisputed queen. She died on the 24th of February 1765. PORTER, NOAH (1811-1892), American educationalist and philosophical writer, was born in Farmington, Connecticut, on the 14th of December 181 1. He graduated at Yale College, 1 83 1, and laboured as a Congregational minister in Connecticut and Massachusetts, 1836-1846. He was elected professor of moral philosophy and metaphysics at Yale in 1846, and from 1871 to 1886 he was president of the college. He edited several editions of Noah Webster's English dictionary, and wrote on education, &c. His best-known work is The Human Intellect, with an Introduction upon Psychology and the Human Soul (1868), comprehending a general history of philosophy, and following in part the " common-sense " philosophy of the Scottish school, while accepting the Kantian doctrine of intuition, and declaring the notion of design to be a priori. He died in New Haven on the 4th of March 1892. PORTEUS— PORT HURON 117 PORTEUS, BEILBY (1731-1808), bishop of London, was born at York and educated at Christ's College, Cambridge, where he became fellow in 1752. He was ordained in 1757, and in 1762 was appointed domestic chaplain to the archbishop of Canterbury. In 1767 he became rector of Lambeth, and took his D.D. degree at Cambridge, preaching on that occasion a sermon which in- duced John Norris (1734-1777) to found the Norrisian professor- ship of divinity. About two years later he was appointed chaplain to the king and master of the hospital of St Cross, Winchester. In 1776 he became bishop of Chester, and in 1787 he was translated to London. He was a supporter of the Church Missionary and the British and Foreign Bible societies, and laboured for the abolition of slavery. Of his published works the Review of the Life and Character of Archbishop Seeker (London, 1770), and the Summary of the principal Evidences for the Truth and Divine Origin of the Christian Revelation (London, 1800), have passed through numerous editions. PORTFOLIO (shortened form of porto folio, adapted from the Ital. portafogli, portare, to carry, and fogli, sheets or leaves of paper, Lat. folium, leaf), a case for keeping papers, documents, prints, maps, &c, usually a leather book-cover with a flexible back. As the official documents of a state department are in the hands of the minister of that department, the word " port- folio " is frequently used figuratively of the office itself, par- ticularly on the continent of Europe, where the " portfolio " is the symbol of office, as, in English usage, the " seals " are for the secretaryships of state. The phrase " minister without port- folio " is applied to a member of a ministry to whom no special department is assigned. PORT GLASGOW, a municipal and police burgh and seaport of Renfrewshire, Scotland, on the southern shore of the Firth of Clyde, 20j m. W.N.W. of Glasgow by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1001), 16,857. The ground behind the town rises to a height of 700 ft. and is partly occupied by villas. Amongst the principal buildings are the town house (1815), with a tower and spire; the town hall (1873); the library (1887) founded by James Moffat, a merchant of the burgh, and the Carnegie Park Orphan- age, also provided from the same bequest. Birkmyre Park was opened in 1894. The industries include shipbuilding and allied trades, engineering works, and iron and brass foundries. The area of the port (which has wet and graving docks) amounts to 16 acres, and there are 2000 yds. of quayage. The harbours are accessible at all stages of the tide. The district originally formed part of the parish of Kilmalcolm, the nucleus of the town being the village of Newark attached to the barony of that name. In 1668 it was purchased from Sir Patrick Maxwell of Newark by the Glasgow magistrates, who here constructed a harbour. In 1695 it was erected into a separate parish under the name of New Port Glasgow. In 1710 it became the chief custom-house port for the Clyde, until superseded by Greenock. The graving dock made in 1762 was the first dock of the kind in Scotland. In 1775 Port Glasgow was created a burgh of barony and since 1832 has formed one of the Kilmarnock parliamentary burghs (with Kilmarnock, Dumbarton, Renfrew and Rutherglen). It is governed by a council with provost and bailies. Adjoining the town on the east are the picturesque ruins of Newark Castle, a quadrangular building dating from the end of the 16th century. Formerly the property of the Dennistouns, it now belongs to the Shaw-Stewarts. PORTHCAWL, a seaport and urban district in the mid- parliamentary division of Glamorganshire, South Wales, 30 m. by rail W. of Cardiff and 22 m. S.E. of Swansea. Pop. (1901) 1872. The urban district (formed in 1893) is conterminous with the civil parish of Newton Nottage, which, in addition to Porthcawl proper, built on the sea-front, comprises the ancient village of Nottage, 1 m. N., and the more modern village of New- ton, 1 m. N.E. of Porthcawl. The natural harbour of Newton (as it used to be called) was improved by a breakwater, and was connected by a tramway with Maesteg, whence coal and iron were brought for shipment. The tramway was converted into a railway, and in 1865 opened for passenger traffic. In 1866 a dock (7^ acres) and tidal basin (2^ acres) were constructed, but since about 1902 they have fallen into disuse and the coal is diverged to other ports, chiefly Port Talbot. Porthcawl, however, has grown in popularity as a watering-place. Situated on a slightly elevated headland facing Swansea Bay and the Bristol Channel, it has fine sands, rocks and breezy commons, on one of which, near golf links resorted to from all parts of Glamorgan, is " The Rest," a convalescent home for the working classes, completed in 1891, with accommodation for eighty persons. The climate of Porthcawl is bracing, and the rainfall (averaging 25 in.) is about the lowest on the South Wales coast. The district is described by R. D. Blackmore in his tale The Maid of Sker (1872), based on a legend associated with Sker House, a fine Elizabethan building in the adjoining parish of Sker, which was formerly extra-parochial. The parish church (dedicated to St John the Baptist) has a pre-Reformation stone altar and an ancient carved stone pulpit, said to be the only relic of an earlier church now covered by the sea. PORT HOPE, a town and port of entry of Durham county, Ontario, Canada, on the north shore of Lake Ontario, 63 m. N.E. of Toronto by the Grand Trunk railway, and connected with Charlotte, the port for Rochester, New York, by a daily steamboat service. The population, 5585 in i88r, shrunk in 1901 to 4188, but is increasing owing to the popularity of the town as a summer resort. It is picturesquely situated on the side and at the foot of hills overlooking the lake; and Smith's Creek, by which it is traversed, supplies abundant water-power. Trade is carried on in lumber, grain and flour. Trinity College School, a residential school under Anglican control, has a long and creditable history. PORT HUDSON, a village in East Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana, U.S.A., on the left bank of the Mississippi, about r35 m. above New Orleans. At the sharp turn of the Missis- sippi here the Confederates in 1862 built on the commanding bluffs powerful batteries covering a stretch of about 3 m., their strongest fortifications along the Mississippi between New Orleans and Vicksburg. On the night of the 14th of March 1863 Admiral Farragut, with seven vessels, attempted to run past the batteries, commanded by Brigadier-General William M. Gardner, but four of his vessels were disabled and forced to turn back, one, the " Mississippi " was destroyed, and only two, the " Hartford " and the " Albatross " got past. General N. P. Banks's land attack, on the 27th of May, was unsuccessful, the Union loss, nearly 2000, being six times that of the Confederates. A second attack on the r4th of June, entailed a further Union loss of about 1800 men. But on the 9th of July, two days after the news of the surrender of Vicksburg, after a siege of 45 days, General Gardner surrendered the position to General Banks with about 6400 men, 50 guns, 5000 small arms and ammunition, and two river steamers. The Union losses during the siege were probably more than 4000; the Confederate losses about 800. The capture of Vicksburg and Port Hudson secured to the Union the control of the Mississippi. PORT HURON, a city and the county-seat of Saint Clair county, Michigan, U.S.A., at the confluence of the Saint Clair and Black rivers, and at the lower end of Lake Huron, about 60 m. N.N.E. of Detroit. Pop. (1900), 19,158 of whom 7142 were foreign-born ; (1910 U.S. census) 18,863 . It is served by the Grand Trunk and other railways, and by steamboat lines to Chicago and other ports. A railway tunnel, 6025 ft. long, under the Saint Clair, connects the city with Sarnia, Canada. The tunnel, which has an inside diameter of 20 ft., was constructed by the Grand Trunk railway in i88o-i89r at a cost of about $2,700,000, and was designed by Joseph Hobson (b. 1834). Port Huron is laid out with wide streets, on both sides of the Black river and along the shore of Lake Huron; it has attractive parks and mineral water springs, and is a summer resort. Among its buildings are the court house, the city hall, and a Modern Maccabee Temple — Port Huron being the headquarters of the Knights of the Modern Maccabees (1881), a fraternal society which, in 19T0, had a mem- bership of 107,737. Until 1908 Port Huron was the headquarters of the Knights of the Maccabees of the World (founded in 1883; 283,998 members in 1910). Port Huron has large shipping interests, and since 1866 has been the port of entry of the Huron n8 PORTICI— PORTLAND, EARL OF customs district. In 1908 its exports were valued at $16,958,080 and its imports at $4,859,120. The city has shipyards, dry docks, large shops of the Grand Trunk railway, publishing houses, and manufactories of agricultural implements, steel ships, automobiles, foundry products, paper and pulp, and toys. In 1904 the city's factory products were valued at $4,789,589. In 1686 the French established Fort St Joseph, a fortified trading post, which came into the possession of the British in 1761 and was occupied by American troops in 1814. The fort was renamed Fort Gratiot in honour of General Charles Gratiot (1788-1855), who was chief-engineer in General W. H. Harrison's army in 1813-1814, and was chief-engineer of the U.S. Army in 1 828-1 838. The settlement which grew up round the fort, and was organized as a village in 1840, was also known as Fort Gratiot, and was annexed to Port Huron in 1893. The fort was abandoned during 1837-1848, during 1852- 1866, and, permanently, in 1879. The earliest permanent settlement, in what later became Port Huron, was made in 1790 by several French families. This settlement, distinct from that at the fort, was first called La Riviere De Lude, and, after 1828, Desmond. It was platted in 1835, incorporated as a village in 1840 (under its present name), and chartered as a city in 1857. PORTICI, a town of Campania, Italy, in the province of Naples, 5 m. S.E. of Naples by rail, on the shores of the bay, and at the foot of Vesuvius. Pop. (1901), 14,239. The palace, erected in 1738, is traversed by the high road. It once contained the antiquities from Herculaneum, now removed to Naples, and since 1882 it has been a government school of agriculture. There is a small harbour. Just beyond Portici, on the south east, is Resina (pop, in 1901, «o,i82), on the site of the ancient Herculaneum, with several fine modern villas. The inhabitants are engaged in fishing, silk-growing and silk-weaving. The town was com- pletely destroyed by the eruption of Vesuvius in 1631. PORTICO (Ital. for " porch," Lat. porticus), a term in architecture for the covered entrance porch to a building, which is carried by columns, and either constitutes the whole front of the building, as in the Greek and Roman temples, or forms an important feature, as the portico of the Pantheon at Rome attached to the rotunda. A circular projecting portico, such as those to the north and south transepts of St Paul's Cathedral, and that which forms the west entrance of St Mary le Strand, is known as cyclostyle. The term porticus is used to distinguish the entrance portico in an amphiprostylar or peripteral temple from that behind which is called the posticum. PORTIERE, a hanging placed over a door, as its French name implies, or over the doorless entrance to a room. From the East, where doors are still rare, it came to Europe at a remote date — it is known to have been in use in the West in the 14th century, and was probably introduced much earlier. Like so many other domestic plenishings, it reached England by way of France, where it appears to have been originally called rideau de porte. It is still extensively used either as an ornament or as a means of mitigating draughts. It is usually of some heavy material, such as velvet, brocade, or plush, and is often fixed upon a brass arm, moving in a socket with the opening and closing of the door. PORT JACKSON, or Sydney Harbour, a harbour of New South Wales, Australia. It is one of the safest and most beautiful harbours in the world; its area, including all its bays, is about 15 sq. m., with a shore line of 165 m.; it has deep water in every part, arid is landlocked and secure in all weathers. The entrance, between two rocky promontories known as North and South Heads, is 2; m. wide between the outer heads, and narrows down to 1 m. 256 yds. The port is flanked on both sides by promontories, so that, in addition to a broad and deep central channel, there is a series of sheltered bays with good anchorage. Sydney lies on the southern shore about 4 m. from the Heads. Port Jackson is the chief naval depot of Australasia, the headquarters of the admiral's station, and is strongly fortified. The harbour has a number of islands, most of which are used for naval or government purposes — Shark Island is the quarantine station, Garden Island has naval foundries, hospital and stores, Goat Island is occupied by a powder magazine, Spectacle Island is used to store explosives, and on Cockatoo Island are important government docks. Port Jackson was discovered by Captain Phillip in 1788, though in 1770 Captain Cook, when coasting north, noticed what looked like an inlet, and named it after Sir George Jackson, one of the secretaries to the Admiralty. Captain Cook passed the harbour without recognizing its capacity; but the cliffs which guard the entrance are 300 ft. high, and no view of the basin can be seen from the masthead. Middle Head, which is opposite the entrance, closes it in, and it is necessary to enter, turn to the south, and then to the west before the best part of the harbour discloses itself. PORT JERVIS, a city of Orange county, New York, U.S.A., on the Delaware river, at its junction with the Neversink, 88 m. N.W. of New York city by rail, and at the intersection of the boundary lines of the states of New York, New Jersey and Penn- sylvania. Pop. (1900), 9385, of whom 895 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 9564. It is Served by the Erie and the New York, Ontario & Western railways. The beauty of the scenery in its vicinity has made the city a summer resort. At Port Jervis are situated the extensive shops of the Erie railway. Among the manufactures are wearing apparel, silk, glass, and silver ware. The value of the factory products increased from $1,009,081 in 1900 to $1,635,215 in 1905, or 62%. Port Jervis was laid out in 1826, soon after work began on the Dela- ware & Hudson Canal; it owes its origin to that waterway (now abandoned), and was named in honour of John Bloomfield Jervis (1795-1885), the engineer who constructed the canal, who, in 1836, was in charge of the construction of the Croton Aqueduct, and wrote Railway Property (1859) and The Construction and Management of Railways (1861). Port Jervis was incorporated as a village in 1853, and was chartered as a city in 1907. PORTLAND, EARL OF, an English title held by the family of Weston from 1633 to 1688, and by the family of Bentinck from 1689 to 1716, when it was merged in that of duke of Port- land. Sir Richard Weston (1577-1635), according to Clarendon " a gentleman of very ancient extraction by father and mother," was the son and heir of Sir Jerome Weston (c. 15 50-1 603) of Skreens, in Roxwell, Essex, his grandfather being Richard Weston (d. 1572) justice of the common pleas. A member of parliament during the reigns of James I. and Charles I., Sir Richard was sent abroad by James on two occasions to negotiate on behalf of the elector palatine Frederick V. ; after the murder of the duke of Buckingham, he became the principal counsellor of Charles I. In 1628 he was created Baron Weston of Neyland and in 1633 earl of Portland. Having in 1625 and 1626 had experience in' the difficult task of obtaining money for the royal needs from the House of Commons, Weston was made lord high treasurer in 1628. His own inclinations and the obstacles in the way of raising money made him an advocate of a policy of peace and neutrality. His conduct was frequently attacked in parliament, but he retained both his office and the confidence of the king until his death on the 13th of March 1635. His son Jerome, the 2nd earl (1605-1663), was imprisoned for plotting in the interests of Charles I. in 1643, and was nominally president of Munster from 1644 to 1660. He sat in the convention parliament of. 1660. He was succeeded by his son Charles (1639-1665), who was killed in a sea-fight with the Dutch off the Texel, and then by his brother Thomas (1609-1688), who died in poverty at Louvain, when the title became extinct. In 1689 it was revived by William III., who bestowed it upon his favourite William Bentinck (see below.) Sir Richard Weston must be distinguished from a contemporary and namesake, Sir Richard Weston (c. 1579-1652), baron of the exchequer. Another Sir Richard Weston (c. 1466-1542) was a courtier and a diplomatist under Henry VIII. ; his son was Sir Francis Weston (c. 1511-1536), who was beheaded for his alleged adultery with Anne Boleyn. This Sir Richard had a brother, Sir William Weston (d. 1 540) , who distinguished himself at the defence of Rhodes in 1522, and was afterwards prior of the Knights of St John in England. A third Sir Richard Weston (1591-1652), was mainly reponsible for introducing locks on the Wey and thus making this river navigable. Another family of Weston produced Robert Weston (c. 1515- 1573), lord chancellor of Ireland from 1566 until his death on the PORTLAND, EARL OF— PORTLAND 119 20th of May 1573. Other famous Westons were Stephen Weston ! (1665-1742) bishop of Exeter from 1724 until his death, and his son Edward Weston (1703-17 70) the writer. Much of the earl of Portland's correspondence is in the Public Record Office, London. For his political career see S. R. Gardiner, History of England (1883-1884), and L. von Ranke, Englische Geschichte (Eng. trans., Oxford, 1875). PORTLAND, WILLIAM BENTINCK, Earl of (c. 1645-1709), English statesman, was born, according to the Dutch historian, Groen van Prinsterer, in 1645, although most of the other authorities give the date as 1649. The son of Henry Bentinck of Diepenheim, he was descended from an ancient and noble family of Gelderland. He became page of honour and then gentleman of the bedchamber to William, prince of Orange. When, in 1675, the prince was attacked by small-pox, Bentinck nursed him assiduously, and this devotion secured for him the special and enduring friendship of William; henceforward, by his prudence and ability, he fully justified the confidence placed in him. In 1677 he was sent to England to solicit for the prince of Orange, the hand of Mary, daughter of James duke of York, afterwards James II., and he was again in England in 1683 and in 1685. When, in 1688, William was preparing for his invasion Bentinck went to some of the German princes to secure their support, or at least their neutrality, and he was also a medium of communication between his master and his English friends. He superintended the arrangements for the expedition and sailed to England with the prince. The revolution accomplished, Bentinck was made groom of the stole, first gentleman of the bedchamber, and a privy councillor; and in April 1689 he was created Baron Cirencester, Viscount Woodstock and earl of Portland. He commanded some cavalry at the battle of the Boyne in 1690, and was present at the battle of Landen, where he was wounded, and at the siege of Namur. But his main work was of a diplomatic nature. Having thwarted the plot to murder the king in 1696, he helped to arrange the peace of Ryswick in 1697; in 1698 he was ambassador to Paris, where he opened negotiations with Louis XIV. for a partition of the Spanish monarchy, and as William's representative, he signed the two partition treaties. Portland had, however, become very jealous of the rising influence of Arnold van Keppel, earl of Albemarle, and, in 1699, he resigned all his offices in the royal household. But he did not forfeit the esteem of the king, who continued to trust and employ him. Portland had been loaded with gifts, and this, together with the jealousy felt for him as a foreigner, made him very unpopular in England. He received 135,000 acres of land in Ireland, and only the strong opposition of a united House of Commons prevented him obtaining a large gift of crown lands in North Wales. For his share in drawing up the partition treaties he was impeached in 1701, but the case against him was not proceeded with. He was occasionally employed on public business under Anne until his death at his residence, Bulstrode in Buckinghamshire, on the 23rd of Novem- ber 1709. Portland's eldest son Henry (1680-1724) succeeded as 2nd earl. He was created marquess of Titchfield and duke of Portland in 1716. See G. Burnet, History of My Own Time (Oxford, 1833); Lord Macaulay, History 0] England (1854); L. von Ranke, Englische Geschichte (Em*, trans., Oxford, 1875); and especially Onno Klopp, Der Fall des Hauses Stuart (Vienna, 1875-1888). See also Dr A. W. Ward's article in vol. iv. of the Diet. Nat. Biog. PORTLAND, WILLIAM HENRY CAVENDISH BENTINCK, 3rd Duke of (i 738-1809), prime minister of England, son of William, 2nd duke (1709-1762), and grandson of the 1st duke. His mother, Margaret, granddaughter and heiress of John Holies, duke of Newcastle, brought to her husband Welbeck Abbey and other estates in Nottinghamshire. He was born on the 14th of April 1738, and was educated at Oxford, where he graduated M.A. in 1757. In 1761, as marquess of Titchfield, he became M.P. for the borough of Weobly (Hereford), but in May 1762 he was called to the upper house on the death of his father. Under the marquess of Rockingham he was, from July 1765 to December 1766, lord chamberlain, and on the return of Rockingham to power in April 1782 he was made lord-lieutenant of Ireland. After the short ministry of Shelburne, succeeding the death of Rockingham, the duke of Portland was selected by Fox and North as a " convenient cipher " to become the head of the coalition ministry, to the formation of which the king was with great reluctance compelled to give his assent. The duke held the premiership from the 5th of April 1783 until the defeat of the bill for " the just and efficient government of British India " caused his dismissal from office on the 1 7th of December following. Under Pitt he was, from 1794 to 1801, secretary of state for the home department, after which he was, from 1801 to 1805, president of the council. In 1807 he was appointed a second time prime minister and first lord of the treasury. Ill health caused him to resign in October 1809, and he died on the 30th of that month. He owed his political influence chiefly to his rank, his mild disposition, and his personal integrity, for his talents were in no sense brilliant, and he was deficient in practical energy as well as in intellectual grasp. He married in 1766 Lady Dorothy Cavendish (1750-1794), daughter of the 4th duke of Devonshire, and was succeeded as 4th duke by his son William Henry (1768-1854), who married a daughter of the famous gambler, General John Scott, and was brother-in-law to Canning. His son, the 5th duke, William John Cavendish Bentinck-Scott (1800-1879) died unmarried. He is notable for having constructed the underground halls at Welbeck Abbey, and for his retiring habits of life, which gave occasion for some singular stories. 1 He was succeeded by his cousin William John Arthur Charles James Cavendish- Bentinck (b. 1857) as 6th duke. PORTLAND, a seaport of Normanby county, Victoria, Australia, 250 m. by rail S.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901), 2185. It stands on the western shore of a magnificent bay, 24 m. long and 12 m. broad, and is the outlet for a rich agri- cultural and pastoral tract. PORTLAND, the largest city of Maine, U.S.A., the county- seat of Cumberland county, and a port of entry, on Casco Bay, about 115 m. by rail N.N.E. of Boston. Pop. (1890), 36,425; (1900), 50,145, of whom 34,918 were born in Maine, 3125 in the other New England states, 4476 in Canada, and 3273 in Ireland, and 291 were negroes; (1910 census) 58,571. Port- land is served by the Maine Central, the Boston & Maine, and the Grand Trunk railways; by steamboat lines to New York, Boston, Bar Harbor, Saint John, N.B., and other coast ports, and, during the winter season, by the Allan and Dominion transatlantic lines. It is connected by ferry with South Portland. 1 Public interest centred for some years round the allegation that he lived a double life and was identical with Mr T. C. Druce, an upholsterer of Baker Street, London, who, in 1851, married Annie May. The " Druce case," involving a claim to the title and estates, by Mrs Druce (widow of W. T. Druce, son of T. C. Druce by Annie May) on behalf of her son, aroused much attention from 1897 to 1908. The duke of Portland was undoubtedly buried in Kensal Green cemetery in 1879. " Druce," on the other hand, was supposed to have died in 1864 and been interred in Highgate cemetery, his will bequeathing over £70,000 in personal estate. Mrs Druce's claims had two aspects, both as involving the revocation of probate of T. C. Druce's will, and also as identifying Druce with the duke of Portland. But her application to have the grave in Highgate opened (with the object of showing that the coffin there was empty), though granted by Dr Tristram, chancellor of the diocese of London, was thwarted by a caveat being entered on the part of the executor of T. C. Druce's will; and the case became the subject of constant proceedings in the law-courts without result. Meanwhile it was discovered that children of T. C. Druce by a former wife were living in Australia, and Mrs Druce's claims fell into the background, the case being taken up independently by Mr G. H. Druce as the repre- sentative of this family, from 1903 onwards. A company to finance his case was formed in 1905, and in the autumn of 1907 he instituted a charge of perjury against Mr Herbert Druce, T. C. Druce's younger son and executor, for having sworn that he had seen his father die in 1864. Sensational evidence of a mock burial was given by an American witness named Caldwell, and others; but eventually it was agreed that the grave at Highgate should be opened. This was done on December the 30th, and the body of Mr T. C. Druce was then found in the coffin. The charge of perjury at once collapsed and was withdrawn on January 6th, the opening of the grave definitely putting an end to the story of an identity between the two men. 120 PORTLAND The hilly peninsula, to which Portland was confined until the annexation of the town of Deering in 1899, is nearly 3 m. in length by about f m. in average width; at its east end is Munjoy Hill, 160 ft. above the sea, and its west end Bramhall Hill, 15 ft. higher. Portland's total land area is about 215 sq. m. The scenery in and about the city is noted for its picturesqueness, and this, with its delightful summer climate and historic interest, attracts a large number of visitors during the summer season. Munjoy Hill commands a fine view of Casco Bay, which is over- looked by other wooded heights. There is excellent yachting in the bay, which contains many beautiful islands, such as Peaks and Cushing's islands. Bramhall Hill commands an extensive view west and north-west of the bay, the mainland, and the White Mountains some 80 m. distant. The city's park system includes the Western Promenade, on Bramhall Hill ; the Eastern Promenade, on Munjoy Hill ; Fort Allen Park, at the south extremity of the latter promenade ; Foit Sumner, another small park farther west, on the same hill; Lincoln Park, containing 2\ acres of beautiful grounds near the centre of the city; Deering's Oaks (made famous by Longfellow), the principal park (50 acres) on the peninsula, with many fine old trees, pleasant drives, and an artificial pond used for boating; and Monument Square and Boothby Square. There are many pleasant drives along the shore of the bay or the banks of rivers, and some of these lead to popular resorts, such as Riverton Park, on the Presumpscot ; Cape Cottage Park, at the mouth of the harbour; and Falmouth Foreside, boidering the inner bay. The streets of Portland are generally well paved, are unusually clean, and, in the residence districts, where the fire of 1866 did not extend, they are profusely shaded by elms and other large trees — Portland has been called the " Forest City." Congress Street, the principal thoroughfare, extends along the middle of the peninsula north-east and south-west and from one end of it to the other, passing in the middle of its course through the shopping district. In Portland's architecture, both public and private, there is much that is excellent ; and there are a number of buildings of historic interest. The Post Office, at the corner cf Exchange and Middle streets, is of white Vermont marble and has a Corinthian portico. The granite Customs House, extending from Fore Street to Commer- cial Street, is large and massive. The Public Library building is Romanesque and elaborately ornamented; the building was presented to the city by James P. Baxter; in the library is the statue, by Benjamin Paul Akers (1825-1861), of the dead pearl-diver, well known from Hawthorne's description in The Marble Faun. The Cumberland County Court House, of white Maine granite, occupies the block bounded by Federal, Pearl, Church and Newbury streets ; immediately opposite (to the south-west) is the Federal Court build- ing, also of Maine granite. The Portland Observatory, on Munjoy Hill, erected in 1807 to detect approaching vessels, rises 222 ft. above tide-water. In Monument Square, the site of a battery in 1775 is a soldiers' and sailors' monument (1889), a tall granite pedestal surmounted by a bronze female figure, by Franklin Simmons; at the corner of State Street is a statue of Henry W. Longfellow by the same sculptor; and where Congress Street crosses the Eastern Promenade, a monument to the first settlers, George Cleeve and Richard Tucker. On the Western Promenade there is a monument to Thomas Brackett Reed, who was a native and a resident of Port- land. On Congress Street, below the Observatory, is the Eastern Cemetery, the oldest burying ground of the city ; in it are the graves of Commodore Edward Preble, and of Captain Samuel Blythe (178.1-1813) and Captain William Burroughs (1785-1813), who were killed in the engagement between the British brig " Boxer " and the American brig " Enterprise," their respective ships, off this coast on the 5th of September 1813. The cemetery also contains monu- ments to Alonzo P. Stinson, the first soldier from Portland killed in the Civil War, to the Portland soldiers in the War of Independence, and to Rear-Admiral James Alden (1810-1877), of the U.S. Navy, a native of Portland. Among the churches are the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception (Roman Catholic), with a spire 236 ft. high, and St Luke's (Protestant Episcopal) Cathedral. In the Williston Church (Congregational), in Thomas Street, the Young People's Society of Christian Endeavor was founded in 1881 by the Rev. Francis E. Clark, then pastor of the church. The finest residence district is on Bramhall Hill. Many houses, especially in State, Danforth and Congress streets, are simple in style and old-fashioned in architecture. Of special interest to visitors is the Wadsworth- Longfellow House— the early home of Henry W. Longfellow — which was built in 1 785-1 786 by General Peleg Wadsworth (1748- 1829), a soldier of the War of Independence, a representative in Congress from 1793 to 1807, and the grandfather of the poet; was given by Longfellow's sister, Mrs Anne Longfellow Pierce (1810-1901) to the Maine Historical Society; and contains interesting relics of the Wadsworth and Longfellow families, and especially of the poet himself. Behind the " Home " is the Library of the Maine Historical Society. The birthplace of Longfellow is now a tenement house at the corner of Fore and Hancock streets, near the Grand Trunk railway station. In Portland, as in Bangor, the Maine Music Festival (begun in 1897) is held every year in October, three concerts being given by a chorus composed of local choruses trained in different cities of the state for the festival. Among the institutions are: The Medical School of Maine, the medical department of Bowdoin College — instruction being given here during the last two years of the course; Westbrook Seminary (chartered in 1 831, and empowered to grant degrees in 1 863); the Public Library, containing (1910) 65,000 vols.; the Library of the Maine Historical Society (30,000 vols.); the Mechanics' Library, the Greenleaf Law Library, the Maine General Hospital, and the United States Marine Hospital. The Portland Society of Natural History, founded in 1843 and incorporated in 1850, has a building (1880) containing a library and natural history collections. The city is supplied with good water from Lake Sebago, 17 m. distant. The harbour has an artificial breakwater and extensive modern fortifications (Fort Preble, on the Cape Shore; Fort Levett, on Cushing's Island; Fort Williams, at Portland Head; and Fort McKinley, on Great Diamond Island) among the best equipped in the United States. For a long period the city was noted for its commerce with the West Indies, which began to decline about 1876, but the coast trade and commerce with Great Britain are still con- siderable, especially in the winter, when Portland is the outlet of much of the trade from the Great Lakes that in the other seasons passes through Montreal. The principal exports are grain, live- stock and fruit. In 1908 the exports were valued at f 1 1,353,339 and the imports at $1,189,964. The Grand Trunk Railroad Company has here two of the largest grain warehouses on the Atlantic Coast. In 1905 Portland was the first manufacturing city of the state, with a factory product valued at $9,132,801 (as against $8,527,649 for Lewiston, which outranked Portland in 1900) ; here are foundries and machine-shops, planing-mills, car and railway repair shops, packing and. canning establishments — probably the first Indian corn canned in the United States was canned near Portland in 1840 — potteries, and factories for making boots, shoes, clothing, matches, screens, sleighs, carriages, cosmetics, &c. Ship- building and fishing are important industries. The first permanent settlement on the peninsula was established by George Cleeve and Richard Tucker at the foot of Munjoy Hill in 1633 immediately after they had been ejected from land which they had claimed at the mouth of the Spurwink. Soon the hill at the east end became the property of George Munjoy and that at the west end the property of George Bram- hall. The Indian name of the peninsula was Machegonne, and the new settlement was during the next few years known by various names, such as Casco, Casco Neck, Cleeve's Neck, and Munjoy's Neck. In 1658 Massachusetts extended its jurisdiction over this part of Maine. The peninsula, with considerable neighbouring territory and Cape Elizabeth, was organized as a town in 1718 and was named Falmouth. The town suffered so severely from the Indians in 1676 that it was deserted until 1678. It was attacked in 1689, and in 1690 it was utterly destroyed by the French and Indians, and remained desolate until after the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. When the port of Boston was closed by Great Britain in 1774 the bell of the old First Parish Church (Unitarian) of Portland (built 1740; the present building dates from 1825) was muffled and rung from morning till night, and in other ways the town showed its sympathy for the patriot cause. As a punishment, on the 1 8th of October 1775, the town was bombarded and burned by a British fleet. The peninsula portion of Falmouth was incorporated as a distinct town in 1786 and was named Portland. Portland was the capital of the state from 1820 to 1832 and in the latter year was chartered as a city. In 1886 a large central portion of the city, about 200 acres, was destroyed by a fire resulting from a Fourth of July celebration. Portland was the birthplace of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Thomas Brackett Reed, Edward Preble and his nephew George Henry Preble, Mrs Parton (" Fanny Fern "), Nathaniel Parker Willis, Seargent Smith Prentiss and Neal Dow, and it was the home of William Pitt Fessenden, Theophilus Parsons and Simon Greenleaf. See W. Willis, The History of Portland (Portland, 1865), and William Goold, Portland in the Past (Portland, 1886). PORTLAND, a city, port of entry and the county-seat of Multnomah county, Oregon, U.S.A., on the Willamette river, near its confluence with the Columbia, about 120 m. by water from the Pacific, 186 m. by rail S.S.W. of Seattle and about PORTLAND, ISLE OF— PORTLANDIAN 121 772 m. N. of San Francisco. Pop. (1890), 46,385; (1900), 90,426, of whom 25,876 were foreign-born (6943 Chinese); (1910 census) 207,214. Portland is served by the Northern Pacific, the Southern Pacific, the Canadian Pacific, the Great Northern and other railways, by transpacific vessels to Hong- Kong and Yokohama, by coast-wise vessels to San Francisco, to ports on Puget Sound, in British Columbia, and in Alaska, and by river boats sailing 100 m. farther up the Willamette and up the Columbia and the Clearwater to Lewiston, Idaho. The city is built on both sides of the river (which is crossed by five bridges), and covers about 44 sq. m. On the western side the ground rises gradually for a distance of f to i| m., and then rises abruptly 500-1000 ft. to " Portland Heights " and " Council Crest," beyond the much-broken surface of which rises the Coast range; on the eastern side a slightly rolling surface extends to the foot- hills of the Cascade Mountains. From " Portland Heights " there are fine views of the Columbia and Willamette valleys, and, par- ticularly, of the snow-clad summits of Mt Hood, Mt Jefferson, Mt St Helen's, Mt Adams and Mt Rainier (or Tacoma). In the residence districts (King's Hill, Nob Hill, Portland Heights, Willamette Heights, Hawthorne Avenue, &c.) are pleasantly shaded streets, and grounds decorated with shrubs, especially roses, which sometimes bloom as late as January — an annual " Rose Festival " is held here in June. The city has 205 acres in parks and numerous beautiful drives. It has a fine climate, the mean temperature during the winter months from 1874 to 1903 was 41° F. ; the mean summer temperature for the same period 65 F. For the year ending the 31st of May 1900 the death-rate was reported to be only 9 per 1000, and in 1907 to be only 8-28 per 1000. The city's water is brought through a pipe 30 m. in length from Bull Run river, which is fed by Bull Run Lake at an elevation of more than 3000 ft. in the Cascade Mountains. Among the prominent buildings are the Court House; the City Hall, containing the rooms of the Oregon Historical Society; the Customs House; the Protestant Episcopal Cathedral; the Public Library (with 75,000 volumes in 1908); several tall office buildings with frames of steel; and the Art Museum (1905). There are large grain elevators and miles of wharfs and docks. Among educational institutions are the law and medical departments of the University of Oregon, Hill Military Academy (1901) and Columbia University (Roman Catholic, 1901). The Oregonian, which was established here in 1850, is one of the most influential newspapers on the Pacific Slope. The harbour is accessible for vessels of 26 ft. draught and the city's leading industry is the shipment by water and by rail of fish (especially salmon) and of the products (largely lumber, wheat and fruits) of the rich Willamette and Columbia valleys. It is also an important jobbing centre. The value of the exports in 1908 amounted to $16,652,850 and the value of the imports to $2,937,513; the foreign trade is chiefly with Great Britain and its possessions, and with the Orient, where wheat and flour are exchanged for raw silk, tea and manila and other fibres. Portland is the principal manufacturing city of the state. The total value of its factory pro- duct in 1905 was §28,651,321. The principal manufactures were lumber and timber products ($3,577,465) and flour and grist mill pro- ducts ($2,712,735); other important manufactures were packed meat, planing-mill products, foundry and machine-shop products, railway cars (repaired), cordage and twine, and canned and preserved fish (salmon), oysters and fruits and vegetables. Portland, named after Portland, Maine, was founded in 1845 by t wo real-estate men from New England, and was char- tered as a city in 185 1. Its early growth was promoted by the demand for provisions from California soon after the discovery of gold there, and although a considerable portion was swept by fire in 1873 the city had a population of nearly 20,000 before railway communication with the East was established by the Northern Pacific in 1883. East Portland and Albina were annexed to the city in July 1891. The Lewis and Clark Cen- tennial and American Pacific Exposition and Oriental Fair was held in Portland in 1905 in commemoration of the expedition of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to this region in 1805. The forestry building, 205 ft. long by 108 ft. wide and built of logs of Oregon fir 6 ft. or more in diameter and 54 ft. long, and a building devoted entirely to the subject of irrigation, were of unusual interest. The forestry building is now maintained as a museum chiefly for timber and timber products. PORTLAND, ISLE OF, properly a peninsula of the coast of Dorsetshire, England, as a prolongation of a narrow ridge of shingle, Chesil Bank (q.v.), connects it with the mainland. Pop. (1901), 15,262. It is 4 m. long and nearly if in extreme breadth, with an area of about 4! sq. m. The shores are wild and precipitous, and Portland is inaccessible from the sea except towards the south. The highest point, close upon 500 ft., is the Verne hill in the north. Wave action is seen in the numerous caverns, and south-east of Portland Bill, the southern extremity of the isle, is a bank called the Shambles, between which and the land there flows a dangerous current called the Race of Portland. A raised beach is seen at Portland Bill. The substratum of the island is Kimeridge Clay, above which rests beds of sand and strata of Oolitic limestone, widely famed as a building stone. Extensive quarries, which are Crown property, have supplied the materials for St Paul's Cathedral and many other important public buildings. In the " dirt-bed " resting upon the Oolitic strata numerous specimens of petrified wood are found, some of great size. The soil, though shallow, is fertile, and mutton fed on the grass has a peculiar rich flavour. Quarrying, fishing and agriculture are the chief industries. Several curious local customs are retained by the inhabitants. A joint railway of the Great Western and London & South Western companies runs south from Weymouth to Portland (4! m.) and Easton (85 m.) on the isle. The isle contains a convict prison with accommodation for about 1500 prisoners. Portland Castle, built by Henry VIII. in 1520, is generally occupied by the commander of the engineers or of the regiment stationed on the island. On a rock on the eastern side are remains of a more ancient fortress, Bow and Arrow Castle, ascribed to William Rufus. A harbour of refuge, begun in 1847 under the direction of the Admiralty, was completed some fifteen years later. A breakwater stretching in a northerly direction from the north-east corner of the island partially enclosed a large area of water naturally sheltered on the south and west. An inner arm ran nearly east from the island and terminated in a masonry head and fort, and an outer detached arm bent to the north and terminated in a circular fort, a narrow entrance for shipping being left between the two. It was formed of a rubble mound quarried by convict labour at the summit of the island, and was lowered by a wire-rope incline to the sea. The harbour thus made was open on the north to Weymouth and the Channel, but the necessity for greater protection from torpedo attack made it advisable to complete the enclosure. Accordingly the Naval Works Acts of 1895 and subsequent years sanctioned works for closing the gap — about 2 m. long — between the end of the outer breakwater and the Bincleaves rocks near Weymouth, by two new breakwaters. One of these runs nearly east from the Bincleaves shore and is about 4642 ft. long, while from its extremity the other, about 4465 ft. long, stretches in a south-east_ direction towards the old outer breakwater, passages for navigation about 700 ft. wide separating it from its neighbours at each end. These new structures also consist of rubble mounds. The defensive harbour thus completely enclosed has an area of 2200 acres to the one-fathom line, of which 1500 acres have a depth of not less than 30 ft. at low water. There is no dockyard at Portland, but the watering and coaling arrangements for the supply of the fleet are of considerable importance. There is a coaling jetty and camber for the storage of both sea-borne and land-borne coal, with hydraulic appliances for handling it. The harbour and island are strongly fortified. The isle of Portland is not mentioned in the time of the Romans. In 83 7 it was the scene of an action against the Danes, and in 1052 it was plundered by Earl Godwine. In 1643 the parliamentary party made themselves masters of the island and castle, but shortly afterwards these were regained by the Royalists through a clever stratagem, and not recovered again by the forces of the parliament till 1646. PORTLANDIAN, in geology, a subdivision of the Upper Jurassic system that includes the strata lying between the Kimeridge Clay and the Purbeck beds. These rocks are well exposed on the isle of Portland, Dorsetshire, where they have been quarried for more than 200 years. J. Mitchell appears to have been the first to use the term " Portland lime " in geological literature (1788); T. Webster spoke of the " Portland Oolite " in 1812. In England the strata are very variable; the upper part consists principally of limestones, shelly, oolitic or 122 PORTLOCK— PORTMANTEAU compact, or in places very closely resembling chalk (Upway, Portisham, Brill, Chilmark). Nodules and layers of chert are well developed in some of the limestones of Dorsetshire and elsewhere; and a silicified oolite occurs near St Alban's Head. About Swindon, beds of sand are common in the Upper Portland beds with layers of calcareous sandstone (Swindon stone). Marly and sandy beds occur also at Shotover Hill. The lower portion is usually sandy and shows a gradual passage into the underlying Kimeridge Clay. W. H. Fitton in 1827 gave the name " Portland Sand" to this division. The Upper Port- landian in Dorsetshire is 130-170 ft. thick; the Lower Portlandian in the same district is 100-120 ft. These rocks crop out from South Dorsetshire into Wiltshire, Oxfordshire and Buckingham- shire, and possibly extend beneath younger rocks into Bedford- shire and Cambridgeshire. They have been proved by borings in Sussex and Kent, and in Yorkshire they are represented by part of the Speeton Clays, and in Lincolnshire by part of the Spilsby Sand. At Swindon and Aylesbury a conglomeratic layer with small pebbles of lydite and phosphatized fossils lies at the base of the Portland Stone. The Upper Portlandian of England is characterized by the ammonite Perisphinctes giganteus, along with Cytheria (Cyrena) rugosa, Trigonia gibbosa, Perisphinctes boloniensis and Trigonia incurva as subzonal forms. Olcostephanus gigas is the zonal ammonite in the Lower Portlandian, associated with Trigonia Pellati, Cyprina Brongniarti, Exogyra brantrutana and Astarte Saemanni as subzonal indices. Other characteristic fossils are Cerithium portlandicum, the casts of which form the familiar " Portland screw," Isastraea oblonga, the Chelonian Slegochelys; the remains of saurians Pliosaurus and Cimoliosaurus and others are found; Mesodon, Ischyodus and other fishes occur in this formation. The Portland limestones have been much in demand for building purposes; at Portland the " Top Roach," the " Whit Bed" or top freestone, and the " Best Bed" (or Base Bed) are the best known. In the Vale of Wardour the lower Portlandian has been largely quarried; the stone from this neighbourhood is often described as Wardour, Tisbury or Chilmark stone. Swindon stone is a calcareous sandstone that occurs in the sands of the Upper Portland beds near Swindon. Rocks of Portlandian age are well developed on the continent of Europe, but the grouping of the strata is different in some respects from that adopted by English geologists. In France the " Port- landian " is usually taken to include the Purbeckian as well as the equivalents of the English Portland beds, and some authors, e.g. E. Renevier, have included more or less of the Kimeridgian in this division. The Portlandian of north-west Germany includes the Eimbeckhauser Plattenkalk and the Lower Portland Kalk. Oppel's " Tithonian " (tithonic) division, embracing Upper Kimeridge beds, Portlandian and Purbeckian beds in the Alpine district, is now recognized as a deeper water deposit of this time with many points of resemblance to the Russian development to which the name " Volgian " has been applied by S. Nikitin. The Portlandian beds of Yorkshire are more nearly related to the Volgian phase than to the beds of the same age in the south of England. The term Bono- nian ( = Bolonian) was suggested by J. F. Blake in 1881 for a part of the Portlandian series, from their occurrence at Boulogne (Bononia) where they are similar to the beds of Dorset. He limited the name Portlandian to the Purbeckian and Upper Portlandian (Portland stone), while he placed the Portland Sands and upper part of the Kimeridge Clay in his Bolonian division: this scheme has not been accepted in England. See Jurassic. PORTLOCK, JOSEPH ELLISON (1794-1864), British geologist and soldier, the only son of Nathaniel Portlock, captain in the Royal Navy, was born at Gosport on the 30th of September 1794. Educated at the Royal Military Academy he entered the Royal Engineers in 1813. In 1814 he took part in the frontier operations in Canada. In 1824 he was selected by Colonel (afterwards Major-General) T. F. Colby ^784-1852) to take part in Ordnance Survey of Ireland. He was engaged for several years in the trigonometrical branch, and subse- quently compiled information on the physical aspects, geology and economic products of Ireland. In 1837 he formed at Belfast a geological and statistical office, a museum for geological and zoological specimens, and a laboratory for the examina- tion of soils. The work was then carried on by Portlock as the geological branch of the Ordnance Survey of Ireland, and the chief results were embodied in his Report on the Geology oj the County of Londonderry and of parts of Tyrone and Fermanagh (1843), an elaborate and well-illustrated volume in which he was assisted by Thomas Oldham. After serving in Corfu and at Portsmouth he was, in 1849, appointed Commanding Royal Engineer at Cork, and from 1851-1856 he was Inspector of Studies at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. For a short time commanding officer at Dover, when the Council of Military Education was formed in 1857 he was selected as a member. During these years of active service he contributed num- erous geological papers to the scientific societies of Dublin and to the British Association. He published in 1848 a useful treatise on geology in Weale's " Rudimentary Series" (3rd. ed., 1853). He was president of the geological section of the British Association at Belfast (1852), and of the Geological Society of London (1856-1858). He wrote a Memoir of the late Major- General Colby, with a Sketch of the Origin and Progress of the Trigonometrical Survey (reprinted in 1869 from Papers on Subjects connected with the Royal Engineers, vols, iii.-v.). He also contributed several articles on military subjects to the 8th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1837. He died in- Dublin on the 14th of February 1864. PORT MAHON, or Mahon (Spanish Puerto Mahon), the capital and principal seaport of Minorca, in the . Spanish province of the Balearic Islands. Pop. (1900), 17,144. Port Mahon is situated on the east coast, at the head of a deep inlet which extends inland for 3! m. It is an important harbour (see Minorca). The city occupies a conspicuous hill, and presents a fine appearance from the sea; it is solidly built of excellent stone. Many of the houses date from the British occupation, which has also left curious traces in the customs and speech of the people. The King's Island (Isla del Rey, so called as the landing-place of Alphonso III. of Aragon in 1287) contains a hospital built by the admiral of the British squadron in 1722; farther south-east on the shore is the village of Villa Carlos or George Town, with ruins of extensive British barracks; and at the mouth of the port, on the same side, are the remains of Forte San Felipe, originally erected by Charles V. and twice the scene of the capitulation of British troops. Oppo- site San Felipe is the easily defended peninsula of La Mola (256 ft. high), which is occupied by extensive Spanish fortifi- cations. Mahon is one of the principal quarantine stations of Spain; the lazaretto, erected between 1798 and 1803, stands on a long tongue of land, separated from La Mola by the inlet of Cala Taulera. The principal modern buildings are the military and naval hospitals, the theatre, museum, library and schools. There are an arsenal and extensive quays. From its position on the route of vessels plying between Algeria and the south of France, the harbour is much frequented by French cargo- steamers; it is also a Spanish naval station. The principal exports are grain, live stock and fruit; cement, coal, iron, machinery, flour, raw cotton and hides are imported. Shoes and cotton and woollen goods are manufactured. About 250 vessels enter the port every year, and the annual value of the foreign trade is, approximately, £200,000 to £250,000. Mahon is the ancient Portus Magonis, which under the Romans was a municipium (Mun. flavium magontanum) , probably including the whole island under its authority. As the name suggests, it had previously been a Carthaginian settlement. The Moors, who occupied Minorca in the 8th century, were expelled by James I. of Aragon in 1232. Khair-ed-Din Barbarossa besieged and captured the city in 1535; and in 1558 it was sacked by a corsair called Piali. The British, who under James Stanhope, afterwards Earl Stanhope, seized the island in 1708, made Mahon a flourishing city, and in 1718 declared it a free port. In 1756 it fell into the hands of the French through the failure of Admiral Byng to relieve the garrison of St Philip's (San Felipe). Restored to the British in 1762, it was in 1782 heroically but unsuccessfully defended by General Murray. In 1802 it was finally ceded to Spain by the treaty of Amiens. PORTMANTEAU, a leather case or trunk for carrying articles of personal use when travelling. The typical portmanteau of PORTO ALEGRE— PORTO MAURIZIO 123 the present day has two compartments which, fastened at the back by hinges, close together like a book. The original port- manteau (adopted from Fr. portemanteau, porter, to carry, manteau, cloak, mantle) was a flexible round leather case to hold a cloak or other garment and of such a shape as could conveni- ently be carried on a rider's saddle. In French the word was also applied to a bracket or set of pegs on which to hang clothes. C. L. Dodgson (" Lewis Carroll ") in Through the Looking Glass (" The Song of the Jabberwock ") used the expression " port- manteau word " of an invented word composed of two words run together and supposed to convey humorously the combined meaning: thus " slithy " conveys slimy and lithe; " mimsy," flimsy and miserable. PORTO ALEGftE, a city and port of Brazil, capital of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, at the northern extremity of Lagoa dos Patos on the eastern shore of an estuary called Rio Guahyba, about 160 m. from the port of Rio Grande do Sul at the entrance to the lake. The population which contains a large foreign element, chiefly German and Italian, was returned as 73,574 by the census of 1900, including some outlying districts not within urban limits. The municipio (commune), which has an area of 931 sq. m., had a population of nearly 100,000* in- cluding a large number of prosperous colonists. The railway from Porto Alegre to Novo Hamburgo and Taquara (55 m.) affords an outlet for some of the older German colonies. The railway from Porto Alegre to Uruguayana is completed from Margem da Taquary to Cacequy, 232 m. Its starting point, Margem da Taquary, is about 80 m. from the city, with which it is connected by river steamers. An extension of the railway is projected from Margem da Taquary to Neustadt on the Novo Hamburgo line, and will give the city direct railway connexion with the principal cities of western and southern Rio Grande do Sul. The Rio Guahyba, which is not a river, was once called " Viamao " because its outline is roughly that of the human hand, the rivers entering the estuary at its head corresponding to the fingers. The lower channels of these rivers (the Gravaty, Sinos, Cahy, Jacuhy and Taquary) are all navigable and bring considerable trade to the port. Its foreign trade is limited to light-draught steamers able to cross the bar at the entrance to the lake. The city occupies a tongue of land projecting into the estuary, and extends along its shores and back to a low wooded hill. Its site, as seen from the water, is attractive, though its larger part is an almost level plain. There are pleasant suburbs along the shore and farther inland (Floresta, Gloria, Moinhos de Vento, i.e. " Windmills," Navigantes and Partenon). The climate is sub- tropical, cool and bracing in winter but insufferably hot in summer. The mean annual temperature is slightly under 69 ° F., the average maximum being a little over 82 and the average minimum 59 . The annual rainfall is about 30J in. The city is regularly laid out with broad, straight, well-paved streets, in great part lined with shady trees. The waterside streets, however, follow the curve of the beach. There are several public squares and gardens, the more important being the Praga Harmoma, the Praga d'Alfandega, Pra<;a da Independencia and the Parque, where an exposition was held in 1901. The public water supply is drawn from a range of hills 6 m. distant and is considered good. Porto Alegre, like many Brazilian cities, is in a transition stage, and handsome new structures of French and Italian styles rise from among the low, heavy and plain old buildings of Portuguese origin. Brick and broken stone are chiefly used in the walls, which are plastered out- side and tinted. Tiles are used for roofing, and on modern edifices stucco ornamentation is lavishly employed. The most noteworthy public buildings are the Cathedral (Porto Alegre being the see of a Roman Catholic bishop), the handsome church of Nossa Senhora das Dores, the municipal palace, school of engineering, government palace, legislatiye halls, school of medicine, athenaeum, normal school and public library and military barracks. One of the hos- pitals — that of Caridade — is the largest in the state. The city is the chief commercial centre of the state and has shipyards for the con- struction of river and lake vessels. It manufactures cotton fabrics, boots and shoes, iron safes and stoves, carriages, furniture, butter and cheese, macaroni, preserves, candles, soap and paper. Porto Alegre was founded in 1743 by immigrants from the Azores and was at first known as Porto dos Cazaes. Owing to the occupation of the southern part of the captaincy by the Spaniards, Governor Jose Marcellino de Figuereido selected this village in 1770 as his official residence and gave to it the name it now bears. It was made a villa in 1803, and in 1807, when Rio Grande do Sul was made a captaincy-general, the transfer of the capital from Rio Grande to Porto Alegre was officially recognized. In 1822 it was raised to the rank of a city, and in 1841, as a reward for its loyalty in revolutionary wars of that province, it was distinguished by the title of leal e valorosa (loyal and valorous). The first German immigrants to settle near Porto Alegre arrived in 1825, and much of its prosperity and commercial standing is due to the German element. PORTOCARRERO, LUIS MANUEL FERNANDEZ DE (163 5-1 709), cardinal archbishop of Toledo, was a younger son of the marquis of Almenara and was born on the 8th of January 1635. He became dean of Toledo early, and was made cardinal on the 5th of August 1669. Till 1677 he lived at Rome as cardinal protector of the Spanish nation. In 1677 he was ap- pointed interim viceroy of Sicily, counsellor of state and arch- bishop of Toledo. He ceased to be viceroy of Sicily in 1678. As archbishop of Toledo he exerted himself to protect the clergy from the obligation to pay the excises or octroi duties known as ".the millions " and thereby helped to perpetuate the financial embarrassments of the government. His position rather than any personal qualities enabled him to play an important part in a great crisis of European politics. The decrepit King Charles II. was childless, and the disposal of his inheritance became a question of great interest to the European powers. Porto- carrero was induced to become a supporter of the French party, which desired that the crown should be left to one of the family of Louis XIV., and not to a member of the king's own family, the Habsburgs. The great authority of Portocarrero as cardinal and primate of Spain was used to persuade, or rather to terrify the unhappy king into making a will in favour of the duke of Anjou, Philip V. He acted as regent till the new king reached Spain and hoped to be powerful under his rule. But the king's French advisers were aware that Spain required a thorough financial and administrative reform. Portocarrero could not see, and indeed had not either the intelligence or the honesty to see, the necessity. He was incapable, obstinate and per- fectly selfish. The new rulers soon found that he (must be removed and he was ordered to return to his diocese. When in 1706 the Austrian party appeared likely to gain the upper hand, Portocarrero was led by spite and vexation to go over ta them. When fortune changed he returned to his allegiance to Philip V., and as the government was unwilling to offend the Church he escaped banishment. In 1709 when Louis XIV. made a pretence of withdrawing from the support of his grand- son, the cardinal made a great display of loyalty. He died on the 14th of September and by his orders the words Hie jacet pulvis, cinis, el nihil were put on his tomb. See Lord Stanhope, History of the War of Succession in Spain (London, 1832). PORTO FARINA, a town of Tunisia about 20 m. E. of Bizerta, on the Ghar-el-Mela, a lagoon, also known as the Lake of Porto Farina, at the mouth of the Mejerda (the ancient Bagradas). Porto Farina was the naval arsenal of the piratical beys of Tunis and was bombarded by the English under Admiral Blake in 1655. The lagoon has become very shallow in consequence of the silt brought down by the Mejerda. The town has ceased to be important, and its inhabitants have dwindled to about 1500. The ruins 10 m. to the south-west, near the village of Bu Shater, are identified with the ancient Utica (g.v.). PORTO MAURIZIO, a city of Liguria, Italy, the capital of the province of Porto Maurizio, on the coast of the Ligurian Sea, 46 m. by rail E. of Nice and 70 m. S.W. of Genoa, 115 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 7207. It consists of a picturesque old town on the heights and a modern town of villas on the lower slopes. The principal church, designed by Gaetano Cantone, is a large structure of 1780 with a dome rebuilt in 1821. A few remains of the old city walls may be seen. About 2 m. north- east of Porto Maurizio is the town of Oneglia, with a fine church, S. Giovanni Battista, designed by Gaetano Amoretti, a hospital (1785) and a large prison. It suffered considerably from the earthquake of 1887. Maurizio and Oneglia lie on the same b\ 124 PORTO NOVO— PORTO RICO and bcih have small but safe harbours, both are frequented for sea-bathing, and both are embowered amid olive groves; and the district is famous for the quality of its oil. The two towns together form one commune, called imperia, which had a population of 15,459 in 1907. Porto Maurizio appears as Partus Maurici in the Maritime Itiner- ary. After being subject to the marquises of Turin (nth century) and of Clavesana, it was sold by Boniface of Clavesana in 1288 to Genoa in return for a yearly payment; in 1354 it became the seat of the Genoese vicar of the western Riviera, and remained in the possession of the republic till it was merged in the kingdom of Sardinia. Oneglia, formerly situated inland at the place called Castelvecchio (old castle), has occupied its present site from about 935. The bishops of Albenga sold it in 1298 to the Dorias of Genoa, who in their turn disposed of it in 1576 to Emanuel Philibert of Savoy. In the wars of the house of Savoy Oneglia often changed hands. In 1614 and 1649 the Spaniards and in 1623 and 1672 the Genoese obtained possession; in 1692 it had to repulse an attack by a French squadron; in 1 744-1 745 it was again occupied by the Spaniards, and in 1792 bombarded and burned by the French. Pellegrino Amoretti, assistant secretary to Charles V., and Andrea Doria, the famous admiral, were natives of Oneglia- See G. Donaudi, Storia di Porto Maurizio (1889). PORTO NOVO, a town of British India, on the Coromandel coast in the South Arcot district of Madras. Pop. (1901), 13,712. The English began trading here in 1683, when they found both the Danes and the Portuguese already established. The place is chiefly famous for the battle in July 1781, in which Sir Eyre Coote with 8000 men defeated Hyder Ali with 60,000 and saved the Madras presidency. In 1830 an attempt, finally unsuccessful mainly owing to the lack of fuel, was made to smelt iron from the ores found in the vicinity. PORTO-RICHE, GEORGES DE (1849- ), French dramatist, was born at Bordeaux. When he was twenty his pieces in verse began to be produced at the Parisian theatres; he also wrote some books of verse which met with a favourable reception, but these early works were not reprinted. In 1898 he published The&tre d'amour, which contained four of his best pieces, La Chance de Franqoise, L'Infidele, Amour euse, Le Passe. The title given to this collection indicates the difference between the plays of Porto-Riche and the political or sociological pieces of many of his contemporaries. In Germaine, the passionate and exacting heroine of Amoureuse, Mme Rejane found one of her best parts. In Les Malefildtres (Odeon, 1904), also a drama of passion, the characters are drawn from the working classes. PORTO RICO, or Puerto Rico (" Rich Harbour "), an island of the United States of America, the most easterly and the fourth in size of the Greater Antilles, situated between 17 50' and 18 30' N., and between 65 30' and 67° 15' W., about 70 m. E. of Haiti, and 500 m. E. by S. of Cuba. It is about 100 m. long from east to west, 40 m. wide near the west end, and somewhat narrower towards the east end, and has an area of 3435 sq. m. Physical Features. — A range of mountains, varying in height from 2000 ft. to about 3750 ft. on El Yunque Peak in the north- east corner, traverses the island from west to east and descends abruptly to the sea at each end. The south slope rises precipi- tously from the foothills; the north slope is more gradual, but it is much broken by rugged spurs and deep gorges. On the north there is little coastal plain except at the mouths of rivers, but on the south coast there is a plain of considerable extent broken only by the remains oi eroded foothills. The water parting is about twice as far from the north coast as it is from the south coast, the rain- fall is greater on the north slope, and the principal rivers — Rio Loiza, Rio de la Plata, Rio Manati and Rio Arecibo are on the north side. There are eight other rivers on the same side, seventeen on the south side, six at the east end and four at the west end, besides more than 1200 smaller streams, and the deep valleys cut by the streams add to the broken surface of the country. None of the rivers is navigable for more than a mile or two from the coast. The coast-line has few indentations sufficient to afford safe harbour- age. Under the same jurisdiction as Porto Rico are the fertile island of Vieques (21 m. long and 6 m. wide) and the smaller and nearly barren island of Culebra off the east coast, the island of Mona, covered with deposits of guano, off the west coast, and numerous islets. Fauna. — The native fauna is scanty. The agouti and the armadillo are practically extinct and the only other mammals are ground squirrels, rats, a few other small rodents, and some bats. A huge land-turtle is peculiar to the island. Reptiles are scarce, and venomous reptiles unknown. Noxious insects are less numerous than is usual in tropical countries. There are no large game birds, but song birds and doves are numerous on the mountains, and flamingoes and other water-birds frequent the coast. There are a few species of fresh-water fish, but food-fishes are scarce both in the rivers and along the coast. Flora. — The flora is beautiful and varied. The more rugged districts and higher elevations are clad with such tropical forest trees as ebony, Spanish cedar, sandalwood, rosewood and mahogany. There are several species of palms, flowering trees, trees with beautifully coloured foliage, tree ferns, resinous trees and trees bearing tropical fruits. There are about thirty species of medicinal plants, twelve used for condiments, and twelve for dyes and tanning. In the semi-arid districts on the south slope of the mountains the flora consists chiefly of dry grasses, acacias, yuccas and cactuses. Climate. — The climate is somewhat more healthy than that of the other West Indies. The temperature is moderated by the north-east trade winds, which, somewhat modified by local con- ditions, blow throughout the year, briskly during the day and more mildly during the night. It rarely reaches loo" F. or falls below 50 , and the mean annual temperature is about 8o° (75-2° in January, 80-4° in August). The mean daily variation at San Juan is 11-5°; on the mountains the mean daily variation is 23 . The average annual rainfall on the north-east coast, at the foot of Agu ® «w .„*♦•> PORTO RICO LL English Miles J° Y*gua9 v MalaPasova ^ ■Problnciat lloundar/et .. Railways*...- Emery Walker tc El Yunque Mountain, is 120 in. or more, while other districts are semi-arid or subject to severe droughts. At San Juan the average annual rainfall is about 55 in. ; nearly two-thirds of this falls from June to November inclusive. Most of the rain is in showers, frequently heavy; and on the windward slope showers are an almost daily occurrence. The island is visited occasionally by hurricanes. Soil. — Close to the coast the soil is for the most part a coral sand. Farther inland in the level districts and river bottoms it varies from a sandy to a clay loam containing much alluvium. On the foothills and in the less rugged mountain districts there is a thin but rich clay soil derived from coral limestone. Industries. — A little more than one-fourth of the land is under cultivation and in 1899 more than three-fifths of the working popu- lation were engaged in agriculture. There were over 39,000 farms, nearly all of them small, and the average number of acres cultivated on each was not more than fifteen. Sugar on the lowlands, coffee on the upper, and tobacco on the lower mountain slopes are the principal crops. In 1909 there were 185,927 acres of sugar, yielding 244,257 tons for exportation, and valued at $18,432,446. The coffee plantations were greatly injured by a severe hurricane which visited the island on the 8th of August 1899, but the yield for export increased from 12,157,240 lb in 1901 to 38,756,750 lb, valued at $4,693,004, in 1907. The acreage, however, decreased from 178,155 acres in 1906 to 155,778 acres in 1909, and in the latter year the crop fell to 28,489,263 lb. Java coffee has been grown with success in Porto Rico. Tobacco of a superior quality is grown extensively on the lower northern slopes and much tobacco is now grown under cloth. The total acreage of tobacco increased from 12,871 acres in 1906 to 27,596 acres in 1909; the total value of the exported tobacco products increased from $681,642 in 1901 to $5,634,130 in 1909. Cotton, Indian corn, sweet potatoes, yams and rice are small crops. The culture of citrus fruits, principally oranges and grape-fruit, and of pineapples and coco-nuts has been rapidly extended. About 13,000 head of cattle were exported annually from 1901 to 1905, but much of the best grazing land has since been devoted to the cultivation of sugar-cane. A project for irrigating the district south of the mountains between Ponce and Patillas was adopted by the Porto Rican government in 1909. The Federal government has an agricultural experiment station at Mayaguez. PORTO RICO 125 The mineral resources are very limited. Brick clay and lime- stone are abundant, and there are on the south coast a sand marl rich in phosphates and productive salt deposits. Iron ore, lignite, copper, mercury, molybdenite, nickel, platinum and other minerals have been found, but the quantity of each is too small, or the quality too poor, for them to be of commercial value. There are important mineral and thermal springs in various parts of the island. The only manufacturing industries of much importance are the preparation of sugar, coffee and tobacco for market, and the manufacture of cigars, cigarettes, straw hats, soap, matches, vermicelli, sash, doors, ice, distilled liquors and some machinery. Transport facilities are inadequate. The American Railroad of Porto Rico, about 190 m. long, connects the principal cities along the north and west coasts and those as far east as Ponce on the south coast; a railway between Ponce and Guayama, farther east, was virtually completed in 1910, and the Vega Alta railroad connects Vega Alta with Dorado on the north coast; but there are no inland railways and most of the products of the interior are carried to the coast in carts drawn by bullocks or on the backs of mules. The mileage of wagon roads was increased from about 170 m. in 1898 to 612 m. in 1909. The principal har- bours are San Juan on the north and Ponce on the south coast; the former is accessible to vessels of about 30 ft. draught, and the latter has a natural channel which admits vessels of 25 ft. draught. Two lines of steamboats afford regular communication between San Juan and New York; one of them runs to Venezuelan ports and one to New Orleans ; and there are lines to Cuba and direct to Spain. The commerce of Porto Rico is principally with the United States. The value of its exports to the United States increased from $5,581,288 in the fiscal year ending on the 30th of June 1901 to $26,998,542 in 1909, and the value of its imports from the United States increased during this period from $7,413,502 to $25,163,678. In the meantime the value of its exports to foreign countries increased only from $3,002,679 to $4,565,598, and the value of its imports from foreign countries only from $1,952,728 to $3,054,318- Population. — The population increased from 583,308 in i860 to 798,565 in 1887, and to 953,243, or 277-5 per sq. m., in 1899. Of the total population in 1899, 589,426, or 61 -8% were whites, 304,352 were of mixed blood, 59,390 were negroes and 75 were Chinese. In 1910 the census returned the population as 1,118,012. The proportion of whites is greater at the west end than at the east end, greater on the north side than on the south side, and greater in the interior than along the coast. Only 13,872, or about 1-5% of the total population of 1899, were foreign-born, and of these more than one-half were born in Spain. The married portion of the population was only 16.6% in 1899. The principal towns, with the population of each in 1910, are: San Juan, 48,716; Ponce, 35,027; Mayaguez, 16,591 ; Arecibo, 9612. The Roman Catholic is the predominant church and the bishopric of Porto Rico (151 2) is one of the oldest in the New World. Government. — The constitution of Porto Rico is contained in an act of the Congress of the United States (the Foraker Act) which came into operation in May 1900. The governor is appointed by the president of the United States with the advice and consent of the Senate for a term of four years, and associated with the governor is an executive council consisting of the secretary, treasurer, auditor, attorney-general, commissioner of the interior, commissioner of education, and five other members, all appointed in the same manner and for the same term as the governor. The constitution requires that at least five of the eleven members of the Executive Council shall be native inhabitants of Porto Rico; in practice the six members who are also heads of the administrative departments have been Americans while the other five have been Porto Ricans. The insular government, however, has created a seventh administra- tive department — that of health, charities and corrections — and requires that the head of this shall be chosen by the governor from among the five members of the Executive Council who are not heads of the other departments. The Executive Council constitutes one branch of the legislative assembly; the House of Delegates the other. The House of Dele- gates consists of 35 members elected biennially, five from each of seven districts. The right to determine the electoral franchise is vested in the legislature itself and that body has conferred it upon practically all adult males. The governor has the right to veto any bill, and for passing a bill over his veto an affirmative vote of two-thirds of the members of each house is required. All laws enacted by the insular legislature must also be submitted to the Congress of the United States, which reserves the right to annul them. Railway, street railway, telegraph and telephone franchises can be granted only by the Executive Council with the approval of the governor, and none can be operative until it has been approved by the President of the United States. The governor and Executive Council have the exclusive right to grant all other franchises of a public or quasi-public nature and Congress reserves the right to annul or modify any such grant. , The administration of justice is vested in a United States district court and a supreme court, district courts, municipal courts and justice of the peace courts of Porto Rico. The judge of the United States district court and the chief justice and associate justices of the supreme court are appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate, and the judges of the district courts by the governor with the consent of the Executive Council. The principal local government is that of the municipalities or municipal districts, but for the Spanish municipal government the insular legislature has substituted one resembling that of small towns in the United States, and it has reduced the number of dis- tricts from 66 to 47. Each municipal district elects biennially a mayor and a municipal council, the membership of which varies from five to nine according to the population of the district. The mayor appoints practically all municipal employes and may veto any ordinance of the council; his veto, however, may be overridden by two-thirds of the council. The police force of each municipality, or rather of each of 66 police districts, is maintained and controlled by the insular government; justice in each municipality is also administered by the insular government; the building, maintenance and repair of public roads are under the management of a board of three road supervisors in each of the seven insular election districts; and matters pertaining to education are for the most part under the insular commissioner of education and a school board of three members elected biennially in each municipality; nearly all other local affairs are within the jurisdiction ef the mayor and municipal council. Education. — In 1899 more than three-fourths of the inhabitants ten years of age or over were unable to read or write, and when in the following year the present system of government was estab- lished large powers were given to the commissioner of education. He controls the expenditure of public money for school purposes, the examination and the appointment of teachers, whose nomina- tions by the municipal school boards are referred to the commis- sioner. The school system comprises preparatory schools, rural schools, graded schools, three high schools and the university of Porto Rico. The university at Rio Piedras was established by act of the insular legislature in 1903, but in 1910 only two depart- ments had been organized — the insular normal school and the department of agriculture. Numerous scholarships have been established at government expense in Porto Rican schools and in colleges or universities of the United States. The average daily attendance in the public schools increased from 47,277 in 1906- 1907 to 74,522 in 1908-1909. Each municipality is required to pay to its school board 25% of its receipts from the general property tax. Finance. — Trade between Porto Rico and the United States is free, but upon imports to Porto Rico from foreign countries the Federal government collects custom duties and pays the net proceeds to the insular government. Other principal sources of income are excise taxes, a general property tax, an inheritance tax. and a tax on insurance premiums. For the fiscal year ending June 1909 the net income of the insular government was $3,180,111.75 and the net bonded indebtedness was $3,759,231 -22. History. — On his second voyage Columbus sighted the island, to which he gave the name San Juan Bautista, and remained in its vicinity from the 17th to the 22nd of November 1493. In 1508 Nicolas de Ovando, governor of Hispaniola (Haiti) rewarded the services of Juan Ponce de Leon, one of Columbus's companions in 1493, by permitting him to explore the island, then called by the natives " Borinquen," and search for its reputed deposits of gold. Ponce's hospitable reception by the native chief, Aquebana or Guaybana, and his fairly profitable search for the precious metal led King Ferdinand in 1 509 to give him an appointment as temporary governor of the island, where his companions had already established the settlement of Caparra (Pueblo Viejo, near the present San Juan). In 15 10 the king through Ovando's influence made this commission permanent. Meanwhile Ferdinand had also restored to Diego Columbus, son of the discoverer, the privileges of his father, including the control of the islands of Haiti and Porto Rico. The new admiral removed Ponce and appointed Juan Cer6n to administer the affairs of Porto Rico. The quarrels between these two leaders disturbed the affairs of the island for the next 126 PORTO RICO two years, but in the end Ponce was forced to yield the political control to the representatives of Columbus. While Ponce was exploring Florida in 1513 the conquerors of Porto Rico had established their domination in the upper western portion of the island by a series of settlements. The ruthless methods by which the Spaniards forced the natives to labour for them caused a change in the attitude of the erstwhile friendly Borinquenos. Both Ponce and his rivals had introduced the system of repar- timientos established by Columbus in Haiti. A preliminary distribution of 1060 natives in 1500-1510 was the direct pre- cursor of the rebellion of the natives in 1511. For a time the Borinquenos, aided by Caribs from the neighbouring islands, threatened to destroy all vestiges of white occupation in Porto Rico, but in the end the Spaniards prevailed. Immediately after this rebellion a second distribution of more than 4000 natives foreshadowed the rapid disappearance of those un- fortunates, despite the well-meaning regulations of the Council of the Indies. For some decades the inevitable extermination was postponed by the fact that the Spaniards were not numerous enough to occupy the southern and eastern portions of the island. Here a remnant of the Borinquenos, assisted by the Caribs, maintained a severe struggle with the conquerors, but in the end their Indian allies were subdued by English and French corsairs, and the unfortunate natives of Porto Rico were left alone to experience the full effect of forced labour, disastrous hurricanes, natural plagues and new diseases introduced by the conquerors. By 1520 philanthropic churchmen directed their attention to the miserable conditions of the natives; but remedial legislation was largely nullified by the rapacity of subordinate officials, and before the end of the 16th century the natives disappeared as a distinct race. To replace the natives as a labour element and also to preserve them from extermination African slavery was early permitted, and by 1530 there were over 1500 negro slaves in Porto Rico. Although the extravagant prices paid at first almost ruined the planters, the traffic continued to flourish in hands of foreign concessionaires until 1820, when through English influence it was abandoned. At this period negroes were an important element of the population, but by no means the most numerous one. At no period of its history has Porto Rico enjoyed great prosperity. Besides the causes already indicated the evil character of many of the white settlers conspired to retard its development. In 1515 its European population may have been 400. Until 1782 the island was divided into the eastern district of Puerto Rico and the western one of San German. In 1 5 13 the arrival of its first bishop, who later also exercised the function of general inquisitor, added one more to the dis- cordant elements ruling the island. About 1520 Caparra was abandoned for a more healthy site, and the city of San Juan de Puerto Rico was founded as the capital of the eastern district. In time Puerto Rico became the name of the whole island. In 1536 legislation for changing the method of general government and regulating common pasturages and public property caused extreme dissatisfaction, but for many years thereafter the form of control alternated between alcaldes selected by the inhabitants and annual governors appointed by the Council of the Indies. To the difficulties caused by disaster, depopulation and mal- administration there was added the danger of foreign invasion when war broke out in Europe between Francis I. of France and the emperor Charles V. In 1528 San German was plun- dered by a French corsair and twenty-six years later utterly destroyed. In 1533 the fortaleza, now the governor's palace, was begun at San Juan, and in 1539-1584 Morro Castle was erected at the entrance of the harbour. Possibly these slight fortifications preserved the capital from the destruction which overwhelmed all the other settlements; but these measures for defence were due more to the loyalty of the inhabitants than to the efforts of the home government, which at this time remained indifferent to appeals for help from the island. In 1595 San Juan was unsuccessfully attacked by an English fleet under Sir Francis Drake; two years later another English force, led by Sir George Cumberland, occupied the city for some weeks. The city was attacked in 1625 by a Dutch fleet, which was easily repulsed. The buccaneers or filibusters, who during the 17 th century were drawn to the West Indies by the prospect of plundering the possessions of decadent Spain, often invaded Porto Rico, but that island escaped the conquest which Haiti experienced. The English attacked the island in 1678, 1702, 1703 and 1743; and in 1797 an English force attempted to reduce San Juan, but was repulsed by the strong fortifications vigorously manned by resident volunteers. After this event the city was permitted to add the words " very noble and very loyal " to its coat of arms. Porto Rico was comparatively unaffected by the great Spanish- American uprising of the early 19th century. During the struggle of Spain against Napoleon, the island, in common with the other American dominions, was represented in the Spanish Cortes and had its first legislative assembly. Trade with the United States was permitted in 181 5, although only in Spanish ships. The island suffered from the reactionary policy of Ferdinand VII., but the few sporadic attempts at revolution between 1815 and 1820 were readily suppressed. Columbian insurgents made ineffectual attempts to invade the island during 1819-29. Governor Miguel de la Torre, who ruled the island with vice-regal powers during the second period of Ferdi- nand's absolutism, sternly repressed all attempts at liberalism, and made the island the resort for loyal refugees from the Spanish mainland. This policy, coupled with certain administrative and revenue reforms, and some private attempts in behalf of public education, made the last seven years of his rule, from 1827 to 1834, the most prosperous in the Spanish regime. The unsettled political condition of Spain during the next forty years was reflected in the disturbed political conditions of Porto Rico and Cuba. The suffrage was restricted, the Press was placed under a strict censorship, and the right of public assemblage was unknown. Economically the island in 1868 was in a much worse condition than thirty years before. The Revolu- tion of 1868 in Spain promised such salutary changes for the Antilles as the introduction of political parties, the restoration of representation in the Spanish Cortes, and the enfranchise- ment of the slaves; but the imprudent " Insurrection of Lares," and other outbreaks of 1867-68, delayed these anticipated reforms. The reactionaries feared separation from the mother country. Under the short-lived republican government in Spain Porto Rico was in 1870-1874 a province with a provincial deputation, and in 1873 slavery was abolished. After the restoration of the monarchy under Alphonso XII. there was some improvement in the commerce of the island, but politically it displayed all the evils of an obsolete system of administration disturbed by a premature liberalism. In 1877 the provincial deputation was re-established, but it was not untili895 that the home government attempted, far too late, to enact a series of adequate reform measures, and in November 1897 followed this by a grant of autonomy. When in April 1898 war broke out between Spain and the United States the former strongly garrisoned the island, but the fortifications of the capital were largely of the massive stone construction that had repelled Abercrombie a century before, most of the artillery was of an obsolete pattern and the few cruisers in the harbour were antiquated in type. The American invasion of the island occurred in July. On the 25th of that month, while a few vessels made a demonstration before San Juan, the main American fleet was landing some 3400 troops under General Nelson A. Miles at Guanica, a small town on the southern shore, some 15 m. west of Ponce. Three days later the latter town surrendered, amid demonstrations of joy on the part of the inhabitants. The people seemed to regard the American flag as the harbinger of a new era. General Miles's policy in affording employment for the natives likewise served to make the new American regime acceptable. Meanwhile the Spanish governor-general, Manuel Macias y PORTO TORRES— PORT PIRIE 127 Casado, had ordered the forces under his command in the south- ern part of the island to fall back towards the ridge of mountains intersecting it from east to west, just north of the town of Coamo. Reinforcements were also brought up from San Juan and preparations made to resist an attack by the Americans, despite the current rumours of approaching peace. On their part the American forces, now numbering about 10,000 men, prepared to advance by separate routes across the island in four columns. Guayama, Mayagtiezand Coamo were occupied ; one portion of the army was within 20 m. of the northern coast and another had advanced along the main military road nearly to Aibonito, when the signing of the peace protocol on the 12th of August caused an immediate suspension of hostilities. The advance of the Americans had been rapid and decisive, with a small loss of life — three killed and forty wounded — due to the skill with which the military manoeuvres were planned and executed and the cordial welcome given the invaders by the inhabitants. By November the Spaniards had evacuated the greater part of the island; after Captain General Macias em- barked for Spain, General Ricardo Ortega was governor from the 1 6th to the 18th of October, when the island was turned over to the American forces. In the work of policing the island, in the accompanying tasks of sanitation, construction of high- ways and other public works, accounting for the expenditure of public funds, and in establishing a system of public education, the military control, which under the successive direction of Generals John R. Brooke, Guy V. Henry and George W. Davis, lasted until the 1st of May 1900, proved most effective in bridg- ing over the period of transfer from the repressive control of Spain to the semi-paternal system under the American civil government. But it was hardly adapted to teach a people utterly without political experience the essential elements of self-government. To meet this problem the Congress of the United States passed the " Foraker Act, " under which civil government was instituted, and which, with certain modifica- tions is still in force (see Administration). Under this act the American element has exercised the controlling power, and this has proved distasteful to certain Porto Rican politicians. On the 8th of August 1899 the island was visited by the most destructive cyclone in its history, causing a loss of about 3500 lives and a property damage amounting to 36,000,000 pesos, the coffee industry suffering most. This calamity afforded the American people an opportunity to display their generosity toward their new colony. Charles H. Allen became the first civil governor in May 1900; he was succeeded in August 1901 by William H. Hunt, who served until July 1904; Beekman Winthrop was governor in 1904-1907 and Regis H. Post from April 1907 until November 1909, when he was succeeded by George R. Colton. The island now has free trade with the United States, and receives into its general revenue fund all customs duties and internal taxes collected in the island. Its political leaders in the House of Delegates are restive under the control exercised by the Executive Council, but an attempt to hold up necessary appropriations resulted in the passage in July 1909 of an act continuing the appropriations of the previous year, whenever for any cause the lower house fails to pass the necessary financial legislation. In 1910 the coffee industry had not yet recovered from the effect of the cyclone of 1899 and the unfortunate mortgage system that prevailed under the Spanish regime. The fact that its product is shut out of its natural markets, without gaining that of the United States, is also a great handicap. The civic status of the people is still unsettled, but there has been under American rule a notable advance in the well-being of the island. Bibliography. — The main source for the history under the Spanish is Fray Inigo Abbad, Historia geografica civil y natural de San Juan Bautista de Puerto Rico (Madrid, 1788; a new edition with notes by Jose J. Acosta was published in Porto Rico in 1866). Abbad makes extensive quotations from early historians of Spanish America. The best modern critical account in Spanish is Salvador Brau, Puerto Rico y su historia (Valencia, 1894). Probably the best account in English, although one leaving much to be desired, is R. A. Van Middeldyk, The History of Puerto Rico (New York, 1903). R. H. Davis, The Cuban and Porto Rican Campaigns (New York, 1898), is a sketch of the invasion of the island in 1898. L. S. Rowe, The United States and Porto Rico (ibid., 1900) treats clearly and briefly of the problems arising from American control, and a like characterization may be made of W. F. Willoughby, Territories and Dependencies of the United States (New York, 1905). Van Middeldyk gives a brief bibliography of historical works, and a more extensive list is given in General George W. Davis's Report on the Military Government of Porto Rico. See also Annual Reports of the Governor of Porto Rico (Washington, 1901 sqq.); H. M. Wilson, " Porto Rico: Its Topography and Aspects," in the Bulletin Amer. Geogr. Soc. New York, vol. xxxii. (New York, 1900); W. A. Alexander, "Porto Rico: Its Climate and Resources," in the same, vol. xxxiv. (ibid., 1902); Report on the Census of Porto Rico (Washington, 1900); W. F. Willoughby, Insular and Municipal Finances in Porto Rico for the Fiscal Year 1902-1903, issued by the Bureau of the United States Census (ibid., 1905); R. T. Hill, Cuba and Porto Rico (New York, 1898). PORTO TORRES (anc. Tunis Libisonis, q.v.), a seaport on the north coast of Sardinia, 12 J m. N.W. of Sassari by rail. Pop. (1901), 3762 (town); 4225 (commune). It is only 10 ft. above sea-level, and is malarious, but is a seaport of some importance, having regular steam communication with Ajaccio, Leghorn and Cagliari, and with the north and west coasts of Sardinia. The church of S. Gavino, formerly the cathedral, probably dates from the nth century. It is a Romanesque basilica with a nave and two aisles, divided by ancient columns; at each end of the nave is an apse. It has a 14th-century portal and two smaller doors at the sides added later in the Aragonese style. See D. Scano, Storia .dell' arte in Sardegna dal XI. al XIV. secolo (Cagliari-Sassari, 1907), 91 sqq. To the N.N.W. is the island of Asmara, the principal quarantine station of Italy. Porto Torres was the seat of the giudici of the north-west portion of the island (the district was called Torres or Logudoro) ; it was plundered by the Genoese in 1166, but remained the seat of the giudici until 1272, when it was divided between various Genoese families, the Doria, Malaspina, &c, and the giudici of Arborea. It was also the seat of a bishopric until 1441, when the see was transferred to Sassari, Porto Torres being practically deserted, owing to its unhealthiness. It did not become an independent commune again until 1842. PORTO VENERE (anc. Portus Veneris), a town and summer resort of Liguria, Italy, in the province of Genoa, at the southern extremity of the peninsula which protects the Gulf of Spezia on the west, 7 m. S. of Spezia by road. Pop. (1901), 1553 (town); 5754 (commune). The fortress and walls with which it was provided by the Genoese in the 9th or 10th century have been destroyed for military reasons. The restored church of St Peter, of black and white marble (1118; destroyed by the Aragonese in 1494), is reputed to occupy the site of a temple of Venus. The parish church dates from 1098. Yellow- veined black marble, known as Portoro, and building-stone are quarried here and in the fortified island of Palmaria to the east of Portovenere. In the Grotta dei Colombi objects of the Palaeolithic age have been found. PORT PHILLIP, the harbour of Melbourne, Victoria, Aus- tralia. An almost circular, landlocked sheet of water, it is 31 m. long, 20 m. at its widest, with an area of 800 sq. m. A narrow channel flanked by bold cliffs forms its entrance, and when the tide recedes through it a strong current is encountered outside. The broken and somewhat dangerous sea thus caused is called " the Rip. " Within the port on the eastern side are suburbs of Melbourne, such as Sorrento, Mornington, Frankston, Carrum, Mordialloc, Redcliff, Brighton and St Kilda. The wharves of Port Melbourne and Williamstown stand at the head of the port on an arm known as Hobson's Bay. On the western side the port of Geelong and the port and watering-place of Queens- cliff are the only towns of importance. Port Phillip is well fortified with strong batteries at its entrance. The harbour was discovered in 1802 by Lieut. Murray, who named it in honour of Captain Phillip, first governor of New South Wales. The colony of Victoria was originally called the district of Port Phillip. PORT PIRIE, a town of Victoria county, South Australia, on Gerjnein Bay, an arm of Spencer Gulf, i68f m. by rail N. by W. 128 PORTRAITURE of Adelaide. It is a prosperous and well-equipped port, from which enormous quantities of wheat are annually shipped. Pop. (iooi), 7983. PORTRAITURE. The earliest attempts at individual por- traiture (see also Painting) are found in the eidolon and mummy-cases of the ancient Egyptians; but their painting never went beyond conventional representation — mere outlines filled in with a flat tint of colour. In Greece portraiture probably had its origin in skiagraphy or shadow-painting. The story of the Greek maiden tracing the shadow of her departing lover on the wall points to this. The art developed rapidly. In 46,3 B.C., Polygnotus, one of the first Greek painters of distinc- tion, introduced individual portraiture in the decoration of public buildings, and Apelles nearly a century later showed so much genius in rendering character and expression, that Alexander the Great appointed him "portrait painter in ordinary," and issued an edict forbidding any one else to produce pictorial representations of his majesty. Similar edicts were issued in favour of the sculptor Lysippus and Pyrgoteles the gem en- graver. No works of the Greek painters survive, but the fate of two portraits by Apelles, which were in the possession of the emperor Claudius (a.d. 41-54), is known, the heads having been painted out to make room for the features of the divine Augustus! After the time of Alexander (300 B.C.) Greek art rapidly deteriorated. There is, perhaps, nothing in the history of human intelligence to compare with the dazzling swiftness of its development or the rapidity of its decline. War was followed by pillage and devastation, and victorious Roman generals, mere depredators and plunderers, crowded Rome with the stolen treasures of Greece, with the result that Greek art and Greek influence soon made themselves felt in. the imperial city, and for generations its artists were almost exclusively Greeks, chiefly portrait painters and decorators. The Romans pos- sessed no innate aptitude for art, and rather despised it as a pursuit little becoming the dignity of a citizen. Although lack- ing in appreciation of the higher conditions of art, they had from early times decorated their atria with effigies — originally wax moulds — of the countenances of their ancestors. These primitive " wax-works " ultimately developed into portrait busts, often vivid and faithful, the only branch of art in which Rome achieved excellence. With the invasion of the Northern barbarians and the fall of the empire Graeco-Roman art ended. In the following centuries Christianity gradually became the dominant religion, but its ascetic temper could not find expression in the old artistic forms. Instead of joy in the ideals of bodily perfection, came a loathing of the body and its beauty, and artists were classed among " persons of iniquitous occupations. " Before the 5th century these prejudices had relaxed, and images and pictures again came into general favour for religious uses. In the 8th and 9th centuries, the iconoclasts commenced their systematic destruction, and it was not till the Renaissance in the 13th century that art began again to live. The great revival brought with it a closer observation of the facts of nature and a growing sense of beauty, and the works of Cimabue and Giotto prepared the way for those of Benozzo Gozzoli, Ghirlandaio and the long line of masters who raised Italian art to such a height in the 15th and 16th centuries. Although the works of the early painters of the Renaissance were mostly devoted to the expres- sion of the dogmas of the Church, the growing love and study of nature led them, as opportunity afforded, to introduce portraits of living contemporaries into their sacred pictures. Gozzoli (1420-1498) and Ghirlandaio (1449-1494) began the practice, followed by nearly all the old and great painters, of introducing portraiture into their works; Ghirlandaio especially filling some of his great fresco compositions with the forms and features of the living men and women of Florence, members of the Torna- buoni, Medici and other great families. Acuteness of observa- tion was innate in the race. By degrees it manifested itself in a marvellous subtlety in the rendering of individual character, in the portrayal of individual men and women, and a school of portraiture was developed of which Titian became the crowning glory. This great Venetian painter, by universal consent reckoned one of the masters of portraiture, has handed down to us the features of many of the greatest historical and literary personages of his time — emperor, pope, king, doge — all sat by turn to him and loaded him with honours. The names of Bellini, Raffaelle, Tintoret, Verdriese and Moroni of Bergamo occur among those of the great Italian portrait painters of the 15th and 16th centuries. The last-named, some of whose finest works are now in England, was highly praised by Titian. A love of ugliness characterizes the artists of the early German and Flemish schools, and most of the portraits produced by them previous to Holbein's time suffer from this cause. Schon- gauer, Diirer and Lucas Cranach are never agreeable or pleasant, however interesting in other respects. Diirer, the typical German artist, the dreamer of dreams, the theorist, the thinker, the writer, was less fitted by nature for a portrait painter than Holbein, who, with a keen sense of nature's subtle beauty, was a far greater painter although a less powerful personality. He produced many fine works in other branches, but it is as a portrait painter that Holbein is chiefly known, and his highest claims to fame will rest on his marvellous achievements in that branch of art. He first came to England in 1526, bringing with him letters of introduction from Erasmus. Sir Thomas More received him as his guest, and during his stay he painted More's and Archbishop Warham's portraits. In 1532 he was again in London, where till his death in 1543 he spent much of his time. He was largely employed by the German merchants of the Steelyard and many Englishmen of note, and afterwards by Henry VIII., by whom he was taken into permanent service with a pension. As a portrait painter Holbein is remarkable not only for his keen insight into the character of his sitters, but for the beauty and delicacy of his drawing. As colourist he may be judged by an admirable example of his work, " The Ambas- sadors," in the National Gallery in London. Many of his drawings appear to have been made as preliminary studies for his portraits. In Flanders Jan van Eyck (1390-1440), his brother Hubert, Quintin Matsys, Memlinc and other artists of the 15 th century occasionally practised portraiture. The picture of Jean Arnol- fini and his wife, in the National Gallery, London, is a remarkable sample of the first-named artist, and the small half-length of young Martin van Nieumenhoven, in the hospital of St John at Bruges, of the last-named. Nearly a century later the names of Antony Mor(or Moro), Rubens and Van Dyck appear. Rubens, although not primarily a painter of portraits, achieved no small distinction in that way, being much employed by royalty (Maria de Medici, Philip IV. and the English Charles I. among the number). His services were also in request as ambassador or diplomatist, and thrice at least he was sent on missions of that nature. His personal energy and industry were enor- mous, but a large proportion of the work attributed to him was painted by pupils, of whom Van Dyck was one of the most celebrated. Van Dyck (1599-1641) early acquired a high repu- tation as a portrait painter. In 1632 he was invited to England by Charles I., and settled there for the remainder of his life. He was knighted by Charles, and granted a pension of £200 a year, with the title of painter to his majesty. Many of Van Dyck's portraits, especially those of the early and middle periods, are unsurpassed in their freshness, force and vigour of handling. He is a master among masters. England possesses many of his works, especially of his later period. To Van Dyck we owe much of our knowledge of what Charles I. and those about him were like. A routine practice, luxurious living, failing health, and the employment of assistants told upon his work, which latterly lost much of its early charm. •In Holland in the 17th century portraiture reached a high standard. A reaction had set in against Italian influence, and extreme faithfulness and literal resemblance became the pre- vailing fashion. The large portrait pictures of the members of gilds and corporations, so frequently met with in Holland, are characteristically Dutch. The earliest works of the kind are PORTRAITURE 129 generally rows of portraits ranged in double or single lines, without much attempt at grouping or composition. Later, in the hands of painters like Rembrandt, Frans Hals and Van der Heist, these pictures of civic guards, hospital regents and masters of gilds assumed a very different character, and are among the very finest works produced by the Dutch portrait painters of the 17th century. They may be termed " subscrip- tion portraits " — each member of the gild who desired a place on the canvas agreeing, before the commission was given, to pay, according to a graduated scale, his share of the cost. Among the most famous examples of this class of portraits are " The Anatomy Lesson, " " The March-out of Captain Banning Kock and his Company " (erroneously called " The Night Watch "), and " The Five Syndics of the Cloth-Workers' Guild, " by Rembrandt. The magnificent portrait groups at Haarlem by Hals — the next greatest portrait painter of Holland after Rembrandt — and the " Schuttersmaaltyd " by Van der Heist in the Amsterdam Museum, which Reynolds considered " perhaps the first picture of portraits in the world, " must also be mentioned. Of the pictorial art of Spain previous to the 15th century, little, if any, survives. Flemish example was long paramount and Flemish painters were patronized in high places. In the 16th century the names of native Spanish artists began to appear — Morales, Ribera, Zurbaran, a great though not a pro- fessed portrait painter; and in the last year of the century Velasquez was born, the greatest of Spain's artists, and one of the great portrait painters of the world. None, perhaps, has ever equalled him in keen insight into character, or in the swift magic of his brush. Philip IV., Olivarez and Innocent X. live for us on his canvases. His constantly varying, though generally extremely simple, methods, explain to some extent the interest and charm his works possess for artists. Depth of feeling and poetic imagination were, however, lacking, as may be seen in his prosaic treatment of such subjects as the " Coronation of the Virgin," the " Mars " and other kindred works in the Madrid Gallery. Velasquez must be classed with those whose career has been prematurely cut short. His works often show signs of haste and of the scanty leisure which the duties of his office of " Aposentador Mayor " left him — duties which ended in the fatal journey to the Isle of Rhe. In France the most distinguished portrait painters of the 16th and 17th centuries were the Clouets, Cousin, Vouet, Philippe de Champaigne, Rigaud and Vanloo. French portraiture, long inflated and artificial, reached the height of pomposity in the reigns of Louis XIV. and XV., the epoch of which the towering wig is the symbol. In the 18th and early part of the 19th centuries occur the names of Boucher, Greuze, David, Gerard and Ingres; but somehow the portraits of the French masters seldom attract and captivate in the same way as those of the Dutch and Italian painters. Foreign artists were engaged for almost every important work in painting in England down to the days of Sir Joshua Reynolds and Gainsborough. Henry VIII. employed Holbein; Queen Mary, Sir Antonio Moro; Elizabeth, Zucchero and Lucas de Heere; James I. van Somer, Cornelius Janssens and Daniel Mytens; Charles I. Rubens, Van Dyck, Mytens, Petitot, Hon- thorst and others; and Charles II., Lely and Kneller, although there were native artists of merit, among them Dobson, Walker and Jamesone, a Scottish painter. Puritan England and Presby- terian Scotland did little to encourage the portrait painter. The attitude of the latter towards it may be inferred from an entry in the diary of Sir Thomas Hope, the Scottish Lord Advo- cate in 1638. " This day, Friday, William Jamesone, painter (at the earnest desyr of my sone Mr Alexander) was sufferit to draw my pictur." He does not even give the painter's name correctly, although Jamesone at the time was a man of some note in Scotland. At t he commencement of the reign of George I. art in England had sunk to about the lowest ebb. With the appearance of William Hogarth (1697-1 764) the English school of painting may be said to have commenced, and in Reynolds and Gainsborough it produced two portrait painters xxii. 5 whose works hold their own with those of the masters of the 16th and 17th centuries. Both Sir Joshua and Gainsborough are seen at their best in portraits of women and children. George Romney (1734-1802) shared with Reynolds and Gainsborough the patronage of the wealthy and fashionable of his day. Many of his female portraits are of great beauty. For some unknown reason he never exhibited his works in the Royal Academy. Sir Henry Raeburn (1756-1823) was a native of Edinburgh, and spent most of his life there. His portraits are broad and effective in treatment, masterly and swift in execution and often fine in colour. He painted nearly all the distinguished Scotsmen of his time — Walter Scott, Adam Smith, Braxfield, Robertson the historian, Dugald Stewart, Boswell, Jeffrey, Professor Wilson and many of the leading noblemen, lairds, clergy and their wives and daughters. For a considerable period his portraits were little known out of Scotland, but they are now much sought after, and fine examples appearing in London sale-rooms bring remarkable prices. Raeburn's immediate successor in Scotland, J. Watson Gordon (1788-1864), also painted many excellent portraits, chiefly of men. A very characteristic example of his art at its best may be seen in his " Provost of Peterhead " in the Scottish National Gallery. Sir Thomas Lawrence (1769-1830) was the favourite English portrait painter of his time, and had an almost unrivalled career. He had an immense practice, and between the years 1787 and 1830 exhibited upwards of three hundred portraits in the Royal Academy alone. The Waterloo Gallery at Windsor contains some of his best work, chiefly painted in 1818-1819, including his portraits of the emperor Francis, Pope Pius VII. and Cardinal Gonsalvi. He was loaded with honours, and died President of the Royal Academy. Sir J. E. Millais (1829-1896), although most widely known as a painter of figure subjects, achieved some of his greatest suc- cesses in portraiture, and no artist in recent years has approached him as a painter of children. His portraits of Gladstone, Sir James Paget, Sir Gilbert Greenall, Simon Fraser, J. C. Hook and Mrs. Bischoffsheim, to name only a few, are alone sufficient to give him a high place among British portrait painters. Frank Holl (1845-1888) first came into note as a portrait painter in 1878, and during the subsequent nine years of his life he painted upwards of one hundred and ninety-eight portraits, an average of over twenty-two a year. The strain, however, proved too great for a naturally delicate constitution, and he died at the age of forty-three — another instance of a brilliant career prematurely cut short. To G. F. Watts (1820-1904) we are indebted for admirable portraits of many of the leading men of the Victorian era in politics, science, literature, theology and art. Among more recent artists, Sir W. Q. Orchardson (1835-1910), like Millais more widely known as a painter of figure subjects, but also admirable as a portrait painter; John Sargent (1856- ), whose brilliant and vigorous characteri- zation of his sitters leaves him without a rival; as well as Ouless, Shannon, Fildes, Herkomer and others, have worthily carried on the best traditions of the art. In France contemporary portraiture is ably represented in the works of Carolus-Duran, Bonnat and Benjamin Constant, and in Germany by Lenbach, who has handed down to posterity with uncompromising faithfulness the form and features of Prince Bismarck. Of portraiture in its other developments little need be said. Miniature painting, which grew out of the work of the illumina- tor, appears to have been always successfully practised in England. The works of Hilliard, Isaac and Peter Oliver, Samuel Cooper, Hoskins, Engleheart, Plimer and Cosway hold their own with the best of the kind; but this beautiful art, like that of the engraver, has been largely superseded by photo- graphy and the " processes " now in use. It is unnecessary to refer to the many uses of portraiture, but one of its chiefest has been to transmit to posterity the form and features of those who have played a part, worthy or otherwise, in the past history of our race. Of its value to the 11 130 PORT RICHMOND— PORT ROYAL biographer and historian, Carlyle, in a letter written in 1854, says, " In all my poor historical investigations it is one of the most primary wants to procure a bodily likeness of the personage inquired after; a good portrait, if such exists; failing that, even an indifferent, if sincere one; in short, any representation, made by a faithful human creature, of that face and figure which he saw with his eyes and which I can never see with mine. Often I have found the portrait superior in real instruction to half-a-dozen written biographies, or rather, I have found the portrait was as a small lighted candle, by which the biographies could for the first time be read, and some human interpretation be made of them." (G. Re.) PORT RICHMOND, a part of the borough of Richmond in the city of New York, U.S.A., on the N. shore of Staten Island and on the Kill van Kull Channel. Before 1898 it was a separate village of Richmond county, New York, containing 6290 inhabitants in 1890. It is served by the Staten Island Rapid Transit railway, and by a ferry to Bergen Point, New Jersey, and has steam and electric railway connexions with the municipal ferry at St George, which furnishes easy access to the business districts on Manhattan Island. Among its places of historic interest are the Dutch Reformed Church, which is the direct successor of the church established on Staten Island in 1664 or 1665 by Waldenses and Huguenots; and the Danner Hotel, built soen after the War of Independence on the site of a tem- porary fort that had been erected by British troops, and used as a private dwelling until 1820. In this house Aaron Burr spent the last years of his life, dying there on the 14th of September 1836. Among the industrial establishments are a shipyard, dry dock and manufactories of flour, lumber, lead paint and builders' supplies. On the first of January 1898, when the act creating Greater New York came into effect, the village became a part of the third ward of Richmond borough. PORT ROYAL, a celebrated Cistercian abbey, occupied a low and marshy site in the thickly wooded valley of the Yvette, at what is now known as Les Hameaux near Marly, a few miles south-west of Paris. It was founded in 1204 by Mahaut de Garlande, wife of Mathieu de Montmorenci-Marli in 1204; the church was built in 1229 from the designs of Robert de Luzarches. During its early years the convent received a number .of papal privileges; the most important of these, granted by Honorius III. in 1223, authorized it to offer a retreat to women anxious to withdraw from the world without binding themselves by perpetual vows. Little is known of its history during the three succeeding centuries, except that its discipline became relaxed; reform was only attempted when Angelique Arnauld (q.v.) was appointed coadjutor to the elderly and invalid abbess in 1598. Angelique's reforming energy soon brought her into contact with Jean Duvergier (q.v.) abbot of Saint Cyran, and chief apostle in France of the Jansenist revival, and the later history of her convent is indissolubly connected with this movement. In 1626 constant visitations of ague drove the nuns to Paris; they settled at Port Royal de Paris, at the end of the Faubourg Saint Jacques. The deserted buildings of Port Royal des Champs were presently occupied by " hermits," laymen, mostly relatives of the abbess, who wished for a semi-monastic existence, though without taking formal vows. In 1648, however, some of the nuns returned to the country, and the hermits retreated to buildings at a short distance from the abbey. Here they set up a " little school " for the sons of Jansenist parents; and here Jean Racine, the future poet, received his education. But in 1653 Innocent X. condemned the doctrines of Jansen. Three years later " the hermitage " and school were broken up, and the nuns were for- bidden to receive new members into their community. These rigours were much increased when Louis XIV. took -up .the reins of government in 1660; between 1664 and 1669 the archbishop of Paris laid under an' interdict those of the nuns who refused to subscribe the papal censure on Jansen. In 1669, however, came the so-called " Peace of Clement IX.," when the Jansenists gener- ally were admitted to grace, and the interdict was removed from Port Royal, though the authorities broke up the convent into two distinct communities. The conformist nuns were gathered to- gether at Port Royal de Paris, under an independent abbess; their Jansenist sisters were united at the original building in the country. Thereupon followed ten years of peace, for the nuns had a powerful protector in the king's cousin, Mme de Longueville. But in 1679 she died, and Louis at once ordered the nuns to send away their novices and boarders and to receive no others. Finally, in 1705, he got from Clement XI. a new condemnation of the Jansenists, which the few remaining nuns, all of whom were over sixty, refused to sign; and on the 29th of October 1709 they were forcibly removed from Port Royal by the police, and dis- tributed among various conformist convents. In the following spring the buildings were pulled down; even the cemetery was not spared. The land on which the convent had stood was made over to Mme de Maintenon's college of St Cyr; in 1825 it was bought by some descendants of Jansenist families, who have done their best to restore the grounds to their original appearance, and have built a museum rich in Jansenist relics. Port Royal de Paris was secularized at the French Revolution, and is now a maternity hospital. For a classified list of the chief books, ancient and modern, dealing with Port Royal, see the Abrege de I'histoire de Port Royal, by Jean Racine, ed. E. Gazier (Paris, 1908). See also C. A. Sainte- Beuve, Port Royal (6 vols, and index, Paris, 1882); Charles Beard, Port Royal (2 vols., London, 1861); H. Reuchlin, Geschichte von Port Royal (2 vols., Hamburg, 1839-1844), and the books recom- mended under the articles Arnauld, Jansenism and Pascal. PORT ROYAL, an island in Beaufort county, South Carolina, U.S.A., at the head of Port Royal Sound, about 16 m. from the Atlantic coast, and about 50 m. S.W. of Charleston. It is about 13 m. long (north and south) by about 7 m. wide. The surface is generally flat, and there is much marshland in its southern part, and along its north-eastern shore. The principal settle- ment is Beaufort, a port of entry, and the county-seat of Beaufort county, on the Beaufort river (here navigable for vessels drawing 18 ft.), about 11 m. from its mouth, and about 15 m. from the ocean. Pop. (1900) 4110 (3220 negroes); (1910) 2486. It is served by the Charleston & Western Carolina railway, has inland water communication with Savannah, Georgia, and its harbour, Port Royal Sound (between Bay Point on the north-east and Hilton Head on the south-west), is one of the largest and best on the coast of South Carolina. Beaufort's beautiful situation and delightful climate make it a winter resort. In the vicinity Sea Island cotton, rice, potatoes and other vegetables are raised — the truck industry having become very important; and there are groves of yellow pine and cypress. Large quantities of phosphate rock were formerly shipped from here. Among the manufactures are cotton goods, canned oysters, lumber and fertilizer. About 5 m. south of Beau- fort is the town of Port Royal (pop. in 1910, 363), a terminus of the Charleston & Western Carolina railway. On the Beau- fort River (eastern) shore of Paris Island, about 6 m. north of Bay Point, is a United States naval station, with a dry dock and repair shop. Jean Ribaut (1520-1565), leading an expedition sent out by Admiral Gaspard de Coligny (1517-1572) tofounda Huguenot colony in New France, sailed into the harbour, which he named Port Royal, on the 27th of May 1562, took possession of the region in the name of Charles IX., and established the first settlement (Fort Charles), probably on Paris Island. In June he sailed for France, leaving 26 volunteers under Captain Albert de la Pierria. Soon afterward the garrison killed Pierria (probably because of the severity of his discipline), and put to sea in an insufficiently equipped vessel, from which, after much suffering,; they were rescued by an English ship, and taken to England. In 1670, a company under Colonel William Sayle (d. 1671) landed on Port Pvoyal Island, but probably because this site exposed them to Spanish attacks, proceeded along the coast and founded the original Charles Town (see Charleston). In 1683, several families, chiefly Scotch, led by Henry Erskine, third Lord Card- ross (1650-1693), established on the island a settlement named Stuart's Town (probably in honour of Cardross's family); but three years later most of the settlers were murdered by Spaniards from Florida and the remainder fled to Charleston. In 17 10, after the lords proprietors had issued directions for " the building of a town to be called Beaufort Town," in honour of Henry Somerset, duke of Beaufoit (1629-1700), the first permanent settlement was established on the island. , The town was incorporated in 1803. In January 1779 about 200 British soldiers occupied the island by order of Colonel Augus- tine Prevost, but they were dislodged (Feb. 3) by about 300 PORTRUSH— PORTSMOUTH, DUCHESS OF 131 Americans, mostly militiamen, under General William Moultrie. At the beginning of the Civil War the Confederates erected Fort Walker on Hilton Head, and Fort Beauregard on Bay Point. Captain (afterwards Admiral) Samuel F. Du Pont and General Thomas W. Sherman organized an expedition against these fortifications, which were reduced by a naval bombardment and were evacuated by the Confederates under General Thomas F. Drayton (d. 1891) on the 7th of November 1861. During the remainder of the war Port Royal Harbour was used as a coaling, repair and supply station by the Federal blockading squadron. Early in 1862 Port Royal Island and the neigh- bouring region became the scene of the so-called " Port Royal Experiment " — the successful effort of a group of northern people, chiefly from Boston, New York and Philadelphia, among whom Edward S. Philbrick (d. 1889) of Massachusetts was conspicuous, to take charge of the cotton plantations, deserted upon the occupation of the island by Union troops, and to employ the negroes under a system of paid labour. The volunteers organized as the Educational Commission for Freedmen (after- ward the New England Freedmen 's Aid Society), and the government granted them transportation, subsistence and quarters, and paid them small salaries. See Edward McCrady's History of South Carolina (New York, 1897-1901); and, for an account of the Port Royal Experiment, Letters from Port Royal (Boston, 1906), edited by Elizabeth W Pearson. PORTRUSH, a seaport and the most popular seaside resort of Co. Antrim, Ireland; the terminus of a branch of the Northern Counties (Midland) railway. Pop. (1901), 1941. It is very picturesquely situated on the basaltic peninsula of Ramore Head, with a deep bay on either side, and a harbour protected by the natural breakwater known as the Skerries. A fine hotel, owned by the railway company, and an excellent golf course are the chief features, together with a town-hall with public reading room, and the place is much frequented for golf and sea-bathing. It is also the centre for visitors to the Giants' Causeway, with which it is connected by an electric railway. Dunluce Castle, between Portrush and Bushmills, stands on a rock separated from the mainland by a chasm which is spanned by a bridge. The ruins, which are extensive, are of unknown date. Portrush has a thriving trade in salmon. It is governed by an urban district council. PORT SAID, a seaport of Egypt, at the northern entrance of the Suez Canal, in 31° 15' 35" N., 32 19' 20" E., and 145 m. by rail N.E. of Cairo. Pop. (1907), 49,884. It lies on the western side of the canal on the low, narrow, treeless and desolate strip of land which separates the Mediterranean from Lake Menzala, the land at this point being raised and its area increased by the draining of part of the lake and by the excavation of the inner harbour. The outer harbour is formed by two breakwaters which protect the entrance to the canal; altogether the harbour covers about 570 acres and accommodates ships drawing 28 ft. Originally besides the central basin of the inner harbour there were three docks; between 1903 and 1909 the harbour accommo- dation was doubled by the construction of new docks on the eastern side of the canal and by enlarging the western docks. The port possesses a floating dock 295 ft. long, 85 ft. broad and 18 ft. deep, capable of lifting 350° tons, and a patent slip taking 300 tons and ships drawing 9 ft. 9 in. of water. On the western breakwater is a colossal statue of Ferdinand de Lesseps by E. Fremiet, unveiled in 1899, and a lighthouse 174 ft. high. Among the few buildings of note in the town are the offices of the Suez Canal Company and the British barracks, the last named having been built by Prince Henry of the Netherlands (d. 1879) as a depot for Dutch trade. Port Said dates from 1859 and its situation was determined by the desire of the engineers of the Suez Canal to start the canal at the point on the Mediterranean coast of the isthmus of Suez nearest to deep water, and off the spot where Port Said now stands there was found a depth of 26 ft. at about 2 m. from the shore. For many years after its foundation it depended entirely upon the traffic of the canal, being the chief coaling station of all ships massing through and becoming the largest coaling station in the world. The population was of a very heterogeneous character, but mainly of an undesirable class of Levantines; this with the damp heat and the dirt and noise of the incessant coaling operations gave the town an unenviable reputation. In 1902, however, a new industry was added in the export of cotton from the eastern provinces of the Delta, the cotton being brought from Mataria by boat across Lake Menzala. In 1904 the opening of a standard gauge railway to Cairo placed Port Said in a position to compete with Alexandria for the external trade of Egypt generally, besides making it a tourist route to the capital from Europe. The result was to attract to the town a considerable commercial community and to raise its social status. A new suburb was created by re- claiming land on the north foreshore, and another suburb was created on the eastern side of the canal. The average annual value of the trade of the port for the five years 1902-1906 was £2,410,000. This figure includes the value of the coal used by vessels passing through the Suez Canal. PORTSMOUTH, EARLS OF. In 1743 John Wallop (1690- 1762) of Farley Wallop in Hampshire was created earl of Portsmouth. He belonged to an old Hampshire family and had been a lord of the treasury from 171 7 to 1720, when he was created Baron Wallop. The earldom has since been held by his descendants, one of whom, Newton Wallop (b. 1856), became the 6th earl in 1891. This earl was a member of parliament from 1880 to 1891 and was under secretary of state for war from 1905 to 1908. PORTSMOUTH, LOUISE DE KEROUALLE, Duchess of (1649-1734), mistress of the English king Charles II., was the daughter of Guillaume de Penancourt and his wife Marie de Plaeuc de Timeur. The name of Keroualle was derived from an heiress whom her ancestor Francois de Penhoet had married in 1330. The family were nobles in Brittany, and their name was so spelt by themselves. But the form Querouailles was com- monly used in England, where it was corrupted into Carwell or Carewell, perhaps with an ironic reference to the care which the duchess took to fill her pocket. In France it was variously spelt Queroul, Keroual and Keroel. The exact date of her birth is apparently unknown. Louise was placed early in life in the household of Henriette, duchess of Orleans, sister of Charles II. Saint-Simon asserts that her family threw her in the way of Louis XIV. in the hope that she would be pfomoted to the place of royal mistress. In 1670 she accompanied the duchess of Orleans on a visit to Charles II. at Dover. The sudden death of the duchess, attributed on dubious evidence to poison, left her unprovided for, but the king placed her among the ladies in waiting of his own queen. It was said in after times that she had been selected by the French court to fascinate the king of England, but for this there, seems to be no evidence. Yet when there appeared a prospect that the king would show her favour, the intrigue was vigorously pushed by the French ambassador, Colbert de Croissy, aided by the secretary of state, Lord Arling- ton, and his wife. Louise, who concealed great cleverness and a strong will under an appearance of languor and a rather childish beauty (Evelyn the diarist speaks of her " baby face "), yielded only when she had already established a strong hold on the king's affections and character. Her son, ancestor of the dukes of Richmond, was born in 1672. The support she received from the French envoy was given on the undei standing that she should serve the interests of her native sovereign. The bargain was confirmed by gifts and honours from Louis XIV. and was loyally carried out by Louise. The hatred openly avowed for her in England was due as much to her own activity in the interest of France as to her notorious rapacity. The titles of Baroness Petersfield, countess of Fareham and duchess of Portsmouth were granted her for life on the 19th of August 1673. Her pensions and money allowances of various kinds were enormous. In 1677 alone she received £27,300. The French court gave her frequent presents, and in December 1673 conferred upon her the ducal fief of Aubigny at the request of Charles II. Her thorough understanding of the king's character enabled her to retain her hold on him to the end. She contrived to escape uninjured during the crisis of the Popish Plot in 1678. She was strong enough to maintain her position during a long illness in 1677, and a visit to France in 1682. In February 1685 she took measures to see that the king, who was secretly a Roman Catholic, did not die without confession and absolution. Soon after the king's death she retired to France, where, except for one short visit to England during the reign of James II., she remained. Her pen- sions and an outrageous grant on the Irish revenue given her by 132 PORTSMOUTH Charles II. were lost either in the reign of James II. or at the Revolu- tion of 1688. During her last years she lived at Aubigny, and was harassed by debt. The French king, Louis XIV., and after his death the regent Orleans, gave her a pension, and protected her against her creditors. She died at Paris on the 14th of November 1734- See H. Forneron, Louise de Keroualle (Paris, 1886) ; and Mrs Colquhoun Grant, From Brittany to Whitehall (London, 1909). PORTSMOUTH, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough, and seaport of Hampshire, England, 74 m. S.W. from London, on the London & South-Western and the London, Brighton & South Coast railways. Pop. (1891), 159,278; (1901), 188,133. This great naval station and arsenal is an PORTSMCHJTH and Environs Informal)** (mlwdird from th> Ordnion SarT*,.brp«ri»li*ioa ol tb* CoMrollvr of rMUBtttioBirj OKle*. Emery Walker sc aggregate of four towns, Portsmouth, Portsea, Landport and Southsea, and occupies the south-western part of Portsea Island, which lies between Portsmouth Harbour and Langstone Harbour, two inlets of the English Channel. Portsmouth Harbour opens into Spithead, one of the arms of the Channel separating the Isle of Wight from the mainland. The harbour widens inwards in bottle form, Portsmouth lying on the east shore of the neck, with Gosport opposite to it on the west side. Portsmouth proper may be distinguished as the garrison town; Portsea as the naval station with the dockyards; Landport is occupied chiefly by the houses of artisans; and Southsea is a residential quarter and a favourite watering-place. Besides a number of handsome modern churches, among which is a Roman Catholic cathedral, Portsmouth possesses, in the church of St Thomas a Becket, a fine cruciform building dating from the second half of the 12th century, in which the chancel and transepts are original, but the nave and tower date from 1698, and the whole was extensively restored in 1904. The garrison chapel originally belonged to the hospital of St Nicholas, a foundation of the 13th century. Among other buildings worthy of mention (apart from those having naval or military connexion) the principal is the town-hall (1890), a fine classic building standing alone in a square, and surmounted by a handsome clock tower. Among educational institutions there are a large grammar school (1879), on a foundation of 1732, Roman Catholic schools adjoining the cathedral, schools for engineering students and dockyard apprentices, and seamen and marines' orphan school. Aria College in Portsea was opened in 1874 for the training of Jewish ministers. Victoria Park, in the heart of the town, contains a monument to Admiral Napier. There are recreation grounds for the naval and military forces in the vicinity. There is a railway station (Portsmouth Harbour) on the Hard, from which passenger steamers serve Ryde in the Isle of Wight. A ferry and a floating bridge connect with Gosport. The port has a considerable trade in coal, timber, fruits and agricultural produce. The parliamentary borough returns two members. The county borough was created in 1888. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 14 aldermen and 42 councillors. Area, 5010 acres. The dockyard seems to have been regularly established about 1540, but long before that date the town was of importance as a naval station and was used for the accommodation of the king's ships. In 1540 it covered 8 acres of ground, abutting on the harbour near the " King's Stairs." Cromwell added 2 acres in 1658, and Charles II. added 8 in 1663 and 10 more in 1667. By 1710 30 acres more had been reclaimed or bought, and by the end of the 1 8th century the total area was 90 acres. In 1848 a steam basin, cover- ing 7 acres, and four new docks were opened, the dockyard ground being extended to 115 acres in all. In 1865 large extension works were decided upon, increasing the area to 293 acres. These included a tidal basin and, opening out of it, a deep dock and two locks, in themselves serving as large docks, which lead to three basins and four docks. An entrance was also formed between the new tidal basin and the steam basin of 1848, and large additions were made to the wharfage accommodation as well as to the storehouses and factories. Subsequent improvements included the formation of two new dry docks (1896) with a floor-length of 557 ft. and a depth of 33I ft. over the sill at high water of spring tides; the construction of new jetties at the entrance to the tidal basin and at the north wall; the establishment of a coal wharf with hydraulic appliances; a torpedo range in the harbour; the erection of various buildings such as torpedo and gun-mounting stores, electrical shops and numerous subsidiary works; and extensive dredging of the harbour to increase the berthing accommodation for the fleet. Altogether the dockyard comprises 15 dry docks, 60 acres of enclosed basins, 18,400 ft. of wharfage and about 10 m. of railway. There is a gunnery establish- ment in the harbour on Whale Island, the area of which has been increased to nearly 90 acres by the accretion of material excavated from the dockyard extension works, and various barracks including those of the royal marine artillery at Eastney, beyond Southsea. Portsmouth (Portsmue, Portcsmuth) owes its origin to the retreat of the sea from Porchester, and its importance to its favourable position for a naval station. Though probably the site had long been recognized as a convenient landing-place, no town existed there until the 12th century, when the strategical advan- tage it offered induced Richard I. to build one. He granted a charter in 11 94 declaring that he retained the borough in his hand, and granting a yearly fair and weekly market, freedom from certain tolls, from shire and hundred court and sheriffs' aids. In October 1200 King John repeated the grants, and Henry III. in 1229 gave the " men of Portsmouth " the town in fee farm and granted a merchant gild. Confirmations were made by successive kings, and a charter of incorporation was given by Elizabeth in 1 599-1 600. A new and enlarged charter was granted by Charles I. in 1627, by which the borough is now governed subject to changes by the municipal acts of the 19th century. Portsmouth has returned two members to parliament since 1295. A fair on the 1st of August and fourteen following days was granted by Richard I. The first day was afterwards changed to the 29th of June and later to the nth of July. It was important as a trading fair for cutlery, earthenware, cloth and Dutch metal, and was abolished in 1846. The market, dating from n 94 and originally held on Thursday only, is now held on Tuesday and Saturday in addition. Portsmouth was important in the middle ages not only as a naval station but a trading centre. There was a considerable trade in wool and wine, and the building of the dockyards by Henry VII. further increased its prosperity. See Victoria County History: Hampshire, iii. 172 seq.; R. East, Extracts from the Portsmouth Records. PORTSMOUTH, a city, port of entry and one of the county- seats of Rockingham county, New Hampshire, U.S.A., on the Piscataqua river, about 3 m. from the Atlantic Ocean, about 45 m. E.S.E. of Concord, and about 54 m. N.N.E. of Boston. Pop. (1910 U.S. census) 11,269. Area, 17 sq. m. Portsmouth is served by the Boston & Maine railway, by electric lines to neighbouring towns, and in summer by a steamboat daily to the Isles of Shoals. The city is pleasantly situated, mainly on a peninsula, and has three public parks. Portsmouth attracts many visitors during the summer season. In Portsmouth are an Athenaeum (1817), with a valuable library; a public library (i88i);a city hall; a county court house; a United States customs-house; a soldiers' and sailors' monument; an equestrian PORTSMOUTH— PORT SUDAN J33 monument by James Edward Kelly to General Fitz John Porter; a cottage hospital (1886); a United States naval hospital (1891); a home for aged and indigent women (1877) ; and the Chase home for children (1877). A United States navy yard, officially known as the Portsmouth Navy Yard, is on an island of the Piscataqua but within the township of Kittery, Maine. In 1800 Fernald's Island was purchased by the Federal 'government for a navy yard; it was the scene of considerable activity during the War of 181 2, but was of much greater importance during the Civil War, when the famous " Kearsarge " and several other war vessels were built here. 1 In 1866 the yard was enlarged by connecting Seavey's Island with Fernald's; late in the 19th century it was equipped for building and repairing steel vessels. It now has a large stone dry dock. On Seavey's Island Admiral Cervera and other Spanish officers and sailors captured during the Spanish- American War were held prisoners in July — September 1898. Subsequently a large naval prison was erected. In 1905 the treaty ending the war between Japan and Russia was negotiated in what is known as the Peace Building in this yard. In 1905 the city's factory products were valued at $2,602,056. During the summer season there is an important trade with the neighbouring watering-places; there is also a large transit trade in imported coal, but the foreign commerce, consisting wholly of imports, is small. Portsmouth and Dover are the oldest permanent settlements in the state. David Thomson with a small company from Plymouth, England, in the spring or early summer of 1623 built and fortified a house at Little Harbor (now Odiorne's Point in the township of Rye) as a fishing and trading station. In 1630 there arrived another band of settlers sent over by the Laconia Company. They occupied Thomson's house and Great Island (New Castle) and built the " Great House " on what is now Water Street, Portsmouth. This settlement, with jurisdiction over all the territory now included in Portsmouth, New Castle and Greenland, and most of that in Rye, was known as " Strawberry Banke " until 1653, when it was incor- porated (by the government of Massachusetts) under the name of Portsmouth. There was from the first much trouble between its Anglican settlers sent over by Mason and the Puritans from Massachusetts, and in 1641 Massachusetts extended her juris- diction over this region. In 1679, however, New Hampshire was constituted a separate province, and Portsmouth was the capital until 1775. In 1693 New Castle (pop. 1900, 581), then including the greater part of the present township of Rye, was set apart from Portsmouth, and in 1703 Greenland (pop. 1900, 607) was likewise set apart. One of the first military exploits of the War of Independence occurred at New Castle, where there was then a fort called William and Mary. In December 1774 a copy of the order prohibiting the exportation of military stores to America was brought from Boston to Portsmouth by Paul Revere, whereupon the Portsmouth Committee of Safety organized militia companies, and captured the fort (Dec. 14). In 1849 Portsmouth was chartered as a city. Portsmouth was the birthplace of Governor Benning Wentworth (1696-1770) and his nephew Governor John Wentworth (1737- 1820); of Governor John Langdon (1739-1819); of Tobias Lear (1762-1816), the private secretary of General Washington from 1785 until Washington's death, consul-general at Santo Domingo in 1 802-1 804, and negotiator of a treaty with Tripoli in 1805; of Benjamin Penhallow Shillaber (1814-1890), humorist, who is best known by his Life and Sayings of Mrs Partington (1854); of James T. Fields, of Thomas Bailey Aldrich and of General Fitz John Porter. From 1807 to 1816 Portsmouth was the home of Daniel Webster. PORTSMOUTH, a city and the county-seat of Scioto county, Ohio, U.S.A., picturesquely situated at the confluence of the Scioto and Ohio rivers, 95 m. S. of Columbus. Pop. (1910 U.S. census) 23,481. Portsmouth is served by the Baltimore & 1 See Captain G. H. Preble, " Vessels of War built at Portsmouth, N. H. 1690-1868," in New England Historical and Genealogical Register, vol. xxii. (Boston, 1868); and W. E. Fentress, Centennial History of the U.S. Navy Yard at Portsmouth, N. H. (Portsmouth, 1876). Ohio South- Western, the Chesapeake & Ohio and the Norfolk & Western railways, also by passenger and freight boats to Pittsburg, Cincinnati and intermediate ports. The city has a Carnegie library, a municipal hospital, an aged women's home and a children's home. Extending along the Ohio for 8 m. and arranged in three groups are works of the " Mound Builders." There are two small city parks, and a privately owned resort, Millbrook Park. The surrounding country is a fine farming region, which also abounds in coal, fire-clay and building stone. Natural gas is used for light, heat and power. In 1905 the city's factory products were valued at $7,970,674, of which $4,258,855 was the value of boots and shoes. The Norfolk & Western has division terminals here. The first permanent settlement in the immediate vicinity was made in 1796. In 1799 Thomas Parker, of Alexandria, Virginia, laid out a village (which was named Alexandria) below the mouth of the Scioto, but as the ground was frequently flooded the village did not thrive, and about 1810 the inhabitants removed to Portsmouth. Portsmouth was laid out in 1803, incorporated as a town in 1815, and chartered as a city in 1851. The Ohio and Erie canal was opened from Cleveland to Portsmouth in 1832. PORTSMOUTH, a city of Norfolk county, Virginia, U.S.A., on the Elizabeth river opposite Norfolk. Pop. (1910, census), 33,190. Portsmouth is served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line, the Chesapeake & Ohio and the New York, Philadelphia & Norfolk (Pennsylvania system), the Southern, and the Norfolk & Western railways, by steamboat lines to Washington, Baltimore, New York, Providence and Boston, by ferries to Norfolk, and by electric lines to numerous suburbs. There is a 30-ft. channel to the ocean. Portsmouth is situated on level ground only a few feet above the sea; it has about 25 m. of water-front, and adjoins one of the richest trucking districts in the Southern States. Among the principal buildings are the county court house, city hall, commercial building, United States naval hospital, post office building, high school and the Portsmouth orphan asylum, King's Daughters' hospital and the old Trinity Church (1762). In the southern part of the city is a United States navy yard and station, officially the Norfolk Yard (the second largest in the country), of about 450 acres, with three immense dry docks, machine shops, ware- houses, travelling and water cranes, a training station, torpedo- boat headquarters, a powder plant (20 acres), a naval magazine, a naval hospital and the distribution headquarters of the United State Marine Corps. The total value of the city's factory products in 1905 was only $145,439. The city is a centre of the Virginia oyster " fisheries." Portsmouth and Norfolk form a customs district, Norfolk being the port of entry, whose exports in 1908 were valued at $11,326,817, and imports at $1,150,044. Portsmouth was established by act of the Virginia assembly in 1 752, incorporated as a town in 1852 and chartered as a city in 1858. Though situated in Norfolk county, the city has been since its incorporation administratively independent of it. Shortly before the War of Independence the British established a marine yard where the navy yard now is, but during the war it was confiscated by Virginia and in 1801 was sold to the United States. In April 1861 it was burned and abandoned by the Federals, and for a year afterwards was the chief navy yard of the Confederates. Here was constructed the iron-clad " Virginia " (the old " Merrimac "), which on the 9th of March 1862 fought in Hampton Roads (q.v.) the famous engagement with the " Monitor." Two months later, on the 9th of May, the Confederates abandoned the navy yard and evacuated Norfolk and Portsmouth, and the " Virginia " was destroyed by her commander, Josiah Tattnall. PORT SUDAN, a town and harbour on the west coast of the Red Sea, in 19 37' N. 37 12' E., 700 m. by boat S. of Suez and 495 m. by rail N.E. of Khartum. Pop. (1906), 4289. It is the principal port of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and the headquar- ters of the customs administration. The coral reefs fringing the coast are here broken by a straight channel with deep water giving access to the harbour, which consists of a series of natural 134 PORT TOWNSEND— PORTUGAL channels and basins. The largest basin is 900 yds. long by 500 broad and has a minimum depth of 6 fathoms. On the north side of the inlet are quays (completed 1909), fitted with electric cranes, &c. Here are the customs-house, coal sheds and goods station. The town proper lies on the south side of the inlet, connected with the quays by a railway bridge. Besides govern- ment offices the public buildings include hospitals, and a branch of the Gordon College of Khartum. Beyond the bridge in the upper waters of the inlet is a dry dock. The climate of Port Sudan is very hot and damp and fever is common. Adjacent to the town is an arid plain without vegetation other than mimosa thorns. Some 10 m. west is a line of hills parallel to *he coast. The port dates from 1905. It owes its existence to the desire of the Sudan administration to find a harbour more suitable than Suakin (q.v.) for the commerce of the country. Such a place ' was found in Mersa Sheikh Barghut (or Barud), 36 m. north of Suakin, a harbour so named from a saint whose tomb is promi- nent on the northern point of the entrance. When the building of the railway between the Nile and the Red Sea was begun, it was determined to create a port at this harbour — which was renamed Port Sudan (Bander es-Sudan). Up to the end of 1909 the total expenditure by the government alone on the town and harbour-works was ££914,320. The railway (which has termini both at Port Sudan and Suakin) was opened in January 1906 and the customs-house in the May following. Port Sudan immediately attracted a large trade, the value of goods passing through it in 1906 exceeding £470,000. In 1908 the imports and exports were valued at about £750,000. It is a regular port of call of British, German and Italian steamers. The imports are largely cotton goods, provisions, timber and cement; the exports gum, raw cotton, ivory, sesame, durra, senna, coffee (from Abyssinia), goat skins, &c. Forty miles north of Port Sudan is Mahommed Gul, the port for the mines of Gebet, worked by an English company. The Foreign Office Report, Trade of Port Sudan for the Year igo6, by T. B. Hohler, gives a valuable account of the beginnings of the port. A chart of the harbour was issued by the British Admiralty in 1908. See also Sudan : § Anglo-Egyptian. PORT TOWNSEND, a city, port of entry and the county-seat of Jefferson county, Washington, U.S.A., on Quimper Peninsula, at the entrance to Puget Sound, about 40 m. N.N.W. of Seattle. Pop. (1905), 5300; (1910), 4181. The city is served by the Port Townsend Southern railway (controlled by the Northern Pacific, but operated independently) and by steamship lines to Victoria (British Columbia), San Francisco, Alaska and Oriental ports. The harbour is 7! m. long and 3J m. wide, and is deep, well sheltered and protected by three forts, of which Fort Worden is an excellently equipped modern fortification ranking with the forts at Portland (Maine), San Francisco, Boston and New York. The United States government has at Port Townsend a customs- house, a revenue cutter service, a marine hospital, a quarantine station and an immigration bureau. Port Townsend is the port of entry for the Puget Sound customs district. In 1908 its exports were valued at $37,547,553, much more than those of any other American port of entry on the Pacific; its imports were valued in 1908 at $21,876,361, being exceeded among the Pacific ports by those of San Francisco only. The city has a considerable trade in grain, lumber, fish, livestock, dairy products and oil; its manufactures include boilers, machinery and canned and pickled fish, especially salmon and herring. Port Townsend was settled in 1854, incorporated as a town in i860 and chartered as a city in 1890. PORTUGAL, a republic of western Europe, forming part of the Iberian Peninsula, and bounded on the N. and E. by Spain, and on the S. and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900), 5,016,267; area, 34,254 sq. m. These totals do not include the inhabitants and area of the Azores and Madeira Islands, which are officially regarded as parts of continental Portugal. In shape the country resembles a roughly drawn parallelogram, with its greatest length (362 m.) from N. to S., and its greatest breadth (140 m.) from E. to W. For map, see Spain. The land frontiers are to some extent defined by the course of the' four principal rivers, the Minho and Douro in the north, the, Tagus and Guadiana in the south; elsewhere, and especially in the north, they are marked by moun-a^^^L tain ranges; but in most parts their delimitation was originally based on political considerations. In no sense can the boundary-line be called either natural or scientific, apart from the fact that the adjacent districts on either side are poor, sparsely peopled, and therefore little liable to become a subject of dispute. The Portuguese seaboard is nearly 500 m. long, and of the six ancient provinces all are maritime except Traz-os- Montes. From the extreme north to Cape Mondego and thence onward to Cape Carvbeiro the outline of the coast is a long and gradual curve; farther south is the prominent mass of rock and mountain terminating westward in Capes Roca and Espichel; south of this, again, there is another wide curve, broken by the headland of Sines, and extending to Cape St Vincent, the south- eastern extremity of the country. The only other conspicuous promontory is Cape Santa Maria, on the south coast. The only deep indentations of the Portuguese littoral are the lagoon of Aveiro (q.v.) and the estuaries of the Minho, Douro, Mondego, Tagus, Sado and Guadiana, in which are the principal harbours. The only islands off the coast are the dangerous Farilhoes and Berlings (Portuguese Berlengas) off Cape Carvoeiro. Physical Features. — Few small countries contain so great a variety of scenery as Portugal. The bleak and desolate heights of the Serra da Estrella and the ranges of the northern frontier; are almost alpine in character, although they nowhere reach the limit of perpetual snow. At a lower level there are wide tracts of moorland, covered in many cases with sweet-scented cistus and other wild flowers. The lagoon of Aveiro, the estuary of the Sado and the broad inland lake formed by the Tagus above Lisbon (q.v.), recall the waterways of Holland. The sand-dunes of the western coast and the Pinhal de Leiria (q.v.) resemble the French Landes. The Algarve and parts of Alemtejo might be- long to North- West Africa rather than to Europe. The Paiz do Vinho, on the Douro, and the Tagus near Abrantes, with their terraced bush- vines grown up the steep banks of the rivers, are, often compared with the Rhine and the Elbe. The harbours of Lisbon and Oporto are hardly inferior in beauty to those of Naples and Constantinople. Apart from this variety, and from the historic interest of such places as Braga, Bussaco, Cintra, Coimbra, or Torres Vedras, the attractiveness of the country is due to its colouring, and not to grandeur of form. Its landscapes are on a small scale; it has no vast plains, no inland seas, no mountain as high as 7000 ft. But its flora is the richest in ■ Europe, and combines with the brilliant sunshine, the vivid but harmonious costumes of the peasantry, and the white or pale- tinted houses to compensate for any such deficiency. This wealth of colour gives to the scenery of Portugal a quite distinc- tive character and is the one feature common to all its varieties. The orography of Portugal cannot be scientifically studied except' in relation to that of Spain, for there is no dividing line between the principal Portuguese ranges and the highlands of Galicia, Leon and Spanish Estremadura. Three so-called Portuguese systems are sometimes distinguished: (1) the Transmontane, stretching between the Douro and the Minho; (2) the Beirene, between the Douro and the Tagus; (3) the Transtagine, south of, the Tagus. The following ranges belong to the Transmontane system, which is the southern extension of ' the mountains of Galicia: Peneda (4728 ft.), forming the watershed between the river Lima and the lower Minho; the Serra do Gerez (4817 ft.), which rises like a gigantic wall between the Lima and the Homem, and sends off a spur known as the Amarella, Oural and Nora, south-westward between the Homem and the Cavado; La Raya Seca, a continuation of Gerez, which culminates in Larouco (4390 ft.) and contains the sources of the Cavado; Cabreira (4196 ft.), which contains the sources of the river Ave and separates the basin of the Tamega from that of the Cavado; Marao (4642 ft.), Villarelho (3547 ft.) and Padrella (3763 ft.), forming together a large massif between the rivers Tamega, Tua and Douro; and Nogueira (4331 ft.) and Bornes (3944 ft.), which divide the valley of the Tua from that of the Sabor. The Beirene system comprises two quite distinct mountain regions. ' North of the Mondego it includes Montemuro (4534 ft.), separating the Douro from the upper waters of its left-hand tributary the Paiva; Gralheira (3681 ft.) between the Paiva and the Vouga; the Serra do Caramullo PHYSICAL FEATURES] PORTUGAL 135 (351 1 ft.), between the Vouga and the Dao; and the Serra da Lapa (3215 ft.)> which gives rise to the Paiva, Tavora, Vouga and Dao. South of these ranges, but nominally included in the same system, is the Serra da Estrella, the loftiest ridge in Portugal (6532 ft.). The Estrella Mountains, which enclose the headwaters of the Mondego in a deep ravine, stretch from north-east-to south-west and are continued in the same direction by the Serra de Lousa (3944 ft.). They form the last link in the chain of mountain ranges, known to Spanish geographers as the Carpetano-Vetonica, which extends across the centre of the Peninsula from east to west. The greater part of the Serra da Estrella constitutes the watershed between the Mondego and Zezere. Lesser ranges, which are included in the Beirene system and vary in height from 2000 to 4000 ft., are the Mesas, between the rivers C6a and Zezere; the Guardunha and Moradal, separating the Zezere from the Ponsul and Ocreza, tributaries of the Tagus ; the Serra do Aire, and various ridges which stretch south-westward as far as the mountains of Cintra {q.v.). The Transtagine Mountains cannot rightly be described as >a single system, as they consist for the most part of isolated ranges or massifs. The Serra da Arrabida (1637 ft.) rises between Cape Espichel and Setubal. Sao Mamede (3363 ft.), with the parallel and lower Serra de Portalegre, extends along part of the frontier of northern Alemtejo. Ossa (2129 ft.), Caixeiro (1483 ft.), Monfurado (1378 ft.) and Mendro (1332 ft.) form the high ground between the rivers Sado, Sorraia and Guadiana. East of the Guadiana the outliers of the Spanish Sierra Morena enter Portuguese territory. The Serra Grandola and Monte Cereal, two low ranges stretching from north to south, skirt the coast of southern Estremadura. In the extreme south the ranges are more closely massed together. They include Monchique, with the peak of Foya or Foia (2963 ft.), and various lower ranges. There are numerous large expanses of level country, the most notable of these being the plains (campos) of the Tagus valley, and of Aviz or Benavilla, Beja and Ourique, in Alemtejo; the high plateaux (cimas) of Mogadouro in Traz-os-Montes and Ourem between the Tagus and the upper Sorraia; the highly cultivated lowlands (yeigas) of Chaves and Valenca do Minho in the extreme north; and the marshy flats (baixas) along the coast of Alemtejo and the southern shore of the lower Tagus. The three principal rivers which flow through Portugal to the sea — the Douro, Tagus and Guadiana — are described in separate articles. The chief Portuguese tributaries of the Douro are the Tamega, Tua and Sabor on the north, the Agueda, C6a and Paiva on the south ; of the Tagus, the Ocreza, Ponsul and Zezere on the north, the Niza and Sorraia on the south, while into the Guadiana, on its right or Portuguese bank, flow the Caia, Degebe, Cobres, Oeiras and Vascao. The whole country drains into the Atlantic, to which all the main rivers flow in a westerly direction except the Guadiana, which turns south by east in the lower part of its course. The Minho (Spanish Mino) is the most northerly river of Portugal, and in size and importance is only inferior to the three great waterways already mentioned. It rises in the highlands of Galicia, and, after forming for some distance the boundary between that province and Entre-Minho-e-Douro, falls into the sea below the port of Caminha. Its length is 170 m. Small coasters can ascend the river as far as Salvatierra in Galicia (20 m.), but larger vessels are excluded by a sandy bar at the mouth. Between the Minho and Douro the chief rivers are the Lima (Spanish Limia or Antela), which also rises in Galicia, and reaches the sea at Vianna do Castello; the Cavado, which receives the Homem on the right, and forms the port of Espozende in its estuary ; and the Ave, which rises in the Serra da Cabreira and issues at the port of Villa do Conde. Between the Douro and Tagus the Vouga rises in the Serra da Lapa and reaches the sea through the lagoon of Aveiro; the Mondego flows north-east through a long ravine in the Serra da Estrella, and then bends back so as to flow west-south-west. Its estuary contains the important harbour of Figueira da Foz; its chief tributaries are the Dao on the right, and the Alva, Ceira and Arunca on the left; its length is 125 m. of which 52 m. are navigable by small coasters. Several comparatively unimportant streams, chief among which are the Liz and Sizandro, enter the Atlantic between the mouths of the Mondego and Tagus. Between the Tagus and Cape St Vincent the principal rivers are the Sado, which is formed by the junction of several lesser streams and flows north-west to the port of Setubal; and the Mira, which takes a similar direction from its headwaters south of Monte Vigia to the, port of Villa Nova de Milfontes. On the south coast the united waters of the Odelouca and Silves form the harbour of Villa Nova de Portimao, and the Algoz, Algibre or Quarteira, and the Asseca flow into the sea farther east. Portugal abounds in hot and medicinal springs, such as those of Caldas de Monchique, Caldas da Rainha and Vidago. Geology. — By far the greater part of Portugal is occupied by ancient rocks of Archean and Palaeozoic age, and by eruptive masses which probably belong to various periods. All the higher mountains are formed of these rocks, and it is only near the coast and in the plain of the Tagus that later deposits are found. The Mesozoic beds form an irregular triangle extending from Lisbon and Torres Novas on the south to Oporto on the north. There are also a narrow strip along the southern shores of the Algarve and a few smaller patches along the western coast. The Tertiary deposits cover the plain of the Tagus and are found in other low-lying areas near the coast. Of the Lower Palaeozoic rocks the Ordovician appears to be the most widely-spread. Large areas have been referred to the Cambrian, but it is only at Villa Boim, about 6 m. W.S.W. of Elvas, that Cambrian fossils have been found. The Ordovician beds have yielded fossils in several places, Vallongo and Bussaco being amongst the best-known localities. The suc- cession is similar to that of Brittany and Spain. Supposed Silurian beds have been described at Portalegre, and in the same neigh- bourhood Devonian fossils have been found. The Lower Carboni- ferous, which belongs to the " Culm " facies so widely spread in central Europe, occupies a wide area in southern Portugal; but the Upper Carboniferous is very restricted in extent, and occurs in small basins like those of the Central Plateau of France, resting unconformably upon the rocks below. The deposits in these basins consist largely of coarse sandstones and conglomerates, amongst which lie seams of coal. It is possible that some of these deposits may belong to the Permian or at least to the Perma-Carboniferous. Of the Mesozoic systems the Jurassic is the most widely-spread. Supposed Triassic beds are found, but they are confined chiefly to the eastern margin of the Mesozoic area north of Lisbon. The Jurassic deposits are partly marine and partly fresh-w»ter or terrestrial, including beds of lignite. On the whole, excepting in eastern Algarve, the Upper Jurassic beds indicate the neighbourhood of a shore-line. The Cretaceous system is very limited in extent. Its most interesting feature is the occurrence near its summit, north of Cape Mondego, of sands and gravels containing plant remains. Here both Cretaceous and Tertiary forms are found, and the Mondego beds seem to represent the passage between the two systems. At the close of the Cretaceous period great eruptions of basalt and basaltic tuff took place, especially in the Lisbon area. The volcanic rocks then formed are followed by marine deposits of Oligocene and Miocene age. Towards the north these are associated with fresh-water limestones, indicating the presence of land in that direction. Marine Pliocene beds occur at the mouth of the Tagus. The contemporaneous beds inland are of fresh- water origin. Eruptive masses of various age are found in many localities. The Cintra granite sends veins into the base of the Upper Jurassic, and is very probably of Tertiary age. The Serra de Monchique is petrographically of great interest. It consists chiefly of elaeolite-syenite and other rocks derived from the same igneous magma. Climate. — The climate of Portugal is equable and temperate. Lisbon, Coimbra, Evora and Oporto have mean temperatures between 60 ° and 61-5° F., and the daily variation nowhere exceeds 23 . This equability of temperature is partly caused by the very heavy rainfall precipitated on Portugal as one of the westernmost countries of Europe and the one most exposed to the Atlantic. The rainfall has been as heavy as 16 ft. in a year, and sometimes, as in the winter of 1909-1910, great damage is wrought by floods. Heavy fogs are also common along the coast, rendering it dangerous to ships. The rainfall is heaviest in the north and on the Serra da Estrella ; it is least in Algarve. A fine climate and equability of temperature are not universal in Portugal ; they are to be enjoyed mainly in Beira and Estremadura, especially at Cintra and Coimbra, and in the northern provinces. In the deep valleys where the mountains keep off the cool winds, it is excessively hot in summer; while on the summits of the mountains snow lies for many months. The meteorological station on the Serra da Estrella, with a mean annual temperature of 44-7° F., is the coldest spot in Portugal in which systematic observations are taken. Montalegre has a mean of 48-3° and Guarda of 50-3°. Even in Lisbon the yearly variation is not less than 50 . In Alemtejo the climate is very unfavourable, and, though the heat is not so great as in Algarve (where Lagos has a mean of 63 °), the country has a more deserted appearance; while in winter when the Tagus overflows, un- healthy swamps are left. Notwithstanding that Algarve is hotter than Alemtejo, a profuse vegetation takes away much of the tropical effect. Portugal is very rarely visited by thunderstorms; but shocks of earthquake are frequently felt, and recall the great earth- quake of Lisbon {q.v.) in 1755. Fauna and Flora. — An account of the fauna of the Iberian Peninsula as a whole is given under Spain. Woives are found in the wilder parts of the Serra da Estrella, and wild boars are preserved in some districts. As far as the constituents of its flora are concerned Portugal is not very dissimilar from Spain, but their distribution is peculiar. The vegetation of Spain is distributed in clearly marked zones ; but over the whole of Portugal, except the hottest parts of Algarve and Alemtejo, the plants of northern Europe flourish side by side with cacti, palms, aloes and tree-ferns (see Cintra). This is largely due to the fact that the moisture- laden winds from the Atlantic penetrate almost as far inland as the Portuguese frontier, but do not reach the interior of Spain. The soil is fertile, and the indigenous flora has been greatly enriched by the importation of such plants as the agave, the Mexican opuntia, the American maple, the Australian eucalyptus, the Scotch fir and the so-called Portuguese cypress {Cupressus lusitanica) from the Azores. There are many fine tracts of forest, among which may be mentioned the famous convent-wood of Bussaco {q.v.); cork AGRICULTURE: COMMERCE] PORTUGAL 137 railways meet the Spanish at Valenca do Minho on the northern frontier, at Barca d'Alva, at Villar Formoso, near Valencia de Alcantara, and near Badajoz on the eastern frontier. In some of the chief towns there are electric tramways. The most important internal waterways are the lower Tagus and the Douro between Oporto and the Paiz do Vinho. In 1908, 11,045 vessels of 19,354,967 tons entered Portuguese seaports, but a very large majority of these ships were foreign, and especially British. The postal and 'telegraphic services are adequate; telephone systems are installed in Lisbon, Oporto and other large towns; and the Eastern Telegraph Co. has an important cable station at Carcavellos near Lisbon (q.v.). Land Tenure. — Four modes of land tenure are common in Portugal. The poor and thinly-peopled region of Alemtejo is divided into large estates, and cultivated by tenant farmers. Numerous estates in various provinces are held on the metayage system (q.v.). In the north, where. the land is much subdivided, peasant proprietorship and a kind of emphyteusis (see Roman Law) are the most usual tenures. The Portuguese form of emphy- teusis is called aforamento; the landlord parts with the user of his property in exchange for a quit-rent (foro or canon). He may evict his tenant should the rent be in arrear for five years, and may at any time distrain if it be overdue ; but he cannot otherwise interfere with the holding, which the tenant may improve or neglect. Should the tenant sell or exchange his interest in the property, the right of pre-emption is vested in the landlord, and a corresponding right is enjoyed by the tenant should the quit- rent be for sale. As this tenure is very ancient, though modified in 1832 and 1867, the value of such holdings has been greatly enhanced with the improvement of the land and the decline in the purchasing power of currency. Agriculture. — Many of the instruments and processes of Portu- guese agriculture and viticulture were introduced by the Romans, and are such as Columella described in the 1st century a.d. The characteristic springless ox-cart which is used for heavy loads may be seen represented on Roman frescoes of even earlier date. One form of plough still used consists of a crooked bough, with an iron share attached. Oxen are employed for all field-work; those of the commonest breed are tawny, of great muscular power, very docile, and with horns measuring 5 or 6 ft. from tip to tip. The ox-yokes are often elaborately carved in a traditional pattern in which Gothic and Moorish designs are blended. The Moors intro- duced many improvements, especially in the system of irrigation ; the characteristic Portuguese wells with their perpetual chains or buckets are of Moorish invention, and retain their Moorish name of noras. In all, rather more than 45 % of the country is uncultivated, chiefly in Alemtejo, Traz-os-Montes and the Serra da Estrella. The principal grain-crops are maize, wheat and rye; rice is grown among the marshes of the coast. Gourds, pumpkins, cabbages and other vegetables are cultivated among; the cereals. The large onions sold in Great Britain as Spanish are extensively pro- duced in the northern provinces. Every district has its vine- yards, the finest of which are in the Paiz do Vinho (see Oporto and Wine). The bush vines of this region are more exposed to the attacks of Oidium Tuckeri, which invaded the country in 1851, and of Phylloxera vastatrix, which followed in 1863, than the more deeply-rooted vines trained on trellises or trees. Both these pests have been successfully combated, largely by the use of sulphur and by grafting immune American vines upon native^ stocks. In addition to grapes the commoner fruits include quinces, apples, pears, cherries, limes, lemons and loquats (Port, nespras) ; Condeixa is famous for oranges, Amarante for peaches, Elvas for plums, the southern provinces for carobs and figs; Large quantities of olive oil are manufactured south of the Douro. Almost all cattle, except fighting-bulls, are stall-fed. The fighting-bulls are chiefly reared in the marshes and alluvial valleys; they are bred for strength and swiftness rather than size, and a good specimen should be sufficiently agile to leap over the inner barrier of the arena (about 68 in. high). Large herds of swine are fed in the oak and chestnut woods of Alemtejo ; sheep and goats are reared in the mountains, where excellent cheeses are made from goats' milk. Fisheries. — About 50,000 Portuguese are classed as hunters and fishermen. The majority of these are employed in the sardine and tunny fisheries. This industry is carried on in a fleet of more than 10,000 small vessels, including the whalers of the Azores and the cod-boats which operate outside Portuguese waters. The fishermen and fisherwomen form a quite distinct class of the people ; both sexes are noted for their bodily strength, and the men for their bold and skilful seamanship. Tunny and sardines are cured and exported in large quantities, oysters are also exported, and many other sea fish, such as hake, sea-bream, whiting, conger and various flat-fish are consumed in the country. In the early years of the 20th century the competition of foreign steam trawlers inflicted much hardship on the fishermen. The average yearly value of the fish landed in Portugal (exclusive of cured fish from foreign countries) is about £800,000. Salmon, lampreys and eels are caught in some of the larger rivers; trout abound in the streams of the northern provinces; but many fresh- water fish common elsewhere in Europe, including pike, perch, tench and chub, are not found. Mines. — It is usually stated that Portugal is rich in minerals, especially copper, but that want of capital and, especially in the south, of transport and labour, has retarded their exploitation. The mineral deposits of the country are very varied, but their extent is probably exaggerated. The average yearly output from 1901 to 1905 was worth less than £300,000. Copper is mined in southern Portugal. Common salt (chiefly from Alcacer do Sal near Setubal), gypsum, lime and marble are exported; marble and granite of fine quality abound in the southern provinces. . Iron is obtained near Beja and Evora, tin in the district of Braganza. Lead, wolfram, antimony and auriferous quartz exist in the dis- tricts of Coimbra, Evora, Beja and Faro. Lignite occurs at many points around Coimbra, Leiria and Santarem; asphalt abounds near Alcobaca; phosphorite, asbestos and sulphur are common south of the Tagus. Petroleum has been found near Torres Vedras; pitchblende, arsenic, anthracite and zinc are also mined. Gold was washed from some of the Portuguese rivers before the Christian era, and among the Romans the auriferous sands of the Tagus were proverbially famous; it is, however, extremely improbable that large quantities of gold were ever obtained in this region, although small deposits of alluvial gold may still be found in the valleys of the Tagus and Mondego. Manufactures. — The Methuen Treaty of 1703 prevented the establishment of some manufacturing industries in Portugal by securing a monopoly for British textiles, and it was only after 1892 that Portuguese cotton-spinning and weaving were fostered by heavy protective duties. In 20 years these industries became the most important in the country after agriculture, the wine and cork trades and the fisheries. In connexion with the wine trade there are many large cooperages; cork products are extensively manufactured for export. Lisbon is the headquarters of the ship-building trade. Here, and in other cities, tanning, distilling, various metallurgical industries, and manufactures of soap, flour, tobacco, &c, are carried on; the entire output is sold in Portugal or its colonies. There is a steady trade in natural mineral waters, which occur in many parts of continental Portugal and the Azores. From the 1 6th century to the 1 8th many artistic handicrafts were practised by the Portuguese in imitation of the fine pottery, cabinet- work, embroideries, &c, which they imported from India and Persia. Portuguese cabinet-work deteriorated in the 19th century; the glass- works and potteries of the Aveiro and Leiria districts have lost much of their ancient reputation; and even the exquisite lace of Peniche and Vianna do Castello is strangely neglected abroad. The finest Caldas da Rainha china-ware, with its fantastic repre^ sentations of birds, beasts and fishes, still commands a fair price in foreign markets; but the blue and white ware originally copied from Delft and later modified under the influence of Persian pottery is now only manufactured in small quantities, of inferior quality.. Skilful copies of Moorish metal-work may be purchased in the gold- smiths' and silversmiths' shops of Lisbon and Oporto; conspicuous among these are the filigree ornaments which are bought by the peasant women as investments and by foreign visitors as curiosities. In 1900 the total industrial population of Portugal was 455,296. Commerce. — The annual value of the foreign trade of Portugal amounts approximately to £19,000,000. The following table shows the value for five years of the exports, and of all imports not re- exported (exclusive of coin and bullion) : — - - - - . Years. Exports. Imports. 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 £6,284,800 £6,318,888 £6,800,710 £6,824,692 £6,460,000 £12,849,622 £12,354,800 £13,068,000 £13,801,622 £13,486,666 In 1910 the principal exports, in order of value, were wine (chiefly port, common wines and Madeira), raw and manufactured cork, preserved fish, fruits and vegetables, cottons and yarn, copper ore, timber, olive oil, skins, grain and flour, tobacco and wool. The imports were raw and manufactured cotton, wool and silk, wheat and maize, coal, iron and machinery, dried codfish, sugar, rice, hides and skins, oils. The United Kingdom, which annually purchases wine to the value of about £900,000 and cork to the value of about £500,000, is the chief consumer of Portuguese goods, and the chief exporter to Portugal. Germany and the United States rank respectively second and third among the countries which export to Portugal; Spain, which buys bullocks and pigs, Brazil, which buys wine, and the Portuguese colonies, which buy textiles, are among the chief purchasers of Portuguese products. In addition to its direct foreign commerce Portugal derives much benefit from its share in the trade between South America and Europe. Large liners from Liverpool, Southampton, London, Hamburg, Havre and Antwerp call regularly for passengers or cargo at Leixoes or Lisbon, or both ports, on their way to and from South America (especially Brazil). In connexion with this trade an important tourist traffic, chiefly from Great Britain and Germany, was developed towards the end of the 19th century. Banks and Money. — In 1910 the Bank of Portugal, to which the 136 PORTUGAL [INHABITANTS trees are extensively cultivated, Barbary oaks (Quercus ballota, Port, azinheira) furnish edible acorns and excellent timber for charcoal, and carob-trees (Ceratonia siliqua, Port, alfarrobeira) also produce edible seed-pods somewhat resembling beans. Elms, limes and poplars are common north of the Tagus, ilexes, arau- carias, myrtles, magnolias and a great variety of conifers in all parts. The Serra da Estrella has a rich alpine flora, and the lagoon of Aveiro contains a great number of aquatic plants. Inhabitants. — The population of Portugal numbered 4,550,699 in 1878, 5,049,729 in 1890 and 5,423,132 in 1900. These totals include the inhabitants of the Azores and Madeira, which together amounted to 406,865 in 1900. Few immigrants enter the country, but the birth-rate is about 30 per 1000, while the mortality is only about 20 per 1000. Large bodies of emigrants, chiefly recruited from the sober, hardy and industrious peasantry of the northern provinces, annually leave Portugal to seek fortune in America. A few go to the Portuguese colonies, the great majority to Brazil. Many of these emigrants return with considerable savings and settle on the land. The mortality is highest among male children, and the normal excess of females is in the proportion of 109 to 100. Six-sevenths of the popula- tion of continental Portugal inhabit the provinces north of the Tagus. The density of population is greatest in Madeira (479-5 per sq. m. in 1900), Entre-Minho-e-Douro (419-5) and the Azores (277-9), nowhere else does it reach 200 per sq. m. In Alemtejo the percentage sinks to 45-1, and for the whole country, including the islands, it amounts only to 152-8. The Portuguese people is composed of many racial elements. Its earliest known ancestors were the Iberians (q.v.). The peas- antry, especially in the north, are closely akin to the Galician and Asturian Spaniards in character, physique and dialect ; and these three ethnical groups — Portuguese of the north, Galicians, Astu- rians — may perhaps be regarded as the purest representatives of the Spanish stock. The first settlers with whom they inter- married were probably Carthaginians, who were followed in smaller numbers by Greeks; but the attempts which have some- times been made to ascribe certain attributes of the Portuguese to the influence of these races are altogether fanciful. The Romans, whose supremacy was not seriously threatened for some six centuries after the Punic Wars, gave to Portugal its language and the foundation of its civilization; there is, however, no evidence that they seriously modified the physical type or character of its people. In these respects the Suevic and Visigothic conquests left a more permanent impression, especially in the northern provinces. After 711 came the long period of Moorish (i.e. Arab and Berber) predominance. The influence of the Moors was greatest south of the Tagus. In Alemtejo, and still more in Algarve, Arab and Berber types are common; and the influence of these races can everywhere be discerned in the architecture, handicrafts and speech of the peasantry. So complete was the intellectual triumph of the Moors that an intermediate " Mozarabic " population arose, Portuguese in blood, Christian in religion, but Arab in language and manners. Many of the Mozarabs even adopted the characteristic Mahom- medan rite of circumcision. Under the tolerant rule of Islam the Portuguese Jews rose to a height of wealth and culture unparalleled in Europe; they intermarried with the Christians both at this period and after their forced conversion by King Emanuel I. (1495-1521). After 1450 yet another ethnical element was introduced into the nation, through the importation of African slaves in vast numbers. Negroid types are common throughout central and southern Portugal. No European race confronted with the problem of an immense coloured population has solved it more successfully than the Portuguese and their kinsmen in Brazil; in both countries intermarriage was freely resorted to, and the offspring of these mixed unions are superior in character and intelligence to most half-breeds. National Characteristics. — The normal type evolved from this fusion of many races is dark-haired, sallow-skinned, brown- eyed and of low stature. The poorer classes, above all the fisher- men and small farmers, are physically much finer than the well- to-do, who are prone to excessive stoutness owing to their more sedentary habits. The staple diet of the labouring classes and small farmers is fish, especially the dried codfish called bacalhdo, rice, beans, maize bread and meal, olive oil, fruit and vegetables. Meat is rarely eaten except on festivals. In Alemtejo chestnuts and figs are important articles of diet. Drunkenness is extremely rare. There is no single national dress, but a great variety of picturesque costumes are worn. The sashes, broad-brimmed hats and copper-tipped quarterstaves of the men, and the bril- liant cotton dresses and gold or silver filigree ornaments worn on holidays by the women are common throughout the country; but many classes have their own costumes, varying in detail according to the district or province. These costumes may be seen at their best at bull-fights and at such popular festivals as the romarias or pilgrimages, which combine religion with the attractions of a fair. The national sport of bull-fighting (q.v.) is conducted as humanely as possible, for the Portuguese are lovers of animals. The artistic sense of the nation is perhaps greatest among the peasantry, although Portugal has the most illiterate peasantry in western Europe. It is manifested in their poetry and music even more than in their admirable costumes and in the good taste which has preserved the Roman or Moorish forms of their domestic pottery. Even the men and women who till the soil are capable of improvizing verse of real merit, and sometimes excel in the ancient and difficult art of composing extempore amoebean rhymes. In this way, although the ancient ballads are not forgotten, new words are also fitted to the plaintive folk-tunes (fados) which every farm-hand knows and sings, accompanied sometimes by a rude clarinet or bag- pipes, but more frequently by the so-called Portuguese guitar — an instrument which resembles a mandolin rather than the guitars of Italy and Spain. The native dances, slow but not ungraceful, and more restrained than those of Andalusia or the south of France, are obviously Moorish in origin, and depend for their main effects on the movement of the arms and body. Many curious superstitions survive in the country districts, including the beliefs in witches (jeiticeiras, bruxas) and werewolves (lobis- homens) ; in sirens (sereias) which haunt the dangerous coast and lure fishermen to destruction; in fairies (fadas) and in many kinds of enchantment. It will be observed that the nomen- clature of Portuguese folk-lore suggests that the popular supersti- tions are of the most diverse origin — Latin, Greek, Arabic, native: lobishomem is the Latin lupus homo, wolf -man, sereia is the Greek atipi\v, bruxa is Arabic, feiliceira and fad a Portuguese. Other beliefs can be traced to Jewish and African sources. Chief Towns. — The chief towns of Portugal are Lisbon (pop. 1900, 356,009), the capital and principal seaport; Oporto (167,955), the capital of the northern provinces and, after Lisbon, the most important centre of trade; the seaports of Setubal (22,074), Ilhavo (12,617), Povoa de Varzim (12,623), Tavira (12,175), Faro (11,789), Ovar (10,462), Olhao (10,009) Vianna do Castello (10,000), Aveiro (9975), Lagos (8291), Leixoes (7690) and Figueira da Foz (6221); and the inland cities or towns of Braga (24,202), Louie (22,478), Coimbra (18,144), Evora (16,020), Covilha. (15,469), Elvas (13,981), Portalegre (11,820), Palmella (11,478), Torres Novas (10,746), Silves (9687), Lamego (9471), Guimaraes (9104), Beja (8885), Santarem (8628), Vizeu (8057), Estremoz (7920), Monchique (7345), Castello Branco (7288), Abrantes (7255), Torres Vedras (6900), Thomar (6888), Villa Real (6716), Chaves (6388), Guarda (6124), Cintra (5914), Braganza (5535), Mafra (4769), Leiria (445°), Batalha*(3858), Almeida (2330), Alcobaca (2309), Bussaco (1661). All these are described in separate articles. Communications. — Up to 1851 there was practically no good carriage road in the country except the highway between Lisbon and Cintra. In 1853 the work of constructing a proper system of roads was undertaken, and by the end of the century all the larger towns were linked together by the main or " royal " highways to which the " district " and " municipal " roads were subsidiary. Each class of road was named after the authority responsible for its construction and upkeep. In some of the remoter rural districts there are only bridle-paths, or rough tracks, which become almost impassable in wet seasons, and are never suitable for vehicles less solid than the Portuguese ox-carts. The first railway was opened in 1853 to connect Lisbon with Badajoz. In 1910 1758 m. were completed, of which 672 m. were state lines. The Portuguese 138 PORTUGAL [CONSTITUTION treasury was deeply indebted, had a capital of £1,500,000, and a monopoly of note issue in continental Portugal, but the notes of the Ultramarine Bank circulated in the colonies. The notes of the Bank of Portugal in circulation amounted in value to about £14,000,000. For an account of the Monte Pio Geral, which is a combined bank, pawnbroking establishment and benefit society, see Pawnbroking; the deposits in the Monte Pio and the State Savings Bank amounted in 1910 to some £5,228,000. There are also many private banks, including savings banks. Gold is the standard of value, but the actual currency is chiefly Bank of Portugal notes. The values of coin and notes are expressed in multiples of the real (plural rets), a monetary unit which does not actually exist. The milreis, 1000 reis of the par value of 4s. 5d. (or 4-5 milreis to the pound sterling) and the conto of reis (1000 milreis) are used for the calculation of large sums. Gold pieces of 10, 5, 2 and 1 milreis were coined up to 1891; 10, 5, and 2 testoon (testao) pieces, worth respectively 1000, 500 and 200 reis, are coined in silver; testoons of 100 reis and half testoons of 50 reis, in nickel; pieces of 20, 10 and 5 reis in bronze. The milreis fluctuates widely in value, the balance of exchange being usually adverse to Portugal; for the purposes of this article the milreis has been taken at par. The British sovereign is legal tender for 4500 reis, but in practice usually commands a premium. The metric system of weights and measures has been officially adopted, but many older standards are used, such as the libra (1-012 ft avoirdupois), alqueire (0-36 imperial bushel), moio (2-78 imp. bushels), almude of Lisbon (3-7 imp. gallons) and almude of Oporto (5-6 imp. gallons). Finance. — For the five financial years, 1901-1902 to 1905-1906, the average revenue of Portugal was about £13,300,000 and the average expenditure £13,466,000. The chief sources of revenue were customs duties, taxes on land and industries, duties on tobacco and breadstuff's, the Lisbon octroi, receipts frcto national property, registration and stamps, &c. The heaviest expenditure (nearly £5,000,000) was incurred for the service of the consolidated debt; payments for the civil list, cortes, pensions, &c, amounted to more than £2,000,000, and the cost of public works to nearly as large a sum. The ministries of war and marine together spent about £2,500,000 each year. The practice of meeting deficits by loans, together with the great expenditure, after 1853, on public works, especially roads and railways, explains the rapid growth of the national debt in modern times. In 1853 the total public debt, internal and external, amounted to £2,082,680. It exceeded £90,000,000 in 1890, and in 1 891-1892 the finances of the kingdom reached a crisis, from which there was no escape except by arrang- ing for a reduction in the amount payable as interest (see History, below). By the law of the 26th of February 1892 30% was de- ducted from the internal debt payable in currency; by the law of -the 20th of April 1893 66f % was deducted from the interest on the external debt, due in gold. A law of the 9th of August 1902 provided for the conversion of certain gold debts into three series of consolidated debt, at reduced interest. In 1909 the total outstanding debt amounted to £161,837,430, made up as follows: new external 3% converted in three series, £34,223,465; 4i% tobacco loan £7,267,480; internal 3% (quoted in London) £113,132,979. Internal debt at 3, 4 and 43% was also outstanding to the amount of £7,213,506. Constitution. — Up to October 1910 the government was an hereditary and constitutional monarchy, based on the constitu- tional charter which was granted by King Pedro IV. on the 29th of April 1826, and was afterwards several times modified; the most important changes were those effected by the acts of the 5th of July 1852, the 24th of July 1885, and the 28th of March and 25th of September 1895. The revolution of the 5th of October 1910 brought the monarchy to an end and substituted republican government for it. The monarchical constitution recognized four powers in the state — the executive, moderating, legislative and judicial. The two first of these were vested in the sovereign, who might be a woman, and who shared the legislative power with two chambers, the Camara dos Pares or House of Peers, and the Camara dos Deputados or House of Commons; these were collectively styled the Cortes Geraes, or more briefly the Cortes. The royal veto could not be imposed on legislation passed twice by both houses. The annual session lasted four months, and a general election was necessary at the end of every four years, or immediately after a dissolution. A committee repre- senting both houses adjudicated upon all cases of conflict between Peers and Commons; should it fail to reach a decision, the dispute was referred to the sovereign, whose award was final. Up to 1885 some members sat in the House of Peers by hereditary right, while others were nominated for life. It was then decided that such rights should cease, except in the case of princes of royal blood and members then sitting, and that when all the hereditary peerages had lapsed the house should be composed of the princes of the royal blood, the archbishops and bishops of the continental dioceses, a hundred legislative peers appointed by the king for life, and fifty elected every new parliament by the Commons. In 1895 the number of nominated life peers was reduced to ninety and the elective branch was abolished. Subject to certain limitations and to a property qualification, any person over 40 years of age was eligible to a peerage. The titles and social position of the Portuguese aristocracy were not affected when its political privileges were abolished. In the nomination of life peers, and in certain administrative matters the sovereign was advised by a council of state, whose twelve members were nominated for life and were principally past or present ministers. The sovereign exercised his executive power through a cabinet which was responsible to the cortes, and consisted of seven members, representing the ministries of (1) the interior, (2) foreign affairs, (3) finance, (4) justice and worship, (5) war, (6) marine and colonies, (7) public works, industry and commerce. The House of Commons was composed of 148 members, representing the 26 electoral divisions of Portugal, the Azores and Madeira, which returned 113 elected members and 35 representatives of minorities, and of 7 members representing the colonies. Peers, naturalized foreigners and certain employees of the state were unable to sit in the House of Commons; members were required to be graduates of one of the highest, secondary or professional schools, or to possess an income of not less than 400 milreis (£88). AD members might, in connexion with their official duties, travel fret on railways and ships owned by the state; but since 1892 none had received any salary except the colonial members, who were paid 100 milreis (£22) per month during the session, and 50 milreis (£11) per month during the remainder of the year. All male citizens 21 years old who could read and write, or who paid taxes amounting to 500 reis yearly, had the parliamentary franchise, except convicts, beggars, undischarged bankrupts, domestic servants, workmen permanently employed by the state and soldiers or sailors below the rank of commissioned officer. (For changes made under republican rule, see History, § 8.) Local Government. — Continental Portugal was formerly divided for administrative purposes into six provinces which corresponded to a great extent with the natural geographical divisions of the country and are described in separate articles; the names of these, which are still commonly used, are Entre-Minho-e-Douro (also called Entre-Douro-e-Minho or Minho), Traz-os-Montes, Beira, Estremadura, Alemtejo and Algarve. The province of Douro, another administrative division of less antiquity, comprised the present districts of Aveiro and Oporto, or part of Beira and Entre- Minho-e-Douro. The six ancient provinces were subdivided on the 28th of June 1833 into districts, each named after its chief town, as follows: Entre-Minho-e-Douro into Vianna do Casteilo, Braga, Oporto; Traz-os-Montes, into Villa Real, Braganza; Beira, into Aveiro, Vizeu, Coimbra, Guarda, Casteilo Branco ; Estremadura, into Leiria, Santarem, Lisbon; Alemtejo, into Portalegre, Evora, Beja ; Algarve was renamed Faro. In 1910 the Azores comprised three districts and Madeira formed one. Each district was governed by a commission composed of (1) the civil governor, who was nominated by the central authority and presided over the commission ; (2) the administrative auditor; and (3) three members chosen by indirect suffrage. The districts were divided into communes (concelhos), each administered by an elected council, and a mayor nominated by the central authority. The mayor could not preside over the council, which appointed one of its own members to preside and to give effect to its decisions. The communes were subdivided into parishes (freguesias), which were administered by the elected council (junta de parochia) over which the parish priest (presbitero) pre- sided, and by the regedor, an official who represented the mayor of the commune and was nominated by the civil governor. The central authority had almost complete control over local administration through its representatives, the civil governor, mayors and regedores. Justice. — In 1910 Portugal was divided into 193 judicial districts (comarcas) , in each of which there was a court of first instance. The three courts of appeal (tribunaes de relacao) sat at Lisbon, Oporto and Ponta Delgada (Azores), and there was a Supreme Court in Lisbon. Colonics. — At the beginning of the 19th century Portugal possessed a larger colonial empire than any European power except Great Britain and Spain. At the beginning of the 20th century its transmarine possessions had been greatly reduced in size by the loss of Brazil, but were still only surpassed in extent HISTORY] PORTUGAL 139 by those of three powers — Great Britain, France and Germany. Their total area was about 803,000 sq. m., of which 794,000 sq. rri. are in Africa. They comprised, in Africa, the Cape Verde Islands, St Thomas and Prince's Islands, Portuguese Guinea, Angola and Portuguese East Africa, or Mozambique; in India, Goa, Damaun and Diu; in China, Macao; and in the Malay Archipelago part of Timor. All these are described in separate articles. In all the white population is in a minority; in most the climate is unsuitable for European colonization, nor is the commercial value of the colonies commensurate with their extent. Viewed as a whole, Portuguese administration has been carried on under difficulties which have rendered it costly and inefficient, the home government being compelled to contribute a large annual subsidy towards its maintenance. The amount paid in subsidies from 1870 to 1900 was about £15,000,000. Religion. — Roman Catholicism was the state religion until 1910, but other creeds were tolerated, and the Church lost its temporal authority in 1834, when the monasteries were suppressed and their property confiscated for the first time. There are three ecclesiastical provinces — Braga, Lisbon and Evora, each under an archbishop. The archbishop of Braga, whose see is the most ancient, has the title of Primate ; the archbishop of Lisbon has the honorary title of Patriarch, and is usually elected a cardinal. His province includes Madeira, the Azores and the West African colonies. There are four- teen dioceses, of which Oporto is the most important. The annual revenues of the upper hierarchy of the Church amounted, up to 1910, to about £65,000. In some of the larger towns the foreign residents have their own places of worship. (See further under History.) Education. — Primary education is regulated by a law of 1844, under which children between the ages of 7 and 15 are bound to attend a school, should there be one within a mile, under penalty to the parents of a fine and deprivation of civil rights. This law has not been strictly enforced; primary education was never properly organized; and, according to census returns, the pro- portion of the population (including children) unable to read was 82-4% in 1878, 79-2 in 1890 and 78-6 in 1900. There were in 1910 5250 public and 1750 private primary schools. In the chief towns there are training schools for teachers. The system of secondary education was reorganized in 1894. In 1905 there were state lyceums in each district capital and in Guimaraes, Lamego and Amarante ; 5 municipal lyceums, at Celorico de Basto, Chaves, Ponte de Lima, Povoa de Varzim and Setubal; military and naval colleges; a secondary school for girls in Lisbon; numerous private secondary schools and ecclesiastical seminaries; industrial, com- mercial and technical schools; and pilot schools at Lisbon, Oporto, Faro and Ponta Delgada (Azores). Other important educational institutions are described under Lisbon and Oporto. The national university is at Coimbra (q.v.). Defence. — Under the monarchy, the army was maintained at its normal strength partly by voluntary enlistment and conscription, the chief law regulating it being that of 1887, as variously modified in subsequent years. The cortes fixed the number of conscripts to be enrolled in each year: in 1905, 15,000 men for the army, 1000 for the navy, 500 for the municipal guards and 400 for the fiscal guards. The organization of the army was based on the acts of the 7th of September 1899 and the 24th of December 1901. With cer- tain exceptions all men over 21 years of age were liable for service — 3 years in the regular army, 5 years in the first reserve and 7 years in the second reserve ; but exemption could always be purchased. In time of war, the municipal guards, numbering about 2200, and the fiscal guards, numbering about 5200, might be incorporated in the army. The total effective force of the active army on a peace footing was 1787 officers, 31,281 men, 6479 horses and mules and 100 guns. The total effective force on a war footing, inclusive of re- servists, municipal guards and fiscal guards, was 4221 officers, 178,603 men, 19,600 horses and mules and 336 guns. Lisbon, Elvas and Angra in the Azores, were considered first-class fortresses, but only Lisbon had modern defences. The Portuguese navy in 1910 con- sisted of I armoured vessel, 5 protected cruisers, 2 third-class cruisers, 19 gunboats, 1 torpedo gunboat, 4 torpedo boats, 16 river gunboats, 4 transports and 3 training ships. Twelve other vessels, including 2 submarines, were under construction. The whole fleet was manned by about 5000 men. Bibliography. — Numerous official reports, chiefly statistical, are published periodically in Lisbon; a few are written in French, the majority in Portuguese. Read in conjunction with the British consular and diplomatic reports, they afford a comprehensive survey of the movement of population, the progress of trade, &c. The following state papers deserve special notice: Caminhos de ferro (1877, &c), Commercio e navigacao (annual, issued by the Ministry of Marine), Le Portugal vinicole (1900), Le Portugal . . . . agricole (1900), Notas sobre Portugal (2 vols., 1908). For geology, see the section of Le Portugal .... agricole written by P. Choffat and entitled " Apercu de la geologie de Portugal," also " The Work of the Portuguese Geological Survey," by Philip Lake, in Science Progress (1896) v. 439-453; both these summaries refer to the most important original papers. Two illustrated volumes by Oswald Craw- ford, Portugal Old and New (London, 1880) and Round the Calendar in Portugal (London, 1890) contain much valuable information on agriculture, viticulture and peasant life in the northern pro- vinces. Through Portugal, by Major Martin Hume (London, 1907) and Lisbon and Cintra, by A. A. Inchbold (London, 1908), describe the towns, &c, most frequently visited by tourists, and are illus- trated in colours. Le Portugal (Paris, 1899), by 18 writers, is a brief but encyclopaedic description of continental Portugal. See also Portugal: its Land and People, by W. H. Koebel (London, 1909), and Portuguese Architecture, by W. C. Watson (London, 1908). The following books deal comprehensively with the Portuguese colonies; As Colonias portuguezas, by E. J. de Vascon- cellos (2nd ed., Lisbon, 1903), Les Colonies portugaises, by A. de Almada Negreiros (Paris, 1908). (K. G. J.) History Throughout the centuries which witnessed the destruction of Carthaginian power by Rome, the establishment and decline of Latin civilization, the invasion by Alani, Suevi and other barbarian races, the resettlement under Visigothic rule and the overthrow of the Visigoths by Arab and Berber tribes from Africa, Portugal remained an undifferentiated part of Hispania, without sign of national consciousness. The Iberian Peninsula was one: and its common history is related under Spain. It is true that some Portuguese writers have sought to identify their race with the ancient Lusitani, and have claimed for it a separate and continuous existence dating from the 2nd century B.C. The revolt of Lusitania against the Romans has been regarded as an early manifestation of Portuguese love of liberty, Viriathus as a national hero. But this theory, which originated in the 15th century and was perpetuated in the title of The Lusiads, has no historical foundation. In 1095 Portugal was an obscure border fief of the kingdom of Leon. Its territories, far from the centres of European civilization and consisting largely of mountain, moorland and forest, were bounded on the north by the Minho, on the south by the Mondego. Its name (Porlu- calia, Terra portucalensis) was derived from the little seaport of Portus Cale or Villa Nova de Gaia, now a suburb of Oporto, at the mouth of the Douro. Its inhabitants, surrounded by Moorish or Spanish enemies and distracted by civil war, derived such rudiments of civilization as they possessed from Arabic or Leonese sources. But from these obscure beginnings Portugal rose in four centuries to be the greatest maritime, commercial and colonial power in Europe. The history of the nation comprises eight periods. (1) Be- tween 1095 and 1279 a Portuguese kingdom was established and extended until it reached its present continental limits. (2) Between 1279 and 141 5 the monarchy was gradually consolidated in spite of resistance from the Church, the nobles and the rival kingdom of Castile. (3) In 141 5 began a period of crusades and discoveries, culminating in the discovery of an ocean-route to India (.1497-1499). (4) From 1499 to 1580 Portugal acquired an empire stretching from Brazil eastward to the Moluccas, reached the zenith of its prosperity and entered upon a period of swift decline. (5) Spanish kings ruled over Portugal from 1 581 to 1640. (6) The chief event of the years 1640 to 1755 was the restoration of the Portuguese monarchy. (7) Between 1755 and 1826 the reforms of Pombal and the Peninsular War prepared the country for a change from absolutism to constitutional monarchy. (8) In 1826 the era of constitutional government began. 1 . The Establishment of the Monarchy. — The origin of Portugal, as a separate state, was an incident in the Christian reconquest of Spain. Towards the close of the nth century crusading knights came from every part of Europe Henry. to aid the kings of northern and central Spain in driving out the Moors. Among these adventurers was Count Henry of Burgundy, an ambitious warrior who, in 1095, married Theresa, natural daughter of Alphonso VI., king of Leon. The county of Portugal, which had already been won back from the Moors (1055-1064), was included in Theresa's dowry. Count Henry ruled as a vassal of Alphonso VI., whose Galician marches were thus secured against any sudden Moorish raid. But in 140 PORTUGAL [HISTORY 1 109 Alphonso VI. died, bequeathing all his territories to his legitimate daughter Urraca, and Count Henry at once invaded Leon, hoping to add to his own dominions at the expense of his suzerain. After three years of war against Urraca and other rival claimants to the throne of Leon, Count Henry himself died in 1112. He left Theresa to govern Portugal north of the Mondego during the minority of her infant son Affonso Henriques (Alphonso I.): south of the Mondego the Moors were still supreme. Theresa renewed the struggle against her half-sister and suzerain Urraca in 1116-1117, and again in 1120; in 1121 she was besieged in Lanhoso and captured. But a U12-1I28. P eace was negotiated by the archbishops Diogo Gelmires of Santiago de Compostela and Burdino of Braga, rival churchmen whose wealth and military resources enabled them to dictate terms. Bitter jealousy existed between the two prelates, each claiming to be primate of " all the Spains," and their antagonism had some historical importance in so far as it fostered the growth of separatist tendencies among the Portuguese. But the quarrel was temporarily suspended because both Gelmires and Burdino had reason to dread the extension of Urraca 's authority. It was arranged that Theresa should be liberated and should continue to hold the county of Portugal as a fief {honor) of Leon. During the next five years she lavished wealth and titles upon her lover Fernando Peres, count of Trava, thus estranging her son, the archbishop of Braga and the nobles, most of whom were foreign crusaders. In n 28, after her power had been crushed in another unsuccessful conflict with Leon and Castile, she was deposed by her own rebellious subjects and exiled in company with Peres. She died in 1130. Alphonso, who became count of Portugal in n 28, was one of the warrior heroes of medieval romance; his exploits were sung by troubadours throughout south-western Europe, and even in Africa " ibn Errik " — the son of Henry — was known and feared. The annals of his reign have been encum- 1128-1185 "bered with a mass of legends, among which must be included the account of a cortes held at Lamego in 1 1 43; probably also the description of the Valdevez tournament, in which the Portuguese knights are said to have vanquished the champions of Leon and Castile. Alphonso was occupied in almost incessant border fighting against his Christian or Moorish neighbours. Twelve years of campaigning on the Galician frontier were concluded in 1 143 by the peace of Zamora, in which Alphonso was recognized as independent of any Spanish sover- eign, although he promised to be a faithful vassal of the pope and to pay him a yearly tribute of four ounces of gold. In 1167, however, the war was renewed. Alphonso succeeded in con- quering part of Galicia,but in attempting to capture the frontier fortress of Badajoz he was wounded and forced to surrender to Ferdinand II. of Leon (1169). Ferdinand was his son-in-law, and was probably disposed to leniency by the imminence of a Moorish invasion in which Portugal could render useful assistance. Alphonso was therefore released under promise to abandon all his conquests in Galicia. He had already won many victories over the Moors. At the beginning of his reign the religious fervour which had sustained the Almoravide dynasty was rapidly subsiding; in Portugal independent Moorish chiefs ruled over cities and petty states, ignoring the central government; in Africa the Almohades were destroying the remnants of the Almoravide power. Alphonso took advantage of these dissensions to invade Alemtejo, reinforced by the Templars and Hospitallers, whose respective headquarters were at Soure and Thomar. On the 25th of July 1 139 he defeated the combined forces of the Moors on the plains of Ourique, in Alemtejo. Legend has magnified the victory into the rout of 200,000 Moslems under five kings; but so far was the battle from being decisive that in 1 140 the Moors were able to seize the fortress of Leiria, built by Alphonso in 1135 as an outpost for the defence of Coimbra, his capital. In 1144 they defeated the Templars at Soure. But on the 15th of March 1 147 Alphonso stormed the fortress of Santarem, and about the same time a band of crusaders on their way to Palestine landed at Oporto and volunteered for the impending siege of Lisbon. Among them were many Englishmen, Germans and Flemings, who were afterwards induced to settle in Portugal. Aided by these powerful allies, Alphonso captured Lisbon on the 24th of October 1147. This was the greatest military achievement of his reign. The Moorish garrisons of Palmella, Cintra and Almada soon capitulated, and in n 58 Alcacer do Sal, one of the chief centres of Moorish commerce, was taken by storm. At this time, however, the Almohades had triumphed in Africa and invaded the Peninsula, where they were able to check the Portuguese reconquest, although isolated bands of crusading adventurers succeeded in establishing themselves in various cities of Alemtejo. The most famous of these free-lances was Giraldo Sempavor (" Gerald the Fearless "), who captured Evora in 1166. In 1171 Alphonso concluded a seven years' truce with the Moors; weakened by his wound and by old age, he could no longer take the field, and when the war broke out afresh he delegated the chief command to his son Sancho. Between 1 1 79 and 1 184 the Moors retrieved many of their losses in Alem- tejo, but were unable to retake Santarem and Lisbon. Alphonso died on the 6th of December 1185. He had secured for Portugal the status though not the name of an independent kingdom, and had extended its frontier southwards from the Mondego to the Tagus. He had laid the foundation of its navy and had strength- ened, if he did not inaugurate, that system of co-operation between the Crown and the military orders which afterwards proved of incalculable service in the maritime and colonial development of the nation. Sancho I. continued the war against the Moors with varying fortune. In 1189 he won Silves, then the capital of Algarve; in 1 192 he lost not only Algarve but the greater part of Alemtejo, including Alcacer do Sal. A peace was iiss-1211'.' then arranged, and for the next eight years Sancho was engaged in hostilities against Alphonso IX. of Leon. The motives and course of this indecisive struggle are equally obscure. It ended in 1201, and the last decade of Sancho's reign was a period of peaceful reform which earned for the king his popular name of Povoador, the " maker of towns." He granted fresh charters to many cities, legalizing the system of self-government which the Romans had bequeathed to the Visigoths and the Moors had retained or improved. Lisbon had already (11 79) received a charter from Alphonso I. Sancho also endeavoured to foster immigration and agriculture, by granting estates to the military orders and municipalities on condition that the occupiers should cultivate or colonize their lands. Towards the close of his reign he became embroiled in a dispute with Pope Innocent III. He had insisted that priests should accompany their flocks in battle, had made them amenable to secular jurisdiction, had withheld the tribute due to Rome and had even claimed the right of disposing of ecclesiastical domains. Finally he had quarrelled with Martinho Rodrigues, the unpopu- lar bishop of Oporto, who was besieged for five months in his palace and then forced to seek redress in Rome (1209). As Sancho was in weak health and had no means of resisting Papal pressure, he made full submission (1210); and after bestowing large estates on his sons and daughters, he retired into the monas- tery of Alcobaca (g.v.), where he died in 121 1. The reign of Alphonso II. (" the Fat ") is noteworthy for the first meeting of the Portuguese cortes, to which the upper hierarchy of the Church and the nobles (fidalgos and Alphonso ricos homens) were summoned by royal writ. The //., /di- king was no warrior, but in 121 2 a Portuguese con- 1223 ' tingent aided the Castilians to defeat the Moors at Las Navas de Tolosa, and in 121 7 the ministers, bishops and captains of the realm, reinforced by foreign crusaders, retook Alcacer do Sal. Alfonso II. repudiated the will of his father, refused to surren- der the estates left to his brothers, who went into exile, and only gave up the property bequeathed to his sisters after a prolonged civil war in which Alphonso IX. of Leon took part against them. Even then he compelled the heiresses to take the veil. His attempts to strengthen the monarchy and fill the treasury at the expense of the Church resulted in his excommunication by HISTORY] PORTUGAL 141 Pope Honorius III., and Portugal remained under interdict until Alphonso II. died in 1223. Sancho II. succeeded at the age of thirteen. To secure the removal of the interdict the leading statesmen who were identified with the policy of his father — Goncalo Mendes the chancellor, Pedro Annes the lord chamberlain Saacho II., 1223-1248. (mordomo-mdr) and Vicente, dean of Lisbon — resigned their offices. Estevao Soares, archbishop of Braga, placed himself at the head of the nobles and churchmen who threatened to usurp the royal power during Sancho II. 's minority, and negotiated an alliance with Alphonso IX., by which it was arranged that the Portuguese should attack Elvas, the Spaniards Badajoz. Elvas was taken from the Moors in 1226, and in 1227 Saneho assumed control of the kingdom. He reinstated Pedro Annes, made Vicente chancellor, and appointed Martim Annes chief standard-bearer (alferes mor). He continued the crusade against the Moors, who were driven from their last strongholds in Alemtejo, and in 1 239-1 244, after a dispute with Rome which was once more ended by the imposition of an interdict and the submission of the Portuguese ruler, he won many successes in the Algarve. But his career of conquest was cut short by a revolution (1245), for which his marriage to a Castilian lady, D. Mecia Lopez de Haro, furnished a pretext. The legiti- macy of the union has been questioned, on grounds which appear insufficient; but of its unpopularity there can be no doubt. The bishops, resenting the favour shown by Sancho to his father's anti-clerical ministers, took advantage of this unpopularity to organize the rebellion. They found a leader in Sancho's brother Alphonso, count of Boulogne, who owed his title to a marriage with Matilda, countess of Boulogne. The pope issued a bull of deposition in favour of Alphonso, who reached Lisbon in 1246; and after a civil war lasting two years Sancho II. retired to Toledo, where he died in January 1248. One of the first acts of the usurper, and one of the most important, was to abandon the semi-ecclesiastical titles of visitor Alphonso (visitador) or defender (curador) of the realm, and to iu., 1248- proclaim himself king (rei). Hitherto the position J 279 ' of the monarchy had been precarious; as in Aragon the nobles and the church had exercised a large measure of con- trol over their nominal head, and though it would be pedantry to over-emphasize the importance of the royal title, its assump- tion by Alphonso III. does mark a definite stage in the evolution of a national monarchy and a centralized government. A second stage was reached shortly afterwards by the conquest of Algarve, the last remaining stronghold of the Moors. This drew down upon Portugal the anger of Alphonso X. of Leon and Castile, surnamed the Wise, who claimed suzerainty over Algarve. The war which followed was ended by Alphonso III. consenting to wed Donna Beatriz de Guzman, illegitimate daughter of Alphonso X., and to hold Algarve as a fief of Castile. The celebration of this marriage, while Matilda, countess of Boulogne and first wife of Alphonso III., was still alive, entailed the imposition of an interdict upon the kingdom. In 1254 Alphonso III. summoned a cortes at Leiria, in which the chief cities were represented, as well as the nobles and clergy. Forti- fied by their support the king refused to submit to Rome. At the cortes of Coimbra (1 261), he further strengthened his position by conciliating the representatives of the cities, who denounced the issue of a debased coinage, and by recognizing that taxation could not be imposed without consent of the cortes. The clergy suffered more than the laity under a prolonged interdict, and in 1262 Pope Urban VI. legalized the disputed marriage and legitimized Dom Diniz, the king's eldest son. Thus ended the con- test for supremacy between Church and Crown. The monarchy owed its triumph to its championship of national interests, to the support of the municipalities and military orders, and to the prestige gained by the royal armies in the Moorish and Castilian wars. In 1263 Alphonso X. renounced his claim to suzerainty over Algarve, and thus the kingdom of Portugal simultaneously reached its present European limits and attained its complete independence. Lisbon was henceforth recognized as the capital. Alphonso III. continued to reign until his death in 1279, but the peace of his later years was broken by the rebellion (1277-1279) of D. Diniz, 1 the heir-apparent. 2. The Consolidation of the Monarchy: 1279-1415. — The chief problems now confronting the monarchy were no longer military, but social, economic and constitutional. It is true that the reign of Diniz was not a period of uninterrupted peace. At the outset his legitimacy was disputed by his brother Alphonso, and a brief civil war ensued. Hostilities between Portugal and the reunited kingdoms of Leon and Castile were terminated in 1297 by a treaty of alliance, in accordance with which Ferdinand IV. of Leon and Castile married Constance, daughter of Diniz, while Alphonso, son of Diniz, married Beatrice of Castile, daughter of Ferdinand. A further outbreak of civil war, between the king and the heir-apparent, was averted in 1293 by the queen-consort Isabella of Portugal, who had married Diniz in 1281, and was canonized for her many virtues in the 1 6th century. She rode between the hostile camps, and succeeded in arranging an honourable peace between her husband and her son. These wars were too brief to interfere seriously with the social reconstruction to which the king devoted himself. At his accession the Portuguese people was far from homogeneous; it would be long before its component i?T9-t32S races — Moors and Mozarabs of the south, Galicians of the north, Jews and foreign crusaders — could be fused into one nationality. There were also urgent economic problems to be solved. The Moors had made Alemtejo the granary of Portugal, but war had undone their work, and large tracts of land were now barren and depopulated. Commerce and educa- tion had similarly been subordinated to the struggle for national existence. The machinery of administration was out of date and complicated by the authority of feudal and ecclesiastical courts. The supremacy of the Crown, though recognized, was still unstable. It was Diniz who initiated the needful reforms. He earned his title of the rei lavrador or "farmer king " by intro- ducing improved methods of cultivation and founding agricul- tural schools. He encouraged maritime trade by negotiating a commercial treaty with England (1294) and forming a royal navy (13 17) under the command of a Genoese admiral named Emmanuele di Pezagna (Manoel Pessanha). In 1290 he founded the university of Coimbra (g.v.). He was a poet and a patron of literature and music (see Literature, below). His chief administrative reforms were designed to secure centralized government and to limit the jurisdiction of feudal courts. He encouraged and nationalized the military orders. In 1290 the Portuguese knights of Sao Thiago (Santiago) were definitely separated from the parent Spanish order. The orders of Crato and of St Benedict of Aviz had already been established, the traditional dates of their incorporation being 11 13 and n 62. After the condemnation of the Templars by Pope Clement V. (13 1 2) an ecclesiastical commission investigated the charges against the Portuguese branch of the order, and found in its favour. As the Templars were rich, influential and loyal, Diniz took advantage of the death of Clement V. to maintain the order under a new name; the Order of Christ, as it was henceforth called, received the benediction of the pope in 1319 and subsequently played an important part in the colonial expansion of Portugal. Alphonso IV. adhered to the matrimonial policy initiated by Diniz. He arranged that his daughter Maria should wed Alphonso XL of Castile (1328), but the marriage Alphonso precipitated the war it was intended to avert, and iv., 132s- peace was only restored (1330) after Queen Isabella 13S7 ' had again intervened. Pedro, the crown prince, afterwards married Constance, daughter of the duke of Penafiel (near Valladolid), and Alphonso IV. brought a strong Portuguese army to aid the Castilians against the Moors of Granada and their African allies. In the victory won by the Christians on the banks of the river Salado, near Tarifa, he earned his title of Alphonso the Brave (1340). In 1347 he married his daughter Leonora ' 'Throughout this article the abbreviation D. is used for the Portuguese title Dom and for its feminine form Dona (see Dominus) , 142 PORTUGAL rmsTORY (Lenor) to Pedro IV. of Aragon. The later years of his reign were darkened by the tragedy of Inez de Castro (q.v.). He died in 1357, and the first act of his successor, Pedro the Severe, / was t0 talse vengeance on the murderers of Inez. 13S7-X367. Throughout his reign he strengthened the central government at the expense of the aristocracy and the Church, by a stern enforcement of law and order. In 1361, at the cortes of Elvas, it was enacted that the privileges of the clergy should only be deemed valid in so far as they did not conflkt with the royal prerogative. Pedro maintained friendly relations with England, where in 1352 Edward III. issued a proclamation in favour of Portuguese traders, a ■■;' in 1353 the Portuguese envoy Affonso Martins Alho signed a covenant with the merchants of London, guaranteeing mutual good faith in all commercial dealings. The foreign policy of Diniz, Alphonso IV. and Pedro I. had been, as a rule, successful in its main object, the preservation of peace with the Christian kingdoms of Spain; in consequence, the Portuguese had advanced in prosperity and culture. They had supported the monarchy because it was a national institu- tion, hostile to the tyranny of nobles and clergy. During the reign of Ferdinand (1367-1383) and under the regency of Leonora the ruling dynasty ceased to represent the national will; the Portuguese people therefore made an end of the dynasty and chose its own ruler. The complex events which brought about this crisis may be briefly summarized. Ferdinand, a weak but ambitious and unscrupulous king, claimed the thrones of Castile and Leon, left vacant by the Ferdinand death of Pedro I. of Castile (1369); he based his and Leonora, claim on the fact that his grandmother Beatrice 1367-1385. belonged to the legitimate line of Castile. .When the majority of the Castilian nobles refused to accept a Portuguese sovereign, and welcomed Henry of Trastamara (see Spain: History), as Henry II. of Castile, Ferdinand allied himself with the Moors and Aragonese; but in 137 1 Pope Gregory XI. intervened, and it was decided that Ferdinand should renounce his claim and marry Leonora, the daughter of his successful rival. Ferdinand, however, preferred his Portuguese mistress, Leonora Telles de Menezes, whom he eventually married. To avenge this slight, Henry of Castile invaded Portugal and besieged Lisbon. Ferdinand appealed to John of Gaunt, who also claimed the throne of Castile, on behalf of his wife Constance, daughter of Pedro I. of Castile. An alliance between Portugal and England was concluded; and although Ferdinand made peace with Castile in 1374, he renewed his claim in 1380, after the death of Henry of Castile, and sent Joao Fernandes Andeiro, count of Ourem, to secure English aid. In 1381 Richard II. of England despatched a powerful force to Lisbon, and betrothed his cousin Prince Edward to Beatrice, only child of Ferdinand, who had been recognized as heiress to the throne by the cortes of Leiria (1376). In 1383, however, Ferdinand made peace with John I. of Castile at Salvaterra, deserting his English allies, who retaliated by ravaging part of his territory. By the treaty of Salvaterra it was agreed that Beatrice should marry John I. Six months later Ferdinand died, and in accordance with the terms of the treaty Leonora became regent until the eldest son of John I. and Beatrice should be of age. Leonora had long carried on an intrigue with the count of Ourem, whose influence was resented by the leaders of the The aristocracy, while her tyrannical rule also aroused Rebellion of bitter opposition. The malcontents chose D.John, 1383. grand-master of the knights of Aviz and illegitimate son of Pedro the Severe, as their leader, organized a revolt in Lisbon, and assassinated the count of Ourem within the royal palace (Dec. 6, 1383). Leonora fled to Santarem and summoned aid from Castile, while D. John was proclaimed defender of Portugal. In 1384 a Castilian army invested Lisbon, but encountered a heroic resistance, and after five months an outbreak of plague compelled them to raise the siege, John I. of Castile, discovering or alleging that Leonora had plotted to poison him, imprisoned her in a convent at Tordesillas, where she died in 1386. Before this, Nuno Alvares Pereira, con- stable of Portugal, had gained his popular title of "The Holy Constable " by twice defeating the invaders, at Atoleiro and Trancoso in the district of Guarda. On the 16th of April 1385 the cortes assembled at Coimbra declared the crown of Portugal elective, and at the instance of Joao das Regras, the chancellor, D. John was chosen king. No event in the early constitutional c°f* e f ° history of Portugal is more important than this election, which definitely affirmed the national character of the monarchy. The choice of the grand-master of Aviz ratified the old alliance between the Crown and the military orders; his election by the whole cortes not only ratified the alliance between the Crown and the commons, but also included- the nobles and the Church. The nation was unanimous. Ferdinand had been the last legitimate descendant of Count Henry of Burgundy. With John I. began the rule of a new dynasty, the House of Aviz. The most urgent , . , i.i i- ,11. John 1., matter which confronted the king — or the group isss-1433. of statesmen, led by Joao das Regras and the " Holy Constable " who inspired his policy — was the menace of Castilian aggression. But on the 14th of August 1385 the Por- tuguese army, aided by 500 English archers, utterly defeated the Castilians at Aljubarrota. By this victory the Portuguese showed themselves equal in military power to their strongest rivals in the Peninsula. In October the " Holy Constable " won another victory at Valverde; early in 1386 5000 English soldiers, under John of Gaunt, reinforced the Portuguese; and by the treaty of Windsor (May 9, 1386), the alliance between Portugal and England was confirmed and extended. Against such a combination the Castilians were powerless; a truce was arranged in 1387 and renewed at intervals until 1411, when peace was concluded. D. Diniz, eldest son of Inez de Castro, claimed the throne and invaded Portugal in 1398, but his supporters were easily crushed. The domestic and foreign policy pursued by John I. until his death in 1433 may be briefly described. At home he endeavoured to reform administration, to encourage agriculture and commerce, and to secure the loyalty of the nobles by grants of land and privileges so extensive that, towards the end of his reign, many nobles who exercised their full feudal rights had become almost independent princes. Abroad, he aimed at peace with Castile and close friendship with England. In 1387 he had married Philippa of Lancaster, daughter of John of Gaunt; Richard II. sent troops to aid in the expulsion of D. Diniz; Henry IV., Henry V. and Henry VI. of England successively ratified the treaty of Windsor; Henry IV. made his ally a knight of the Garter in 1400. The convent of Batalha {q.v.), founded to commemorate the victory of Aljubarrota, is architecturally a monument of the English influence prevalent at this time throughout Portugal. The cortes of Coimbra, the battle of Aljubarrota and the treaty of Windsor mark the three final stages in the consoli- dation of the monarchy. A period of expansion oversea began in the same reign, with the capture of Ceuta in Morocco. The three eldest sons of King John and Queen Philippa — Edward, Pedro and Henry, afterwards celebrated as Prince Henry the Navigator — desired to win knighthood by service against the Moors, the historic enemies of their country and creed. In 141 5 a Portuguese fleet, commanded by the king and the three princes, set sail for Ceuta. English men-at-arms were sent by Henry V. to take part in the expedition, which proved suc- cessful. The town was captured and garrisoned, and thus the first Portuguese outpost was established on the mainland of Africa. 3. The Period of Discoveries: 1415-1499. — Before describing in outline the course of the discoveries which were soon to render Portugal the foremost colonizing power in Europe it is necessary to indicate the main causes which contributed to that result. As the south-westernmost of the free peoples of Europe, the Portuguese were the natural inheritors of that work of ex- ploration which had been carried on during the middle ages. HISTORY] PORTUGAL H3 chiefly by the Arabs. They began where the Arabs left off, by penetrating far into the Atlantic. The long littoral of their country, with its fine harbours and rivers flowing westward to the ocean, had been the training-ground of a race of adven- turous seamen. It was impossible, moreover, to expand or reach new markets except by sea: the interposition of Castile and Aragon, so often hostile, completely prevented any intercourse by land between Portugal and other European countries. Consequently the Portuguese merchants sent their goods by sea to England, Flanders, or the Hanse towns. The whole history of the nation had also inspired a desire for fresh conquests among its leaders. Portugal had won and now held its independence by the sword. The long struggle to expel the Moors, with the influence of foreign Crusaders and the military orders, had given a religious sanction to the desire for martial fame. Nowhere was the ancient crusading spirit so active a political force. To make war upon Islam seemed to the Portu- guese their natural destiny and their duty as Christians. It was the genius of Prince Henry the Navigator (q.v.) that co-ordinated and utilized all these tendencies towards ex- Priace ' pansion. Prince Henry placed at the disposal of Henry the his captains the vast resources of the Order of Navigator. ch r ; s t ) (-jjg Des t, information and the most accurate instruments and maps which could be obtained. He sought to effect a junction with the half-fabulous Christian Empire of " Prester John " by way of the " Western Nile," i.e. the Senegal, and, in alliance with that potentate, to crush the Turks and liberate Palestine. The conception of an ocean route to India appears to have originated after his death. On land he again defeated the Moors, who attempted to re-take Ceuta in 1418; but in an expedition to Tangier, undertaken in 1436 by King Edward (1433-1438), the Portuguese army was defeated, and could only escape destruction by surrendering as a hostage Prince Ferdinand, the king's youngest brother. Ferdinand, known as " the Constant," from the fortitude with which he endured captivity, died unransomed in 1443. By sea Prince Henry's captains continued their exploration of Africa and the Atlantic. In 1433 Cape Bojador was doubled; in 1434 the first consignment of slaves was brought to Lisbon; and slave trading soon became one of the most profitable branches of Portuguese commerce. The Senegal was reached in 1445, Cape Verde was passed in the same year, and in 1446 Alvaro Fernandes pushed on almost as far as Sierra Leone. This was probably the farthest point reached before the Navigator died (1460). Meanwhile colonization progressed in the Azores and Madeira, where sugar and wine were produced; above all, the gold brought home from Guinea stimulated the commercial energy of the Portuguese. It had become clear that, apart from their religious and scientific aspects, these voyages of dis- covery were highly profitable. Under Alphonso V., surnamed the African (1443-1481), the Gulf of Guinea was explored as far as Cape St Catherine, and three expeditions (1458, 1461, 1471) were sent to Morocco; in 1471 Arzila (Asila) and Tangier were captured from the Moors. Under John II. (1481-1495) the fort- ress of Sao Jorge da Mina, the modern Elmina (q.v.), was founded Exploration ^ or t ^ le protection of the Guinea trade in 1481-1482; under Diogo Cain (q.v.), or Cao, discovered the Congo in Alphonso v. 1482 and reached Cape Cross in i486; Bartholomeu andJohnll. D j az ( ? ^ doubled the Cape of Good Hope ; n I4 g 8> thus proving that the Indian Ocean was accessible by sea. After 1492 the discovery of the West Indies by Columbus ren- dered desirable a delimitation of the Spanish and Portuguese spheres of exploration. This was accomplished by the treaty of Tordesillas (June 7, 1494) which modified the delimitation authorized by Pope Alexander VI. in two bulls issued on the 4th of May, 1493. The treaty gave to Portugal all lands which might be discovered east of a straight line drawn from the Arctic Pole to the Antarctic, at a distance of 370 leagues west of Cape Verde. Spain received the lands discovered west of this line. As, however, the known means of measuring lon- gitude were so inexact that the line of demarcation could not in practice be determined (see J. de Andrade Corvo in Journal das Sciencias Malhematicas, xxxi. 147-176, Lisbon, 1881), the treaty was subject to very diverse interpretations. On its provisions were based both the Portuguese claim to Brazil and the Spanish claim to the Moluccas (see Malay Archipelago: History). The treaty was chiefly valuable to the Portuguese as a recognition of the prestige they had acquired. That prestige was enormously enhanced when, in 1497-1499, Vasco da Gama (q.v.) completed the voyage to India, While the Crown was thus acquiring new possessions, its authority in Portugal was temporarily overshadowed by the growth of aristocratic privilege. At the cortes Tke of Evora (1433) King Edward had obtained the Monarchy enactment of a law 1 declaring that the estates and the granted by John I. to his adherents could only be Nob,es ' inherited by the direct male descendants • of the grantees, and failing such descendants, should revert to the Crown. After the death of Edward further attempts to curb the power of the nobles wete made by his brother, D. Pedro, duke of Coimbra, who acted as regent during the minority of Alphonso V. (1438- 1447). The head of the aristocratic opposition was the duke of Braganza, who contrived to secure the sympathy of the king and the dismissal of the regent. The quarrel led to civil war, and in May 1449 D. Pedro was defeated and killed. Thence- forward the grants made by John I. were renewed, and ex- tended on so lavish a scale that the Braganza estates alone comprised about a third of the whole kingdom. An unwise foreign policy simultaneously injured the royal prestige, for Alphonso married his own niece, Joanna, daughter of Henry IV. of Castile, and claimed that kingdom in her name. At the battle of Toro, in 1476, he was defeated by Ferdinand and Isabella, and in 1478 he was compelled to sign the treaty of Alcantara, by which Joanna was relegated to a convent. His successor, John II. (1481-1495) reverted to the policy of matri- monial alliances with Castile and friendship with England. Finding, as he said, that the liberality of former kings had left the Crown " no estates except the high roads of Portugal," he determined to crush the feudal nobility and seize its territories. A cortes held at Evora (1481) empowered judges nominated by the Crown to administer justice in all feudal domains. The nobles resisted this infringement of their rights; but their leader, Ferdinand, duke of Braganza, was beheaded for high treason in 1483; in 1484 the king stabbed to death his own brother-in-law, Ferdinand, duke of Vizeu; and 80 other members of the aristocracy were afterwards executed. Thus John " the Perfect," as he was called, assured the supre- macy of the Crown. He was succeeded in 1495 by Emanuel (Manoel) I., who was named " the Great " or " the Fortunate," because in his reign the sea route to India was discovered and a Portuguese Empire founded. 4. The Portuguese Empire: 1499-1580. — In 1500 King Emanuel assumed the title " Lord of the conquest, navigation and commerce of India, Ethiopia, Arabia and Persia," which was confirmed by Pope Alexander VI. in 1502. It was now upon schemes of conquest that the energy of the nation was to be concentrated, although the motives which called forth that energy were unchanged. " We come to seek Christians and spices," said the first of Vasco da Gama's sailors who landed in India: and the combination of missionary ardour with commercial enterprise which had led to the exploration of the Atlantic led also to the establishment of a Portuguese Empire. This expansion of national interests proceeded rapidly in almost every quarter of the known world. In the North Atlantic Gaspar and Miguel Corte-Real penetrated as far as Green- land (their " Labrador ") in 1 500-1 501; but these voyages were politically and commercially unimportant. Equally barren was the intermittent fighting in Morocco, which was regarded as a crusade against the Moors. In the South Atlantic, however, the African coast was further explored, new settlements were founded, and a remarkable development of Portuguese-African civilization took place in the kingdom of Kongo (see Angola). 1 Known as the lei mental,^ because it was supposed to fulfil the intention which John I. had in mind when the grants were made. i 4 4 PORTUGAL [HISTORY Pedro Alvares Cabral, sailing to India, but steering far westward to avoid the winds and currents of the Guinea coast, reached Brazil (1500) and claimed it for his sovereign. Joao da Nova discovered Ascension (1501) and St Helena (1502); Tristao da Cunha was the first to sight the archipelago still known by his name (1506). In East Africa the small Mahommedan states along the coast — Sofala, Mozambique, Kilwa, Brava, Mombasa, Malindi — either were destroyed or became subjects or allies of Portugal. Pedro de Covilham had reached Abys- sinia (q.v.) as early as 1490; in 1520 a Portuguese embassy arrived at the court of " Prester John," and in 1541 a military force was sent to aid him in repelling a Mahommedan invasion. In the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea, one of Cabral's ships discovered Madagascar (1501), which was partly explored by Tristao da Cunha (1507); Mauritius was discovered in 1507, Socotra occupied in 1506, and in the same year D. Lourenco d'Almeida visited Ceylon. In the Red Sea Massawa was the most northerly point frequented by the Portuguese until 1-541, when a fleet under Estevao da Gama penetrated as far as Suez. Hormuz, in the Persian Gulf, was seized by Alphonso d' Albu- querque (1515), who also entered into diplomatic relations with Persia. On the Asiatic mainland the first trading-stations were established by Cabral at Cochin and Calicut (1501); more important, however, were the conquest of Goa (1510) and Ma- lacca (1511) by Albuquerque, and the acquisition of Diu (1535) by Martim Affonso de Sousa. East of Malacca, Albuquerque sent Duarte Fernandes as envoy to Siam (15 n), and despatched to the Moluccas two expeditions (1512, 151 4), which founded the Portuguese dominion in the Malay Archipelago (q.v.). Fernao Pires de Andrade visited Canton in 1517 and opened up trade with China, where in 1557 the Portuguese were permitted to occupy Macao. Japan, accidentally discovered by three Portuguese traders in 1542, soon attracted large numbers of merchants and missionaries (see Japan, § viii.). In 1522 one of the ships of Ferdinand Magellan (q.v.) — a Portuguese sailor, though in the Spanish service — completed the first voyage round the world. Up to 1505 the Portuguese voyages to the East were little more than trading ventures or plundering raids, although a Almeida f ew " factories " for the exchange of goods were and Alba- founded in Malabar. In theory, the objects of querque. King Emanuel's policy were the establishment of friendly commercial relations with the Hindus (who were at first mistaken for Christians " not yet confirmed in the faith," as the king wrote to Alexander VI.) and the prosecution of a cru- sade against Islam. But Hindu and Mahommedan interests were found to be so closely interwoven that this policy became imprac- ticable, and it was superseded when D. Francisco d'Almeida (q.v.) went to India as first Portuguese viceroy in 1505. Almeida sought to subordinate all else to sea power and commerce, to concentrate the whole naval and military force of the kingdom on the maintenance of maritime ascendancy; to annex no territory, to avoid risking troops ashore, and to leave the defence of such factories as might be necessary to friendly native powers, which would receive in return the support of the Portu- guese fleet. Almeida's statesmanship was to a great extent sound. The Portuguese could never penetrate far inland; throughout the 16th century their settlements were confined to the coasts of Asia, Africa or America, and the area they were able effectively to occupy was far less than the area of their empire in the 20th century. A Chinese critic, quoted by Faria y Sousa, said of them that they were like fishes, " remove them from the water and they straightway die." It is thus absurd to speak of a " Portuguese conquest of India "; in a land campaign they would have been outnumbered and destroyed by the armies of any one of the greater Indian states. But their artillery and superior maritime science made them almost invulnerable at sea, and their principal military achievements consisted in the capture or defence of positions accessible from the sea, e.g. the defence of Cochin by Duarte Pacheco Pereira in 1504, the defence of Diu (qv.) iu 15.38 and 1546. AlDhonso d'Albuquerque (qv.), who succeeded Almeida in 1509, found it necessary to modify the policy formulated by his predecessor. Command of the sea could not be maintained — least of all in the monsoon months — while the Portuguese fleets were based on Lisbon, which could only be reached after a six months' voyage; and experience had proved that almost every Portuguese factory required a fortress -for its defence when the fleets were absent. Portugal, like every great maritime trading community from Carthage to Venice, discovered that the ideal of " sea power and commerce " led directly to empire. In 1 5 10 Albuquerque seized Goa, primarily as a naval base, and in so doing recognized the fact that his country was com- mitted to a policy of territorial aggrandisement. Other sea- ports and islands were conquered or colonized in rapid succession, and by 1 540 Portugal had acquired a line of scattered maritime possessions extending along the coasts of Brazil, East and West Africa, Malabar, Ceylon, Persia, Indo-China and the Malay Archipelago. The most important settlements in the East were Goa, Malacca and Hormuz. To a superficial observer the prosperity of Portugal might well seem to have culminated during this period of expansion. Vast profits were derived from the import trade in the innumer- able products of the tropics, of which Portugal was the sole purveyor in Europe. This influx of wealth furnished the economic basis for a sudden development of literary and artistic activity, inspired by contrast with the new world of the tropics. The 1 6th century was the golden age of Portuguese literature; humanists, such as Damiao de Goes (q.v.), and scientists, such as the astronomer Pedro Nunes (Nonius), played conspicuous parts in the great intellectual movements of the time; a dis- tinctive school of painters arose, chief among them being the so-called " Grao Vasco " (Vasco Fernandes of Vizeu); in architecture the name ot King Emanuel was given to a new and composite style (the Manoeiine or Manoellian), in which decorative forms from India and Africa were harmonized with Gothic and Renaissance designs; palaces, fortresses, cathedrals, monasteries, were built on a scale never before attempted in Portugal; and even in the minor arts and handicrafts — in gold- smith's work, for example, or in pottery — the influence of' the East made itself felt. Oriental splendour and Renaissance culture combined to render social life in Lisbon hardly less brilliant than in Rome or Venice. In order to understand the apparently sudden collapse of Portuguese power in 1578-1580 it is necessary to examine certain facts and tendencies which from the first rendered a catastrophe inevitable. Chief among these were the extent of the empire and its organization, the financial and commercial policy of its rulers, the hostility, often wantonly provoked, of the chief Oriental states, the depopulation of Portugal and the slave trade, the expulsion of the Jews, the growth of ecclesiastical influence in secular affairs, and the decadence of the monarchy. It is necessary to exclude Brazil from any survey of the Portu- guese imperial system, because the colonization of Brazil (q.v.) was effected on distinctive lines. Otherwise the imperial whole empire was governed on a more or less uniform Organtza- system, although it included communities of the most tion ' diverse nature — protectorates such as Hormuz and Ternate in the Moluccas, colonies such as Goa and Madeira, captaincies under military rule such as Malacca, tributary states such as Kilwa,' fortified factories as at Colombo and Cochin. West of the Cape the settlements in Africa and the Atlantic were governed, as a rule, by officials directly nominated by the king. East of the Cape the royal power wa.s delegated to a viceroy or governor — the distinction was purely titular — whose legislative and execu- tive authority was almost unlimited during his term of office. The viceroyalty was created in 1505, and from 1511 the Indian capital was Goa. Between 1505 and 1580 only four holders of the office — Almeida (1505-1509), Albuquerque (1509-1515), D. Vasco da Gama (1524) and D. Joao de Castro (1545-1548) — were men of marked ability and high character. All officials, including the viceroy and naval and military officers, were usually appointed for no more than three years. Although few large HISTORY] PORTUGAL 145 Finance. salaries were paid, the perquisites attached to official positions were enormous; at the beginning of the 17th century, for example, the captain of Malacca received not quite £300 yearly as his pay, but his annual profits from other sources were estimated at £20,000. Even judges were expected to live on their perquisites, in the shape of bribes. The competition for appointments was naturally very keen; Couto mentions the case of one grantee who received the reversion of a post to which y> applicants had a prior claim. 1 Such reversions could be sold, bequeathed, or included in the dowries of married women; the right of trading with China might be part of the endowment of a school; a monastery or a hospital might purchase the command of a fortress. In 1538 the viceroy, D. Garcia de Noronha, publicly sold by auction every vacant appointment in Portuguese India — an example followed in 16 14 by the king. Hardly less disas- trous than the system by which officials were chosen and paid was the influence exercised by the Church. Simao Botelho, an able revenue officer, was denied absolution in 1543 because he had reorganized the Malacca customs-house without previously consulting the Dominicans in that city. In 1560 a supposed tooth of Buddha was brought to Goa; the raja of Pegu offered £100,000 for the relic, and as Portuguese India was virtually bankrupt the government wished to accept the offer; but the archbishop intervened and the relic was destroyed. The empire in the East was rarely solvent. Almeida and Albuquerque had hoped to meet the expense of administration mainly out of the fees extorted for safe-conducts at sea and trading-licences, with the tribute wrung from native states and the revenue from Crown lands in India. But the growth of expenditure — chiefly of an unremunerative kind, such as the cost of war and missions — soon rendered these resources inadequate; and after 151 5 the empire became ever more dependent on the spoils of hostile states and on subsidies from the royal treasury in Lisbon. Systematic debasement of the coinage was practised both in India, where the monetary system was extremely complex, 2 and in Portugal; and owing to the bullionist policy adopted by Portuguese financiers little permanent benefit accrued to the mother country from its im- mense trade. Seeking for commercial profit, not in the exchange of commodities, but solely in the acquisition of actual gold and silver, and realizing that the home market could not absorb a tithe of the merchandise imported, the Lisbon capitalists sent their ships to discharge in Antwerp (where a Portuguese staple was established in 1503), or in some other port near the central markets of Europe. The raw materials purchased by Flemish, German or English traders were used in the establishment of productive industries, while Portugal received a vast influx of bullion, most of which was squandered on war, luxuries or the Church. In theory the most lucrative branches of commerce, such as the pepper trade, were monopolies vested in the Crown; Commercial the chartered companies and associations of merchant Policy. adventurers, which afterwards became the pioneers of British and Dutch colonial development, had no counterpart in Portuguese history, except in the few cases in which trading concessions were granted to military or monastic orders. But the Crown frequently farmed out its monopolies to individual merchants, or granted trading- licences by way of pension or reward. These were often of great value; e.g. in 161 2 the right of sending a merchant ship to China was valued at £25,000. Great loss was necessarily inflicted on native traders by the monopolist system, which pressed most hardly on the Mahom- medans, who had been the chief carriers in Indian waters. Two great powers, Egypt and Turkey, challenged the naval and commercial supremacy of the Portuguese, but an Egyptian armada was destroyed by Almeida in 1509, and though Ottoman fleets were on several occasions (as in 1517 and 1521) despatched from Suez or Basra, they failed to achieve any success, and the Portuguese were able to close the two principal trade routes 1 Decadas, XII. i. 10. * See R. S. Whiteway, Rise of the Portuguese Power, &c. (London, 1898), pp. 67-72. between India and Europe. One of these trade routes passed up the Persian Gulf to Basra, and thence overland to Tripoli, for Mediterranean ports, and to Trebizond, for Constantinople. The other passed up the Red Sea to Suez, and thence to Alexandria, for Venice, Genoa and Ragusa. But by occupying Hormuz the Portuguese gained command of the Gulf route; and though they thrice failed to capture Aden (1513, 1517, 1547), and so entirely to close the Red Sea, they almost destroyed the traffic between India and Suez by occupying Socotra and sending fleets to cruise in the Strait of Bab el-Mandeb. In Malacca they possessed the connecting link between the trade- routes of the Far and Middle East, and thus they controlled the three sea-gates of the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea — the Straits of Hormuz, Bab el-Mandeb and Malacca — and diverted the maritime trade with Europe to the Cape route. During the critical period in which their empire was being established (c. 1505-15 50) the Portuguese were fortunate in escaping conflict with any Oriental power of the first g e i a n oas rank except Egypt and Turkey; for the Bahmani w ith sultanate of the Deccan had been already disinte- Oriental grated before 1498, and the Mughals and Mahrattas states - were still far off. A coalition of the minor Mahommedan states was prevented by the great Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, which comprised the southern half of the Indian Peninsula. Vijaya- nagar gave the militant Mahommedanism of Northern India no opportunity for a combined attack on the Portuguese settle- ments. After 1565, when the power of Vijayanagar was broken at the battle of Talikot, a Mussulman coalition was at last formed, and the Portuguese were confronted by a line of hostile states stretching from Gujarat to Achin; but by this time they were strong enough to hold their own. It is characteristic of their native policy that they had not only refrained from aiding Vijayanagar in 1565, but had even been willing to despoil their Hindu allies. In 1543 Martim Affonso de Sousa, governor of India, organized an expedition to sack the Hindu temples at Conjeveram in Vijayanagar itself, and similar incidents are common in Indo-Portuguese history. Albuquerque was almost the only Portuguese statesman who strove to deal justly with both Hindus and Mahommedans, to respect native customs, and to establish friendly relations with the great powers of the East. Apart from the rigorous restrictions imposed by his successors upon trade, the sympathies of the natives were estranged by the harshness and venality of Portuguese administration, by such barbarities as the wholesale mutilation of non-combatants in war-time, and by religious persecution. After the arrival of the Franciscan missionaries, in 1517, Goa gradually became the headquarters of an immense proselytizing organization, which by 1 561 had extended to East Africa, China, Japan and the Malay Archipelago (see Goa: Ecclesiastical History). Wherever the Portuguese were supreme they endeavoured to obtain con- verts by force. The widespread resentment thus aroused was a frequent cause of insurrection, and between 1515 and 1580 not a single year passed without war between the Portuguese and at least one African or Asiatic people. Centuries of fighting against the Moors and Castilians had already left Portugal thinly populated; large tracts of land were uncultivated, especially in Alemtejo, and wolves Depopu- were still common throughout the kingdom. It was tation impossible, from the first, to garrison the empire with trained men. As early as 1505 one of Almeida's ships contained a crew of rustics unable to distinguish between port and starboard; soon afterwards it became necessary to recruit convicts and slaves, and in 1538 a royal pardon was granted to all prisoners who would serve in India, except criminals under sentence for treason and canonical offences. Linschoten estimates that of all those who went to the East not one in ten returned. The heaviest losses were due to war, shipwreck and tropical diseases, but large numbers of the underpaid or unpaid soldiers deserted to the armies of native states. It is impossible to give more than approximately accurate statistics of the resultant depopulation of Portugal; but it seems probable that the inhabitants of the kingdom decreased from about 1,800,000 or 2,000,000 in 1500 to 146 PORTUGAL [HISTORY about 1,080,000 in 1586. The process of decay was hastened by frequent outbreaks of plague, sometimes followed by famine; a contemporary manuscript estimates that no fewer than 500 persons died daily in Lisbon alone during July, August and September 1569, and in some other years the joint effects of plague and famine were little less disastrous. While the country was being drained of its best citizens, hordes of slaves were imported to fill the vacancies, especially into the southern provinces. 1 Manual labour was Trade. tnus discredited; the peasants sold their farms and emigrated or flocked to the towns; and small hold- ings were merged into vast estates, unscientifically cultivated by slaves and comparable with the latifundia which caused so many agrarian evils during the last two centuries of the Roman republic. The decadence of agriculture partly explains the prevalence of famine at a time when Portuguese maritime commerce was most prosperous. The Portuguese intermarried freely with their slaves, and this infusion of alien blood profoundly modified the character and physique of the nation. It may be said without exaggeration that the Portuguese of the " age of discoveries " and the Portuguese of the 17th and later centuries were two different races. Albuquerque, foreseeing the dangers that would arise from a shortage of population in his colonies, had encouraged his soldiers to marry captive Brahman and Mahommedan women, and to settle in India as farmers, shop- keepers or artisans. Under his rule the experiment was fairly successful, but the married colonists afterwards became a privi- leged caste, subsisting upon the labour of their slaves, and often disloyal to their rulers. Intermarriage led to the adoption, even by the rich, and especially by women (see Goa), of Asiatic dress, manners and modes of thought. Thus in the East, as in Europe, slavery reacted upon every class of the Portuguese. The banishment, or forcible conversion, of the Jews deprived Portugal of its middle class and of its most scientific traders and The Perse- financiers. Though the Jews had always been cation of compelled to reside in separate quarters called the Jews. Juderias, or Jewries, they had been protected by the earlier Portuguese kings. Before 1223 their courts had received autonomy in civil and criminal jurisdiction; their chief rabbi was appointed by the king and entitled to use the royal arms on his seal. Alphonso V. even permitted his Jewish subjects to live outside the Juderias, relieved them from the obligation to wear a distinctive costume (enforced in 1325), and nominated a Jew, Isaac Abrabanel (q.v.), as his minister of finance. In culture the Portuguese Jews surpassed their rulers. Many of them were well versed in Aristotelian and Arabic philosophy, in astronomy, mathematics, and especially in medicine. Three Hebrew printing-presses were established between 1487 and 149s; both John II. and Emanuel I. employed Jewish physicians; it was a Jew — Abraham Zacuto ben Samuel — who supplied Vasco da Gama with nautical instruments; and Jews were employed in the overland journeys by which the Portuguese court first endeavoured to obtain information on Far Eastern affairs. The Jews paid taxes on practically every business transaction, besides a special poll-tax of 30 dinheiros in memory of the 30 pieces of silver paid to Judas Iscariot; and for this reason they were protected by the Crown. For centuries they were also tolerated by the commons; but the other orders — ecclesiastics and nobles — resented their religious exclusiveness or envied their wealth, and gradually fostered the growth of popular prejudice against them. In 1449 the Lisbon Juderias were stormed and sacked, and between 1450 and 1481 the cortes four times petitioned the Crown to enforce the anti-Jewish provisions of the canon law. John II. gave asylum to 90,000 Jewish refugees from Castile, in return for a heavy poll-tax and on condition that they should leave the country within eight months, in ships furnished by himself. These ships were not provided in time, and the Jews who were thus unable to depart were enslaved, 1 In the north, which had been relatively immune from wars agriculture was more prosperous and the peasants more tenacious of their land; hence the continuance of peasant proprietorship and the rarity of African types between the Douro and the Minho. while their children were deported to the island of St Thomas, and there left to survive as best they might. In 1496 Emanuel I. desired to wed Isabella, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, but found that he was first required to purify his kingdom of the Jews, who were accordingly commanded to leave Portugal before the end of October 1497. But in order to avoid the economic dangers threatened by such an exodus, every Jew and Jewess between the ages of 4 and 24 was seized and forcibly baptized (19th March): "Christians" were not required to emigrate. In October 20,000 adults were treated in the same way. These " New Christians " or " Maranos," as they were called, were forbidden to leave the country between 1498 and 1507. In April 1506 most of those who resided in Lisbon were massacred during a riot, but throughout the rest of Emanuel's reign they were immune from violence, and were again permitted to emigrate — an opportunity of which the majority took advantage. Large numbers settled in Holland, where their commercial talent afterwards greatly assisted the Dutch in their rivalry with the "Portuguese. The Reformation never reached Portugal, but even here the critical tendencies which elsewhere preceded Reform, were already at work. Their origin is to be sought not The so much in the Revival of Learning as in the fact that inquisition the Portuguese had learned, on their voyages of aad the discovery, to see and think for themselves. The esu s " true scientific spirit may be traced throughout the Roteiros of D. Joao de Castro (q.v.) and the Colloquios of Garcia de Orta— men who deserted books for experiment and manifested a new interest in the physical world. But orthodox churchmen feared that even in Portugal this appeal from authority to experience would lead to an attack upon religious doctrines previously regarded as beyond criticism. To check this dangerous move- ment of ideas, they demanded the introduction of the Inquisition info Portugal. The agents of the " New Christians " in Rome long contrived, by lavish bribery and with the support of many enlightened Portuguese, to delay the preliminary negotiations; but in 1536 the Holy Office was established in Lisbon, where the first auto-da-fe was held in 1 540, and in 1 560 its operations were extended to India. It seems probable that the influence of the tribunal upon Portuguese life and thought has been exaggerated. Autos-da-fe' were rare events; their victims were not as a rule serious thinkers, but persons accused of sorcery or Judaizing, nor were they more numerous than the victims of the English laws relating to witchcraft and heresy. But the worst vices of the Inquisition were the widespread system of delation it encouraged by paying informers out of the property of the con- demned, and its action as a trading and landholding association. Quite as serious, in their effects upon national life, were the severe censorship to which all printed matter was liable before publication and the control of education by the Jesuits. Poetry and imaginative literature usually escaped censure; but histories were mutilated and all original scientific and philosophical work was banned. Portuguese education centred in the national university of Coimbra, which had long shown itself ready to assimilate new ideas; between 1537 and 1547 John III. persuaded many eminent foreign teachers — among them the Scottish humanist George Buchanan (q.v.) and the French mathematician Elie Vinet— to lecture in its schools. But the discipline of the university needed reform, and the task was entrusted to the Jesuits. By 1555 they had secured control over Coimbra — a control which lasted for two centuries and extended to the whole educational system of the country. The effects of this change upon the national character were serious and permanent. Portugal sank back into the middle ages. The old initiative and self-reliance of the nation, already shaken by years of disaster, were now completely undermined, and the people submitted without show of resistance to a theocracy disguised as absolute monarchy. Emanuel I. had been a fearless despot, such as Portugal needed if its scattered dependencies were to remain subject to the central government. During his reign (1495-1521) the Church was never permitted to encroach upon the royal HISTORY] PORTUGAL H7 prerogative. He even sent ambassadors to Rome to protest against ecclesiastical corruption, as well as to checkmate the Venetian Decadence diplomatists who threatened Europe with Ottoman of the vengeance if the Portuguese commercial monopoly Monarchy. were not re i axec j. The Oriental magnificence of these embassies, notably that of 1514, and the fact that a king of Portugal dared openly to criticize the morals of the Vatican, temporarily enhanced the prestige of the monarchy. But Emanuel I. was the last great king of the Aviz dynasty. He had pursued the traditional policy of intermarriage with the royal families of Castile and Aragon, hoping to weld together the Spanish and Portuguese dominions into a single world-wide " Sebastianism " became a religion; its votaries were numbered by thousands, and four impostors arose in succession, each claiming to be the ret encuberto, or " hidden king," whose advent was so ardently desired (see Sebastian). There was no surviving prince of the Aviz dynasty except the aged, feeble and almost insane Cardinal Prince Henry, who, as a younger son of Emanuel I., now became king. Henry died on the 31st of January 1580, and the throne was thus left vacant. There were five principal claimants — Philip II. of Spain; Phili- bert, duke of Savoy; Antonio, prior of Crato; Catherine, duchess of Braganza; and Ranuccio, duke of Parma — whose relationship to Emanuel I. is shown in the following table : — John III., b. 1502, d. 1557, . Catherine of Austria. Isabel, b. 1303, d. 1530, m. Charles V. Emanuel. I John, b. 1537, d. 1554, m. Joanna of Spain. Sebastian, b. 1554, d. 1578. Beatrice, b. 1504, d. 1538, ra. Charles III. of Savoy. Louis, Ferdinand, Alphonso, b. 1506, d. IS45, b- 1507, d. 1534, b. 1509, d. 1540, duke of Beja. duke of Guarda. Philip II. of Spain. Philibert Emmanuel, duke of Savoy. cardinal and archbishop of Lisbon. Henry, b. 1512, d. 1580, cardinal and king. I Edward, b. isi5,d. IS4S, duke of Guimaraes, m. Isabel of Braganza. I Antonio, prior of Crato. (illegitimate). empire ruled by the house of Aviz. His ambition narrowly I missed fulfilment, for Prince Miguel, his eldest son, was recognized (1498) as heir to the Spanish thrones. But Miguel died in infancy, and his inheritance passed to the Habsburgs. Frequent inter- marriage, often so far within the prohibited degress as to require a papal dispensation, may possibly explain the weakened vitality o£ the Portuguese royal family, which was now subject to epilepsy, insanity and premature decay. The decadence of the monarchy as a national institution was reflected in the decadence of the cortes, which was rarely summoned between 1521 and 1580. John III. (1521-1557) was a ruler of fair ability, who became in his later years wholly subservient to his ecclesiastical advisers. He was succeeded by his grandson Sebastian (1557— 1578), aged three years. Until the king came of age (1568), his grandmother, Queen Catherine, a fanatical daughter of Isabella the Catholic, and his great-uncle, Prince Henry, cardinal and inquisitor-general, governed as joint regents. Both were dominated by their Jesuit confessors, and a Jesuit, D. Luiz Goncalves da Camara, became the tutor and, after 1568, the principal adviser of Sebastian. The king was a strong-willed and weak-minded ascetic, who entrusted his empire to the Jesuits, refused to marry, although The the dynasty was threatened with extinction, and Disaster of spent years in preparing for a crusade against the AlKasr. Moors. The wisest act of John III. had been his withdrawal of all the Portuguese garrisons in Morocco except those at Ceuta, Arzila and Tangier. Sebastian reversed this policy. His first expedition to Africa (1574) was a mere recon- naissance, but four years later a favourable opportunity for invasion arrived. A dethroned sultan of Morocco, named Mulai Ahmad (Mahommed XL), offered to acknowledge Portu- guese suzerainty if he were restored to the throne by Portuguese arms, and Sebastian eagerly accepted these terms. The flower of his army was in Asia and his treasury was empty; but he contrived to extort funds from the " New Christians," and col- lected a force of some 18,000 men, chiefly untrained lads, worn- out veterans, and foreign free-lances. At Arzila, where he landed, he was joined by Mulai Ahmad, who could only muster 800 soldiers. Thence Sebastian sought to proceed overland to the seaport of El Araish, despite the advice of his ally and of others who knew the country. After a long desert march under an August sun, he took up an indefensible position in a valley near Al Kasr al Kebir (q.v.). On the morrow (Aug. 4, 1578) they were surrounded by the superior forces of Abd el Malek, the reigning sultan, and after a brave resistance Sebastian was killed and his army almost annihilated. So. overwhelming was the disaster that the Portuguese people refused to believe the truth. It was rumoured that Sebastian still lived, and would sooner or later return and restore the past greatness of his country. I Catherine, Maria, m. duke of Braganza. m. duke of Parma. Ranuccio, duke of Parma. Tentative and hardly serious claims were also put forward by Pope Gregory XIII., as ex officio heir-general to a cardinal, and by Catherine de' Medici, as a descendant of Alphonso III. and Matilda of Boulogne. 5. The " Sixty Years' Captivity ": 1581-1640. — The university of Coimbra declared in favour of Catherine, duchess of Braganza, but the prior of Crato was the only rival who offered any serious resistance to Philip II. D. Antonio proclaimed himself king and occupied Lisbon. The advocates of union with Spain, however, were numerous, influential, and ably led by their spokesmen in the cortes, Christovao de Moura and Antonio Pinheiro, bishop of Leiria. The duke of Braganza was won over to their side, chiefly by the promise that he should be king of Brazil if Philip II. became king of Portugal — a promise never fulfilled. Above all, the Church, including the Society of Jesus, naturally favoured the Habsburg claimant, who represented its two foremost champions, Spain and Austria. In 1581 a Spanish army, led by the duke of Alva, entered Portugal and easily defeated the levies of D. Antonio at Alcantara. The prior escaped to Paris and appealed to France and England for assistance. In 1582 a French fleet attempted to seize the Azores in his interest, but was defeated. In 1 580 an English fleet was sent to aid the prior in a projected invasion of Portugal, but owing to a quarrel between its commanders, Sir Francis Drake and Sir John Norris, the expedition was abandoned. D. Antonio returned to Paris, where he died in 1594. Meanwhile the victory of Alcantara left Philip II. supreme in Portugal, where he was soon afterwards crowned king. His constitutional position was defined at the Cortes of Thomar (1581). Portugal was not to be regarded as a conquered or annexed province, but as a separate kingdom, joined to Spain solely by a personal union similar to the union between Castile and Aragon under Ferdinand and Isabella. At Thomar Philip II. promised to maintain the rights and liberties conceded by his predecessors on the Portuguese throne, to summon the Cortes at frequent intervals, and to create a Portuguese privy council which should accompany the king everywhere arid be consulted on all matters affecting Portuguese interests. Brazil and the settlements in Africa and Asia were still to belong to Portugal, not to Spain, and neither in Portugal nor in its colonies was any alien to be given lands, public office, or jurisdiction. On these terms the political union of the Iberian Peninsula was accom- plished. It was the final stage in a process of accretion dating back to the beginnings of the Christian reconquest in the 8th century. Asturias had been united with Leon, Leon with CastHe, Castile with Aragon. All these precedents seemed to indicate that Spain and Portugal would ultimately form one state; and I despite the strong nationalism which their separate language and 148 PORTUGAL [HISTORY history had inspired among the Portuguese, the union of 1581 might have endured if the terms of the Thomar compact had been observed. But few of the promises made in 1581 were kept by the three Spanish kings who ruled over Portugal — Philip II. (1581-1598), Philip III. (1598-1621) and Philip IV. (1621-1640). 1 The cortes was only once summoned (1619), and the government of Portugal was entrusted by Philip III. chiefly to Francis duke of Lerma, by Philip IV. chiefly to Olivares (q.v.). The kingdom and its dependencies were also involved in the naval disasters which overtook Spain. Faro in Algarve was sacked in 1595 by the English, who ravaged the Azores in 1596; and in many parts of the world English, French and Dutch combined to harass Portuguese trade and seize Portuguese possessions. (See especially Brazil; India; Malay Archi- pelago.) Union with Spain had exposed Portugal to the hostility of the strongest naval powers of western Europe, and had deprived it of the power to conclude an independent peace. Insurrections in Lisbon (1634) and Evora (1637) Dore witness to the general discontent, but until 1640 the Spanish ascendancy The was never seriously endangered. In 1640 war with Rebellion France and a revolution in Catalonia had taxed the of 1640. military resources of Spain to the utmost. The royal authority in Portugal was delegated to Margaret of Savoy, duchess of Mantua, whose train of Spanish and Italian courtiers aroused the jealousy of the Portuguese nobles, while the harsh rule of her secretary of state, Miguel de Vasconcellos de Brito, provoked the resentment of all classes. Even the Jesuits, whose influence in Portugal had steadily increased since 1555, were now prepared to act in the interests of Cardinal Richelieu, and therefore against Philip IV. A leader was found in John, 8th duke of Braganza, who as a grandson of the duchess Catherine was descended from Emanuel I. The duke, however, was naturally indolent, and it was with difficulty that his ambitious and energetic Castilian wife, D. Luiza de Guzman, obtained his assent to the proposed revolution. He refused to take any active part in it; but D. Luiza and her confidential adviser, Joao Pinto Ribeiro, recruited a powerful band of conspirators among the disaffected nobles. Their plans were carefully elaborated, and on the 1st of December 1640 various strategic points were seized, the few partisans of Spain who attempted resistance were overpowered, and a provisional government was formed under D. Rodrigo da Cunha, archbishop of Lisbon, who was appointed lieutenant- general of Portugal. 6. The Restoration: 1640-175$. — On the 13th of December 1640 the duke of Braganza was crowned as John IV., and on the 19th of January 1641 the cortes formally accepted him as king. The whole country had already declared in his favour and expelled the Spanish garrisons, an example followed by all the Portuguese dependencies. Thus the " Sixty Years' Captivity " came to an end and the throne passed to the house of Braganza. But the Portuguese were well aware that they could hardly maintain their independence without foreign assistance, and ambassadors were at once sent to Great Britain, the Netherlands and France. The struggle between the Crown and the parliament prevented Charles I. from offering aid, but he immediately recognized John IV. as king. Richelieu and the states-general of the Nether- lands despatched fleets to the Tagus; but commercial rivalry in Brazil and the East led soon afterwards to a colonial war with the Dutch, and Portugal was left without any ally except France. The Portuguese armies were at first successful. D. Matheus d'Albuquerque defeated the Spaniards under the baron of Warwith Molingen at Montijo (May 26, 1644), and through- Spain, out the reign of John IV. (1640-1656) they suffered 1640-1668. no serious reverse. But great anxiety was caused by a plot to restore Spanish rule, in which the duke of Caminha and the archbishop of Braga were implicated; and especially by the action of Mazarin, who had assumed control of French foreign policy in 1642. At the congress of Miinster (1643) he refused to make the independence of Portugal a condition of 1 Philip I., II. and III. of Portugal. peace between France and Spain; and in a letter dated the 4th of October 1647 he even offered the Portuguese Crown to the duke of Longueville — an offer which illustrates the weakness of John IV. and the dependence of Portugal upon France. John IV. was succeeded by his second son, Alphonso VI. (1656-1683), who was then aged thirteen. During the king's minority the queen-mother, D. Luiza, acted as regent. She prosecuted the war with vigour, and on the 14th of January 1659 a Portuguese army commanded by D. Antonio Luiz de Menezes, count of Cantanhede, defeated the Spaniards under D. Luiz de Haro at Elvas. In March 1659, however, the war between France and Spain was ended by the treaty of the Pyrenees; and D. Luiz de Haro, acting as the Spanish plenipotentiary, obtained the inclusion in the treaty of a secret article by which France undertook to give no further aid to Portugal. Neither Louis XIV. nor Mazarin desired the aggrandisement of Spain at the expense of their own ally; they therefore evaded the secret article by sending Marshal Schomberg to reorganize the Portuguese army (1660), and by helping forward a marriage between Charles II. of England and Catherine of Braganza, the sister of Alphonso VI. This project had been already mooted by D. Luiza, who had foreseen the restoration of the Stuart monarchy, and had in 1650 welcomed the exiled princes Rupert and Maurice at the court of John IV. The dowry to be paid by Portugal was fixed at £500,000 and the cession to Great Britain of Bombay and Tangier. In May 1663 the marriage was celebrated, and thus Great Britain took the place of France as the active ally of Portugal. Meanwhile, on the 20th of June 1662, the regency had been terminated by a palace revolution. Alphonso VI. declared himself of age and seized the royal authority; D. schomberg Luiza retired to a convent. The king was feeble and Castetto and vicious, but had wit enough to leave the M elb ° r - conduct of affairs to stronger hands. D. Luiz de Sousa e Vasconcellos, count of Castello Melhor, directed the policy of the nation while Schomberg took charge of its defence. The army, reinforced by British troops under the earl of Inchiquin and by French and German volunteers or mercenaries, was led in the field by Portuguese generals, who successfully carried out the plans of Schomberg. On the 8th of June 1663 the count of Villa Flor utterly defeated D. John of Austria, and retook Evora, which had been captured by the invaders; on the 7th of July 1664 Pedro de Magalhaes defeated the duke of Osuna at Ciudad Rodrigo; on the 17th of June 1665 the marquess of Marialva destroyed a Spanish army led by the marquess of Carracena at the battle of Montes Claros, and Christovao de Brito Pereira followed up this victory with another at Villa Vicosa. The Spaniards failed to gain any compensating advantage, and on the 13th of February 1668 peace was concluded at Lisbon, Spain at last consenting to recognize the independence of the Portuguese kingdom. The signature of the treaty of Lisbon had been preceded by another palace revolution. Castello Melhor, hoping to secure, further French support for his country, had arranged a ■ marriage between Alphonso VI. and Marie Francoise Elisabeth, daughter of Charles Amadeus of Nemours, and grand-daughter of Henry IV. of France. The marriage, celebrated in 1666, caused the down- fall both of Castello Melhor and of the king. Queen Marie detested Alphonso and fell in love with his brother D. Pedro; and after four months of a hated union she left the palace and applied to the chapter of Lisbon cathedral to annul her marriage on the ground of non-consummation. D. Pedro imprisoned the king and assumed the regency; on the 1st of January 1668 his authority was recognized by the cortes; on the 24th of March the annulment of the queen's marriage was pronounced and confirmed by the pope; on the 2nd of April she married the regent. Castello Melhor was permitted to escape to France, while Alphonso VI. was banished to Terceira in the Azores. A conspiracy to restore him to the throne was discovered in 1674, and he was removed to Cintra, where he died in 1683. Pedro II., who had acted as regent for fifteen years, now HISTORY] PORTUGAL 149 became king. His reign (1683-1706) is a period of supreme importance in the economic and constitutional history of Por- Th Corf s tu 8 al - The goldfields of Minas Geraes in Brazil, and the discovered about 1693, brought a vast revenue in Mettuen royalties to the Crown, which was thus enabled to Treaty. govern without summoning the cortes to vote supply. In 1697 the cortes met for the last time before the era of con- stitutional government. Even more important was the change effected when the Whig ministry of Great Britain sent John Nlethuen to Lisbon to negotiate a commercial agreement. The Methuen Treaty, signed on the 27th of December 1703, detached Portugal from the French alliance, and made her for more than 150 years a commercial and political satellite of Great Britain. Its most far-reaching provisions were those which admitted Portuguese wines to the British market at a lower rate of duty than was imposed upon French and German wines, in return for a corresponding preference to English textiles. The demand for "Port" and "Madeira" was thus artificially stimulated to such an extent that almost the whole productive energy of Portugal was concentrated upon the wine and cork trades. Other industries, including agriculture, were neglected, and even food-stuffs were imported from Great Britain. The disastrous economic results of the treaty were temporarily concealed by the influx of gold from Brazil, the check upon emigration from the wine-growing northern provinces, and the military advantages of alliance with Great Britain. Nor was the virtual abolition of the cortes seriously felt at first, owing to the excellent internal administration of Pedro II. and his minister the duke of Cadaval. Pedro II. had at first wished to remain neutral in the impend- ing struggle between Philip V. and the archduke Charles, rival War of the claimants for the throne of Spain. But Queen Spanish Marie had died in 1683, and in 1687 Cadaval had succession, induced the king to marry Maria Sophia de Neuberg, daughter of the elector-palatine. Louis XIV. of France, who had hoped through the influence of Queen Marie to secure Portuguese support for his own grandson Philip V., realized that this second marriage might thwart his policy, and strove to redress the balance by creating a strong party at the court of Lisbon. He so far succeeded that in 1700 Pedro II. recognized Philip V. as king of Spain and in 1701 protected a French fleet in the Tagus against the British. It was this incident that caused the despatch of the Methuen mission and the renewal of the Anglo- Portuguese alliance in 1703. On the 7th of March 1704 a British fleet under Sir George Rooke reached Lisbon, convoying the archduke Charles and 10,000 British troops, who were joined by a Portuguese army under D. Joao de Sousa, marquess das Minas, and at once invaded Spain. (For the campaigns of 1704-13, see Spanish Succession, War or the.) In 1705 Pedro II. was compelled by failing health to appoint a regent, and chose his sister, Catherine of Braganza, queen-dowager of England. On the death of the king (Dec. 9, 1706) Cadaval arranged a marriage between his successor John V. (1706- 1750) and the archduchess Marianna, sister of the archduke Charles, thus binding Portugal more closely to the Anglo- Austrian cause. The strain of the war was acutely felt in Portugal, especially in 1711, when the French admiral Duguay- Trouin sacked Rio de Janeiro and cut off the Brazilian treasure- ships. At last, on the 6th of February 1715, nearly two years after the treaty of Utrecht, peace between Spain and Portugal was concluded at Madrid. Never was the Portuguese Crown richer than in the years 1715-1755; rarely had the kingdom prospered less. The The Moo- commercial and financial evils rife under the last archy and kings of the Aviz dynasty were now repeated. the cbuKb - More gold had been discovered in Matto Grosso, diamonds in Minas Geraes. As in the 16th century immense quantities of bullion were imported by the treasury, and were lavished upon war, luxury and the Church, while agriculture and manufactures continued to decline, and the countryside was depopulated by emigration to Brazil. John V. was a spendthrift ard & bigot. He gave and lent enormous sums to successive popes, and at the bidding of Clement XI. he joined a " crusade " against the Turks in which his ships helped to win a naval action off Cape Matapan (1717). For these services he received the title of Fidelissimus, "Most Faithful"; "Majesty" had already been adopted by John IV. instead of the medieval " Highness," and the new style was intended to place the king of Portugal on an equality with his Most Christian Majesty of France and his Most Catholic Majesty of Spain. John V. was also empowered to create a multitude of new ecclesiastical dignities, and the archbishop of Lisbon was granted the rank and style of Patriarch ex officio. To the patriarchate was appended a Sacred College of 24 prelates, who were privileged to officiate in the scarlet robes of cardinals, while the patriarch wore the vestments of a second pope. Though regiments were disbanded, fleets put out of commission and fortresses dismantled to save the cost of their upkeep, the Crown paid nearly £100,000 yearly for the maintenance of this new hierarchy, and squandered untold wealth on the erection of churches and monasteries. In the church of Sao Roque in Lisbon, the decoration of a single chapel measuring 17 ft. by 12 ft. cost £225,000; the expenditure on the convent-palace of Mafra (q.v.) exceeded £4,000,000. John V. was succeeded by his son Joseph (1750-1777). Five years afterwards Portugal was overtaken by the tremendous disaster of the Lisbon earthquake (see Lisbon), which, as Oliveira Martins justly observes, was " more than a cataclysm of nature; it was a moral revolution." It brought the Restoration period to an end (1755). Throughout that period themonarchy had occupied a precarious position, dependent until 1668 for its very existence, and after 1668 for its stability, on foreign support. Its policy had been moulded to suit France or Great Britain, while its internal administration had normally been directed by the Church. The cortes had grown obsolete; the feudal aristocracy were become courtiers. Once more, as in 1580, Portugal was governed by ecclesiastics in the name of an absolute monarch: once more, as in 1580, the chief strength of the ecclesi- astical party was the Society of Jesus, which still controlled the conscience and mind of the nation and of its nominal rulers, through the confessional and the schools. 7. The Reform of the Monarchy: 17 55- 1826. — The unity of Portuguese history is hard to perceive in the years which witnessed the rise and fall of the Pombaline r6gime, the reign of the mad queen Maria, the Peninsular War and the subsequent chaos of revolutionary intrigue. At first sight it seems absurd to characterize this period of despotism ending in war, ruin and anarchy as a period of reform. Nevertheless, it is possible to trace through the apparent chaos an uninterrupted move- ment from absolutism to representative institutions. Pombal liberated the monarchy from clerical domination, and thus unwittingly opened the door to those " French principles," or democratic ideas, which spread rapidly after his downfall in 1777. The destruction of an obsolete political system, begun by Pombal, was completed by the Peninsular War; while French invaders and British governors together quickened among the Portuguese a new consciousness of their nationality, and a new desire for political rights, which rendered inevitable the change to constitutional monarchy. Two days after the accession of King Joseph, Sebastiao Jos6 dc Carvalho e Mello, better known as the marquess of Pombal (q.v.), was appointed secretary of state for foreign affairs and war. In a few months he gained an ascendancy ?5Sf™ r over the king's mind which lasted until the end of the reign, and was strengthened by the courage and wisdom shown by Pombal at the time of the great earthquake. His policy was to strengthen the monarchy and to use it for the furtherance of a comprehensive scheme of reform. Beginning with finance and commerce, he reversed the bullionist policy of his predeces- sors and reorganized the entire system of taxation. He sought to undo the worst consequences of the Methuen treaty by the creation of national industries, establishing a gunpowder factory and a sugar refinery in 1 751, a silk industry in 1752, wool, paper and glass factories after 1759. Colonial development was fostered, and the commercial dependence of Portugal upon i5° PORTUGAL [HISTORY Great Britain was reduced, by the formation of chartered companies, the first of which (1753) was given control of the Algarve sardine and tunny fisheries. The Oldembourg Company (1754) received a monopoly of trade with the Portuguese colonies in the East; extensive monopolist rights were also conceded to the Para and Maranhao Company (1755) and the Pernambuco and Parahyba Company (1759). In Lisbon a chamber of com- merce {Junta do commercio) was organized in 1756 to replace an older association of merchants, the Meza dos homens de negocio, which had attacked the Para Company; and in the same year the Alto Douro Company was formed to control the port-wine trade and to break the monopoly enjoyed by a syndicate of British wine merchants. This company met with strong opposition, culminating in a rising at Oporto (February 1757), which was savagely suppressed. Both his commercial policy and his desire to strengthen the Crown brought Pombal into conflict with the Church and the aristocracy. In 1 751 he had made all sentences passed by the Inquisition subject to revision by the Crown. The liberation of all slaves in Para and Maranhao except negroes (1755), and the creation of the Para Company, were prejudicial to the interests of the Jesuits, whose administrative authority over the Indians of Brazil was also curtailed. Various charges were brought against the Society by Pombal, and in September 1759, after five years of heated controversy (see Jesuits), he published a decree of expulsion against all its members in the Portuguese dominions. His power at court had previously been strengthened by the so-called Tavora plot. The marquess and marchioness of Tavora and their two sons, with the duke of Aveiro, the count of Atouguia and other noblemen, were accused of complicity in an attempt upon the life of King Joseph (September 1758). Pombal appointed a special tribunal to judge the case; many of the accused, including those already mentioned, were found guilty and executed; and an attempt was made to implicate the Jesuits. Pombal's enemies declared that he himself had organized the attack upon the king, in such a manner as to throw suspicion upon his political opponents and to gain credit for himself. This accusation was not proved, but the history of the Tavora plot remains extremely obscure. The expulsion of the Jesuits involved Portugal in a dispute with Pope Clement XIII.; in June 1760 the papal nuncio was ordered to leave Lisbon, and diplomatic relations with the Vatican were only resumed after the condemnation of the Jesuits by Clement XIV., in July 1773. His victory over the Jesuits left Pombal free to develop his plans for reform. He devoted himself especially to education and defence. A school of commerce was founded in 1759; in 1760 the censorship of books was transferred from an ecclesi- astical to a lay tribunal; in 1761 the former Jesuit college in Lisbon was converted into a college for the sons of noblemen; in 1768 a royal printing-press was established; in 1772 Pombal provided for a complete system of primary and secondary educa- tion, entailing the foundation of 837 schools. He founded a college of art in Mafra; he became visitor of Coimbra University, recast its statutes and introduced the teaching of natural science. Funds for these reforms were to a great extent provided out of the sequestrated property of the Jesuits; Pombal also effected great economies in internal administration. He abolished the distinction between Old and New Christians, and made all Portuguese subjects eligible to any office in the state. Far- reaching reforms were at the same time carried out in the army, navy and mercantile marine. In 1760 Admiral Boscawen had violated Portuguese neutrality by burning four French ships off Lagos; Pombal protested and the British government apologized, but not before the military weakness of Portugal had been demonstrated. Two years later, when the Family Compact involved Portugal in a war with Spain, Pombal called in Count William of Lippe-Biickeburg to reorganize the army, which was reinforced by a British contingent under Brigadier-General John Burgoyne, and was increased from 5000 to 50,000 men. The Spaniards were at first successful, and captured Braganza and Almeida; but they were subsequently defeated at Villa Velha and Valencia de Alcantara, and the Portuguese fully held their own up to the signature of peace at Fontainebleau, in February 1763. Towards the close of the reign, a long-standing contro- versy with Spain as to the frontier between Brazil and the Spanish colonies threatened a renewal of the war; but in this crisis Pombal was deprived of power by the death of King Joseph (Feb. 20, 1777) and the accession of his daughter Maria I. The queen was married to her uncle, who became king consort as Pedro III. Pombal's dismissal, brought about by the influence of the queen-mother Mariana Victoria, Maria /., did not involve an immediate reversal of his policy. Pedro Hi. The controversy with Spain was amicably settled and D.John. by the treaty of San Udefonso (1777J; and further industrial and educational reforms were inaugurated, chief among them being the foundation, in 1780, of the Royal Academy of Sciences. Queen Maria, who had previously shown signs of religious mania, became wholly insane after 1788, owing to the deaths of Pedro III. (May 1786), of the crown prince D. Joseph, and of her con- fessor, the inquisitor-general D. Ignacio de San Caetano. Her second son, D. John, assumed the conduct of affairs in 1792, although he did not take the title of regent until 1799. Mean- while a two-fold reaction — on one side clericalist, on the other democratic — had set in against the reforms of Pombal. D.John told William Beckford in 1786 that " the kingdom belonged to the monks," and his consort Carlota Joaquina, daughter of Charles IV. of Spain, exercised a powerful influence in favour of the Church. But new ideas had been introduced with the new system of education, and the inevitable revolt against absolutism had resulted in the formation of a Radical party, which sympa- thized with the Revolution in France and carried on an active propaganda through the numerous masonic lodges which were in fact political clubs. D. John became alarmed, and the intendant of police in Lisbon, D. Diogo Ignacio de Pina Manique, organized an elaborate system of espionage which led to the imprisonment or exile of many harmless enthusiasts. From similar motives, a treaty of alliance with Spain was signed at Aranjuez in March 1793; 5000 Portuguese troops were sent to assist in a Spanish invasion of France; a „ Iatloos Portuguese squadron joined the British Mediterranean w i tn Spain, fleet. But in July 1795 Spain concluded a peace France and with the French republic from which Portugal, as Great the ally of Great Britain, was deliberately excluded. ^fl'f'f.L, In 1796 Spain declared war upon Great Britain, and in 1797 a secret convention for the partition of Portugal was signed by the French ambassador in Madrid, General Perignon, and by the Spanish minister Godoy. D. John appealed for help to Great Britain, which sent him 6000 men, under Sir Charles Stuart, and a subsidy of £200,000. Though Spain, through the influence of D. John's father-in-law Charles IV., still remained neutral, a state of war between Portugal and France existed until 1799. D. John then reopened negotiations with Napoleon, and Lucien Bonaparte was sent to dictate terms in Madrid. But D. John dared not consent to close the harbours of Portugal against British ships. England was the chief market for Portuguese wine and grain ; and the long Portuguese littoral was at the mercy of the British navy. Compelled to choose between fighting on land and fighting at sea, D. John rejected the demands of Lucien Bonaparte, and on the 10th of February 1801 declared war upon Spain. His territories were at once invaded by a Franco- Spanish army, and on the 6th of June 1801 he was forced to conclude the peace of Badajoz, by which he ceded the frontier fortress of Olivenza to Spain, and undertook to pay 20,000,000 francs to Napoleon and to exclude British ships from Portuguese ports. Napoleon was dissatisfied with these terms, and although he ultimately ratified the treaty, he sent General Lannes to Lisbon as his ambassador, instructing him to humiliate the Portuguese and if possible to goad them into a renewal of the war. The same policy was continued by General Junot, who succeeded Lannes in 1804. Junot required D. John to declare war upon Great Britain, but this demand was not immediately pressed owing to the preoccupation of Napoleon with greater affairs, and in October 1805 Junot left Portugal. By his Berlin decree of the 21st of November 1806 Napoleon HISTORY] PORTUGAL 151 required all continental states to close their ports to British ships. As Portugal again refused to obey, another secret Franco- The Spanish treaty was signed at Fontainebleau on the Peninsular 27th of October 1807, providing for the partition War ' of Portugal. Entre-Minho-e-Douro was to be given to Louis II. of Etruria in exchange for his Italian kingdom; Algarve and Alemtejo were to form a separate principality for Godoy ; the remaining provinces were to be garrisoned by French troops until a general peace should be concluded. To give effect to these terms, General Junot hastened westward across Spain, at the head of 30,000 French soldiers and a large body of Spanish auxiliaries. So rapid were his movements that there was no time to organize effective resistance. On the 29th of November D. John, acting on the advice of Sir Sidney Smith, British naval commander in the Tagus, appointed a council of regency and sailed for Brazil, convoyed by Sir Sidney Smith's squadron. For a detailed account of the subsequent military operations, see Peninsular War. Junot, who was everywhere well received by the Portuguese democrats, entered Lisbon at the end of November 1807. He assumed command of the Portuguese army, divided junot, the kingdom into military governments, and, on the November 1st of February 1808 announced that the Braganza 1807- dynasty had forfeited its right to the throne. He him- 1808 se ^ hoped to succeed D. John, and sought to conciliate the Portuguese by reducing the requisition demanded by Napoleon from 40,000,000 francs to 20,000,000. But the action of the French troops in occupying the fortresses of northern Spain provoked in May 1808 a general rising in that country, which soon spread to Portugal. The Spanish garrison in Oporto expelled the French governor and declared for the Braganzas, compelling Junot to march towards the north. He left Lisbon under the control of a regency, headed by the bishop of Oporto, who applied to Great Britain for help, promoted an insurrection against the French, and organized juntas (committees) of government in the larger towns. On the 1st of August 1808 Sir Arthur Wellesley, with 9000 British troops, landed at Figueira da Foz. He defeated a French division at Rolica (" Roleia ") on the 17th, and on the 21st won a victory over Junot at Vimeiro ("Vimiera")- Fearing an attack by Portu- guese auxiliaries and the arrival of British reinforcements under Sir John Moore, Junot signed the convention of Cintra by which, on the 30th of August 1808, he agreed to evacuate Portugal (see Wellington). The regency appointed by D. John was now reconstituted and in October Sir John Moore assumed command of all the allied troops in Portugal. From Lisbon Moore marched north-eastward with about 32,000 men to assist the Spanish armies against Napoleon; his subsequent retreat to join Sir David Baird in Galicia, in January 1809, diverted the pursuing army under Napoleon to the north-west, and temporarily saved Portugal from attack. In February Major-General William Carr Beresford was given command of the Portuguese army. Organized and invasion by disciplined by British officers, the native troops played Souit, a gallant part in the subsequent campaigns. In March-May March 1809 the second invasion of Portugal began; 180 Soult crossed the Galician frontier and captured Oporto, while an auxiliary force under General Lapisse advanced from Salamanca. On the 22nd of April, however, Wellesley, who had been recalled after the convention of Cintra, landed in Lisbon. On the 12th of May he forced the passage of the Douro, subsequently retaking Oporto and pursuing Soult into Spain. Valuable assistance had been rendered by the Portu- guese generals Antonio da Silveira and Manoel de Brito Mousinho — the first a leader, the second an organizer. After the battle of Wagram (July 6, 1809) the French armies in the Peninsula received large reinforcements, and invasion m, Marshal Massena, with 120,000 men, was ordered Massena, to operate against Portugal. He crossed the frontier June 1810- i n June 1810 and besieged Almeida, which capitu- Apmmt. Iated on the 27th of August. Wellesley, who had now become Viscount Wellington, opposed his march south- wards, and won a victory at Bussaco on the 27th of September, but Massena subsequently turned the position of the allied army on the Serra de Bussaco, and caused Wellington to fall back upon the fortified lines which he had already constructed at Torres Vedras. Here he stood upon the defensive until the invaders should be defeated by starvation. The Portuguese troops cut Massena's communications; the peasants, under instructions from Wellington, had already laid waste their own farms, destroyed the roads and bridges by which Massena might retreat, and burned their boats on the Tagus. On the 5th of March 181 1, after a winter of terrible sufferings, Massena's retreat began; he was harassed by the allied troops all the way to Sabugal, where the last rearguard action in Portugal took place on the 3rd of April. The invaders retired with a loss of nearly 30,000 men; Almeida was retaken on the 6th; and the remainder of the war was fought out on Spanish and French soil. The Portuguese troops remained under Wellington's command until 1814, and distinguished themselves in many actions, notably at Salamanca and on the Nivelle. At the congressof Vienna (1814-181 5) Portugal was represented by three plenipotentiaries, who were instructed to press for the retrocession of Olivenza and to oppose the restora- tion of French Guiana, which the Brazilians had tbfwar. conquered in 1809. Neither object was attained; and this failure, which was attributed to the lack of British support, hastened the reaction against British influence which had already begun. Since 1808 Portugal had theoretic- ally been governed by the regency representing D. John. But as the regency was corrupt and unable to co-operate with Wellington and Beresford, the British government had demanded that Sir Charles Stuart (son of the Sir Charles Stuart mentioned above) should be appointed one of its members. The real control of affairs soon afterwards passed into the strong hands of Stuart and Beresford; and while the war lasted the Portuguese acquiesced in what was in fact an autocracy exercised by foreigners. In 181 5, however, they desired to resume their independence. A further cause of dissatisfaction was the mutual jealousy of Portugal and Brazil. The colony claimed as high a political status as the mother-country, and by a decree dated the f 6th of January 181 5 it was raised to the rank of a separate kingdom. Thenceforward, until 1822, the Portuguese sover- eignty was styled the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. The importance of this change became apparent when Queen Maria I. died (March 1816) and D. John succeeded to the united thrones as John VI. The king refused to leave Brazil, partly owing to the intrigues of Carlota Joaquina, who hoped to become queen of an independent Brazilian kingdom. Thus Portugal, which had been almost ruined by the war, was now humiliated by the failure of her diplomacy at Vienna and by her continued dependence upon Great Britain and Brazil. The resultant discontent found expression in the cry of " Por- tugal for the Portuguese " and in the demand for a constitution. In 181 7 a military revolt (pronunciamento) in Lisbon was crushed by Beresford, and the leader, General Gomes Freire de Andrade, was executed; but on the 16th of August f Be co a . 1820, after Beresford had sailed to Brazil to secure stitutional the return of John VI., a second rising took place Movement, in Oporto. It soon spread southward. A new 1820 ~ t826 ' council of regency was established in Lisbon, the British officers were expelled from the army; Beresford, on his return from Brazil, was not permitted to land; a constituent assembly was summoned. This body suppressed the Inquisition and drew up a highly democratic constitution, by which all citizens were declared equal before the law and eligible to any office; all class privileges were abolished, the liberty of the Press was guaranteed, and the government of the country was vested in a single chamber, subject only to the suspensive veto of the Crown. So extreme a change was disliked by most of the powers and by, many Portuguese, especially those of the clerical party. Great Britain insisted on the return of John VI., who entrusted the government of Brazil to his elder son D. Pedro and landed in Portugal on the 3rd of July 1821. In 1822, on the advice of 1 S* PORTUGAL [HISTORY D. Pedro, he swore to obey the constitution (thenceforward known as the " constitution of 1822 ")• But his younger son, D. Miguel, and the queen, Carlota Joaquina, refused to take the oath; and in December 1822 sentence of banishment was pro- nounced against them, though not enforced. They had many supporters at home and abroad. French troops had invaded Spain in the interests of Ferdinand VII. (1823), and the French government was prepared to countenance the absolutist party in Portugal in order to check British influence there. Another military revolt broke out in Traz-os-Montes on the 3rd of February 1823, its leader being the count of Amarante, who was opposed to the constitution. D. Miguel appealed to the army to " restore liberty to their king," and the army, incensed by the loss of Brazil (1822), gave him almost unanimous support. At this juncture John VI., vainly seeking for a compromise, abrogated the constitution of 1822, but appointed as his minister D. Pedro de Sousa Holstein, count (afterwards duke) of Palmella and leader of the " English " or constitutional party. These half-measures did not satisfy D. Miguel, whose soldiers seized the royal palace in Lisbon on the 30th of April 1824. Palmella was arrested, and John VI. forced to take refuge on the British flagship in the Tagus. But the united action of the foreign ministers restored the king and reinstated Palmella; the insur- rection was crushed; D. Miguel submitted and went into exile (June 1824). In Brazil also a revolution had taken place. The Brazilians demanded complete independence, and D. Pedro sided with them. The Portuguese garrison of Rio de Janeiro was over- powered; on the 7th of September 1822 D. Pedro declared the country independent, and on the 12th of October he was pro- claimed constitutional emperor. He took no notice of the constituent assembly in Lisbon, which on the 19th of September had ordered him to return to Portugal on pain of forfeiting his right to inherit the Portuguese Crown. By the end of 1823 all Portuguese resistance to the new regime in Brazil had been overcome. John VI. died on the 10th of March 1826, leaving (by will) his daughter D. Isabel Maria as regent for Pedro I. of Brazil, who now became Pedro IV. of Portugal. A crisis was evidently imminent, for Portugal would not tolerate an absentee sovereign who was far more Brazilian than Portuguese. The unsatisfied ambition of Carlota Joaquina and the hostility between abso- lutists and constitutionalists might at any moment precipitate a civil war. To conciliate the Portuguese, Pedro IV. drew up a charter (known as the " charter of 1826 ") which provided for moderate parliamentary government on the British model. To conciliate the Brazilians, he undertook (by decree dated May 2nd 1826) to surrender the Portuguese Crown to his daughter D. Maria da Gloria (then aged seven); but this abdication was made contingent upon her marriage with her uncle D. Miguel, who was first required to swear fidelity to the charter. 8. Constitutional Government. — The charter of 1826 forms the basis of the present Portuguese constitution and the starting- point of modern Portuguese history. That history comprises four periods: (a) From 1826 to 1834 the clerical and absolutist parties led by D. Miguel united every reactionary element throughout the kingdom in a last unsuccessful stand against constitutional government; (b) From 1834 to 1853 the main problem for Portuguese statesmen was whether the constitution, now accepted as inevitable, should embody the radical ideas of 1822 or the moderate ideas of 1826; (c) From 1853 to 1889 there was a period of transition marked by the rise of three new parties — Progressive, Regenerator, Republican; (d) From 1889 to 1908 the Progressives and Regenerators monopolized the control of public affairs, but the strength of Republicanism was not to be gauged by its representation in the cortes. At the beginning of the 20th century the question whether the monarchy should be replaced by a republic had become a living political issue, which was decided by the revolution of October 5, 1910. The charter was brought to Lisbon by Sir Charles Stuart in July 1826. The absolutists had hoped that D. Pedro would abdicate unconditionally in favour of D. Miguel, and the council of regency at first refused to publish the charter. They were forced to do so (July 12) by a pronunciamento issued by D. Joao Carlos de Saldanha de Oliveira e Daun, count The of Saldanha and commander of the army in Oporto. Absolutist Saldanha, a prominent constitutionalist, threatened Reactlon - to march on Lisbon if the regency did not swear obedience to the charter by the 31st of July. Amid wild enthusiasm the charter was proclaimed on that day, and on the 3rd of August Saldanha became head of a Liberal ministry. An absolutist counter-revolution at once broke out in the north. It was organized by the marquess of Chaves, and supported openly by the Church and the Miguelite majority of the army; secret assistance was also given by Spain. As civil war appeared imminent, Canning despatched 5000 British troops under Sir William Clinton to restore order, and to disband the troops under Chaves. By March 1827 Clinton and Saldanha had secured the acceptance of the charter throughout Portugal. In October 1826 D. Miguel also swore to obey the charter and was betrothed to his niece D. Maria da Gloria (Maria II.). Pedro IV. appointed him regent in July 1827 and in February 1828 he landed in Lisbon, where he was received with cries of " Viva D. Miguel I., rei absoluto! " In March he dissolved the parliament which had met in accordance with the charter. In April the Tory ministry under Wellington withdrew Clinton's division, which was the mainstay of the charter. In May D. Miguel summoned a cortes of the ancient type, which offered him the Crown; and on the 7th of July 1828 he took the oath as king. Saldanha, Palmella, the count of Villa Flor (afterwards duke of Terceira), and the other constitutionalist leaders were driven into exile, while scores of their adherents were executed and thou- sands imprisoned. Austria and Spain supported D. Miguel, who was able to dispose of the vast wealth of Carlota Joaquina; Great Britain and France remained neutral. Only the emperor D. Pedro and a handful of exiles upheld the cause of Maria II., who returned to Brazil in 1829. The Azores, although the majority of their inhabitants favoured absolutism, now became a centre of resistance to D. Miguel. In 1828 the garrison of Angra declared The for Maria II., endured a siege lasting four months, Miguelite and finally took refuge in the island of Terceira, Wars - where it was reinforced by volunteers from Brazil and constitu- tionalist refugees from England and France. In March 1829 Palmella established a regency on the island, on behalf of Maria II.; and D. Miguel's fleet was defeated in Praia Bay on the 1 2th of August. Fortune played into the hands of Palmella, Saldanha, Villa Flor and their followers in Terceira. In 1830 a Whig ministry came into office in Great Britain; the " July revolution " placed Louis Philippe on the throne of France; Carlota Joaquina, the power behind D. Miguel's throne, died on the 7th of January. The fanaticism of the clerical and abso- lutist parties in Portugal (collectively termed apostolicos) was enhanced by recrudescence of Sebastianism. Men saw in the brutal boor D. Miguel (q.v.) a personification of the hero-king Sebastian, whose second advent had been expected for two and a half centuries. In the orgy of persecution, outrages were committed on British and French subjects; and a French squad- ron retaliated by seizing D. Miguel's fleet in the Tagus (July 1831). In Brazil, D. Pedro abdicated (April 1831); he deter- mined to return to Europe and conduct in person a campaign for the restoration of Maria II. He was received with enthusiasm by Louis Philippe. In Great Britain Palmella raised a loan of £2,000,000 and purchased a small fleet, of which Captain Sartor- ius, a retired British naval officer, was appointed admiral. In February 1832 the " Liberators," as they were styled, sailed from Belleisle to the Azores, with D. Pedro aboard the flagship. In July they reached Portugal and occupied Oporto, but the expected constitutionalist rising did not take place. The country was almost unanimous in its loyalty to D. Miguel, who had 80,000 troops against the 6500 (including 500 French and 300 British) of D. Pedro. But the Miguelites had no navy, and no competent general. They besieged D. Pedro in Oporto from July 1832 to July 1833, when the duke of Terceira and HISTORY] PORTUGAL 1 S3 Captain Charles Napier, who had succeeded Sartorius, effected a daring and successful diversion which resulted in the capture of Lisbon (July 24, 1833). Maria II. arrived from France in September. The war went in her favour, largely owing to the brilliant generalship of Saldanha and the financial straits to which D. Miguel was reduced. In April 1834 a Quadruple Alliance was concluded between France, Spain, Great Britain and the government of Maria II. The allied army defeated the Miguelites at Asseiceira on the 16th of May, and D. Miguel surrendered at Evora-Monte on the 24th. By the convention of Evora-Monte he was condemned to perpetual banishment from the Peninsula. On the 24th of September D. Pedro died. During the few months in which he acted as regent for his daughter, he had transformed Portugal from a semi-feudal into a modern state. Tithes, many hereditary privileges and all monopolies were abolished; every convent was closed and its property nationalized; the Jesuits, who had returned after the death of Pombal, were again expelled; the charter of 1826 was restored. Maria II. was fifteen years old at her accession. She was twice married — in December 1834 to Augustus, duke of Leuch- tenberg, who died four months afterwards; and in 1834-1853. Ap ru '836 to Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, who received the title of king consort in September 1837. Both the queen and the king consort were strangers to Portugal, and could exercise little control over the turbulent factions whose intrigues and pronunciamentos made orderly govern- ment impossible. There were three political parties: the Miguelites, who were still strong enough to cause trouble; the Chartists, who advocated the principles of 1826; the Septembrists, who advocated those of 1822 and took their name from the successful coup d'ttat of the gth-nth of September 1836. By this coup d'etat the constitution of 1822 was sub- stituted for the charter of 1826; and a Septembrist ministry under the Viscount Sa da Bandeira replaced the Chartist ministry under Saldanha, Terceira and Palmella. A counter- revolution, planned in the royal palace at Belem and hence known as the Belcmzada, was frustrated in November 1836; and in 1837 a Chartist insurrection was crushed after severe fighting. This was known as the " War of the Marshals, " from the rank of the two Chartist leaders, Saldanha and Terceira. In 1839 a moderate ministry took office, with Antonio Bermudo da Costa Cabral as its real, though not its ostensible, head. A pronunciamento by Costa Cabral led to the restoration of the charter on the 10th of February 1842, and a Cabral government was formed under the nominal leadership of Terceira. Costa Cabral, who became count of Thomar in 1845, ruled despotically, despite many insurrections, until May 1846, when a coalition of Miguelites, Septembrists and Chartist malcontents drove him into exile. On this occasion the rebellion — known as the " War of Maria da Fonte " — proved formidable. Oporto was held by a revolutionary junta, and Saldanha, who had become prime minister, persuaded the Quadruple Alliance to intervene. In June 1847 the Oporto junta surrendered, under promise of an amnesty, to a combined British and Spanish force, and the convention of Gramido (July 24, 1847) ended the war. Saldanha was rewarded with a dukedom, and retained office until June 1849. The dictatorial rule of his successor — the returned exile, Thomar — provoked another successful rising on the 7th of April 1 85 1. Thomar again fled from the country; Saldanha again became prime minister, but at the head of a moderate coalition. He remained in power during five years of unbroken peace (1851-1856), and carried many useful reforms. The most important of these was the so-called Additional Act of the 5th of July 1852, which amended the charter of 1826 by pro- viding for the direct election of deputies, the decentralization of the executive, the creation of representative municipal councils, and the abolition of capital punishment for political offences. Maria II. died on the 13th of November 1853, and was succeeded by her eldest son D. Pedro, during whose ministry the king consort D. Ferdinand acted as regent. Under the brothers Pedro V. (1853-1861) and Luiz (1861- 1889) Portugal obtained a respite from civil strife. Both monarchs delegated the conduct of affairs to their ministers, who constructed new railways, reformed the edu- cational system, and gradually improved the economic a ndLuiz. condition of the kingdom and its colonies. Pedro V. came of age and assumed the government on the 16th of November 1855, in 1857 he married Princess Stephanie of Hohenzollern. The only political disturbance which marred the peace of his reign arose out of the seizure of the "Charles et Georges," a French slave-trader which was captured off Mozambique. Napoleon III. sent a fleet to the Tagus and demanded an indemnity, which Portugal was compelled to pay. In 1 860-1 86 1 cholera ravaged the whole kingdom, and especially the capital. The king died of this disease on the nth of November 1861, and two of his brothers, D. Ferdinand and D. John, died shortly afterwards. D. Luiz was absent at the time, and his father D. Ferdinand again became regent until his return, soon after which (1862) the new king married Maria Pia, daughter of Victor Emanuel II. of Italy. In 1869 slavery was abolished in every Portuguese colony. In 1870 the duke of Saldanha, the last survivor of the turbulent statesmen of Queen Maria's reign, threatened an appeal to arms if the king would not dismiss his minister, the duke of Louie, an advanced Radical and freemason, whose influence, dating from the reign of Pedro V., was viewed with disfavour by Saldanha, as well as by more conservative politicians. The king yielded; and Saldanha himself became prime minister, retaining office until 1874, when, at the age of 80, he was sent as ambassador to London. He had been by far the most influential man in Portugal, and his death in 1876 was followed by a regrouping of political parties. The party of the Regenerators (Regeneradores) , formed in 1852 out of a coalition of Septembrists and Chartists, had already been disintegrated. Its more radical ele- ments, known at first as the Historic Left, were in parties 1877 reorganized as the Progressives (Progressistas). Its more conservative elements carried on the tradition and retained the name of the original Regenerators. Besides these two monarchist parties — the Regenerators or Conser- vative right and the Progressives or Constitutional left — a strong Republican party was formed in 1881. There were also the Miguelites, active but impotent intriguers; and the advocates of Iberian union, who became prominent in 1867, 1869, 1874, and especially in July 1872, when many well- known politicians were implicated in a fantastic conspiracy for the establishment of an Iberian republic. Portuguese nationalism was too strong for these advocates of union with Spain, whose propaganda was discredited as soon as any national interest was seriously endangered. This was the case in 1872, when Great Britain claimed the southern part of Delagoa Bay. The claim was submitted to the arbitra- tion of M. Thiers, the French president, whose successor, Marshal Macmahon, delivered an award in favour of Portugal on the 19th of April 1875 (see Delagoa Bay). King Luiz died on the 19th of October 1889, and was succeeded by his son D. Carlos (q.v.). Colonial affairs had for some time received close attention. In 1885 Portugal recog- Co/onte/ nized the Congo Free State, and admitted its Affairs; sovereignty over the north bank of the Lower Relations Congo, although, in an unratified treaty of 1884, w** Great Great Britain had recognized both banks of the Bntaln - river as Portuguese territory. In 1886 Germany, France and Portugal defined by treaty the limits of their adjacent spheres of influence, and on the 26th of March 1887 Macao, hitherto leased to Portugal, was formally ceded by the Chinese government. In 1889 a resolution unanimously adopted by both chambers invited the ministry, of which Jose de Castro was president and Barros Gomes foreign minister, to press forward the territorial claims of Portugal in East and Central Africa. Shortly after the accession of King Carlos this active, policy led to a dispute with Great Britain (seeAFKiCA, § 5). A Portuguese force under Major Serpa Pinto had invaded the 154 PORTUGAL [HISTORY Shire highlands in order to forestall their annexation by the British, and the British government demanded satisfaction. Public opinion rendered compliance difficult until a British squadron was despatched to the mouth of the Tagus, and the British minister presented an ultimatum (Jan. n, 1890), requiring the withdrawal of all Portuguese forces from the Shire. Barros Gomes was then able to yield under protest; but disturbances at once broke out in Lisbon and Oporto, and the ministry resigned. A coalition government took office on the 14th of January, with Serpa Pimentel as prime minister and J. Hintze- Ribeiro as foreign minister. The king, in a letter to Queen Victoria, declined for the time being to receive the Order of the Garter, which had just been offered him, and on the 6th of February the government addressed a circular letter to the powers, proposing to submit the issues in dispute to a European conference. Meanwhile a Republican rising was suppressed in Lisbon, and many suspected officers were degraded. On the 20th of August an Anglo-Portuguese agreement was negotiated in London, but the cortes refused to ratify it. The ministry therefore resigned, and on the 14th of October Abreu e Sousa fomed a new cabinet, which arranged with Great Britain a modus vivendi for six months, pending the conclusion of another agreement. The British government was ready to make con- cessions, but more than one collision took place between Portu- guese troops in Manica and the forces of the British South Africa Company. The defeat of the Portuguese was the chief cause of a serious military rising in Oporto, which broke out on the 30th of January 1891. The suppression of this rising so far enhanced the prestige of the cabinet that the cortes forthwith approved the convention with Great Britain; and the definitive treaty, by which Portugal abandoned all claim to a trans-African dominion, was ratified by the cortes on the 28th of May. Rela- tions with Great Britain, however, remained far from cordial until the celebration of the fourth centenary of Vasco da Gama's voyage to India afforded the opportunity for a rapprochement in 1898. The extravagant management of the railways guaranteed by the state had entailed such heavy deficits that the payment of Financial the coupon of the railway state loan, due on the Crisis of 2nd of January 1892 had to be suspended. Thus 1892. arose a serious financial crisis, involving three changes of ministry. In May the Portuguese government committed a formal act of bankruptcy by issuing a decree reducing the amount then due to foreign bondholders by two-thirds. The bondholders' committees, supported by some of the powers concerned, protested against this illegal action. A compromise was at last arranged by Hintze-Ribeiro, who assumed office in February 1893 as head of a Progressive government. His cabinet promised only slightly better terms to the foreign bondholders, but it relieved the financial tension in some degree; and by coming to an agreement with Germany in East Africa and with Great Britain in South Africa as to the delimitation of frontiers, he minimized the risks of conflict with either country. Portugal observed neutrality on the outbreak of the Anglo- Boer War, but the permission it conceded to the British consul at Lourenco Marques to search for contraband of war among goods imported there, and the free passage accorded to an armed force under General Carrington from Beira through Portu- guese territory to Rhodesia, were vehemently attacked in the Press and at public meetings. The award of the Swiss arbi- trators in the matter of the Delagoa Bay railway was given in 1900 (see L0UREN50 Marques). Portugal was condemned to ^ay 15,314,000 francs compensation; and this sum (less than was expected) was immediately raised by loan from the Portuguese Tobacco Company. A law of the 8th of August 1901 regulated the conditions of election to the lower house, thus ending a long series of parlia- mentary reforms. The most important of these had provided for the gradual extinction of the right of hereditary peers to sit in the upper house (July 24, 1885), had reduced the number of deputies and fixed the qualifications required for the exercise of the franchise (March 28, 1895); and had abolished the elective branch in the upper house (Sept. 25, 1895). These changes left untouched the most serious evil in Portuguese cnnstl- public life. The two great parties, Progressives and tutional Regenerators, were largely composed of professional Changes, politicians whose votes were determined by their tS8S ~' 90i - private interests. Skilful manipulation of the electoral returns enabled these two parties to hold office in fairly regular rota- tion; hence arose the popular nickname of rotativos, applied to Progressives and Regenerators alike. The same methods enabled them to obstruct the election of Republican and Independent candidates. Under such a system of government it was natural that economic issues should still dominate Portuguese politics at the beginning of the 20th century. Year by year Republican- the budget showed a deficit, and the indebtedness ' sm znd of the state increased. A large proportion of the tne Arm y- expenditure was unproductive, corruption was rife in the public services, and the poverty of the overtaxed peasant and artisan classes gave rise to sporadic outbreaks of violence. In 1902 the students at Coimbra and Oporto organized an agitation against the proposed conversion of the gold debt; and anti-clerical riots, followed by a strike, rendered necessary the proclamation of martial law in Aveiro. In January 1903 an insurrection of peasants armed with scythes took place at Fundao; the imposi- tion of a new market tax provoked riots at Coimbra in March; a serious strike of weavers took place at Oporto in June. In the same year the general distress was intensified by the failure of the Rural and Mortgage Bank of Brazil. In these circum- stances Republicanism rapidly gained ground. Its real strength was masked by the system which enabled any ministry in power to control the election of candidates to the cortes. In April 1806, for example, only one Republican deputy was returned, although it was notorious that the Republican party could command a majority in many constituencies. Though the army as a. whole was monarchist, certain regiments had become imbued with revolutionary ideals, which were fortified by the unwise employment of soldiers and sailors for the suppression of industrial disputes. During the weavers' strike the cruiser " Rainha D. Amelia " was converted into a temporary prison, and at Fundao, Aveiro and elsewhere troops had been ordered to fire on men with whom they sympathized. In November 1902, while King Carlos was in England, a military rising was organized in Oporto, but never took place. On the 23rd of April 1903 a body of cavalry and artillery mutinied in Lisbon and proclaimed a republic; but they were overpowered and ultimately transported to Mozambique. Such incidents, unim- portant in themselves, were symptoms of a dangerous state of public opinion, which was debarred from expression in the cortes. The constitution empowered the sovereign to veto any bill, to dissolve or prorogue the cortes, and to govern by means of ministerial decrees. The use of these extraordinary The Die powers would be a breach of constitutional practice, tatorship, but not of law. King Carlos had already been 1906-1908. criticized for alleged excessive interferences in politics. An experiment in government by decree had been made in May — October 1894; it was repeated in September 1905, when the king consented to prorogue the cortes until January 1906 in order to postpone discussion of the terms upon which the tobacco monopoly was to be allocated. A general election, in February 1906, was followed by three changes of ministry, the last of which, on the 19th of May, inaugurated the regime known in Portugal as the dictadura or dictatorship. Joao Franco, the new prime minister, was conspicuous among Portuguese politicians for his integrity, energy and courage; he intended to reform the national finances and administration — by constitutional means, if possible. The cortes, opened on the 6th of June 1906, was dissolved on the 14th; another election took place, preceded by an official announcement that on this occasion all votes would be fairly counted; and the Franquistas or " New Regenerators " obtained a majority. When the LITERATURE] PORTUGAL 15s cortes met, on the 29th of September, the opposition accused King Carlos of complicity in grave financial scandals. It was admitted that he had borrowed largely from the treasury, on the security of his civil list, and the Republican deputies accused him of endeavouring to assign the tobacco monopoly to one of his own foreign creditors, in settlement of the debt. Franco organized a coalition in defence of the Crown, but in January 1907 business in the cortes was brought to a standstill and many sittings ended in uproar. The attacks on the king were repeated at the trial of the poet Guerra Junqueiro, who was indicted for lese-majestg. All parties believed that the ministry would fall, and the rotativos prepared once more to divide the spoils of office, when, on the 2nd of May 1907, Joao Franco reconstructed his cabinet, secured the dissolution of the cortes and announced that certain bills still under discussion would receive the force of law. His partisans in the press hailed the advent of a second Pombal, and their enthusiasm was shared by many enlightened Portuguese, who had previously held aloof from politics but now rallied to the support of an honest dictator. Backed by these forces, as well as by the king and the army, Franco effected some useful reforms. But his opponents included not only the Republicans, the professional politicians and those officials who feared inquiry, but also the magistracy, the district and municipal councils, and the large body of citizens who still believed in parliamentary government. The existing debt owed by D. Carlos to the nation was assessed at £154,000. This sum was ostensibly paid by the transference to the treasury of the royal yacht " Amelia " and certain palaces; but the cost and upkeep of the " Amelia " had been paid with public money, while the palaces had long been maintained as state property. These transactions, though perhaps necessary to save the credit of the sovereign at the least possible cost, infuriated the opposition. Newspapers and politicians openly advocated rebellion; Franco had recourse to coercion. Sedi- tious journals were suppressed; gaols and fortresses were crowded with prisoners; the upper house, which was hostile to the dictator, was deprived of its judicial powers and reconstituted on a less democratic basis (as in 1826) ; the district and muni- cipal councils were dissolved and replaced by administrative commissions nominated by the Crown (Jan. 1, 1908). The ministerial press from time to time announced the dis- covery of sensational plots against the king and the dictator. . _ It is, however, uncertain whether the assassination tioaofKiag°t King Carlos and the crown prince (see Carlos I.), Carlos. on the 1st of February 1908, was part of a widely / *f^ ss ' oi * organized conspiracy; or whether it was the act of an isolated band of fanatics, unconnected with any political party. The republican press applauded the murder; the professional politicians benefited by it. But the regicide Buica and his associates probably acted on their own initiative. The immediate results were the accession of Prince Manoel or Manuel (Emanuel II.) to the throne and the resignation of Franco, who sailed for Genoa. A coalition ministry, representing all the monarchist parties, was formed under the presidency of Admiral Ferreira do Amaral. The administrative commissions appointed by Franco were dissolved; the civil list was reduced; the upper house was reconstituted. A general election took place; in April the cortes met and the balance of power between Progressives and Regenerators was restored. On the 6th of May 1908 D. Manoel swore to uphold the constitution and was acclaimed king by the cortes. His uncle D. Affonso (b. 1865) took a similar oath as crown prince on the 22nd of March 1910. The failure of the dictatorship and the inability of the monarchists to agree upon any common policy had discredited The Revo- the existing regime, and at the general election of lutioBof August 19 10 the Republican candidates in Lisbon l910 ' and Oporto were returned by large majorities. On the 3rd of October the murder of a distinguished Republican physician, Dr Miguel Bombarda, precipitated the revolution which had been organized to take place in Lisbon ten days later. The Republican soldiers in Lisbon, aided by armed civilians and by the warships in the Tagus, attacked the loyal garrison and municipal guards, shelled the Necessidades Palace, and after severe street-fighting (Oct. 4th-6th) became masters of the capital. The king escaped to Ericeira, and thence, with the other members of the royal family, to Gibraltar. Soon afterwards they travelled undisturbed to England, where the king was received by the duke of Orleans. Through- out Portugal the proclamation of a republic was either welcomed or accepted without further resistance. A provi- sional government was formed under the presidency of Dr Theophilo Braga (b. 1843), a native of the Azores, who had since 1865 been prominent among Portuguese men of letters (see Literature, below). The new government undertook to carry out part of the Republican programme before summon- ing a constituent assembly to remodel the constitution. Among its most important acts were the expulsion of the religious con- gregations which had returned after 1834, the nationalization of their property, and the abolition, by decree, of the council of state, the upper house and all hereditary titles or privileges. The Republican programme also included the separation of Church and State, and the concession of local autonomy (on federal lines, if possible) to the provinces and colonies of Portugal. Bibliography. — 1. Sources. — There are separate articles on the Portuguese 15th- and 16th-century chroniclers, G. E. de Azurara, J. de Barros, D. de Goes, F. Lopes, J. Osorio da Fonseca, R. de Pina, G. de Resende and L. de Sousa, and on the 19th-century historians, A. Herculano and J. P. Oliveira Martins. The most important collections of documents are Colleccao dos livros in- editos, &c, ed. J. F. Correa da Serra (11 vols., Lisbon, 1790-1804); Quadro elementar das relacoes politicas e diplomaticas de Portugal, ed. first by the Viscount de Santarem (1856-1861) and afterwards, under the title of Corpo diplomatic/) portuguez, by L. A. Rebello da Silva (vols, i.-iv.), J. J. da Silva Mendes Leal (v.-ix.) and J. C. de Freitas Moniz (x., &c). The Colleccao de tratados, &c. (30 vols., Lisbon, 1856-1879), was ed. successively by Viscount J. F. Borges de Castro and J. Judice Biker; it was continued by the Royal Academy as the Nova colleccao de tratados (2 vols., Lisbon, 1890- 1891). See also Portugaliae monumenta historica, ed. A. Herculano and J. J. da Silva Mendes Leal (12 parts, Lisbon, 1856-1897); Diogo Barbosa Machado, Bibliotheca lusitana (4 vols., Lisbon, 1741-1759); Innocencio da Silva and (after vol. x.) P. W. de Brito Aranha, Diccionario bibliographico portuguez (Lisbon, 1858, &c). Periodicals containing valuable historical matter are the Archivo historico portuguez (Lisbon, 1903, &c), the Boletim of the Lisbon Geographical Society (1873, &c), and Portugalia (Oporto, 1898, &c). 2. General Histories. — The Historia de Portugal, by J. P. Oliveira Martins (2 vols., 4th ed., Lisbon, 1901), is a series of brilliant im- pressionist studies. There is a popular illustrated Historia de Portugal, by A. Ennes, M. Pinheiro Chagas and others, in 37 parts (Lisbon, 1877-1883). See also H. Morse Stephens, Portugal, 4th ed., with additional chapter on the reign of D. Carlos, by Martin Hume (London, 1908) ; E. MacMurdo, History of Portugal (2 vols., London, 1888-1889); H. Schaefer, Geschichte von Portugal (5 vols., 2nd ed., Hamburg, 1874). 3. Special Periods. — A. Herculano's classic Historia de Portugal (4 vols., Lisbon, 1846-1853) covers the period up to 1279. H. da Gama Barros, Historia da administracao publica em Portugal nes seculos XII. d XV. (2 vols., Lisbon, 1895-1896) is a scientific study of the highest value. For the periods 1415-1460 and 1750-1777, see the authorities quoted under Henry the Navigator, and Pombal. A critical bibliography for the period 1460-1580 is given by K. G. Jayne, in Vasco da Gama, &c. (London, 1910). For later history, see L. A. Rebello da Silva, Historia de Portugal nos seculos XVII. e XVIII. (5 vols., Lisbon, 1860-1871); J. M. Latino Coelho, Historia de Portugal desde os fins do XVIII. seculo ate 1814 (3 vols., Lisbon, 1874-1891); the authorities cited under Peninsular War; S. J. da Luz Soriano, Historia da guerraem Portugal (19 vols., Lisbon, 1866-1890); J. P. Oliveira Martins, Portugal contemporaneo {1826-1868), (2 vols., 4th ed., Lisbon, 1906); J. L. Freire de Carvalho, Memorias . . . para ... a usurpacao de D. Miguel (4 vols., Lisbon, 1841-1849) ; Sir C. Napier, An Account of the War .... between D. Pedro and D. Miguel, (2 vols., London, J 835) ; W. Bollaert, The Wars of Succession of Portugal and Spain, from 1821 to 1840 (2 vols., London, 1870). (K. G. J.) Literature The Portuguese language can be most conveniently described in relation to the other languages of the Peninsula (see Spain: Language). Portuguese literature is distinguished by the wealth and variety of its lyric poetry, by its primacy in bucolic verse and prose, by the number of its epics and historical books, by the relative slightness of the epistolary element, and by the almost complete absence of the memoir. Rich as its romanceiro is, its volume is far less than the Spanish, but the capcioneiros i 5 6 PORTUGAL [LITERATURE remain to prove that the early love songs of the whole Peninsula were written in Portuguese, while the primitive prose redaction of A madis, the prototype of all romances of chivalry, was almost certainly made in Portugal, and a native of the same country produced in the Diana of Montem6r (Montemayor) the masterpiece of the pastoral novel. The Lusiads may be called at once the most successful epic cast in the classical mould, and the most national of poems, and the great historical monuments and books of travel of the 16th and 17th centuries are worthy of a nation of explorers who carried the banner of the Quinas to the ends of the earth. On the other hand Portugal gave birth to no considerable dramatist from the time of Gil Vicente, in the 16th century, until that of Garrett in the 19th, and it has failed to develop a national drama. Its geographical position and history have rendered Portugal very dependent for intellectual stimulus and literary culture on foreign countries, and writers on Portuguese literature are wont to divide their subjects into periods corresponding to the literary currents from abroad which have modified its evolution. To summarize, the first literary activity of Portugal was derived from Provence, and Provencal taste ruled for more than a century; the poets of the 15th century imitated the Castilians, and the 16th saw the triumph of Italian or classical influence. Spain again imposed its literary standards and models in the 17th century, France in the 18th, while the Romantic movement reached Portugal by way of England and France; and those countries, and in less degree Germany, have done much to shape the literature of the 19th century. Yet as regards the Peninsula, the literatures of Portugal and Castile act and react on one another and if the latter gave much, she also received much, for nearly every Portuguese author of renown from 1450 until the 18th century, except Antonio Ferreira, wrote in Spanish, and some, like Jorge de Montemor and Manoel de Mello, pro- duced masterpieces in that language and are numbered as Spanish classics. Again, in no country was the victory of the Italian Renaissance and the classical revival so complete, so enduring. But notwithstanding all its dependence on classical and foreign authors, Portuguese literature has a distinct individuality which appears in the romanceiro, in the songs named caviares de amigo of the cancioneiros, in the Chronicles of Fernao Lopes, in the Historia tragico-maritima, in the plays of Gil Vicente, in the bucolic verse and prose of the early 16th century, in the Letters of Marianna Alcoforado and, above all, in The Lusiads. Early Period. — Though no literary documents belonging to the first century of Portuguese history have survived, there is Poet— evidence that an indigenous popular poetry both sacred and profane existed, and while Provenpal influences moulded the manifestations of poetical talent for nearly two hundred years, they did not originate them. The close relations that prevailed between the reigning houses of Portugal, Provence and Aragon, cemented by intermarriages, introduced a knowledge of the gay science, but it reached Portugal by many other ways — by the crusaders who came to help in fighting the Moors, by the foreign prelates who occupied Penin- sular sees, by the monastic and military orders who founded establishments in Portugal, by the visits of individual singers to court and baronial houses, but chiefly perhaps by the pilgrims who streamed from every country along the Frankish way to the far-famed shrine of Santiago de Compostela. Already by the end of the 1 2th century the lyric poetry of the troubadours had found cultivators in Portugal, and a few compositions which have come down to us bear a date slightly anterior to the year 1200. One of the earliest singers was D. Gil Sanches, an ille- gitimate son of Sancho I., and we possess a cantar de amigo in Galician-Portuguese, the first literary vehicle of the whole Peninsula, which appears to be the work of Sancho himself, and addressed to his concubine, A. Ribeirinha. The pre- Alphonsine period to which these men belong runs from 1200 to 1245 and produced little of moment, but in 1248 the accession of King Alphonso III., who had lived thirteen years in France, inaugurated a time of active and rich production which 's illustrated in the Cancioneiro da Ajuda, the oldest collection of Peninsular verse. The apogee of palace poetry dates from 1275 to 1280, when young King Diniz displayed his exceptional talents in a circle formed by the best troubadours of his father Alphonso III. and the veterans of his grandfather Alphonso II., whose song-book, Cantigas de S. Maria, contains the choicest religious verse of the age. Diniz, who had been educated by Amyeric of Cahors, proved himself the most fecund poet- king of his day, though the pleiad of fidalgos forming his court, and the jograes who flocked there from all parts, were fewer in number, less productive, and lacked the originality, vigour and brilliance of the singers who versified round Alphonso III. The principal names of the Dionysian period (1284-1325) which is illustrated in the Cancioneiro da Vaticana are the king himself and his bastards D. Alphonso Sanches and D. Pedro, count of Barcellos. Of the two last, the former sings of love well and sincerely, while the latter is represented by love songs replete with false sentiment and by some rather gross songs of maldizer, a form which, if it rarely contains much poetical feeling or literary value, throws considerable light on the society of the time. The verses of Diniz, essentially a love poet, are conventional in tone and form, but he can write pretty ballads and pastorals when he allows himself to be natural. The Portuguese trouba- dours belonged to all social classes, and even included a few priests, and though love was their favourite topic they used every kind of verse, and in satire they hold the palm. In other respects they are inferior to their Provencal masters. Speaking generally, the cancioneiros form monotonous reading owing to their poverty of ideas and conventionality of metrical forms and expression, but here and there men of talent who were poets by profession and better acquainted with Provencal literature endeavoured to lend their work variety by the use of difficult processes like the lexaprem and by introducing new forms like the paslorela and the descort. It is curious to note that no heroic songs are met with in the cancioneiros; they are all with one exception purely lyrical in form and tone. The death of King Diniz proved a severe blow to troubadour verse, and the reign of his successor Alphonso IV. witnessed a profound decadence of court poetry, while there is not a single poem by a Portuguese author in the last half of the 14th century, and only the names of a few authors have survived, among them the Galicians Vasco Pires de Camoens, an ancestor of Luiz de Camoens, and the typical lover Macias. The romanceiro, comprising romances of adventures, war and chivalry, together with religious and sea songs, forms a rich collection of ballad poetry which continued in process of elaboration throughout the whole of the middle ages, but unfortunately the oldest specimens have perished and scarcely any of those existing bear a date anterior to the 15th century. Epic poetry in Portugal developed much later than lyric, but the signal victory of the united Christian hosts over the Moors at the battle of the Salado in 1340 gave occasion to an epic by Alphonso Giraldes of which some fragments remain. The first frankly literary prose documents appear in the 14th century, and consist of chronicles, lives of saints and genealogical treatises. The more important are the Chronica breve do archivo nacional, the Chronicas de S. Cruz y de Coimbra, the Chronica da conquista do Algarve and the Livros dos Linhagens, aristocratic registers, portions of which, like the story of King Arthur, have considerable literary interest. All the above may be found in the Portugaliae monumenta historica, scriptores, while the Life of St Elizabeth of Portugal is included in the Monarchia lusitana; Romania has printed the following hagiographical texts belonging to the same century — the Vida de Eufrosina, the Vida de Maria Egypcia and the Vida de Sancto Amaro; the Vida de Santo Eloy has appeared in the Instituto and the Vida dos Santos Barlado e Josafate has been issued by the Lisbon Academy of Sciences. Romances of chivalry belonging to the various cycles must have penetrated into Portugal at an early date, and the Nobili- ario of the Conde D. Pedro contains the genealogy of Arthur and the adventures of Lear and Merlin. There exists a mid- i4th-century Historia do Santo Graal, and an unprinted Josep LITERATURE] PORTUGAL 157 Prose. ab Aramadia, while, though the MS. is lost, we have abundant evidence of the existence of a primitive Portuguese prose redaction of Amadis de Gaula anterior to the present Spanish text. Furthermore, the Livro de Esopo published by Dr Leite de Vasconcellos also belongs to the period, and there are other works in MS. The ijth Century. — In the reign of John I. the court became an important literary centre, the king himself composed a Livro de Montaria, so far unedited, and his sons are rightly described as Camoens as " inclyta geraqao, altos Infantes." King Edward (Duarte) collected a precious library composed of the ancient classics, some translated by his order, as well as medieval poems and histories, and he wrote a moral treatise Leal comselheiro, and hints on horsemanship, or Livro da ensinanca de hem cavalgar toda sella. His brother D. Pedro also wrote a moral treatise Da virtuosa Bemfeitoria, and caused Vegetius's De re militari and Cicero's De officiis to be turned into Portuguese. This travelled prince brought back from Venice a MS. of Marco Polo, the gift of the Senate, and is still remembered by the people through the story Livro das viagens do Infante D. Pedro qual andou ds sete partidas do mundo, reprinted almost yearly, of which he is the hero. All the monarchs of the 15th century were highly educated men and patrons of letters; indeed, even that typical medieval knight Alphonso V. confesses, in his correspondence with Azurara, that the sword avails nothing without the pen. The age is noted for its chronicles, beginning with the anonymous life of the Portuguese Cid, the Holy Con- stable Nuno Alvares Pereira, told in charming infantile prose, the translated Chronica da fundicao do moesteyro de Sam Vicente, and the Vida de D. Tello. Fernao Lopes (q.v.), the father of Portuguese history and author of chronicles of King Pedro, King Ferdinand and King John I., has been called by Southey the best chronicler of any age or nation. Gomes Eannes de Azurara completed Lopes's chronicle cf King John by describing the capture of Ceuta, and wrote a chronicle of D. Pedro de Menezes, governor of the town down to 1437, and a chronicle of D. Duarte de Menezes, captain of Alcacer, but his capital work is the chronicle of the conquest of Guinea (see Azurara). Though not a great chronicler or an artist like Lopes, Ruy de Pina (q.v.) is free from the rhetorical defects of Azurara, and his chronicles of King Edward and King Alphonso V. are character- ized by unusual frankness, and meritorious both as history and literature. All these three writers combined the posts of keeper of the archives and royal chronicler, and were, in fact, the king's men, though Lopes at least seems rather the historian of a people than the oracle of a monarch. Garcia de Resende (q.v.) appropriated Pina's chronicle of King John II., and after adding a wealth of anecdote and gossip and casting the glamour of poetry over a somewhat dry record, he reissued it under his own name. The taste for romances of chivalry continued throughout the 15th century, but of all that were produced the only one that has come down to us is the Estorea do Imperador Vcspasiano, an introduction to the Graal Cycle, based on the apocryphal gospel of Nicodemus. The Constable D. Pedro of Portugal, son of the prince of that name already referred to, has left some verses marked by elevation of thought and deep feeling, the Satyra de felice e infelice vida, and the death of his sister inspired his Tragedia de la reina Isabel; but he is best remem- bered by his Coplas del contempto del mundo in the Cancioneiro Geral. Though he actually drafted the first in his native tongue, all these poems are in Castilian, and D. Pedro is one of the first representatives of those Spanish influences which set aside the Provencal manner and in its place adopted a taste for allegory and a reverence for classical antiquity, both imported from Italy. It was to the constable that the marquis de Santillana addressed his historic letter dealing with the origins of Peninsular verse. The court poetry of the reigns of King Alphonso V. and King John II., so far as it survives, is contained in the lyrical collection known Us the Cancioneiro Geral, compiled by Garcia de Resende and printed in 1516- Nearly three hundred authors are there represented by pieces in Portuguese and Castilian, and they Verse. include D. Joao Manuel, D. Joao de Menezes, Joao Rodrigues de Sa e Menezes, Diogo Brandao, Duarte de Brito and Fernao da Silveira. The literary progenitors of the cancioneiro were the Spanish poets Juan tie Mena, Jorge Manrique, Garci-Sanchez de Badajos and Rodriguez del Padron, and its main subjects are love, satire and epigram. The epic achievements of the Portuguese in that century, the discoveries and the wars in Africa, hardly find an echo, even in the verses of those who had taken part in them. Instead, an atmosphere of artificiality surrounds these productions, and the verses that reveal genuine poetical feeling are very few. They include a lament of Garcia de Resende on the death of Ignez de Castro which probably inspired the inimitable stanzas dedicated to the same subject in The Lusiads, the Fingimento de Amores by Diogo Brandao, the Coplas of D. Pedro already referred to, and a number of minor pieces. However, some names appeared in the Cancioneiro Gerale which were to be among the foremost in Portuguese literature, e.g. Bernardim Ribeiro, Christovam Falcao, Gil Vicente, and Sa de Miranda, who represent the transition between the Spanish school of the 15th and the Italian school of the 1 6th century, the members of which are called Os Quinhenlislas. Ribeiro and Falcao, the introducers of the bucolic style, put new life into the old forms, and by their eclogues in redondilhas, breathing the deepest and most genuine feeling in verses of perfect "harmony, they gave models which subsequent writers worked by but could never equal. The Drama. — The history of the modern drama begins with religious plays, followed at a later period by moralities, and thence, by an easy transition, by the farce. This transition from the presentment of traditional types to the modern play can be traced in the works of Gil Vicente, the father of the Portuguese theatre. His first efforts belonged to the religious drama, and some of the more notable had edification for their object, e.g. the Barca do Inferno, but even in this class he soon introduces the comic element by way of relief, and in course of time he arrives at pure comedy and develops the study of character. For a detailed description and criticism of his work, see Vicente. In the various towns where he stayed and produced his plays, writers for the stage sprang up, and these formed the Eschola Velha or school of Gil Vicente. To name the best anvicente known, Evora, the city of culture, produced Affonso ana the Alvarez, author of religious pieces, Antonio Ribeiro, Eschola nicknamed "the Chiado," an unfrocked friar with VeH,a • a strong satirical vein who wrote farces in the Bazochian style, and his brother Jeronimo Ribeiro. In Santarem appeared Antonio Prestes, a magistrate who drew from his judicial experience but evinced more knowledge of folk-lore than dramatic talent, while Camoens himself was so far influenced by Gil Vicente, whose plays he had perhaps seen performed in Lisbon, that in spite of his Coimbra training he never exchanged the old forms for those of the classical comedy. His Amphi- tryons is a free imitation of the Latin, yet thoroughly national in spirit and cast in the popular redondilha; the dialogue is spirited, the situations comic. King Seleucus derives from Plutarch and has a prose prologue of real interest for the history of the stage, while Filodemo is a clever tragi-comedy in verse with prose dialogues interspersed. Another poet cf the same school is Balthazar Dias, the blind poet, whose simple religious autos are still performed in the villages, and are continually reprinted, the best liked being the Auto of St Alexis, and the Auto of St Catherine. He is purely medieval in subject and spirit, his lyrics are perfect in form and expression, his diction thoroughly popular. One of the last dramatists of the 16th century belonging to the old school was Simao Machado, who wrote the Comedy of Diu and the Enchantments of Alfea, two long plays almost entirely in Spanish, and full of digressions only made tolerable by the beauty of their lyrics. Except Camoens, all these men, though disciples of Gil Vicente, are decidedly inferior to him in dramatic invention, fecundity and power of expression, and they were generally of humble social position. Moreover the favour of the court was with- drawn on the death of Gil Vicente, and this meant much, for i 5 8 PORTUGAL [LITERATURE there existed no educated middle class to support a national theatre. At the same time the old dramatists had to face the opposition of the classical school, which appealed to the cultured, and the hostility of the Inquisition, which early declared war on the popular plays on account of their grossness, and after- wards through the index prohibited altogether even the religious autos, as it had condemned the Italian comedies. The way was thus clear for the Jesuits, who, with their Latin tragi-comedies or dramatized allegories written to commemorate saints or for scholastic festivals, succeeded for a time in supplanting both the popular pieces of the old school and the plays modelled on the masterpieces of Greece and Rome. The old dramatists came to write for the lower classes only, and though the school lingered on, its productions were performed solely by travelling companies at country fairs. Though we know that much has perished, the four Indexes of the 16th century give some idea of the rich repertory of the popular theatre, and of the efforts necessary to destroy it; moreover, the Spanish Index of 1559, by forbidding autos of Gil Vicente and other Portuguese authors, is interesting evidence of the extent to which they were appreci- ated in the neighbouring country. The Renaissance. — The movement commonly called the Renaissance reached Portugal both indirectly through Spain and directly from Italy, with which last country it maintained close literary relations throughout the 15th century. King Alphonso V. had been the pupil of Matthew of Pisa and sum- moned Justus Balduinus to his court to write the national history in Latin, while later King John II. corresponded with Politian, and early in his reign the first printing-press got to work. In the next century many famous humanists took up their abode in Portugal. Nicholas Cleynarts taught the Infant Henry, afterwards cardinal and king, and lectured on the classics at Braga and Evora, Vasaeus directed a school of Latin at Braga, and George Buchanan accompanied other foreign professors to Coimbra when King John III. reformed the university. Many distinguished Portuguese teachers returned from abroad to assist the king at the same time, among them Ayres Barbosa from Salamanca, Andre de Gouveia of the Parisian college of St Barbe, whom Montaigne dubbed " the greatest principal of France," Achilles Estaco and Diogo de Teive. At home Portugal produced Andre de Resende (q.v.), author of the Historia da antiguidade da cidade de Evora and De antiquitatibus Lusitaniae, and Francisco de Hollanda, painter, architect, and author of, inter alia, the Quatro dialogos da pintura antiga. Moreover, women took a share in the intel- lectual movement of the time, and the sisters Luisa and Angela Sigea, Joanna Vaz and Paula Vicente, daughter of Gil Vicente, constituted an informal female academy under the presidency of the Infanta D. Maria, daughter of King Manoel. Luisa Sigea was both an orientalist and a Latin poetess, while Publia Hortensia de Castro, after a course of humanities, philosophy and theology, defended theses at Evora in her eighteenth year. The Italian school was founded by Sa de Miranda (q.v.), a man of noble character who, on his return in 1526 from a six The Italian y ears ' stav m Italy, where he had foregathered with school or Os the leading writers of the day, initiated a reform of Quiahen- Portuguese literature which amounted to a revolu- tion. He introduced and practised the forms of the sonnet, canzon, ode, epistle in oitava rima and in tercets, and the epigram, and raised the whole tone of poetry. At the same time he gave fresh life to the national redondilha metre (medida velha) by his Cartas or Saliras which with his Eclogues, some in Portu- guese, others in Castilian, are his most successful compositions. His chief disciple, Antonio Ferreira (q.v.), a convinced classicist, went further, and dropping the use of Castilian, wrote sonnets much superior in form and style, though they lack the rustic atmosphere of those of his master, while his odes and epistles are too obviously reminiscent of Horace. D. Manoel de Portugal, Pero de Andrade Caminha, Diogo Bernardes, Frei Agostinho da Cruz and Andre Falcao de Resende continued the erudite school, which, after considerable opposition, definitely triumphed in the person of Luiz de Camoens. The Lima of Bernardes contains some beautiful eclogues as well as cartas in the bucolic style, while the odes, sonnets, and eclogues of Frei Agostinho are full of mystic charm. Camoens (q.v.) is, as Schlegel remarked, an entire literature in himself, and some critics rate him even higher as a lyric than as an epic poet. He unites and fuses the best elements of the Italian and the popular muse, using the forms of the one to express the spirit and traditions of the other, and when he employs the medida velha, it becomes in his hands a vehicle for thought, whereas before it had usually served merely to express emotions. His Lusiads, cast in the Virgilian mould, celebrates the combination of faith and patriotism which led to the discoveries and conquests of the Portuguese, and though the„ . _ voyage of Vasco da Gama occasioned its composition and formed the skeleton round which it grew, its true subject is the peito illusire lusitano. Immediately on its appearance The Lusiads took rank as the national poem par excellence, and its success moved many writers to follow in the same path; of these the most successful was Jeronymo Corte Real (q.v.). All these poems, like the Elegiada of Luis Pereira Brandao on the disaster of Al Kasr, the Primeiro cerco de Diu of the chronicler Francisco de Andrade, and even the AJfonso Africano of Quevedo, for all its futile allegory, contain striking episodes and vigorous and well-coloured descriptive passages, but they cannot compare with The Lusiads in artistic value. The return of Sa de Miranda from Italy operated to transform the drama as well as lyric poetry. He found the stage occupied mainly by religious plays in which there appeared The no trace of the Greek or Roman theatre, and, classical admiring what he had seen in Italy, he and his Comedyand followers protested against the name auto, restored Tra s e